Practical 1

112ES-Basic Mechanical Engineering
BIRLA VISHVAKARMA MAHAVIDYALAYA

VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
112ES – Basic Mechanical Engineering
Steam Boilers
Experiment No: 01 -To study about the different types of Steam Boilers
Date:
Objective: To understand the working principle of Boilers.
Theory:
A steam boiler is a closed vessel in which heat produced by the combustion of fuel is utilized
to generate steam from water, at desired temperature and pressure.
According to IBR (Indian Boiler Regulation) boiler is defined, as “Boiler is a closed pressure
vessel with a capacity exceeding 22.75 litres used for generating steam under pressure.”
Classification of Steam Boilers
 According to a relative position of water and hot gases a. Fire Tube boiler - hot gases
pass through fire tubes which are surrounded by water. b. Water tube - water flows
inside the tubes and the hot flue gases flow outside the tubes.
 According to the axis of the shell a. Vertical boiler – the axis of the shell is vertical. b.
Horizontal boiler – the axis of the shell is horizontal. c. Inclined boiler – the axis of the
boiler is inclined.
 According to the method of firing a. externally fired boilers – furnace is located outside
the shell. b. Internally fired boilers – furnace is located inside the shell, means
combustion takes place inside the boiler shell.
 According to the method of water circulation a. Forced Circulation boilers - water is
circulated by pumps which is driven by motor. b. Natural Circulation boilers - water is
circulated by natural convection currents which are set up due to the temperature
difference produced by the application of heat.
 According to the pressure of steam a. High pressure – boilers working pressure is less
than 10 bars. Example: Babcock and Wilcox boiler b. Medium pressure boilers –
working pressure is 10 to 70 bars. Example: Lancashire and locomotive boiler c. Low-
pressure boilers – working pressure is above 70 bars. Example: Cochran and Cornish
boiler.
 According to the mobility of boiler a. Stationary boilers – it is used for stationary plants.
b. Mobile boilers – it can move from one place to another.
 According to the number of tubes in the boiler a. Single tube boilers – they have only
one fire or water tube. b. Multi tube boilers – they have more than one fire or water
tubes.
Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Mechanical Engineering ,BVM Engineering College Page 1
Cochran Boiler
It is one of the best types of vertical multi-tubular boiler. It is a fire tube boiler and is used for
steam generation at lower rate.
Specification :
Shell diameter = 2.75 m Height = 5.75 m
Working pressure = 6.5 bar
Heating surface area 120 m2
Steam capacity = 3500 kg/hr (Max. = 4000 kg/hr) and Efficiency = 70 to 75 %
Characteristics of boiler: It is a vertical, multi-tube, fire tube, internally fired, natural

circulation boiler.
Advantages :
 It is a compact and portable boiler therefore minimum floor area is required.
 Initial cost of the boiler is less
 It can be moved and set up readily in different locations.
 Quick and easy installation.
 Any type of fuel can be used. (Coal or Oil)
Disadvantages
 Steam raising capacity is less due to vertical design.
 Water along with steam may enter the steam pipe under heavy loads sue to small steam
space.
 Efficiency is poor in smaller sizes.
Cochran Boiler

Applications:
 Industrial processes: Textile and chemical manufacturing, food processing, and
breweries and distilleries
 Heating systems: Commercial and residential buildings, hospitals, and greenhouses
 Power generation: Small-scale plants and marine propulsion systems
 Education and research: Boiler training and laboratory experiments
Lancashire boiler
A Lancashire boiler is a horizontal, stationary, internally fired, natural circulation boiler that
uses fire tubes to generate low-pressure steam. It was invented in 1844 by William Fairbairn
to maximize heat transfer from the fire to the water. The boiler has two furnace tubes that run
through it and are surrounded by water, and flue gases flow through the fire tube inside the
boiler shell. The boiler is set in brickwork to create an external flue, which puts some of the
heating surface on the external shell.
Specification:
Shell diameter = 2 to 3 m
Length of the shell = 7 TO 9 m
Working pressure = 16 bar
Steam capacity = 8000-9000 kg/hr and Efficiency = 50 to 70 %
Characteristics Horizontal, stationary, fire tube, internally fired multi-tube (two fire tube),
natural circulation of hot gases, medium pressure boiler
Advantages:
 Lancashire boiler can easily meet the load requirement.
 The cleanliness and inspection are easy in the Lancashire boiler.
 The operation is easy.
 Maintenance is less required.
 It is a natural circulation boiler, therefore, the consumption of electricity is less.
 It has high thermal efficiency of around 90 percent.
Disadvantages:
 More space required for this boiler because the size is big.
 The steam generation is not high like other fire tube boiler.
 The grates area is limited because It is situated at the inlet of the fire tube, which has a
small diameter.
 There is having a problem with leakage.
Applications:
 The Lancashire boiler is used to drive steam turbines, locomotives, marines, etc.
 It is used in industries like paper industries, textile industries, sugar industries, tire
industries, etc.

Lancashire boiler
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

The Babcock and Wilcox Boiler is s a water-tube boiler known for its reliability and efficiency
in steam power generation. Invented by George Herman Babcock and Stephen Wilcox in
the late 19th century, this iconic boiler design has played a pivotal role in shaping the history
of industrial and power generation systems. The Babcock and Wilcox Boiler, a stationary
water-tube boiler, comprises a steam-water drum connected to the uptake and down headers
via a short tube, as illustrated. Each down header is equipped with a mud box for efficient mud
removal. A coal hopper feeds coal onto a slow-moving chain, while a firebrick baffle wall
deflects hot gases, aiding their exit through the chimney. Draught regulation is achieved
through dampers operated by a chain and pulley mechanism.
Specification:
Diameter of the drum = 2000 to 4000.
Length = 6000 to 9000 mm.
Size of the water tube = 76.2 to 101.6 mm
Size of upper header tube = 38.4 to 57.1 mm
Maximum working pressure = 42 bar
Maximum steam capacity = 40,000 kg/hr and Efficiency = 60 to 80 %
Characteristics of boiler Horizontal, multi-water tube, externally fired, natural circulation of

water, forced circulation of air and hot gases, solid as well as liquid fuel can be fired.

Advantages:
 This boiler exhibits exceptional overall efficiency.
 It occupies minimal space, making it a compact choice.
 Damaged tubes can be easily replaced in this boiler.
 It achieves a substantial steam production rate, approximately exceeding 20 tonnes
per hour.
 The boiler experiences minimal draught loss, optimising energy utilisation.
 Transporting this boiler is straightforward and hassle-free.
Disadvantages:
 Maintenance expenses for this boiler can be substantial.
 It is not well-suited for use with impure or sediment-laden water, as the accumulation
of scale within the tubes can lead to overheating and tube failure. Proper water treatment
is essential before introducing water into the boiler.
 This boiler demands a constant supply of feedwater to operate effectively. Even brief
interruptions in the water supply can result in overheating. Therefore, strict monitoring
of water levels is crucial during the boiler operation.
Applications:
 Power generation in steam power plants.
 Industrial processes requiring high-pressure steam.
 Marine applications for propulsion and auxiliary power.
 Heating systems in commercial and industrial facilities.
 Used in various industries, such as pulp and paper, chemical, and textile manufacturing,
for steam production.
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Questions:
I. Define boiler and classify the steam boilers in detail.
II. What is difference between boilers and steam generators?
III. Discriminate fire tube and water tube boilers.
IV. Fire tube boilers are not preferred for high-pressure steam generation, why?
V. Explain construction and working principle of following boiler with neat sketch :
 Simple Vertical Boiler
 Cochran Boiler
 Lancashire Boiler
 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
VI. Why the chimney is provided in steam boilers?
VII. Why water tubes are inclined in Babcock Wilcox boiler


VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
Boiler Mountings and Accessories
Experiment No: 02 - To study about the function and location of Boiler mountings and
accessories
Date:
Objective: To understand the function and location of boiler mountings and accessories.
Theory:
Boiler’s Mountings
Mountings on a steam boiler are a set of safety devices installed for the safe operation of a
boiler. It safeguards the steam boiler from harm caused due to extreme pressure, low water
level, steam backflow, unregulated steam pressure, shell collapse due to vacuum, backflow of
feed water to the pump, and dry running.
These are different fittings and devices which are necessary for the operation and safety of a
boiler. Normally these devices are mounted on boiler shell. According to IBR the following
are the list of mountings should be fitted to the boilers.
(A) Mountings for safety
 Safety valve (02 Nos.)
 High pressure and low water safety valve on Lancashire and Cornish boiler (01
each)
 Water level indicator (02 Nos.)
 Fusible plug (01 No.)
(B) Mountings for controls
 Pressure gauge (01 No.)
 Steam stop valve (01 No.)
 Feed check valve (01 No.)
 Blow off cock (01 No.)
 Man hole (01 No.)
 Mud box (01 No.)
1. Water Level Indicator
 Location: This fittings may be seen in front of the boiler.
 Function: To indicate the water level inside the boiler.
 Water level indicator are generally two in number.
2. Pressure Gauge

 Location: It is fixed in front of the boiler.

 Function: To measure the pressure of the steam inside of the steam boiler.
 Pressure gauges generally used are of Bourdon type
3. Safety valve
 Location: These are attached to the steam chest
 Function: To blow off the steam to prevent explosions when the pressure of the steam
inside of the boiler exceeds the working pressure.
 Valves generally used are spring-loaded safety valves.
4. Steam Stop valve
 Location: It is usually fitted to the highest part of the shell through a flange.
 Function: a) To control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main steam pipe. b)
To shut off the steam completely when required
5. Blow off cock
 Location: It is located at the bottom of the boiler.
 Function: To empty the boiler whenever required & To remove the mud, scale or
sediments accumulated at the bottom of the boiler.
6. Feed check valve
 Location: It is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water level of the boiler. It
is a nonreturnable valve, fitted to a screwed spindle to regulate the lift.
 Function: To regulate the supply of water, which is pumped into the boiler by the feed
pump.
7. Fusible plug
 Location: It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace or the firebox.
 Function: To put off the fire in the furnace of the boiler when the level of water in the
boiler falls to an unsafe limit and thus avoid the explosion that may place due to
overheating of the furnace plate.
Boiler’s accessories
Boiler accessories are devices and plants that are installed with boilers to improve the operating
condition and overall efficiency of the boiler plant. Boiler accessories are devices that are
installed along the boiler and the surrounding area to increase the efficiency of the boiler. These
are not an indispensable part of the boiler, and thus without installing these devices, the boiler
operation can be completed at low efficiency.Boiler accessories are used to improve the
efficiency of boilers and ensure safe containment of water and delivery of steam at the desired
pressure and quality. Some common boiler accessories include:
 Safety valves: Release excess steam to prevent overpressure and potential explosions
 Water level indicators: Provide a visual indication of the water level inside the boiler,
ensuring proper water supply

 Pressure gauges: Measure and display the pressure inside the boiler, aiding in pressure
regulation
 Steam stop valves: Control the release of steam from the boiler to the steam
distribution system
 Feed pumps: Deliver high-pressure water into boilers
 Injectors: Serve the same purpose as feed pumps, but are used when there is not
enough room to install a feed pump
 Air preheaters: Recover heat from the exhaust flue gasses to increase thermal
efficiency and combustion rates
 Economizers: Exchange some parts of the waste heat from flue gases to the feedwater
 Super heaters: Increase steam temperature without raising pressure
Questions:
I. What is boiler mountings and boiler accessories?
II. Difference between boiler mountings and boiler accessories.
III. Explain the function of following boiler accessories with neat sketch. (1) Feed pump
(2) Economizer (3) Air preheater (4) Superheater
IV. State the function of anti-priming pipe.
V. How does the function of Mud hole and Blow off cock differ?
VI. What is the function of scrapers in Economizer
VII. Explain why safety valves are needed in a boiler. Draw a neat sketch of a spring
loaded safety valve
VIII. What is the purpose of a fusible plug? Explain.
IX. Give an outline sketch showing the arrangement of water tubes and furnace of a
Babcock and Wilcox boiler. Indicate on it the path of the flue gases and water
circulation. Show the positions of super heater, fusible plug, economizer and blow-off
cock.


VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
High Pressure Boilers
Experiment No: 03 - To study the high-pressure boilers and package boilers.
Date:
Objective: To understand the function of high-pressure boilers and package boilers.
Theory:
High-pressure boiler
A high-pressure boiler is a type of boiler that operates at pressures of 80 bars or higher and is
commonly used in thermal power plants to generate power. It operates by converting water into
steam through thermal energy within water-filled tubes enclosed in a metal tank or enclosure.
The defining characteristic of a high-pressure boiler is the level of pressure it generates, which
sets it apart from other types of boilers. Pressure and steam are produced by burning fuels such
as coal, natural gas, or petroleum. The heated gases are either circulated by natural convection
or forced by a pump. Forced circulation, achieved with a centrifugal pump, increases the
evaporation rate to 210 Kpa per centimetre, as natural convection alone cannot generate the
necessary pressure for high-pressure boilers. High-pressure boilers come in various forms,
including steam generators, electrical boilers, and different configurations such as vertical,
horizontal, gas, water-tube, and fire-tube boilers. A common feature among these boilers is the
use of small-diameter tubes, which enhances the heating surface area and improves the rate of
heat transfer.
Salient features of high-pressure boilers:
 Robust Construction: High-pressure boilers are built with heavy-duty materials to

withstand the intense pressure. They often use thicker steel plates and reinforced
components to handle the increased stress.
 Advanced Safety Mechanisms: Due to the high pressure, these boilers are equipped with
sophisticated safety devices such as pressure relief valves, safety valves, and automatic
shutdown systems to prevent accidents and ensure safe operation.
 Enhanced Heat Transfer: They are designed with improved heat transfer surfaces, such
as economizers and super heaters, to efficiently convert and utilize heat. This helps in
achieving higher thermal efficiency and better performance.
 Sophisticated Control Systems: High-pressure boilers use advanced control systems and
instrumentation for precise operation and monitoring. This includes automated controls
for maintaining pressure, temperature, and water levels.
 High-Quality Insulation: To minimize heat loss and improve energy efficiency, high-
pressure boilers have high-quality insulation materials to maintain optimal operating
temperatures and reduce energy consumption.

 Efficient Fuel Utilization: These boilers often use advanced combustion technologies to
maximize fuel efficiency and reduce emissions. This can include techniques like staged
combustion and air-fuel ratio controls.
 Durability and Longevity: The design and materials used in high-pressure boilers are
intended to extend the operational life of the boiler, minimizing the need for frequent
repairs or replacements.
 Complex Design: The design of high-pressure boilers is often more complex due to the
need for additional components like superheaters, reheaters, and separators to manage the
high pressure and temperature conditions.
 Water Treatment Systems: To prevent scaling and corrosion, high-pressure boilers are
usually equipped with sophisticated water treatment systems that control water quality
and manage impurities.
 Efficient Heat Recovery: Many high-pressure boilers are designed to recover heat from
flue gases and use it to preheat the incoming feed water, further enhancing overall
efficiency.
La-Mont BOILER
A Forced Circulation Boiler was first introduced by La-Mont in the year 1925 which is used in
power plants. This is a modern high-pressure water tube type steam boiler working on forced
circulation system.
Capacity of boiler: Due to forced circulation of water, the rate of heat transfer and the steam
capacity of the boiler are increased.
 Steam: 45 to 50 tons/hr
 Pressure: 120 bar to 170 bar.
 Temperature: 500°C
Working Principle
Water from the Circulating Pump is circulated through the Evaporator Tubes. Hot gases from
the Furnace heat the water and evaporate into steam. Wet steam from the evaporator enters the
steam space in the Steam Separator Drum.
In the Convection Superheater, the moisture in the wet steam is removed and superheated steam
is produced. The principle of convection superheater is similar to steam generating tubes of the
boiler. The hot flue gases at high temperature sweep over convection superheater tubes and
raise the steam temperature, producing superheated steam.
The superheater, thus, receives heat from the flue gases flowing from the furnace, entirely by
convective heat transfer.
Feed water is supplied by the Feed Pump to the Economizer. Economiser is used to preheat the
feed water using the waste hot gases before going to the Chimney. Thus, some of the heat in
the hot gases, which otherwise gets wasted, is used to preheat the feed water. This results in an
increase in the boiler thermal efficiency.

LA mount Boiler
The heat of the exit gases cannot be fully extracted through the economizer. These exit gases
preheat the air from the blower in the Air Preheater. The preheated air is supplied to the furnace
for combustion.
Advantages of La Mont boiler:
 High Efficiency: The Lamont boiler is known for its high thermal efficiency. The use
of an economizer to preheat the feed water and a separate steam drum to separate steam
from water helps in maximizing heat transfer and minimizing energy loss.
 Compact Design: Despite its high pressure and efficiency, the Lamont boiler has a
relatively compact design compared to some traditional high-pressure boilers. This can
be advantageous in applications where space is limited.
 Rapid Start-Up: The design of the Lamont boiler allows for a quicker start-up
compared to some other high-pressure boilers. This is due to its efficient circulation
system and rapid heating capabilities.
 High-Pressure Capability: The Lamont boiler can operate at very high pressures,
making it suitable for applications that require high-pressure steam. This capability is
beneficial for industries such as power generation and chemical processing.
 Reduced Risk of Water Hammer: The separate steam drum in the Lamont boiler helps
to reduce the risk of water hammer, a phenomenon that can cause damage to boiler
components and piping. By separating steam from the water, the risk of this issue is
minimized.

 Enhanced Safety: The design includes features that improve safety, such as the
separation of steam and water which reduces the risk of overheating and pressure
imbalances. Additionally, the boiler's construction materials are typically robust to
handle high pressures.
 Improved Feed Water Heating: The economizer in the Lamont boiler preheats the
feed water using waste heat from the flue gases. This reduces the energy required to
bring the water up to the desired temperature, improving overall efficiency.
 Flexible Operation: The Lamont boiler is capable of handling varying loads and can
adapt to changes in operational demands effectively. This flexibility is useful in
industrial settings with fluctuating steam requirements.
 Lower Fuel Consumption: Due to its efficient heat transfer and reduced heat loss, the
Lamont boiler generally requires less fuel to produce the same amount of steam
compared to less efficient designs.
Disadvantage of La Mont boiler:
 The major disadvantage is the formation and attachment of bubbles on the inner
surfaces of the heating tubes. This reduces the heat flow and steam generation.
Lamont Boiler Application:
Lamont Boiler is mostly used in Power plants for producing steam, which helps to run a turbine
for the generation of electricity. It is also used in other industries like Sugar Mill, Chemical
industry, petrochemical plants, and more.
BENSON BOILER
Principle:
The presence of steam bubbles in contact with the surface of water tubes seriously impairs heat
transmission from the flue gases to water. By raising the boiler pressure to the critical pressure
of steam (225 kgf/sq.cm.), this difficulty is overcome as suggested by Mark Benson in 1922.
At the critical pressure, water and steam have the same density and no bubbles form.
The first modern high pressure drumless boiler developed by Benson was put into operation in
1927 in West Germany power station.
Absence of Drum
Benson boiler is a water tube type, forced circulation, high pressure boiler. The unique
characteristic of this boiler is that it does not use any drum at all. The entire process of heating,
steam generation and superheating is done in a single continuous tube. Hence, it is also known
as Once-Through Boiler. It withstands very high pressure, even higher than the critical pressure
of steam.
Capacity: Capacity of Benson boiler is about 150 Tonnes/hr at a pressure of 230 bar and at a
temperature of 650°C. (Efficiency may be improved by running the boiler at a pressure slightly
lower than the critical pressure).

Benson Boiler
Working of Benson boiler:
The feed water from the feed pump is circulated through the Economiser Tubes. Hot flue gases
pass over the economiser tubes and the feed water is preheated. Economiser is used to preheat
the feed water using the waste hot gases before going to the chimney. Thus, some of the heat
in the hot gases, which otherwise gets wasted, is used to preheat the feed water. This results in
an increase in the boiler thermal efficiency.
The preheated feed water from the economiser flows into the Radiant Evaporator with radiant
parallel tube sections. The radiant evaporator receives heat from the burning fuel in the furnace
through radiation process. Thereby, the major part of water is converted into steam in it.
The remaining water is evaporated in the Convection Evaporator, absorbing the heat from the
hot gases by convection. Thus, the saturated high pressure steam at a pressure of 230 bar is
produced. The saturated steam available from the convection evaporator is passed through the
Convection Superheater, where the saturated steam is superheated to 650°C.
Note that the radiant evaporator, the convection evaporator and the convection superheater are
all arranged in the path of the flue gases. The superheated steam is then supplied to the steam
turbine.

The heat of the exit gases cannot be fully extracted through the economizer. These exit gases
preheat the air from the blower in the Air Preheater. The preheated air is supplied to the furnace
for combustion.
Advantages of Benson boiler:

 In this system, there is no drum. So the total weight of the Benson boiler is reduced by
20%, when compared to other boilers.
 The erection of this boiler is easier and quicker.
 Transformation is easy.
 It occupies very less space.
 It can be started very quickly, since it has welded joints.
 It is an economical one.
 Sudden fall of demand creates circulation problems due to bubble formation in the
natural circulation boiler which never occurs in Benson boiler.
 Around only 4% of blow down losses are occurred in Benson boiler.
 There is no explosion hazards.
Disadvantage of Benson boiler:
 High Initial Cost

 Advanced Water Treatment Requirements
 Operational Expertise
 High Pressure Operation Risks
 Thermal Stress
Package Boiler:
A package boiler is a factory-made boiler. Package boilers are available in a range of standard
designs. Package boilers are used for heating and act as a steam generator for small power
purposes such as self-powered industrial plants. Package boilers are low pressure designs. A
low pressure means low temperature water in the heat exchanger. The large difference between
the flame temperature and the heat exchanger discards most of the available entropy.
Discarding most of the entropy caps the thermodynamic efficiency below the range needed to
make a low pressure boiler suitable for a co-generation plants even when the available capacity
is adequate for the application. Advantages of package boilers are that they can be delivered
and installed as a complete insulated assembly that doesn’t require a large exclusion zone
around itself. The required steam, water, fuel, and electrical connections can be made rapidly.
These boilers are inexpensive to operate because their automatic burner management system
doesn’t require continuous supervision and they have low scheduled maintenance costs.[1]
A great cost-saving for package boilers is their reduced need for draughting. In operation the
stack gasses are cooler and less corrosive than solid fuels. They may be vented using an existing
masonry chimney, or an insulated coaxial steel tube chimney. Because the burner’s blower
delivers combustion air, the over-fire draught negative pressure required is nearly nil. Stack
height need only be sufficient for structure safety and to clear the nuisance of the exhaust
fumes. The tall chimney needed to provide a large negative pressure to draw combustion air

through a bed of solid fuel is not required. In most installations a barometric damper is used to
maintain a constant over-fire draught so that the air to fuel ratio remains constant instead of
increasing with the increasing draught available at the stack as the outdoor temperature falls.
Advantage of Package Boilers:

 Compact design capable to fit tight engineering spaces
 Utilizes forced or induced draft system to provide greater efficiency and better air flow
 Many tube passes which provide greater heat transfer.
 High thermal wear levels.
 Inexpensive maintenance.
 Ease of installation.
 Less costly than water tube boiler erected on site of same capacity.
 Less man power is required.
Disadvantage of Package Boilers:

 Complex Construction
 High initial cost of package boiler
 Difficult to clean tubes within boiler
Questions:
I. Define a High Pressure Boiler. Mention the advantages of high pressure boilers.
II. Explain the working principle of La-Mont High Pressure Boiler with a neat sketch.
III. Discuss the working and the salient features of Benson Boiler with a neat sketch.
IV. Define super critical boiler? Brief explain advantages and disadvantages of super
critical boilers.
V. Short note on Package boilers?
VI. List out the application of Package boilers and Super-critical boilers.
VII. Compare with high pressure boiler with low pressure boiler.


VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
Steam Calorimeters
Experiment No: 04 - To study different types of Steam Calorimeters
Date:
Objective: To understand various methods of measurement of dryness fraction.
Theory:
Wet steam:
Wet steam is a two-phase mixture of entrained water molecules and steam in thermal
equilibrium at the saturation temperature corresponding to a given pressure.
The quality of the wet steam is specified by the dry fraction which indicates the amount of dry
steam present in the given quantity of wet steam and is denoted by x.
Dryness fraction of steam:

It is the ratio of the actual dry steam present in a known quantity of wet steam to the total mass
of the wet steam.
Let ms = mass of dry steam present in the given quantity of wet steam.
mw = mass of superheated water molecules in the given quantity of wet steam.
Mass of dry steam present in wet steam
Dryness fraction 𝑥 =
Total mass of wet steam
Measurement of Dryness Fraction It is necessary to determine the quality of wet steam in order
to ascertain the actual state of the wet steam. The dryness fraction of the steam is measured
experimentally by calorimeter. Various types of calorimeters used for measuring dryness
fraction of steam are as follows:
 Bucket or Barrel calorimeter
 Separating calorimeter
 Throttling calorimeter
 Separating and throttling calorimeter

Bucket or Barrel Calorimeter

Construction:
Bucket calorimeter consists of a calorimeter which is placed on wooden blocks in a vessel. The
vessel is large enough to provide an air space around the calorimeter. This air space provides
insulation to prevent heat loss. The top cover is made of wood and it closes both the calorimeter
and the vessel. This cover has two holes. Through one hole, the steam pipe is led into the
calorimeter. The steam is distributed in the calorimeter by the holes in the bottom ring which
is connected to the end of the steam pipe. The thermometer is inserted from the second hole to
measure the temperature of water in the calorimeter.
Working:
The calorimeter is placed in the vessel. The top cover is placed in position and the steam pipe
is connected to main steam pipe. The steam comes in contact with water in the calorimeter
when steam is passed through the water. It condenses and gives out its entire enthalpy of
evaporation (latent heat) and part of its sensible heat. Due to heat transfer from steam to water
in the calorimeter, the temperature of water increases. Condensation of steam will increase the
mass of water. Sufficient quantity of steam should be blown in the calorimeter so that sufficient
rise in temperature of water and thereby errors are reduced to minimum. Afterwards the steam
cock is closed.
Bucket or Barrel Calorimeter
Heat lost by the steam = Heat gained by water and calorimeter

The dryness fraction of steam (x) can be obtained by using the above equation.
Limitations
 This method is not accurate.
 Accuracy decreases as temperature difference (t2-t1) increases because losses are more
at higher temperature differences.
Separating Calorimeter
Construction
Separating calorimeter consists of two chambers, viz inner chamber and outer chamber. At the
top of inner chamber perforated tray is provided where water droplet in the wet steam is
separated due to its inertia. Separated droplet is collected in inner chamber while steam is
condensed in barrel calorimeter.
Working
From main steam pipe certain quantity of steam is taken to the calorimeter through sampling
tube. This steam strike against the baffle plates/perforated tray. Due to inertia of droplets and
sudden change in direction, water droplets are separated from steam which is collected in inner
chamber. Steam is condensed in barrel calorimeter. Quantity of water droplet separated can be
read from scale and quantity of steam can be calculated from difference in mass of water of
barrel calorimeter.
Calculation for dryness fraction (x):

Separating Calorimeter
Limitation
 100% separating of suspended water particles from wet steam by mechanical mean is not
possible.
Throttling Calorimeter
Construction
Fig. shows throttling calorimeter which essentially consists of throttle valve, pressure gauge,
thermometer and manometer. Through sampling tube steam is taken to throttle valve where
steam is throttled from higher pressure to lower pressure. Pressure gauge is used to measure
pressure before throttling and manometer is used to measure pressure after throttling.
Thermometer is used to measure temperature after throttling.
Working
With full open steam stop valve, steam is allowed to throttle until steady pressure and
temperature is reached. At steady state condition pressure before throttling (p1) and
temperature after throttling is to be measured.
Calculation
As we know that during throttling process enthalpy remains constant. This fact is used to
measure dryness fraction of wet steam.

Throttling Calorimeter
Enthalpy before throttling = Enthalpy after throttling
Limitation
 This calorimeter is used when the dryness fraction is greater than 0.95. To use this
calorimeter condition of steam after throttling must be superheated.
Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

It is already stated that the dryness fraction of the steam can be found by using throttling
calorimeter only if the dryness fraction is greater than 0.95. When the dryness fraction is less
than 0.9, then part of water is removed first passing the steam through separating calorimeter
and then it is passed through a throttling calorimeter with a combined arrangement of
separating and throttling calorimeter as shown in Fig. Even load values of dryness fraction of
steam can be easily determined.

Construction
This calorimeter has two calorimeters namely separating calorimeter and throttling calorimeter
in series.
Working
In a separating and throttling calorimeter, the steam from sampling tube is first passed through
the separating calorimeter where it is partly dried up and then it is further passed on to the
throttling calorimeter from where it comes out as superheated steam. The steam coming out
from throttling calorimeter is condensed in a condenser and the mass of the condensate coming
out of the condenser is recorded.
Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter
Calculation for dryness fraction (x):
Let x1 is dryness fraction of steam measured by separating calorimeter.
,and x2 is dryness fraction of steam measured by throttling calorimeter.

If x is initial dryness fraction of steam

Water droplet in the steam sample = Water droplet removed by separating
calorimeter + Water droplet passed through calorimeter.
Questions:
I. What do you understand by the term quality of steam? Explain.
II. With neat sketch explains the construction and working and limitations of following
calorimeters.
a. Bucket calorimeter.
b. Throttling calorimeter
c. Separating calorimeter
d. Combine separating and throttling calorimeter.
III. Explain the throttling process used for finding the dryness fraction of steam.
IV. Difference between dry steam and wet steam.


VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
Internal Combustion Engine
Experiment No: 05 - To study Internal Combustion Engines
Date:
Objective: To understand the operation, performance, and emissions of IC engines.
Theory:
Heat engine:
“A heat engine is a device that transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy
and uses this energy to produce mechanical work”.
(a) External combustion engine (b) Internal combustion engine
External combustion engine:

External combustion engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel transfer heat to a second
fluid and which is the working fluid of the cycle.
Examples: steam engine, steam turbine plant, Locomotive, open-type gas turbine ect….
Internal combustion engine

Internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder and
heat is generated within the cylinder. This heat is added to the air inside the cylinder and thus
the pressure of the air is increased tremendously. This high pressure air moves the piston which
rotates the crank shaft and thus mechanical work is done. Most of the internal combustion
engines are reciprocating engines with a piston that reciprocate back and forth in the cylinder.
Classification of IC Engine
1. According to the basic engine design- (a) Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston
arrangement), (b) Rotary engine (Use of turbine)
2. According to the type of fuel used- (a) Petrol engine, (b) diesel engine, (c) gas engine (CNG,
LPG), (d) Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle- (a) Four stroke and (b) Two stroke engine
4. According to the method of igniting the fuel- (a) Spark ignition engine SI, (b) compression
ignition engine CI
5. According to the working cycle- (a) Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine, (b) diesel
cycle (constant pressure cycle) engine, (c) dual combustion cycle (semi diesel cycle) engine.

6. According to the number of cylinders- (a) Single cylinder and (b) multi-cylinder engine
7. Method of cooling- water-cooled or air cooled

8. Speed of the engine- Slow-speed, medium speed, and high speed engine
9. Cylinder arrangement-Vertical, horizontal, inline, V-type, radial, opposed cylinder or piston
engines.
10. Application- Automotive engines for land transport, marine engines for propulsion of ships,
aircraft engines for aircraft propulsion, industrial engines, prime movers for electrical
generators.
Main components of reciprocating IC engines:

Cylinder:
It is the main part of the engine inside which piston reciprocates to and fro. It should have high
strength to withstand high pressure above 50 bar and temperature above 2000 oC. The ordinary
engine is made of cast iron and heavy duty engines are made of steel alloys or aluminum alloys.
In the multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders are cast in one block known as cylinder block
Cylinder head:
The top end of the cylinder is covered by cylinder head over which inlet and exhaust valve,
spark plug or injectors are mounted. A copper or asbestos gasket is provided between the engine
cylinder and cylinder head to make an air tight joint.
Piston:
Transmit the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod. Usually made of
aluminium alloy which has good heat conducting property and greater strength at higher
temperature.
Piston rings:
These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer surface of the piston and
made of steel alloys which retain elastic properties even at high temperature. 2 types of rings-
compression and oil rings. Compression ring is upper ring of the piston which provides air tight
seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the lower portion. Oil ring is lower ring which
provides effective seal to prevent leakage of the oil into the engine cylinder.
Connecting rod:
It converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion of the crank shaft, in the
working stroke. The smaller end of the connecting rod is connected with the piston by gudgeon
pin and bigger end of the connecting rod is connected with the crank with crank pin. The special
steel alloys or aluminium alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting rod.

Crankshaft:
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion with the help of
connecting rod. The special steel alloys are used for the manufacturing of the crankshaft. It
consists of eccentric portion called crank.
Crank case:
It houses cylinder and crankshaft of the IC engine and also serves as sump for the lubricating
oil. Flywheel: It is big wheel mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its speed
constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is returned during
other stroke
Schematic diagram of Internal Combustion Engine

Four stroke petrol engine or Spark Ignition OR (Otto Cycle)

This engine works on Otto cycle and uses petrol (or gas) as a fuel. In this engine spark is
produced to ignite the charge. This type of engines work on constant volume combustion cycle
as combustion takes place nearly at constant volume with increase of pressure.
PV Diagram of Four stroke Petrol Engine
Working or operation of Four-stroke petrol Engine

In a petrol engine, the petrol is evaporated and it is mixed with correct proportion of air by the
device, which is known as carburettor.
The whole cycle is completed in four strokes, namely 1. Suction stroke 2. Compression stroke
3. Working or Power stroke 4. Exhaust stroke
Four stroke Diesel engine OR Four stroke compression ignition (C.I) engine
The diesel engines work on the principle of Diesel cycle, also called constant pressure heat
addition cycle shown in fig. The four stroke diesel engine cycle also consists of suction,
compression, power, and exhaust strokes. Fig. shows the working and construction of a four
stroke diesel engine. The basic construction of a fourstroke diesel engine is same as that of four
stroke petrol engine, except instead of spark plug, a fuel injector is mounted in its place as
shown in fig. A fuel pump supplies the fuel oil to the injector at higher pressure.
PV Diagram of Four stroke Diesel Engine

Two stroke cycle engine

As the name itself implies, all the processes in the two stroke cycle engine are completed in
two strokes. In four stroke engine two complete revolutions of crank shaft is required for
completing one cycle. The cycle of operations, i.e. suction, compression, expansion and
exhaust are completed in one complete revolution of the crank shaft in two stroke engines.
These engines have one power stroke per revolution of the crank shaft. In two stroke engines,
there are two openings called ports are provided in place of valve of four stroke engines. These
ports are opened and closed by reciprocating motion of the piston in the cylinder. One port is
known as inlet port and another port is known as exhaust port. Two stroke engines consist of a
cylinder with one end fitted with a cylinder head and other end fitted with a hermetically sealed
crankcase which enables it to function as a pump in conjunction with the piston.
Working of Two stroke Petrol Engine (SI Engine)

Working of Two stroke Diesel Engine
Electric engine
“An electric engine turns electricity into mechanical energy. In this, due to the interaction of
the engine’s magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding, torque is generated, which
helps run automobiles”.
The mechanism of an electric vehicle is as follows-

 Electric automobiles work on the principle of energy conversion.
 Instead of a combustion engine, this sort of vehicle uses a variety of electric motors or
engines.
 You can simply charge your vehicle at home or public charging stations.
 Parts of electric vehicles are – Engine/motor, inverter, Drivetrain, batteries, and
charging.

Types of EV engine
 Plug-in electric cars, often known as pure electric cars, are automobiles that run entirely on
electricity. Due to the lack of gasoline, this sort of vehicle produces no emissions.
 Plug-in hybrids are vehicles that run on both electricity and petrol. You can utilise
electricity and switch to fuels if your battery runs out. When using a gasoline engine, this
type of vehicle emits pollutants, but it is environmentally friendly when using electric
engines.
 Hybrid-Electric Vehicles: These vehicles mostly run on gasoline. There is, however, an
electric battery, which gets recharged by regenerative braking. Drivers can switch between
a fuel and an electric engine simply by pressing a button.
Benefits of Electric engine

 EVs have 90% fewer moving parts.
 There is no pollution, so the environment is safe.
 Less maintenance – Basic wear and tear, tire replacement, etc.
 Torque delivery capability of 100 percent.
 There is no need for a complicated gear system.
Questions:
I. Classify the I.C. Engines in detail.

II. Explain with a neat sketch working of 4-stroke petrol engine.
III. Explain with a neat sketch working of 4-stroke diesel engine.
IV. Explain with a neat sketch working of 2-stroke petrol engine.
V. Explain with a neat sketch working of 2-stroke diesel engine.
VI. Make comparison between 2-stroke and 4-stroke cycle I.C. Engines.
VII. Why the thermal efficiency of 2-stroke cycle engines is less than 4-stroke
cycle engines?
VIII. Define compression ratio. State the probable value of compression ratio
used for petrol as well as diesel engines.
IX. Why are two wheeler automobile made with a 4 stroke engine instead of a
2stroke engine? Give technical reason.
X. Define EV. Top ten EV available in the world.
XI. Compare EV with IC Engine.
XII. Who invented first electrical vehicle.
XIII. Make comparison of the IC Vehicle Vs EV Vehicle available in Indian
Market with Technical specifications.

VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning
Experiment No: 06 - To study about Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning
Date:
Objective: Learning the fundamental principles and different methods of
refrigeration and air conditioning
Principle of refrigeration:
In refrigeration, the heat is to be removed continuously from a system or space at a lower
temperature and transferred to the surroundings at a higher temperature. According to the
second law of thermodynamics, external work is required to convey heat from a cold body to
a hot body. Therefore in refrigeration, power is required to cool the space below the
atmospheric temperature. Refrigeration is defined as the method of reducing the temperature
of a system below the surrounding temperature and maintaining it at the lower temperature by
continuously abstracting the heat from it. Simply put, refrigeration means cooling or removing
heat from a system.
Refrigerants
The refrigerant is a heat carrying medium which absorbs heat from space (desired to cool) and
rejects heat to outside the refrigerator (in atmosphere). The refrigerant is working medium
under goes various processes of refrigeration cycles which are used to produce refrigeration.
Properties of a good refrigerant
 It should have high latent heat of evaporation and low specific volume.
 It should have good thermal conductivity for rapid heat transfer.
 It should be non-toxic, non-flammable and non-corrosive.
 It should have low specific heat in liquid state and high specific heat in vapour state.
 It should have high co-efficient of performance.
 It should be economical in initial cost and maintenance cost.
Types of refrigerators
The refrigerator can be classified as follows.
Natural refrigerator
In natural refrigerator, the cooling effect produced by evaporation of liquid or sublimation of
solids. When liquid evaporate, it absorbs heat from surrounding and produces cooling.

Similarly, in sublimation (melting) of solid, it absorbs heat from surrounding and produces
cooling effect.
Mechanical refrigerator
In mechanical refrigerator, refrigeration effect produced by, external source of mechanical
energy or heat energy. It is further classified as, (A) Vapour compression refrigerator
(B)Vapour absorption refrigerator (C) Air refrigerator.
Vapour Compression Refrigeration system (VCRS)
Vapour Compression Refrigeration system (VCRS) is construction This system consist of (l)
Evaporator (2) compressor (3) condenser and (4) expansion device. In vapour compression
refrigerator, vapour used as the refrigerant. It is circulated in system in which it alternately
evaporates (liquid to vapour) and condenses (vapour to liquid) thus it undergoes a change of
phase. In the evaporation it absorbs the latent heat from the space to be cooled. In the
condensing or cooling, it rejects heat to atmosphere.

Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System (VARS)
This system is shown in figure consists of (i) evaporator, (ii) condenser, (iii) generator, (iv)
absorber, (v) pump and (vi) expansion device. In this system the refrigerant coming from
evaporator is absorbed by absorber. The absorbing medium may be solid or liquid. In VAR
system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber and generator. Ammonia is refrigerant has
characteristic as it is easily absorbed by water at low pressure and temperature, but at high
pressure and temperature, the solubility of ammonia in water is reduced. Therefore when
mixture of water and ammonia is heated by generator, the ammonia vapour is separated from
water. This principle is used in the vapour absorption refrigeration system. Here the ammonia
is refrigerant and water is absorbent.
Air conditioning
Air conditioning is not a process of only heating or cooling to some desired temperature. Air
conditioning is dealing with conditioning or controlling the air. The complete process of air
conditioning includes following processes. 1. Cooling or heating air 2. Addition of moisture in
air (Humidification) or removal of moisture from air (Dehumidification) 3. Controlling
movement of air 4. Purification of air 5. Addition of fresh air from outside 6. Distribution of
air The air conditioning is defined as the simultaneous control of temperature, air humidity, air
movement and air cleanliness.
Window air conditioner
The window air conditioner mainly used for conditioning of air in the room. Commonly it is
mounted in a window, hence it is known as window air conditioner. The window air conditioner
unit consists of following components as shown in fig 10.6. Refrigeration unit
Evaporator/cooling coil, condenser, compressor, and expansion device ,Air circulation fan

Split air condition
It is modification of window air conditioner. This unit differs from window air conditioner. In
terms of splits of unit into two parts. In split air conditioner, the window air conditioner divided
(split) into two parts. First part: Includes the evaporator, filter, evaporator fan and grille
(cooling coil). They placed inside the room. Second part: Includes condenser, condenser fan,
and compressor. This placed outside the room. First part (inside of room) and second part
(outside of room) is connected by small diameter tubes. Therefore, small hole required in wall
for installation of split air conditioner. The advantages of split air conditioner over window air
conditioner The compressor is outside of room, therefore no compressor noise in the room. No
window opening and fixing needed. The compressor is outside of room, therefore no
compressor noise in the room.
Advantages of split system air conditioning
 Quiet operation - most noise generated is by the outside unit - some models specialise
in ultra-quiet operation making them ideal for sleeping areas or work zones.
 Sophisticated filtration systems can catch fine particles such as dust, mould spores, and
other allergens.
 A dehumidifier setting can reduce the humidity in a room.
 Energy-efficient - some models score up to a 7-star energy rating.
 Cheap to run - the cost to cool a medium-sized room is around 25c to 35c per hour.
 Multi-split system models allow you to cool or heat multiple rooms (up to 6) from one
outdoor unit, with individual control for each indoor unit.
 No ducting is required.
 Fast cooling or heating
 Cost-effective to install

Disadvantages of split system air conditioning
 The outdoor compressor can be noisy - especially if not maintained correctly

 Space needed for the outdoor unit - not suitable for some homes with limited balcony
or yard space.
 Installation costs can increase if the indoor and outdoor units can’t be placed in close
proximity.
 Only circulate the air inside the room - no fresh air
 Requires a licenced professional to install and are hardwired via a dedicated circuit to
your home electrical system.
 Can be too noisy for light sleepers.

Questions:
I. What is practical unit of refrigeration? Define it.

II. What are the applications of vapour compression refrigeration cycle?
III. What are the desirable properties of refrigerants?

IV. What is comfort air conditioning?
V. Define the refrigeration effect and C.O.P. of a refrigeration system.
VI. Comparison between VCRS Vs VARS
VII. Comparison between Window air conditioner Vs Split AC.
VIII. What are the Most Environmentally Friendly Refrigerants?


VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
Pumps
Experiment No: 07 -To Study of Different Types of Pumps
Date:
Objective: To understand the types of pumps and their operation, priming, and capacity to select the
appropriate pump for specific applications based on efficiency and flow requirements.
Study of Different Types of Pumps

1. Reciprocating Pumps
 Overview: Reciprocating pumps are positive displacement pumps that use a piston, plunger, or
diaphragm to move fluid. They deliver a precise volume of liquid in each cycle and are suitable for
applications requiring high pressures with low to moderate flow rates.
 Types of Reciprocating Pumps:
o Piston Pumps: Utilize a piston moving within a cylinder, suitable for high-pressure applications.
o Plunger Pumps: Similar to piston pumps but use a plunger instead, which allows them to
operate at even higher pressures.
o Diaphragm Pumps: Use a flexible diaphragm to displace fluid, which makes them ideal for
handling corrosive or abrasive fluids since the fluid doesn't contact moving parts.
 Operation: The piston or plunger moves back and forth in a cylinder, creating a low-pressure zone
during the suction stroke that draws fluid into the pump chamber. On the discharge stroke, the fluid is
expelled at high pressure.
 Applications: Commonly used in industries such as oil and gas, water treatment, and hydraulic systems
for precise, high-pressure delivery of fluids.
2. Rotary Pumps
 Overview: Rotary pumps are positive displacement pumps known for their ability to handle viscous
fluids. They operate by trapping fluid in cavities and moving it from the inlet to the outlet.
 Types of Rotary Pumps:
o Gear Pumps: Use two rotating gears to displace fluid; ideal for high-viscosity fluids such as oils
and syrups.
o Lobe Pumps: Similar to gear pumps but use lobes, making them gentle on the fluid, suitable for
food and pharmaceutical applications.
o Screw Pumps: Use one or more screws to move fluid in a continuous, smooth flow, handling
high viscosity fluids well.
o Vane Pumps: Employ sliding vanes within a rotor that trap and move fluid; they are versatile
and used for moderate-pressure applications.
 Operation: As the rotary elements (gears, screws, lobes, or vanes) rotate, they create expanding cavities
on the intake side, which draw in fluid. The fluid is then carried around the casing to the outlet side
where it is expelled.

 Applications: Used in oil refineries, chemical processing, food production, and applications where thick
fluids or smooth, continuous flow is required.
3. Centrifugal Pumps
 Overview: Centrifugal pumps are dynamic pumps that move fluid by converting rotational energy into
kinetic energy. They are well-suited for large volumes and low-pressure applications.
 Types of Centrifugal Pumps:
o Single-Stage Centrifugal Pumps: Feature a single impeller, suitable for low to moderate
pressure applications.
o Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pumps: Contain multiple impellers in series, providing higher
pressures, ideal for applications like boiler feed water or water supply for buildings.
o Axial and Radial Flow Pumps: Axial flow pumps produce flow along the axis, used in
applications requiring high flow at low heads. Radial flow pumps produce flow perpendicular to
the axis, creating higher pressure.
o Submersible Pumps: Designed to operate underwater, often used in wells and sewage systems.
 Operation: Fluid enters the pump at the center of a spinning impeller. As it spins, the fluid gains
velocity and moves outward through the pump casing, creating high flow rates at low pressures.
 Applications: Centrifugal pumps are widely used in water supply, irrigation, HVAC, and chemical
industries due to their ability to handle large fluid volumes with low viscosity.
4. Key Concepts in Pump Operation
 Priming:
o Essential for centrifugal pumps, which cannot move fluid if air is present in the suction line.
Priming removes trapped air, creating the vacuum necessary for fluid movement.
o Reciprocating and rotary pumps are generally self-priming as their designs allow them to handle
air pockets without losing suction.
 Pump Capacity:
o Defines the amount of fluid a pump can move per unit time (measured in LPM or GPM).
o Factors influencing capacity include impeller size and speed (in centrifugal pumps),
displacement volume (in reciprocating pumps), and fluid characteristics.
o The required capacity depends on the system needs, considering flow rate and pressure.
Summary of Applications by Pump Type:
 Reciprocating Pumps: High-pressure applications, such as hydraulic systems and oil processing.
 Rotary Pumps: Viscous fluid transfer, suitable for oil, chemicals, and food products.
 Centrifugal Pumps: High flow, low to moderate pressure applications, ideal for water supply, HVAC,
and irrigation systems.


VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
Air Compressors
Experiment No: 08 – To study of different types of Air Compressors
Date:
Objective:
1. Understand the working of air compressor
2. Know the constructional details of important parts of air compressor
3. Know the classification and application of compressor
Theory:
Definition:
An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or gasoline
engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e., compressed air).
Classification of compressor:

Application of compressor:
 Blowing up balloons or inflatable products.
 Adding air to tires on bikes and on vehicles.
 Using various pneumatic tools for home projects.
 Painting vehicles in an auto body shop.
 Sandblasting in a machine shop and manufacturing facilities.
 Operating pneumatic material handling equipment.
 Finishing and packaging with pneumatic devices.
Review Questions:
1. Write the classification of Air compressor. Write the uses of compressed air.
2. Draw the neat sketches of compressor with P – V diagram with and without clearance.
3. What are the advantages of multistage compression?
4. Define the following terms: Compression ratio, compressor capacity, and volumetric efficiency,
free air delivery (FAD).
5. Classify rotary air compressors. Explain construction and working of centrifugal
compressor with neat sketches.
6. Explain with neat sketch construction and working of axial flow air compressor.
7. Differentiate between reciprocating compressor & centrifugal compressor with respect to principle
of working.


VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
Couplings, Clutches and Brakes
Experiment No: 09 – To study of different types Clutches, Coupling and Brakes
Date:
Objective:
1. State the working of different types of Couplings clutches and brakes
2. Know the construction and operation of different types of couplings, clutches and brakes
3. Application of couplings clutches and brakes.
Theory:
Coupling:
Couplings are used for joining sections of long transmission shafts. They are also used for
connecting the shaft of a driving machine to the shaft of a separately built machine so as to give
an effect of continuous shaft.
The general classification of couplings is given as under:

1. Rigid coupling
Rigid couplings are used to connect two shafts when they are in perfect axial alignment.
(a) Sleeve or Box or Muff coupling:
(b) Split muff or clamp coupling:
(c) Flange couplings:
2. Flexible coupling
These types of couplings are used to protect the driving and driven machines from effect of
shocks excesses stresses due to deflection and vibrations, which may arise from misalignment
of shafts.
(a) Bush pin type flange coupling:
(b) Oldham coupling:
(c) Universal coupling:
Clutch:
The flow of mechanical power is controlled by means of a clutch. The clutch is a mechanical
device, which is used to connect or disconnect the source of power from the remaining parts of
the power transmission systems at the will of the operator. An automotive clutch can permit the
engine to run without driving the car. This is desirable when the engine is to be started or
stopped or when the gears are to be shifted.
1. Single plate friction clutch

2. Multi disc clutch
3. Cone clutch
4. Centrifugal clutch
Brake:
A brake is a mechanical device by means of which artificial resistance is applied to a moving
system or machine in order to slow down or completely stop the motion of a machine. In
performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of moving members such as
rotating drum, machine, automobile vehicle or potential energy given up by objects being
lowered by hoists, elevators.
The energy absorbed by a brake is converted into heat energy and dissipated in the
surroundings air.
There are two distinct functions of vehicle brakes.
 To stop or slow down the vehicle in the shortest possible distance in emergencies.
 To control the vehicle to be retained when descending a hill.
Types of brakes:
According to the means used for transforming the energy by the braking elements, the brakes
are classified as
(i) Hydraulic brake
(ii) Electric brake
(iii) Mechanical brake.
Depending upon the shape of the friction material the mechanical brakes are classified as block
brake, internal or external shoe brakes and band brakes.
1. Block brake
2. Internal expanding brake
3. Band brake
Materials for Brake Lining:

The materials used for brake lining should have,
(i) High co-efficient of friction with minimum fading
(ii) Low wear rate
(iii) High heat resistance
(iv) High heat dissipation capacity
(v) Adequate mechanical strength and
(vi) Should not be affected by moisture and oil. The materials commonly used are wood, leather
and asbestos.
Difference between a brake and a clutch:

1. A brake is used to reduce the rotational motion or to stop it, where as a clutch is used to transmit
the motion and power of a moving body to another body.
2. In brakes the applications of force results into frictional resistance whereas in clutches application
of force results into frictional force between clutch plates which helps them to transmit motion
and power.

3. During normal working conditions a brake always remains disengaged where as a clutch always
remains engaged.
4. When a brake is applied the energy of the moving member is lost in friction but in a clutch no
such loss occurs.
Review Questions:
1. What is the function of clutch in automobile vehicle? What are various types of clutches? Name
only which type of clutch is used in scooter and car.
2. What is the function of coupling? Name only various types of couplings. Explain Oldham coupling.
3. Differentiate between clutch and coupling. Describe Disk clutch.
4. What is function of brakes? How they are classified? Explain with a neat diagram working of
internal expanding shoe brake.
5. What is the essential difference between coupling and clutch?
6. With a neat sketch describe the centrifugal clutch.
7. Explain band and shoe brake.


VALLABHVIDYANAGAR
Transmission of Motion and Power
Experiment No: 10 – To study of Power Transmission Drives
Date:
Objective:
1. Know different power and motion transmission elements
2. Understand the different types of belts and ropes used in practice along with their material.
3. Understand the working of chain drive along with their advantages and disadvantages.
4. Know the different types of gear trains.
Theory:
Belt and Rope Drives:

To transmit the power from one shaft to another, pulleys are mounted on the two shafts. The
pulleys are then connected by an endless belt or rope passing over the pulleys. The connecting
belt or rope is kept in tension so that motion of one pulley is transferred to the other without slip.
Varying the diameter of the pulleys can vary the speed of the driven shaft.
Types of belt : Flat belt, V-belt, Circular belt or Rope
Type of flat belt drives : Open belt drive, Crossed or twisted belt drive
Chain drives:
To avoid slippage, steel chains are used. The chain is made up of a rigid links, which are
hinged together in order to provide the necessary flexibility for wrapping around the driving and
driven wheels. The wheels have projecting teeth and fit into the corresponding recesses, in the
links of the chain.
The wheel and the chain are thus constrained to move together without slipping and
ensure perfect velocity ratio. The toothed wheels are known as sprocket wheels or simply
sprockets. These wheels resemble to spur gears.

Gear Trains:
A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion and power from one shaft to
another. It becomes necessary when it is required to obtain large speed reduction with in a small
space. The following are main types of gear trains.
Simple gear train:

A pair of mating external gears always moves in opposite direction. All odd numbered gears
move in one direction and all even numbered gears move in opposite direction. Speed ratio is
the ratio of the speed of the driving to the driven shaft, is negative when the input and output
gears rotate in opposite direction and it is positive when the two rotate in same direction.
Reciprocal of speed ratio is known as the train valve of the gear train. All the gears can be in a
straight line or arranged in zigzag manner.
Compound gear train:

When a series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more gears rotate about an axis
with the same angular velocity, it is known as compound gear train. In this type, some of the
intermediate shafts,
i.e. other than the input and output shaft s, carry more than one gear.
Advantages of gear train:

1. It transmits exact velocity ratio.
2. It may be used to transmit large power.
3. It has high efficiency.
4. It has compact layout.
Disadvantages of Gear train:

1. The manufacture of gears requires special tools and equipment.
2. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.

Review Questions:
1. List various power transmission elements with their applications.
2. What are bearings? How they are classified? Explain Thrust Bearing.
3. Write short note on helical gear, spiral gear and bevel gear. (Draw Sketch)
4. What is V- belt drive? How it differs from a flat belt drive. List the various belt drives and
explain cross belt drive.
5. Differentiate individual drive and group drive.
6. Compare Belt drive, Chain drive and Gear drive.
7. What is creep in belt drives? Explain.
8. Define velocity ratio of gears drive.
9. Explain the following terms with respect to gear
a) Module b) Circular pitch c) pitch diameter d) Addendum


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112ES-Basic Mechanical Engineering

BIRLA VISHVAKARMA MAHAVIDYALAYA

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Characteristics of boiler: It is a vertical, multi-tube, fire tube, internally fired, natural

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Characteristics of boiler Horizontal, multi-water tube, externally fired, natural circulation of

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

BIRLA VISHVAKARMA MAHAVIDYALAYA

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

 Location: It is fixed in front of the boiler.

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

BIRLA VISHVAKARMA MAHAVIDYALAYA

Salient features of high-pressure boilers:

 Robust Construction: High-pressure boilers are built with heavy-duty materials to

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Advantages of La Mont boiler:

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Disadvantage of La Mont boiler:

Lamont Boiler Application:

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Advantages of Benson boiler:

Disadvantage of Benson boiler:

 High Initial Cost

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Advantage of Package Boilers:

Disadvantage of Package Boilers:

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

BIRLA VISHVAKARMA MAHAVIDYALAYA

Dryness fraction of steam:

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Bucket or Barrel Calorimeter

Bucket or Barrel Calorimeter

Heat lost by the steam = Heat gained by water and calorimeter

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Calculation for dryness fraction (x):

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Enthalpy before throttling = Enthalpy after throttling

Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

Calculation for dryness fraction (x):

Let x1 is dryness fraction of steam measured by separating calorimeter.

,and x2 is dryness fraction of steam measured by throttling calorimeter.

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

If x is initial dryness fraction of steam

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt

BIRLA VISHVAKARMA MAHAVIDYALAYA

External combustion engine:

Internal combustion engine

Course Coordinator: Dr. Ketul Brahmbhatt