energies

Review
A Review on Failure Modes of Wind Turbine Components
Abdul Ghani Olabi 1,2, * , Tabbi Wilberforce 2 , Khaled Elsaid 3, * , Enas Taha Sayed 4,5 , Tareq Salameh 1 ,
Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem 1,4,5, * and Ahmad Baroutaji 6

1 Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah,

Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates; [email protected]
2 Mechanical Engineering and Design, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston University,
Aston Triangle, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK; [email protected]
3 Chemical Engineering Program, Texas A&M University at Qatar, Doha 23874, Qatar
4 Centre for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah,
Sharjah P.O. Box 27272, United Arab Emirates; [email protected]
5 Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Minya 61519, Egypt
6 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wulfruna St,
Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (A.G.O.); [email protected] (K.E.);
[email protected] (M.A.A.)

Abstract: To meet the increasing energy demand, renewable energy is considered the best option. Its
patronage is being encouraged by both the research and industrial community. The main driving
force for most renewable systems is solar energy. It is abundant and pollutant free compared to fossil
products. Wind energy is also considered an abundant medium of energy generation and often goes



hand in hand with solar energy. The last few decades have seen a sudden surge in wind energy


compared to solar energy due to most wind energy systems being cost effective compared to solar
Citation: Olabi, A.G.; Wilberforce, T.; energy. Wind turbines are often categorised as large or small depending on their application and
Elsaid, K.; Sayed, E.T.; Salameh, T.;
energy generation output. Sustainable materials for construction of different parts of wind turbines
Abdelkareem, M.A.; Baroutaji, A. A
are being encouraged to lower the cost of the system. The turbine blades and generators perform
Review on Failure Modes of Wind
crucial roles in the overall operation of the turbines; hence, their material composition is very critical.
Turbine Components. Energies 2021,
Today, most turbine blades are made up of natural fiber-reinforced polymer (NFRP) as well as glass
14, 5241. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en14175241
fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP). Others are also made from wood and some metallic materials.
Each of the materials introduced has specific characteristics that affect the system’s efficiency. This
Academic Editor: investigation explores the influence of these materials on turbine efficiency. Observations have shown
Francesco Castellani that composites reinforced with nanomaterials have excellent mechanical characteristics. Carbon
nanotubes have unique characteristics that may make them valuable in wind turbine blades in the
Received: 26 May 2021 future. It is possible to strengthen carbon nanotubes with various kinds of resins to get a variety
Accepted: 5 August 2021 of different characteristics. Similarly, the end-of-life treatment methods for composite materials is
Published: 24 August 2021 also presented.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Keywords: composite material; turbine blade; failure mode; cost analysis
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.

1. Introduction
Climate change continues to remain a major issue for both research and industrial
communities [1,2]. As the yearly energy demand of the world increases, carbon dioxide
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
emissions increase, as well. This is because fossil products continue to be the main driving
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
force for the energy industry to date [3,4]. The instability of prices for fossil products,
This article is an open access article
coupled with their reserves depleting at a faster pace, has necessitated the urgent need
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
for an alternative form of energy generation [5,6]. Most countries have supported this
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
clarion call by actively formulating policies that seek to expand the renewable energy
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
sources [7,8]. Obviously, the signing of the Kyoto agreement and the Paris agreement by
4.0/). 192 and 197 countries around the world, respectively, is an indication of the massive support

Energies 2021, 14, 5241. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175241 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 5241 2 of 44

for renewable energy as a possible replacement for fossil energy [9,10]. Wind energy, a type
of renewable energy sources, is one of the primary energy-generating mediums that can
make this goal a reality. Research projects showed that the wind capacity of the EU must
annually increase by 21% to achieve the 2020 goal for energy generation. Application of
wind energy can be traced to 5000 B.C. when it was used on the river Nile for the sailing of
boats. The Babylonians later applied this energy in building the first windmill in 2000 B.C.
The Persians also used wind energy for pumping water as well as crushing in the
nineth century. Europe built its first post windmill in the 12th century. In the 19th century,
some individuals supported the advancement of this technology. Notable among them
were Charles F. Brush, who had researched wind turbines by 1888 [11]. Poul La Cour in
1897 built the first wind turbine in Demark. In 1941, Smith–Putnam developed the first
mega sized wind turbine, but the design failed initially, as a turbine blade fell off the system
due to poor selection of its material [12].
Studies in the wind turbine industry are performed to enhance the performance of
wind turbines. This results in a novel and unique wind turbine blade, which is useful in
creating the structure of future wind turbine blades. Currently being investigated is an
alternative material system with superior characteristics. The use of this material system in
the blade construction results in optimum aerodynamic performance and reduced gravity
forces throughout the operational stage, resulting in a longer blade life cycle, overall. In
order to meet this need, improved wind blades with sufficient stiffness, strength and
prolonged fatigue resistance are needed. Furthermore, the end of life of these blades once
they have exhausted their usefulness is very critical, as well. The focus of this review is to
present varying materials that can be used for the manufacturing of modern wind turbines
and to compare their advantages, disadvantages and uses.

2. Wind Turbine Components

Wind turbines have more than 8000 components, but these components are categorised
into six parts shown in Figure 1. The blades, nacelle and tower determine the functionality
of the turbines [13]. The tower sits on a concrete foundation, and it supports the blades
and the nacelle. The tower is designed to be strong to hold the blade and the nacelle
weight. It must also be strong enough to resist any changes in wind velocity around the
turbine. Therefore, stiffness and rigidity are the most important material characteristics for
designing towers of wind turbines [14]. It is also recommended the tower is built in parts
and assembled at the specific location to eliminate or reduce cost. The weight of the turbine
tower installed onshore can be slightly lighter compared to turbines installed offshore.
The issue of corrosion also becomes very important and necessary to consider during
the design stages of the turbine. Some turbine towers today are made of steel due to the
material characteristics of steel. Steel is generally strong and less expensive and has high
stiffness [15]. A major challenge in the usage of steel for wind turbine towers is difficulty in
welding the components. Most steel towers must be coated to resist the effects of corrosion
on the turbine performance and reduce the chances of the turbine falling off, which can be
fatal. Researchers today recommend the usage of some type of hybrid steel concrete for
wind turbine towers such as that of the glass fiber composite monoliths [16].
The nacelle shown in Figure 1 is the heart of the turbine. Depending on the types
of wind turbine (small, medium or large), the nacelle size can vary, but they are often
designed to have small space for maintenance purposes. Accessibility to the nacelle for
routine maintenance and servicing is also another challenge due to its location on the
turbine [17]. Materials for the construction of the nacelle must be light in weight, simple in
moulding and able to withstand corrosion. Most nacelle in wind turbines today are made
of glass fiber composite material. These turbines are subjected to several bending forces as
well as torques. During emergency braking, a large load is applied to the bedplate, causing
it to deflect, and this affects the entire drivetrain. Wind turbine engineers suggest that this
phenomenon can lead to misalignment of the bedplate and nacelle should this emergency
 Energies 2021, 14, 5241 3 of 47

Energies 2021, 14, 5241 3 of 44

engineers suggest that this phenomenon can lead to misalignment of the bedplate and
nacelle should this emergency braking continue. Misalignment of the shaft on the
braking continue. Misalignment of the shaft on the drivetrain can lead to wearing out of
drivetrain can lead to wearing out of the bearings, and this will increase maintenance
the bearings, and this will increase maintenance activities on the turbine [18].
activities on the turbine [18].

Figure 1. Components of a wind turbine.

Figure 1. Components of a wind turbine.

3.3.Wind
WindTurbine
TurbineBlades
Blades
Theblade
The bladecomprises
comprisesthe theroot,
root,chord,
chord,midspan
midspanand andtip.tip.AllAllthese
theseparts
partssupport
supportthe the
uplift.AAhelical
uplift. helicalvortex
vortexisiscreated
createdwith withthethehelp
helpof ofthe
theturbine
turbinetip. tip.Most
Mostturbine
turbineroots
rootsare
are
designedtotobe
designed bestrong
strongtotoresist
resistdifferent
differenttypes
typesof ofstresses
stressesdue dueto todifferent
differentwindwindloadings
loadingsat at
varyingtimes
varying times [19].
[19]. TheThe
chord chord supports
supports the generation
the generation of the of lift the
whileliftthe
while the midspan
midspan handles
handles
the bendingtheandbending
shear and shearthese
stresses; stresses; these
stresses arestresses are further from
further transferred transferred from the
the midspan to
midspan
the to the of
root. Blades root.
the Blades of the wind
wind turbines turbines
are made up of aretwo
madefaces upfor of both
two faces for bothand
the pressure the
pressure
suction and suction
regions of the regions
area. These of the area.are
faces These
linkedfaces are linked
together using together
shear websusingconnecting
shear webs
the upper and
connecting thethe lower
upper andregions of the
the lower blade [15].
regions of the blade [15].
The
Thewind
wind energy sectorsector has hasseen
seena asurge
surge upupin in
thethe
sizesize of wind
of wind turbines.
turbines. A keyAfactor
key
factor foristhis
for this the is the to
need need to increase
increase the energy
the energy generated generated
by these byturbines
these turbines
to meetto meet
the the
world’s
world’s high consumption.
high energy energy consumption.IncreasingIncreasing
the turbinethe sizeturbine
impliessize thatimplies
the weight thatwill
theincrease,
weight
will increase,
as well. One as well.criterion
design One design that criterion that must be
must be considered as considered
the turbine as theisturbine
size increasedsizeis
isstiffness.
increased is stiffness. This is primarily because, the longer the blade
This is primarily because, the longer the blade size, the greater the deflection. In size, the greater
the deflection.
order to curb In theorder
bladesto curb
fromthe blades
hitting thefromtower,hitting the tower,
stiffness stiffness
of material forof the
material
blade
for the blade construction
construction is very important.is veryFor important.
the wind For the wind
turbine turbine
to exceed to exceed
its life its lifeyears),
span (20–25 span
(20–25
materialyears), material
selection selection
for the various forcomponents
the various becomes
components verybecomes
vital [20]. very vital [20].

3.1.
3.1.Wind
WindTurbines
TurbinesProduction
Production
The
The earliest typesof
earliest types ofwind
windturbines
turbineswere
wereproduced
producedusing
usingwet
wethand
handlay-up
lay-uptechnology
technology
(Figure
(Figure 2a). Impregnation of the glass fiber was carried out with the aid of rollersand
2a). Impregnation of the glass fiber was carried out with the aid of rollers and
paint
paintbrushes.
brushes. Using
Using an
an adhesive,
adhesive, the
the shells
shells were
wereconnected
connectedtotothe
thespars.
spars. Small
Small and
and
medium
mediumwind
windturbine
turbineblades
bladeswere
weremanufactured
manufacturedusing
usingthis
thismethod.
method. Webs
Webs forfor larger
larger
blades were positioned between the two sides using the same technological approach
blades were positioned between the two sides using the same technological approach but
but with the greater fiber content for the plies [21]. Cost of labour, low quality of the
blade and the negative environmental effects were some of the challenges related to using
 Energies 2021, 14, 5241 4 of 47

Energies 2021, 14, 5241 4 of 44

with the greater fiber content for the plies [21]. Cost of labour, low quality of the blade
and the negative environmental effects were some of the challenges related to using this
approach
this approach for for
manufacturing
manufacturing turbines.
turbines.TheThefilament
filament winding
winding approach
approach waswasadopted
adopted by
byseveral
severalindustries
industries into thethe
into production
production of turbine
of turbine blades
blades by by thethe1970s.
1970s.TheThequality of the
quality of
product
the product improved
improved due due to tothetheintroduction
introductionofofthe thevacuum
vacuum infusioninfusion and the prepreg prepreg
approach, as
approach, as shown
shown in inFigure
Figure2b. 2b. The
The concept
concept of of the
the prepreg
prepreg was was developed
developed from from thethe
aerospace industry,
aerospace industry,which whichuses usesimpregnated
impregnatedcompositecomposite fibers fibers[22].[22]. For
For bigger
bigger turbine
turbine
blades,resin
blades, resininfusion
infusiontechnology
technology waswas adopted.
adopted. Fibers
Fibers areare positioned
positioned in ainclosed
a closed
mouldmouldfor
forresin
the the resin
infusioninfusion technology.
technology. Resin Resin
is thenispumped
then pumped into theinto mould.the mould.
Heat is thenHeatapplied
is then
as a curing
applied asprocess
a curing once the resin
process oncesettles
the on thesettles
resin fibers. on This thetechnology
fibers. This is categorized
technology as is
resin transferasmoulding
categorized resin transferand vacuum-assisted transfer moulding
moulding and vacuum-assisted (Figure
transfer 2c). Resins
moulding are
(Figure
supplied
2c). Resins at pressures
are supplied beyond atmospheric
at pressures conditions
beyond under the
atmospheric resin transfer
conditions undermoulding
the resin
(RTM)
transfertechnology.
mouldingResins (RTM) aretechnology.
also suppliedResins beloware atmospheric
also supplied conditions,
belowand that is the
atmospheric
fundamental
conditions, and principle
that behind the vacuum-assisted
is the fundamental principle resin transfer
behind themoulding (VARTM).resin
vacuum-assisted The
vacuum-assisted
transfer moulding resin transferThe
(VARTM). moulding is suitableresin
vacuum-assisted for manufacturing
transfer moulding components
is suitablethat
for
are large. This technology
manufacturing componentshas thatbeen
are in existence
large. since the 1980s
This technology has been [23].inItexistence
is a well-known
since the
method for building
1980s [23]. wind turbine
It is a well-known blades.
method for The technology
building wind turbineinvolves unidirectional
blades. fibers
The technology
being positioned
involves in the same
unidirectional fibersdirection as the blade
being positioned in the length. Polymer foams
same direction or wood
as the blade are
length.
sometimes used, as well. Forming the laminate involves
Polymer foams or wood are sometimes used, as well. Forming the laminate involves the the plies moving from the root
to the moving
plies tip, especially
from the forroot
the manufacturing
to the tip, especially of rootsfor that are thick. Withofthe
the manufacturing helpthat
roots of the
are
vacuum bag, these fabrics are covered [24]. The resin is then
thick. With the help of the vacuum bag, these fabrics are covered [24]. The resin is then cured under room conditions.
Some
curedturbine
under blades are postcured,
room conditions. Someas well. Dueblades
turbine to the possibility
are postcured, of theasinlets
well.andDuesuctions
to the
for the vacuum
possibility of thebeing increased,
inlets this production
and suctions for the vacuum approach beingis best for upscaling.
increased, Infusion
this production
technology
approach isisbest oftenforpreferred
upscaling. forInfusion
manufacturing
technology wind is turbines
often preferredcompared to the prepreg
for manufacturing
approach, because infusion is cheap [25]. In terms of stability
wind turbines compared to the prepreg approach, because infusion is cheap [25]. for wind turbine bladesIn made
terms
ofof stability for wind turbine blades made of composites, the prepreg is better comparedfor
composites, the prepreg is better compared to infusion. Prepreg is also conducive to
the environment
infusion. Prepregand is fiber in terms offor
also conducive higher
the volume
environment compared and fiberto theinother
terms production
of higher
approach. It is also to
volume compared easythetoother
automate and select
production the best
approach. It isresins
also easywhentothe prepregand
automate strategy
select
isthe
adopted [26]. Due to technological advancement,
best resins when the prepreg strategy is adopted [26]. Due to technologicalnew types of wind turbine blades,
such as the segmented
advancement, new types blades,
of wind are turbine
being developed
blades, such to make
as the the blades cheaper
segmented but being
blades, are with
higher quality [27].
developed to make the blades cheaper but with higher quality [27].

Figure2.2.Wind
Figure Windturbine
turbineblade
blademanufacturing
manufacturingprocess:
process: (a)
(a)hand
hand lay-up
lay-up [28],
[28], (b)
(b)vacuum
vacuum infusion
infusion or
or
prepregging [29], (c) vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM) [30].
prepregging [29], (c) vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM) [30].

3.2. Wind Turbines Blade Damages

In planning of a wind turbine project coupled with continuing through its early
operation, a detailed failure investigation has to be executed and constantly updated on a
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 5 of 44

regular basis. These procedures are very necessary not only for health and safety issues,
but they also support a more robust maintenance plan to ensure all units are in good
condition. This approach further helps in the collection of data, which is useful in the
selection of an entire end of life scenario. For quality control as well as the detection of
potential failure modes, current failure identification procedures (e.g., failure mode effect
analysis (FMEA); failure mode, effects and criticality analysis (FMECA); and fault tree
analysis (FTA)) and the design of experiments are utilised. First, the system is broken down
into its primary elements, and then these elements are broken down into their essential
components. Again, the failure modes of each subsystem and component should be
identified, while keeping in mind the interaction that each component has with the others.
Third, failure mode identification should be carried out for each component and subsystem,
individually. Furthermore, the ramifications of these failure modes must be considered and
evaluated [31]. As previously stated, many methods are available, with FMEA being one of
the most common. For example, FMEA provides a methodical, systematic and organised
way to create a framework for the identification of failures, a system maintenance planning
and classification of actions. As a practical matter, this identification will be carried out
in practise by specialists, who will then evaluate the likelihood of occurrence of each
failure, as well as its repercussions and the criticality of each failure. Furthermore, it has
evolved into a critical procedure throughout the development process, from the conceptual
stage to the design and testing phases. On the other hand, FTA is regarded to be more
suited for “top-down” analysis than other methods. Use of FMEA as a “bottom-up”
technique may supplement or complement FTA by identifying a greater number of causes
and failure modes than FTA, alone. The effects of materials and adhesive challenges on
the functionality of the wind turbine have been investigated thoroughly, especially for
turbine blades under static and cyclic loading. The main failure modes that may occur
for composite turbine blade under cyclic and static loadings are laminate delamination,
splitting of fibers and, sometimes, gelcoat crack. Identifying some of these damages in the
wind turbine blades is quite challenging, as most of them are not visible to the human eye.
Furthermore, there is compression failure due to the formation of wrinkles on parts of the
composite blade, and this may lead to delamination. Most turbine blades are subjected
to lightning, the surface eroding and direct contact because of human activity. There
are instances where turbine blades are destroyed under harsh weather conditions due to
the blades hitting the tower [31]. Today, most turbines have a system that protects the
blades during lightning. Damage due to intense heat from the sun and cracks on the
blade region that attract the lightning remains a challenge. Abrasive particulates hitting
the leading edge may cause its erosion. This reduces the efficiency of the turbine blades,
which in turn, affects the power output from the wind turbine negatively. During low
temperatures, the blade sometimes freezes up, and this prevents the wind turbine from
generating any energy [32].

4. Materials for Wind Turbine Blades

There are several materials for wind turbine blade construction, as shown in Figure 3,
but the usefulness of these materials is dependent on their weight and rigidity. From Figure 3,
it is observed that composites have good strength and good stiffness fibers. Despite the
high strength and stiffness, composites are low in weight. The orientation of the fiber in
the laminate determines the characteristic behaviour of the composite material [15].
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 6 of 44
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 6 of 47

Energies 2021, 14, 5241 6 of 47

Figure 3.Wind
Figure Windturbine
turbineblade
bladematerials
materials[33].
[33].
Figure 3.
3. Wind turbine blade materials [33].
4.1.
4.1.Natural Fiber
NaturalFiber
Fiber
4.1. Natural
The quest to decrease the price of
ofmaterials for
forturbine blades led toto natural fibers
The quest totodecrease
The quest decrease thethe price
price materials
of materials turbine
for turbine bladesblades
led toled
naturalnatural
fibers fibers
being
beingused used as materials
usedasasmaterials
materials for wind turbines. They often come as nonabrasive materials
being forfor wind
wind turbines.
turbines. TheyThey
often often
comecome as nonabrasive
as nonabrasive materials
materials that that
that
are are usually
areusually
usually biodegradable.
biodegradable.
biodegradable. Most
Most ofMost of
of these
these these natural
natural
natural are fibers
fibers
fibers are environmentally
are environmentally
environmentally friendly,
friendly,
friendly, even even
even
though though
thoughthey they
theyhave have
havehigh
high high strength
strength
strength andand and mechanical
mechanical
mechanical characteristics.
characteristics.
characteristics. The
The types
The types types of
of natural
of natural natural
fibers fibers
fibers
are
are shown are shown
shown in Figure
ininFigure
Figure 4. They
4. 4.They
They areareare obtained
obtained
obtained from
fromfrom minerals,
minerals, plants
plantsplants
minerals, and animals.
and animals.
and One One
animals. One
investigation
investigation concluded
investigationconcluded
concluded that
that bamboo
bamboo
that bamboo has
hashas good
good stiffness
stiffness
good as
as well
stiffness well
as as as strength,
strength,
well and,
and, therefore,
and, therefore,
as strength, therefore,
itititisissuitable
is suitable for
suitablefor the
forthe manufacturing
themanufacturing
manufacturing of of
ofwind
wind turbine
turbine
wind blades.
blades.
turbine blades.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Natural
NaturalFiber
Fiberclassifications, adapted
classifications, from
adapted [33,34].
from [33,34].
Figure 4. therefore,
It is, Natural Fiber classifications,
thethe
future of the adapted from [33,34].due to its fast growth rate, easy
It is, therefore, future of wind
the energy
wind industry
energy industry due to its fast growth rate,
accessibility and environmental friendliness [35,36].
easy accessibility and environmental friendliness [35,36]. Another group group
Another of researchers
of researchers
It is, therefore, the future of the wind energy industry due to its fast growth rate, easy
concluded that 30% of the laminate being made of bamboo enhances the mechanical
accessibility and environmental friendliness [35,36]. Another group of researchers
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 7 of 44

characteristics. They further identified that bamboo-filled reinforced composite absorbs

a lower amount of water compared to empty reinforced polymer [36]. The life cycle
analysis for bamboo has also been investigated to determine its characteristics with that
of glass fiber blades. The group concluded that using bamboo was the best option for
wind turbine blades [37]. Mechanical characteristics of coir fiber composites have also been
investigated [38]. It was observed that their mechanical characteristics were almost the
same as wood but different compared to glass fibers. A flax fiber turbine blade has also
been developed at the University of Nottingham. These fibers often have high strength [39].
Machining flax fiber has also been researched. Delamination of the material occurs, because
the fiber is brittle, and this is a major demerit when used as a blade. Absorption of moisture
is a challenge when these materials are utilized; hence, they are subjected to reinforcement
fiber treatment. The wettability of the surface for the fiber improves, and this helps the
movement of stresses from the fiber to the resin.

4.2. Carbon and Glass Fibers

The volume content and the fiber stiffness determine the composite stiffness. For
most composites, the main reinforcement material is made up of E-glass fibers. The
compressional strength, tensile strength and stiffness of the composite material increases
when the fiber volume content increases. Beyond 65%, some regions in the fiber dry
up. This phenomenon lowers the fatigue strength of the composite material [32]. Epoxy
composites used for wind turbine blades have 75% of their weight made of glass. Several
research works aimed at enhancing fiber strength have been carried out. Well-known,
high-strength fibers are basalt, carbon and glass fibers. They exhibit 40% high tensile and
flexural strengths. The compressive strength of these materials is higher compared to
E-glass by 10–20%. In terms of cost, the E-glass is cheaper compared to the S-glass. An
S-glass was developed in 1968 for commercial purposes, and this was named the S2 glass
fiber. The S2 glass has the same characteristics as the S-glass. The only disparity between
the two is the coating of the fiber and processes for certification [40]. S2-glass is 10 times
more expensive than the E-glass. Some other types of glass fibers are the R-glass fiber,
Advantex and WindStrandTm [40,41]. An alternative to glass fibers is carbon fiber. The
stiffness of carbon fibers is higher compared to glass fibers. They are also lighter than glass
fibers. These properties make them suitable for wind turbine blades that are light, thin
and stiff. A major setback for this material is that it can easily be damaged. It is also more
expensive compared to the E-glass fiber [42]. The fatigue strength and compressive strength
tend to reduce when there is a misalignment of the fiber in the carbon fiber composite.
Companies such as Vestas and Siemens uses carbon fibers in some of their products.

4.3. Basalt Fibers

Aromatic polyamide fibers, also known as basalt fibers, have good mechanical strength
and are generally tough. They are sometimes described as nonglass fibers. These materials
feature low compressional strength as well as low adhesion to resins. They absorb water
easily and degrade faster, as well [43]. The mechanical characteristics of E-glass are lower
compared to basalt fibers. Basalt is 30% stronger than E-glass. It is 15–20% better than
E-glass in terms of stiffness. The weight of basalt is lower than E-glass by 8–10%. Carbon
fibers are more expensive compared to basalt. Using basalt as turbine blade material has
also been researched [44,45].

4.4. Hybrid Composite

Researchers today consider basalt as well as E-glass as an alternative to pure carbon
reinforcement. Many investigations argued that full replacement may reduce the weight by
80% but will increase the overall material cost by 150%. There is a 90% increase in cost for
partial replacement but a reduction in the weight of the turbine by 50%. The largest turbine
blade developed in the world is 88.4 m in length and manufactured by LM Wind power; it
is composed of carbon and glass hybrid composites [46]. The strength and failure mecha-
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 mechanisms of these hybrid composite materials have been studied. 8 of 47 Mo
investigations suggested that the strain-to-failure of the carbon fibers as well as th
properties improved due to the addition of glass fibers in carbon fiber-r
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 composites.
for Another
partial replacement butstudy also noticed
a reduction thatofthe
in the weight thecombination
turbine by 50%. ofThe
carbon
largest fiber wi
8 of 44
turbine
glass blade
fiberdeveloped
in a hybrid in the composite
world is 88.4 m in length and
improved themanufactured
failure strain by LMofWind
the materi
power; it is composed of carbon and glass hybrid composites [46]. The strength and failure
numerical analysis, it was observed that the composite strength as a functio
mechanisms of these hybrid composite materials have been studied. Most of the
glass/carbon
nisms
investigations ratiocomposite
of these suggested
hybrid was
that thev-shaped.
materials haveExperiments
strain-to-failure been carbonhave
of thestudied. Most of
fibers also
as the been conducted u
wellinvestigations
as the impact
probabilistic
suggested
properties that fiber
the
improved bundle
due to themodel
strain-to-failure of theand
addition ofmicromechanical
carbon fibersfibers
glass as well
in as multifiber
the
carbon impact model [47]. Fi
properties
fiber-reinforced
improved
composites.due to the
Another addition
study of
also glass fibers
noticed thatin carbon
the fiber-reinforced
combination
captures a hybrid composite with the fiber misaligned and aligned. of composites.
carbon fiber withAnother
ductile
The cracki
study
glass also
fiber noticed
in a that
hybrid the combination
composite of carbon
improved thefiber with
failure ductile
strain ofglass
the fiber in
material.a hybrid
Using
fiber is captured in Figure 5c.
composite
numerical improved
analysis, itthe failure
was strainthat
observed of the
thematerial.
compositeUsing numerical
strength analysis, of
as a function it was
the
observed that ratio
glass/carbon the composite strengthExperiments
was v-shaped. as a function have
of the also
glass/carbon ratio wasusing
been conducted v-shaped.
the
Experiments havebundle
probabilistic fiber also been conducted
model using the probabilistic
and micromechanical multifiberfiber bundle
model model 5a,b
[47]. Figure and
micromechanical
captures a hybridmultifiber
compositemodel [47].fiber
with the Figure 5a,b captures
misaligned a hybridThe
and aligned. composite
crackingwith the
in the
fiber misaligned and aligned.
fiber is captured in Figure 5c. The cracking in the fiber is captured in Figure 5c.

Figure 5. Hybrid composite (a) aligned [48] and (b) misaligned [48]. (c) Image of t
composite crack [43].
Figure 5.5.Hybrid
Figure Hybridcomposite
composite
(a) (a) aligned
aligned [48] (b)
[48] and and (b) misaligned
misaligned [48]. (c)[48].
Image(c)ofImage of the
the hybrid hybrid
composite
composite crack [43].
crack [43].
The critical stress against the carbon fibers in hybrid composite is captured
6. ItTheis critical
The further observed
criticalstress
stress that
againstthe
against mixing
thecarbon
carbon the
fibers
fibers in infibers
hybrid
hybrid reduces is the
composite
composite strength
is captured
captured in of the
Figure
in Figure 6. It compo
6.Figure
It is 6.
further observed that mixing the fibers reduces the strength of the composite
is further observed that mixing the fibers reduces the strength of the composite from Figure 6. from
Figure 6.

Figure 6. Critical stress against carbon fiber fractions in hybrid composites [43].

4.5. Matrix
Figure
Figure 6. Critical stressstress
6. Critical againstagainst
carbon fiber fractions
carbon fiberinfractions
hybrid composites
in hybrid[43].
composites [43].
Epoxy, vinyl esters, polyesters and thermoplastics are often preferred as wind
4.5. Matrix
turbine blade matrices for composite materials.
4.5.Epoxy,
Matrixvinyl esters, polyesters and thermoplastics are often preferred as wind turbine
blade matrices
Epoxy,forvinyl
composite materials.
esters, polyesters and thermoplastics are often preferred
turbine
4.5.1. blade matrices for composite materials.
Thermosets
More than 80% of reinforced composites for wind turbine blades are manufactured
from thermoset plastics. These materials can be cured at lower temperatures and even at
environmental conditions. Most wind turbine blades developed in the past were made of
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 9 of 44

polyester resins [49]. As the demand for energy increased, the need for urgent sources of en-
ergy also increased, and did that for blades of the turbines used in harnessing energy from
these sources. According to some researchers, DSM composite resins have a quick cycle
time. This material is also strong and durable, thus making it very suitable for manufactur-
ing bigger blades [43,50]. Developing matrix material that has a faster pace of curing but at
lower temperature conditions is an important area that requires further investigations.

4.5.2. Thermoplastics
These materials are considered a good replacement for thermosetting matrices [51].
They can be recycled, which is very advantageous. A major setback for thermoplastics is
that they require high processing temperature [52]. Producing large as well as thick parts
also becomes a challenge due to their high viscosity. The melt viscosity of thermoplastics
is of the order 102–103 Pa s. The temperature for decomposition of thermoplastics is
higher than their melting temperatures; hence, it is possible for them to be reshaped.
Thermosetting has good fatigue behaviour compared to thermoplastics, even for carbon or
glass fibers [53,54]. Thermoplastics have large elongation when fractured and can also be
processed automatically. The shelf life of thermoplastics’ raw materials is unlimited.

4.5.3. Nano-Engineered Composites

A number of investigations have been done to increase the characteristics of com-
posites through the addition of nanotubes reinforcement in their matrix. To increase the
fatigue resistance, shear or compressive strength, and the toughness by 30–80%, researchers
suggest the addition of 0.5 weight percentage of nanotubes reinforcement in the matrix of
composite material [55,56]. Vinyl ester, epoxy composites and thermoplastics have been
used from literature in the manufacturing of wind turbines. The investigation showed that
the addition of small carbon nanotubes increased the lifetime to more than 1000 percent [57].
Using graphene as reinforcement for the nanomodification of wind turbine composites has
also been researched. The conclusion of the experimental investigation was that graphene
is suitable for developing strong wind turbine blades and increases the life span of the
turbine blade [58]. The tensile stress of wind turbine blades for 2 MW as well as 5 MW wind
turbine increased when 1–5 weight percentage of carbon nanofibers were fused with glass
fiber-reinforced epoxy composite. The weight of the blade is also reduced by 20%, and this
increases the life span of the turbine blades [59,60]. Transfer of material characteristics of a
specific polymer nanocomposite as a matrix to laminate with reinforcing fibers still remains
a challenge [61]. The utilization of nano modified polymers as a matrix in order to enhance
toughness often results in low property characteristics in other areas, and this reduces the
application of nano modified polymers. Using nano-reinforced composites to replace glass
fiber composite has also been researched [62]. An investigation also concluded that using
non-reinforced composite as well as hybrids increased the lifespan of the turbine blade [62].
There is still work to be done in reducing the cost of wind turbine blades made of these
materials. Figure 7 shows an image of carbon fiber with carbon nanotube reinforcement.
Ye et al. [64] conducted an investigation on the evolution of failure on composite
wind turbine blades. The group of researchers developed a model for the determination of
damages on composite wind turbine blades when exposed to varying load conditions. It
was deduced from the investigation as captured in Figure 8 that the deterioration of the
turbine blades originates from the upper surface. An increase in the load results in the
matrix becoming damaged compressively, and this is noticed on the leading edge. The
damage of the fiber also begins from the root of the blade.
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 10 of 44
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 10 of 47

Figure 7. An image of carbon fiber with carbon nano tube reinforcement [63].

Ye et al. [64] conducted an investigation on the evolution of failure on composite

wind turbine blades. The group of researchers developed a model for the determination
of damages on composite wind turbine blades when exposed to varying load conditions.
It was deduced from the investigation as captured in Figure 8 that the deterioration of the
turbine blades originates from the upper surface. An increase in the load results in the
matrix becoming damaged compressively, and this is noticed on the leading edge. The
Figure7.of
damage
Figure 7.An
An
theimage ofcarbon
carbon
fiberofalso
image beginsfiber
fiber withthe
from
with carbon nano
rootnano
carbon tube
of the reinforcement[63].
blade.
tube reinforcement [63].

Ye et al. [64] conducted an investigation on the evolution of failure on composite

wind turbine blades. The group of researchers developed a model for the determination
of damages on composite wind turbine blades when exposed to varying load conditions.
It was deduced from the investigation as captured in Figure 8 that the deterioration of the
turbine blades originates from the upper surface. An increase in the load results in the
matrix becoming damaged compressively, and this is noticed on the leading edge. The
damage of the fiber also begins from the root of the blade.

Figure
Figure8.8.Damage
Damageofofthe
thematrix
matrixfor
forcomposite
compositewind
windturbine
turbineblade
blade[64].
[64].

4.6. Factors That Influence Damage of Fiber-Reinforced Composites

As explained earlier, a vivid comprehension of issues that causes the initiation of
composite turbine blade deterioration is crucial in the life span of the blade. This is very
critical, as the blades are likely to be subjected to varying loading conditions. There have
been several investigations on issues leading to a deterioration of composite materials.

Figure 8. Damage of the matrix for composite wind turbine blade [64].
 4.6. Factors That Influence Damage of Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Energies 2021, 14, 5241

As explained earlier, a vivid comprehension of issues that causes the initiation of
11 of 44
composite turbine blade deterioration is crucial in the life span of the blade. This is very
critical, as the blades are likely to be subjected to varying loading conditions. There have
been several investigations on issues leading to a deterioration of composite materials.
Figure 99 captures
Figure captures salient
salient information
information on
on varying
varying deterioration
deteriorationmechanisms
mechanismsasasaaresult
resultofof
loading action.
loading action.

Figure
Figure 9.9.Deterioration mechanisms
Deterioration caused
mechanisms by impact
caused loadingloading
by impact (a) higher,
(a) (b) medium
higher, (b) and (c) lower
medium and
energy [65].
(c) lower energy [65].

The complications
The complications of ofdamage
damagemechanisms
mechanismsforfor composite
composite materials are higher
materials are highercom-
pared to others,
compared because
to others, the material
because characteristics
the material are constant
characteristics in all directions.
are constant Again,
in all directions.
when they
Again, whenarethey
subjectaretosubject
loadingtoconditions that are transient,
loading conditions that are thetransient,
stresses generated
the stresses are
not distributed equally on the material [66]. This challenge is
generated are not distributed equally on the material [66]. This challenge is not an issue not an issue when dealing
with metals,
when dealingbecause they are
with metals, ductilethey
because in nature and do
are ductile in not
natureloseandtheirdotoughness, even
not lose their
under deformation.
toughness, even under Composites,
deformation. on the other hand,on
Composites, arethe
brittle;
other hence,
hand,theyare are likelyhence,
brittle; to get
damaged
they whento
are likely subjected
get damagedto any when
varying loading to
subjected action.
any When
varying composites are subjected
loading action. When
to varying loading
composites conditions,
are subjected to varyingthe matrix
loadingare often likely
conditions, theto crackare
matrix due to shearing
often likely toaction.
crack
There is also the possibility of bending cracks, because the bottom
due to shearing action. There is also the possibility of bending cracks, because the bottom part of the composite
material
part of theiscomposite
subjected to flexural
material is stresses.
subjectedDelamination is also Delamination
to flexural stresses. likely to occur,isbecause
also likelythe
cracks are restricted. There is also damage to the fiber due to tension,
to occur, because the cracks are restricted. There is also damage to the fiber due to tension, as well as buckling,
when
as wellsubjected to compressive
as buckling, when subjected action. The two common
to compressive action. dominant
The two common damagedominant
modes at
lower energy
damage modesimpact
at lowersituations are resin
energy impact crackingare
situations andresin
matrix interfacial
cracking deterioration
and matrix [67].
interfacial
Breaking down of fibers is also another common failure mechanism
deterioration [67]. Breaking down of fibers is also another common failure mechanism caused during higher
energy impact
caused duringsituations [68–70].impact
higher energy The resin system’s[68–70].
situations fracture The
toughness
resin has also influenced
system’s fracture
the impact on composites. Resistance to fracture is lower
toughness has also influenced the impact on composites. Resistance to fracture for resin systems that are brittle.
is lower
The opposition to the development of fracture is curbed when the
for resin systems that are brittle. The opposition to the development of fracture is curbed matrix fracture toughness
is improved.
when It, therefore,
the matrix results in delamination
fracture toughness is improved. It, due to resin cracking.
therefore, results in Again, a mismatch
delamination due
within the layers for varying types of fibers as well as orientation
to resin cracking. Again, a mismatch within the layers for varying types of fibers can lead to intrepidly
as well
failure.
as Therecan
orientation is an increment
lead in thefailure.
to intrepidly shear stress
There due is antoincrement
crack propagation
in the shear instress
the layers.
due
These
to crackphenomena
propagation occurindependent
the layers. on the
These characteristics
phenomenaof occur the material.
dependent Theseoncracks
the
can further develop on the material interface, resulting in delamination [71]. The impact
characteristics of the material. These cracks can further develop on the material interface,
response for composite laminates is due to models I and II [72]. It must be noted that delam-
resulting in delamination [71]. The impact response for composite laminates is due to
ination occurs due to the opening of cracks in a model I, and propagation of cracks occurs
models I and II [72]. It must be noted that delamination occurs due to the opening of cracks
because of bending [73]. Composite materials are capable of sustaining varying loads as
in a model I, and propagation of cracks occurs because of bending [73]. Composite
well as releasing these stored energies under varying failure modes [74]. The impact energy
materials are capable of sustaining varying loads as well as releasing these stored energies
subject to composite materials is sustained as a result of the elastic characteristics of the
structure. The toughness of fibers of composites, as well as the interface, determines the
elasticity of the material, and this determines the capacity of the impact energy being ab-
sorbed [75,76]. Many research activities have been conducted to determine impact damage
from the literature [76]. The fiber’s chemical and mechanical properties have an effect on
the rate of deformation of the composite. Other factors such as environmental conditions
 under
undervarying
varyingfailure
failuremodes
modes[74]. [74].The
Theimpact
impactenergy
energysubject
subjecttotocomposite
compositematerials
materialsis is
sustained
sustained asas
a result
a result ofof
the
theelastic
elasticcharacteristics
characteristicsofof
the
thestructure.
structure. The
The toughness
toughness ofof
fibers
fibers
ofofcomposites,
composites,asaswellwellasasthe
theinterface,
interface,determines
determinesthe theelasticity
elasticityofofthethematerial,
material,andand this
this
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 12 of 44
determines the capacity of the impact energy being absorbed
determines the capacity of the impact energy being absorbed [75,76]. Many research[75,76]. Many research
activities
activitieshave
have been
been conducted
conducted toto
determine
determine impact
impact damage
damage from
from the
the literature
literature[76]. The
[76]. The
fiber’s chemical
fiber’s chemical andandmechanical
mechanical properties
propertieshave
haveanan
effect onon
effect the rate
the ofof
rate deformation
deformation ofofthethe
composite.
equally
composite. Other
haveOther factors
a direct
factorssuch
effect onasthe
such environmental
as environmental conditions
impact response. conditions equally
An understanding
equally have
haveofa different
direct effect
a direct effectonon
damage,
as
the well
theimpactas response.
impact the progression
response. An the material of
Anunderstanding
understanding will be subjected
ofdifferent
differentdamage,to atasvarying
damage, aswell
wellasasloading
the actions, is
theprogression
progression
crucial
the to
material the lifespan
will be of
subjectedthe composite
to at varying material.
loading Factors
actions, that
is affect
crucial to
the material will be subjected to at varying loading actions, is crucial to the lifespan impact
the response
lifespan ofoftheare
the
summarised
composite in Figure
material. 10.
Factors that affect impact response are summarised
composite material. Factors that affect impact response are summarised in Figure 10. in Figure 10.

Figure 10.10.
Figure
Figure Factors that
Factors affect
that impact
affect response.
impact response.

The
The
The dynamic
dynamic
dynamic characteristics
characteristics
characteristics ofof
of composite
composite
composite materials
materials
materials as
asas
wellwell
well as
asas their
their
their ability
ability
ability to
toto oppose
oppose
oppose
damages
damages is important, especially during optimization of the material. There are waves
damages isis important,
important, especially
especially during
during optimization
optimization ofof
thethe material.
material. There
There arearewaves
waves
produced
produced
produced elastically
elastically
elastically across
across
acrossthethe
the region
region
region where
where
where the
the load
load
the load acts
acts onon
acts on the
the
the material.
material.
material. This
This
This results
results in
inin
results
deterioration
deterioration of the material;
deteriorationofof thematerial; hence,
material;hence, the
hence,thetiming at
thetiming which the
timingatatwhich material
whichthe is constantly
thematerial subjected
materialis isconstantly
constantly
to the impact
subjected
subjectedtotothe load
impact
the causes
impact load the
load variation
causes
causesthethe in responses
variation
variation inin [77]. For
responses
responses elastic
[77]. For
[77]. waves
elastic
For where
waves
elastic waves contact
where
where
time
contactstays
contacttime within
timestays transition
stayswithin time,
withintransition the characteristics
transitiontime,
time,the are measured
thecharacteristics
characteristicsare based
aremeasured on
measuredbaseda transverse
basedonona a
wave, as captured
transverse
transverse wave,
wave, in
asas Figure 11a.
captured
captured inin Prolonging
Figure
Figure 11a. the time kicks
Prolonging
11a. Prolonging the
theintime
timethekicks
flexural
kicksininand
the
the shear
flexural
flexuralwaves,
and
and
as
shearshown
waves, inasFigure
shown 11b.
in Figure
shear waves, as shown in Figure 11b. 11b.

Figure 11.11.
Figure
Figure Various
Various categories ofof
categories impacts (a)(a)
impacts
impacts Very
(a) short
Very
Very impact
short
short time
impact
impact time(b)(b)
time Short
(b) impact
Short
Short time
impact
impact (c)(c)
time
time Long
(c)Long
Long
impact time
impact time
impact [78].
time [78].
[78].

When
Whenthe theduration
duration for the
for impact
the impact exceeds
exceeds that ofof
that the
theelastic wave
elastic
elastic wave
wave atatthe
at thetarget
the edges,
target
target edges,
edges,
quasi
quasi
quasistatic characteristics
static characteristics
characteristics are most
are
are likely
most
most toto
likely
likely occur.
to This
occur.
occur. Thisis
Thisrepresented
is is represented
represented ininFigure 11c.
in Figure
Figure 11c.The11c.
The
entire
The
entirecomponent
entire
component undergoes
component deformation
undergoes
undergoes onon
deformation
deformation impact, asas
captured
on impact,
impact, inin
Figure
as captured
captured Figurein12a. The
Figure
12a. region
12a.
The The
region
closer
closertocloser
region tothe
thepoint
to theofpoint
point ofimpact is isthe
of impact
impact isarea
the the where
areaarea the
where
where thedeformation
the deformation
deformation is ismost
ismost
most likely toto
likely
likely bebe
to
predominant,
predominant, as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure
predominant, as shown in Figure 12b. 12b.
12b.
When the speed of the impact is less than 11 m/s, it is considered low-velocity impact;
this is common in the event of maintenance activities. Bird strike on the blade is considered
a high-impact event, as the impact normally exceeds 11 m/s. The ballistic impact is also
carried out for applications ideal for the military, and this type of impact occurs beyond
500 m/s. When the impact velocity is more than 2000 m/s, it is considered hypervelocity
impact. These impacts can further be subclassified into lower-velocity impacts and higher-
velocity impacts. Kinetic energy is sustained properly in low-velocity impact, unlike the
high-velocity impact.
 Energies2021,
Energies 14,5241
2021,14, 5241 1313
of of
4744

Figure 12. Varying response (a) boundary and (b) wave [79].

When the speed of the impact is less than 11 m/s, it is considered low-velocity impact;
this is common in the event of maintenance activities. Bird strike on the blade is
considered a high-impact event, as the impact normally exceeds 11 m/s. The ballistic
impact is also carried out for applications ideal for the military, and this type of impact
occurs beyond 500 m/s. When the impact velocity is more than 2000 m/s, it is considered
hypervelocity impact. These impacts can further be subclassified into lower-velocity
impacts and higher-velocity impacts. Kinetic energy is sustained properly in low-velocity
impact,
Figure 12.unlike the
Varying high-velocity
response impact.
(a) boundary and (b) wave [79].
Figure 12. Varying response (a) boundary and (b) wave [79].
5. Failure
5. Failure ModesModes of of Wind
Wind Turbine
Turbine
When the speed of the impact is less than 11 m/s, it is considered low-velocity impact;
this isWind
Wind
common turbine
turbine in blade
blade and
the eventand tower
tower failures
failures have
of maintenance have become
become less
activities. less common
Bird common
strike on with
thethe
with the passing
passing
blade is
of
of time.
time. It
It is
is the
the result
result of
of continuing
continuing attempts
attempts to
to resolve
resolve
considered a high-impact event, as the impact normally exceeds 11 m/s. The ballistic and
and correct
correct the
the popular
popular failure
failure
factors,
factors,
impact is which
which
also carriedhas
has resulted
out forin
resulted in more
more efficient
efficient
applications wind
ideal for turbine
wind turbine blade
bladeand
the military, production.
this typeHowever,
of impactas
the
the number
number of
of wind
wind turbine
turbine installations
installations in
in the
the industrial
industrial sector
sector grows, newnew issues
issues and
occurs beyond 500 m/s. When the impact velocity is more than 2000 m/s, it is considered
difficulties arise.
difficulties arise. Some of
SomeThese these
of these failures are
failurescan attributed
are further
attributed to the turbines ageing and exceeding
hypervelocity impact. impacts be tosubclassified into lower-velocity
established
established fatigue
fatigue life life
limitations; others others
limitations; are because are ofbecause
material of faults and manufacturing
material faults and
impacts and higher-velocity impacts. Kinetic energy is sustained properly in low-velocity
flaws, coupled with
manufacturing flaws, modern
coupled failure
with modes failure
modern attributable
modes toattributable
improved rotor
to size. Asrotor
improved the
impact, unlike the high-velocity impact.
number
size. As theof turbines
number onshore
of turbines or offshore
onshore or grows, so will
offshore the number
grows, of number
so will the accidentofcases [80].
accident
Figure [80].
13 shows the13amount ofthewind turbineofdamages that happened
damagesworldwide from
5. cases
Failure Modes Figureof Wind shows
Turbine amount wind turbine that happened
2000 to 2017 [81]. These figures clearly show that, while there
worldwide from 2000 to 2017 [81]. These figures clearly show that, while there were fewer were fewer wind turbines in
Wind turbine
operation, there blade
were and incidents,
fewer tower failureswith have
the becomeofless
number common
accidents with
rising in the passing
tandem with
wind turbines in operation, there were fewer incidents, with the number of accidents
ofthe
time. It is thenumber
increasing result ofofcontinuing attempts to resolve and correct thewere
popular failure
rising in tandem with thewind turbine
increasing set-ups.
number ofFrom
wind2000–2005, there
turbine set-ups. From572000–2005,
incidents
factors,
per yearwhich
on 57 has resulted
average, which inincreased
more efficient
to 118 wind turbine from
cases/year blade2006–2010.
production. However,
Total number asof
there were incidents per year on average, which increased to 118 cases/year from 2006–
the number
damage of
cases wind turbine
each year installations
between 2013each in
andyearthe industrial
2017between
was about sector
167. grows, new issues and
2010. Total number of damage cases 2013 and 2017 was about 167.
difficulties arise. Some of these failures are attributed to the turbines ageing and exceeding
established fatigue life limitations; others are because of material faults and
manufacturing flaws, coupled with modern failure modes attributable to improved rotor
size. As the number of turbines onshore or offshore grows, so will the number of accident
cases [80]. Figure 13 shows the amount of wind turbine damages that happened
worldwide from 2000 to 2017 [81]. These figures clearly show that, while there were fewer
wind turbines in operation, there were fewer incidents, with the number of accidents
rising in tandem with the increasing number of wind turbine set-ups. From 2000–2005,
there were 57 incidents per year on average, which increased to 118 cases/year from 2006–
2010. Total number of damage cases each year between 2013 and 2017 was about 167.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Yearly
Yearlystatistics
statisticson
onwind
windturbine
turbine damages
damages around
around the
the world
world [81].
[81].

On aa global
On global scale,
scale, Figure
Figure 14
14 depicts
depicts the
the amount
amount of of blade
blade and
and structural
structural defects.
defects. The
statistic shows
statistic shows thethe rate
rate of
of structural
structural malfunctions
malfunctions isis significantly
significantly lower in comparison to
number of
number of blade
blade malfunctions.
malfunctions. In 2013,
2013, the highest
highest total wind turbine blade breakdowns
ensued, although the lowest number of structural failures (16) occurred in 2009. To min-
imise failures, further technical advancement is needed in areas of wind–blade interaction,
blade processing processes and the production of novel materials [82–85].
As blades malfunction, the rotor can be removed from the blades entirely or in
fragments. Depending on the rotor size and rpm, a piece of blade will fly up to 1.6 km due
Figure 13. Yearly and
to centrifugal statistics on wind
Coriolis turbine
forces. In damages
a recent around
incidenttheinworld [81]. several blade scraps
Germany,
pierced the roofs and walls of surrounding homes, indicating that wind turbines must be
On a global scale, Figure 14 depicts the amount of blade and structural defects. The
built 2 km away from domestic buildings. Figure 14 depicts several unusual wind turbine
statistic
tower andshows themalfunction
blade rate of structural malfunctions
scenarios [81,85]. is significantly lower in comparison to
number of blade malfunctions. In 2013, the highest total wind turbine blade breakdowns
 interaction, blade processing processes and the production of novel materials [82–85].
As blades malfunction, the rotor can be removed from the blades entirely or in
fragments. Depending on the rotor size and rpm, a piece of blade will fly up to 1.6 km due
to centrifugal and Coriolis forces. In a recent incident in Germany, several blade scraps
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 pierced the roofs and walls of surrounding homes, indicating that wind turbines must 14 of be
44
built 2 km away from domestic buildings. Figure 14 depicts several unusual wind turbine
tower and blade malfunction scenarios [81,85].

Figure14.
Figure 14.Annual
Annualdata
dataon
onblade
bladeand
andtower
towerdefects
defectsare
arecompared
compared[81].
[81].

With
Withthe theaid
aidofofaacompact
compactscalescaleprototype
prototypewind wind turbine
turbine that
that can
can operate
operate upwind
upwind or or
downwind, Kress et al. [86] calculated and contrasted yaw stability
downwind, Kress et al. [86] calculated and contrasted yaw stability of three separate of three separate down-
wind rotors with
downwind subsequent
rotors upwind rotors
with subsequent upwind in anrotors
experimental analysis. The analysis.
in an experimental investigation
The
revealed that downwind
investigation revealed thatrotor designsrotor
downwind havedesigns
yaw endurance
have yaw at near full-scale
endurance at nearReynolds
full-scale
quantities, while upwind
Reynolds quantities, whileturbines
upwind are either unpredictable
turbines or have dramatically
are either unpredictable decreased
or have dramatically
yaw constancy.
decreased yaw The shaft strength
constancy. The shaft and rotor thrust
strength werethrust
and rotor higherwere in downwind configura-
higher in downwind
tions with a 0◦ , 5with
configurations
◦ and 10◦ cone than in upwind designs. Downwind configurations, on
a 0°, 5° and 10° cone than in upwind designs. Downwind
the other hand, provided
configurations, on the other 5%hand,
moreprovided
power and 5%just 3%power
more more thrust
and justthan
3% upwind
more thrustconfigu-
than
rations at zero yaw and 5 ◦ and 10◦ cone angles. Subject to field and wind tunnel results,
upwind configurations at zero yaw and 5° and 10° cone angles. Subject to field and wind
aero–servo–elastic measurements, asmeasurements,
tunnel results, aero–servo–elastic well as engineering as welljudgement, Abdallah
as engineering et al. [87]
judgement,
suggested
Abdallah realistic
et al. [87]stochastic
suggested model to measure
realistic instability
stochastic model in to airfoil
measuredraginstability
coefficientinasairfoil
well
as static
drag lift. The as
coefficient findings
well asrevealed that,
static lift. Thesubject
findingsto the part and
revealed that,operational
subject to theparameters,
part and
coupled withparameters,
operational correlationscoupled
of aerodynamic variables along
with correlations blades’ width,
of aerodynamic instability
variables alonginblades’
static
airfoil data has a major effect on the estimation of severe loads impact
width, instability in static airfoil data has a major effect on the estimation of severe loads as well as structural
dependability.
impact as well Based on three main
as structural configurations
dependability. and on
Based malfunction
three main statistics review details
configurations and
of
malfunction statistics review details of wind turbines in China, Lin et al. [88]turbine
wind turbines in China, Lin et al. [88] summarised malfunctions of wind parts
summarised
such as blades,ofetc.
malfunctions wind Failures
turbinewere
partsdiscovered to have
such as blades, etc.four key causes,
Failures accordingtotohave
were discovered the
study: (i) a shortage of key technology, (ii) lower quality of materials
four key causes, according to the study: (i) a shortage of key technology, (ii) lower quality used due to market
competitiveness,
of materials used (iii)due
construction
to marketrequirements
competitiveness, and disparities in wind requirements
(iii) construction farm climates and and
(vi) no required quality certification as well as external influences.
disparities in wind farm climates and (vi) no required quality certification as well as
Highest
external breakdown rates of wind turbine parts [89] were observed at mean wind
influences.
speeds of 12–14 m/s (Figure
Highest breakdown 15).of wind turbine parts [89] were observed at mean wind
rates
For four towns, Sathe
speeds of 12–14 m/s (Figure 15). et al. [91] simulated wind turbine loads for the NREL 5 MW
reference wind turbine. The analysis found that atmospheric equilibrium has an effect on
the tower as well as rotor loads but that it has no impact on the blade loads. Moreover,
loads caused by wind profile were greater under stable conditions because of enhanced
wind shear, while loads caused by turbulence were smaller because of less turbulent
capacity. Wind turbines may be constructed in seismically active areas, as global wind
power development indicates, and entire clusters of equally built installations could be at
risk of collapsing at the same time in the case of a major earthquake [92,93]. Only a few
published research seem to have taken into account the time domain nonlinear dynamic
reaction of a wind turbine support tower [94,95]. Nuta et al. [92] used a suite of earthquake
data reflecting North American seismic activity in areas such as Los Angeles and Western
Canada to investigate an 80 m tall 1.65 MW wind turbine steel tower with diameter-to-
thickness (d/t) ratios varying from 105 to 278. Stamatopoulos [95] used nonlinear springs to
model a reaction continuum as well as a single time–history study on a 54 m tall “perfect”
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 15 of 44

hollow steel tower with d/t ratios varying from 51 to 134. As opposed to a reaction
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 continuum analysis, the time–history analysis expected almost 50% higher values15ofofthe
47
base shear and overturning moment.

Figure
Figure 15. Yearly rate
rateof
offailure
failurefor
forwind
windturbine
turbine having
having a daily
a daily average
average wind
wind sped
sped at hub
at hub height
height [90].
[90].
Nebenführ and Davidson [96] utilized large eddy models to model the neutral atmo-
Forboundary
spheric four towns, layerSathe
overetaal. [91] simulated
fragmented and thickwindwoodland,
turbine loads for as
as well thea NREL 5 MW
flat grassland.
reference
The effectswind turbine.
of forest The analysis
density, found that
wind direction and atmospheric
wind turbineequilibrium
hub height on haswindan effect on
turbine
the tower
fatigue as well
loads wereasinvestigated,
rotor loads but andthat it has
it was no impact
discovered onthe
that theequivalent
blade loads. Moreover,
fatigue loads
loads caused
increased by wind profile
substantially between were thegreater
two forestsunder(sparse
stable conditions
and dense).because
Sadowski of enhanced
et al. [97]
wind shear,a detailed
published while loads study caused
of theby turbulence
seismic reaction wereof asmaller
1.5 MWbecause of less supported
wind turbine turbulent
by a steelWind
capacity. towerturbines
modelled may as abenear cylindrical
constructed in shell framework
seismically activewith functional
areas, as global axisym-
wind
metric development
power weld depression imperfections
indicates, and entire inclusters
a near-cylindrical
of equally builtshellinstallations
structure. Acould sample of
be at
20 earthquake
risk of collapsing ground
at themovements,
same time in10the “near
casefault” and 10
of a major “far fault”[92,93].
earthquake was seen Onlyas a flaw.
few
Under seismic
published excitations,
research seem tothe havetowertakendeveloped
into account a particularly
the time domainbrittle plastic
nonlinear hinge, which
dynamic
resulted in high stiffness. Near fault earthquakes with pulse-like
reaction of a wind turbine support tower [94,95]. Nuta et al. [92] used a suite of earthquake effects and high vertical
accelerations
data reflectingwere North found to be considerably
American seismic activity more destructive
in areas such as than far faultand
Los Angeles earthquakes
Western
without to
Canada these features.an 80 m tall 1.65 MW wind turbine steel tower with diameter-to-
investigate
Chou(d/t)
thickness et al.ratios
[98] studied
varyingthe fromreasons
105 toof278.wind turbine blade[95]
Stamatopoulos failure,
usedespecially
nonlineardelamina-
springs
tion
to and splitting
model a reaction of the blades, inas
continuum a wind
well turbine
as a single bladetime–history
failure study.study
Theyon alsoa conducted
54 m tall
a critical review
“perfect” hollowofsteelthe literature
tower with in order to determine
d/t ratios varying the from most
51 frequent
to 134. As causes
opposedof turbine
to a
blade failures. The harm mechanisms were then established
reaction continuum analysis, the time–history analysis expected almost 50% higher values by analysing the structural
dynamics
of the baseofshearblades andusing behavioural
overturning models. The empirical findings are intended to aid in
moment.
the potential
Nebenführ and Davidson [96] utilizedengineering
reduction/prevention of related large eddyaccidents.
models to Extreme
modelwinds placed
the neutral
wind turbines’
atmospheric structurallayer
boundary stability
overinajeopardy.
fragmented Chenand andthick
Xu [99] used postmortem
woodland, as well as research
a flat
to investigate
grassland. Thethe systemic
effects collapse
of forest of wind
density, windturbines caused
direction andby harsh
wind wind conditions
turbine hub heightsuch on
as Super Typhoon Usagi in 2013. (PMA). The research focused
wind turbine fatigue loads were investigated, and it was discovered that the equivalent on the impact of high wind
speeds and
fatigue loadsrapidly shifting
increased wind directions
substantially on tower
between the collapse
two forestsand blade
(sparse fracturing.
and dense).
Sadowski et al. [97] published a detailed study of the seismic reaction of aspecification
The investigation recommended that the existing IEC architecture 1.5 MW wind be
modified, as well as a few possible future guidelines for
turbine supported by a steel tower modelled as a near cylindrical shell framework with reducing the possibility of wind
turbine failures
functional in severe weld
axisymmetric wind depression
environments such as typhoons
imperfections and hurricanes. shell
in a near-cylindrical The
postmortem
structure. A review
samplehas of become a popular
20 earthquake method
ground in software10
movements, engineering
“near fault” for and
determining
10 “far
and analysing elements of a finished project to decide if they
fault” was seen as a flaw. Under seismic excitations, the tower developed a particularly are functional or not [100]. This
method
brittle entailshinge,
plastic determining the underlying
which resulted in highfactors of challenges
stiffness. Near faultand progress that
earthquakes with occurred
pulse-
during the project, as well as suggesting process changes that
like effects and high vertical accelerations were found to be considerably more destructive will aid in reducing potential
project
than farrisks
fault [101,102].
earthquakes The PMA these
without was utilized
features.to investigate defects of polyvinylidene
Chou et al. [98] studied the reasons of wind turbine blade failure, especially
delamination and splitting of the blades, in a wind turbine blade failure study. They also
conducted a critical review of the literature in order to determine the most frequent causes
of turbine blade failures. The harm mechanisms were then established by analysing the
structural dynamics of blades using behavioural models. The empirical findings are
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 16 of 44

fluoride pipes [103], power transformers with temperature transfer on surfaces [104],
refractory linings [105] and compression of cast Al–Si alloys [106].
Ishihara et al. [107] examined failure of two turbine towers in Japan in 2003 triggered
by Typhoon Maemi. They discovered that the toppled towers’ overall bending moment
was greater. Chou and Tu [108] and Chou et al. [98] looked into reasons for a wind turbine’s
tower failure and rotor blade destruction during Typhoon Jangmi in Taiwan in 2008. The
fall of the tower during high winds was caused by inadequate power and low-quality bolts,
according to the report. Poor blade material resistance, wind frequency and resonance
impact and human errors during turbine installation, on the other hand, have been reported
as primary causes of wind turbine blade destruction. Zhang et al. [109] performed a set of
tests to determine the chemical composition and mechanical properties of shafts in order
to determine the cause of shaft failure. As contrasted to the EN10083-3:2006 standard, the
findings revealed no major variations in the material and mechanical properties of the
main shaft. The main shaft fracture was caused by stress accumulation on the shaft surface
combined with high-stress concentration caused by a difference in the inner diameter of
the main shaft, according to the report. Furthermore, the experimental stresses at the
shaft’s end showed that cracks would easily form under the influence of impact loads.
Jensen et al. [110] investigated a 34 m wind turbine blade and its load-carrying spar girder
to failure and discovered that the Brazier impact caused large deformation in the spar
cap, which contributed to more delamination buckling and blade collapse. Overgarrd
et al. [111] measured a 25 m blade to failure and found that instability phenomena such as
delamination and buckling impact were responsible for the blade’s ultimate power. Yang
et al. [112] investigated the structural failure of a 40 m blade and discovered that the key
cause of blade collapse was debonding of aerodynamic shells from adhesive joints. Chou
et al. [108] studied a typhoon-damaged composite blade with a blade length of close to
39.5 m and found that the blade collapsed through delamination and cracking at a wind
speed of 53.4 m/s, despite being designed to withstand forces at 80 m/s. Chen et al. [113]
presented the preliminary results of a failure study of a massive composite blade (52.3 m).
Static loads were added to mimic the blade’s intense load conditions. After the blade failed,
it was discovered that it had several failure modes. The disastrous loss of the blade was
discovered to be caused by delamination of unidirectional laminates in the spar cap.
Damages found in several blades of 300 kW wind turbines were found to be caused by
a fatigue process, according to an examination [114]. The failure triggers (such as superficial
fractures, geometric concentrators and sudden changes in thickness) were investigated and
confirmed using a generalised fatigue life assessment protocol based on the “Germanischer
Lloyd” (GL) norm. Lacalle et al. [115] investigated the source of cracking in a wind turbine
tower. The welded joint between the lower ring of the towers and the flange linking
the towers to their respective foundations was found to have cracks. Nondestructive
experiments on the base steel, the weld bead and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) were also
performed. A finite elements (FE) simulation was used to assess the stress condition in the
welded joints as well as the fatigue analysis in conjunction with the fatigue module of the
FITNET FFS Procedure. The findings revealed that the key cause of the cracking mechanism
was a poor joint configuration with elevated stress concentrations as well as a flange with
insufficient resistance. Karthikeyan et al. [116] presented a comprehensive analysis of
different blade profiles as well as airfoil geometry optimization processes for small wind
turbines with Reynolds numbers less than 500,000. Chehouri et al. [117] issued a report of
wind turbine efficiency enhancement techniques and solutions using objective functions,
architecture limits, methods and models and as optimization algorithms. Yang et al. [118]
used a succinct literature study to present a systematic analysis of nondestructive testing
(NDT) methods for wind turbine blade (WTB) inspection. The study covered common
flaws and harm in WTB manufacture and operation, as well as advances in visual, sonic
and ultrasonic, optical, electromagnetic, thermal and radiographic nondestructive testing
(NDT) for composite WTB, as well as the strengths and shortcomings of NDT techniques.
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 17 of 44

5.1. Extension of Wind Turbine Blades

The energy efficiency rises as the rotor diameter grows. Widening the height of the
wind turbine blades is a practical approach to increase the energy production of current
wind turbines [119]. The blade extension can be achieved using adhesively bonded tech-
nologies [120] or metal bolt attachment [121]. As opposed to metal bolt connections, the
adhesively bonded technology of stretching blade size is smoother, has greater fatigue
characteristics and adds less burden to the rotor. Adhesively bonding technology is a
suitable method for expanding the service life of wind turbine blades, thus increasing
energy efficiency [122]. Erratic aerodynamic loads caused by stochastic turbulent incursion,
on the other hand, may cause fatigue as well as failure. An analysis of the strain reac-
tion and fatigue for adhesively fixed extended composite wind turbine blades subjected
to erratic aerodynamic loads was discussed in the article. The research reinforced the
blades’ extendibility using adhesively bonded technology, resulting in a lower chance of
adhesively bonded structures [122]. A thorough study of rotor abnormalities was carried
out almost two decades ago, with the most frequent being aerodynamic asymmetry and
yaw misalignment being identified as the most common [123]. Even before then, a study
on the behaviour of bearings caused by nonuniform airgap and slip-speed was carried
out [124]. In one study, the torsional oscillation and the variation of the torque/speed ratio
of a synchronous Wind Turbine (WT) generator were investigated in order to diagnose
drivetrain faults [125]. Other rotor fault detection possibilities are discussed in their re-
search, a possibility that has previously been investigated in [126], where, for example, the
mass imbalance was discovered, and the implications of this imbalance were taken into
consideration. The blade integrity of wind turbines is a critical element in determining
their operating characteristics. In addition to creep and corrosion fatigue [127], which
may have catastrophic effects owing to improper maintenance and inspection of cracks,
delamination of the composite blades due to fatigue [128,129] is also an important failure
mode for rotors. Ice, filth and moisture build-up may cause rotor imbalance [130] and
aerodynamic asymmetry, which are both dangerous. It is also possible that wear build-up
on the rotor blades is the underlying cause of these problems. Aside from hubs spinning
on the shaft [131], other frequent rotor failures include shaft misalignment [128] and hubs
spinning on the rotor [132]. When the blade surface roughness of a WT increases, it may
result in a reduction in the amount of energy collected (also known as efficiency loss).
This phenomenon and surface wear [133] are caused by erosion, ice and other factors
to which the wind turbine is exposed over time. Pitch control system may also help to
prevent or minimise flap-wise fatigue damage to the blades [134], which is a kind of failure
that can occur. Unfortunately, various kinds of faults and damage occur in wind turbine
blades, and not all of them can be detected via monitoring. Lightning strikes, which are,
in theory, an unintentional spontaneous occurrence, may cause damage to turbine blades.
Lightning protection systems [135] are used to prevent damage; nevertheless, they do
not provide full protection from lightning strikes. There are a number of other frequent
blade defects or direct repercussions of these flaws, including: excessive vibrations [136],
unstable performance [135], corrosion [137] and unsteady blade air loads [137], all of which
may result in blade breakage [127], in the worst case scenario.

Pitch Control System

Pitch control system is designed for energy collection, operational load reduction,
wind stalling and aerodynamic braking [138], making it an essential component of the
wind turbine operation. Pitching failure is very essential to prevent since this failure
may have devastating effects if not avoided. When high winds endanger the turbine’s
ability to operate safely, aerodynamic braking is employed to bring it to a halt. In most
cases, a hydraulic actuator or an electric motor is in charge of controlling this subsystem.
Even while electric motors provide faster reaction times, they have poorer stiffness and
dependability when compared to hydraulic systems, and as a result, they are regarded
less fail-safe [128]. Certain hydraulic system defects [139] result in operational instability;
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 18 of 44

nevertheless, early brake activation [127] undermines the desired operating mode of the
system. Other instances of pitch control system failures include: a reduction in effective
bulk modulus of hydraulic fluid caused by air pollution of the hydraulic system, a decrease
in the plant’s bandwidth and a large leakage in the hydraulic system [140]. All of these
failures result in a decrease in the stability and resilience of the associated closed-loop
system. When there is an asymmetry in pitch angle [128], the wind turbine shuts down.

5.2. Gear Box Failures

The efficiency of wind turbines has increased in recent years as production technology
has advanced, but gearbox issues still remain. According to figures [141], the primary
breakdown components of a wind turbine in the last ten years have been the gearbox,
engine, low-speed shaft, high-speed shaft, rotor, yaw mechanism, pitch and control mecha-
nisms. As contrasted to the damages associated with other wind turbine crashes, gearbox
failure usually results in the longest downtime and highest economic loss [142]. The plane-
tary gear loss mechanism is categorised into two stages: fretting wear and fatigue source
production. The stiffness disparity between the inner surfaces of the gear and the outer
ring of the bearing, the influence of fit resistance on fretting slip distance and the impact
of gear hub thickness on fretting slip distance are both measured during the fretting wear
stage checking. The above interventions were shown to be very successful based on the
experimental results and relevant research [142].
From all the other parts of the wind turbine drivetrain, the gearbox has been shown to
be the component that experiences the greatest number of failures [128,143]. According
to the findings of a relevant study [144], gear tooth damage and bearing failure are the
most common types of failures. According to the same study, “among all bearings in a
planetary gearbox, the planet bearings, intermediate shaft-locating bearings, and high-
speed locating bearings tend to fail at a higher rate, whereas the planet carrier bearings,
hollow shaft bearings, and non-locating bearings are the bearings that are most likely to
fail.” An additional significant failure is decoupling between the shaft and the gearbox,
which is considered to be catastrophic [127], whereas other faults such as pitting, cracking,
scratching and other faults are graded with lower cruciality [144], as they can be spotted
on time via gearbox diagnosis and condition monitoring (CM) techniques, e.g., acoustic
emission (AE) [145] or auto-associative kernel regression (AAKR) [146]. Captured in [136]
is data relating to wind turbine drivetrain diagnostics, in which electrical evaluation was
used to check for mechanical flaws, and the diagnosis of gear eccentricity was examined,
both of which were successful. An essential element of the wind turbine rotating parts,
and especially of the gearbox [147], is the provision of effective lubrication [148–150].
Various variations in oil characteristics, such as viscosity, water content, particle count and
debris, are often utilised as indicators of possible defects [150] and are frequently used as
inspection techniques.

5.3. Generator
The wind turbine generators are one of the subsystems that have a high rate of failure.
The stator, rotor and bearings are the most often affected by these problems. Accord-
ing to [132], bearing malfunctions account for ~40% of induction machine malfunctions,
whereas 38% of stator failures and 10% of rotor failures are attributed to bearings. For
example, failures at the winding circuits of the stator or rotor can include opening or
shorting interturn failures, abnormal connections at winding circuits of the stator, dynamic
eccentricity, broken rotor bars, cracked end rings, static and dynamic airgap eccentricities,
among other things. It is also possible that the consequences of those failures will be
measured as possible faults, e.g., imbalances coupled with harmonics in the air gap flux, as
well as phase currents, an improvement in torque pulses, a reduction in average torque,
complex losses, a loss of performance and winding overheating, among others. Using
two methods, the fast Fourier transform (FFT) and Wavelet analysis, a power signal was
used to identify rotor instability coupled with bearing problems in a rotor. An electrical
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 19 of 44

problem that may occur in these systems is a shorted winding coil, which lowers the
synchronous reactance of the generator. This is one of the most common electrical faults
that can occur. It has been classified as critical, and remedial action must be taken as soon
as possible once it is discovered in the environment. When a shorted coil is generated, it
has been shown in [136] that a greater mechanical force is required to achieve an equivalent
shaft rotational speed. Furthermore, shorted winding coil failure often manifests itself
considerably more quickly, in the range of minutes, as opposed to the days or months
that it takes for a mechanical deterioration malfunction to manifest itself. Different kinds
of rotor faults may be classified as follows: rotor eccentricity, breaking of rotor cage bars
and breakage of end-rings. These malfunctions are liable for the generation of certain
secondary flaws that may result in severe malfunctions, such as winding coupled with
excitation imbalances or interturn short circuits, among other things. Rotor eccentricity
occurs when a nonsymmetric airgap is created between the stator and the rotor as a result
of the rotor being shifted off of its original location in the centre of the stator bore [151].
According to [27], the maximum allowable amount of eccentricity is between 5 percent
to 10 percent of the airgap length. In any case, it is critical that it be recognised quickly,
because, when the stator rubs the rotor or vice versa, catastrophic effects may ensue due to
motor’s windings, stator core and rotor cage [148,151]. When the stator rubs the rotor, the
motor is gradually destroyed. Squirrel-cage induction machines (SCIM) are susceptible to
rotor bar cracking, as described in [152], which may occur as a result of loads and/or poor
rotor geometry design during operation. Bar breakage is the most severe failure mode for
the SCIM rotor because, when it occurs, the degradation of neighbouring bars begins as a
consequence of the increased redistributed loads. Bar breakage is also the most expensive
failure mode [153].

5.4. Power Electronics and Electric Controls

Electronic mechanisms account for 13 percent of all wind turbine breakdowns, while
wind turbine commissioning expenses account for 1 percent of all WT failures [128]. In
order to improve electronic failure, it is critical to improve its diagnostic methods. Another
essential point to remember about variable speed and direct drive WT is that power
electronics is responsible for a considerably larger fraction of the entire price of ownership
than for constant speed WT [127]. According to certain research, the majority of power
electronic system breakdowns are due to semiconductor failures in power electronics
circuits. As a result, several questionnaires were developed for the purpose of investigating
these device failures [154], with the emphasis on the main faults of three-phase power
converters including open circuit, short circuit and gate-drive circuit faults. According to
the outcome of the survey, “due to the temporal criticality of these defects, fault detection
and diagnostic techniques for these semiconductor devices should be implemented as
protection functions rather than monitoring functions”, rather than monitoring functions.

5.5. Towers and Foundation

The wind turbine tower and its foundation are both important parts since they are
unable to be changed in the same manner that most other components can. Due to the
fact that fatigue [155], cracks and corrosion are possible failure modes, the underlying
causes of these must be addressed on a regular basis via inspection and monitoring [156].
A wind turbine is intended to have a 25-year operating life; however, some occurrences
may pose greater risks compared to those predicted when designing the wind turbine.
Earthquakes, unanticipated soil volatility and unwarranted tainting of the foundation,
to name a few examples [157], are all potential consequences. In most cases, however,
there are significant variations concerning the loads and ambient situations that wind
turbines are created for and the actual circumstances encountered in practice. Malfunction
activities, such as corrosion coupled with fatigue, may be significantly exacerbated by these
variations, increasing the degree of danger. Consequently, frequent inspection as well as
monitoring via structural health monitoring systems (SHMS) are highly suggested for both
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 20 of 44

the tower and its foundation, particularly at the beginning of a scheme, to allow changes to
be rectified as quickly as feasible. When it comes to OWT, foundations are critical, because
if they fail, it would result in the collapse of the whole system.
The location must thus be subjected to a thorough geotechnical evaluation [158]. As
previously stated in [159], cyclic capabilities in the foundation layout should be sufficient
to support the edifice when exposed to external cyclic loads. Again, it must be able to
keep the degree of distortion within acceptable limits during cyclic loading. Meanwhile,
foundations must be capable of withstanding significant uncertainty not just in terms of
soil environments but of soil characteristics, precision of computation techniques and loads
estimate. Furthermore, owing to the criticality of this subsystem, as was the case with
when designing the tower, discrepancies between design and actual circumstances must
also be reduced and managed in the foundation design, as was the case with the tower
design [160]. As a result, it is normal to assume that wind turbine foundations are covered
by the same kind of guarantee that WTs are; however, this is not always the case, and
in certain cases it is not. Foundation risks, on the other hand, are insurable and may be
reduced via the use of certification. As a result, the maintenance of WT foundations should
be executed in distinct manner, primarily via visual inspections coupled with survey work,
with risk remedial labours being performed only when absolutely required. Structure
strength, lifting, climbing and safety equipment, corrosion and scour protection are all
assessed by these many kinds of inspections. Restoration of paint to foundations and
subsea structures, removal of excess marine growth from foundations, rock placement to
improve scour resistance and sporadic repairs are all part of the foundations and subsea
structure maintenance.

5.6. Summary of Wind Turbine Blade Failure Modes

Variety of failure and harm modes can cause wind turbine blades to malfunction.
Extent of damage evolution can vary depending on the blade profile. However, regardless
of blade design, evidence has shown that a blade can produce a variety of material-related
and structural-related harm modes. These harm modes may cause blade loss or necessitate
blade repair or replacement in certain cases. A composite structure’s failure may be caused
by a variety of factors:
• Buckling, massive deflection, crushing and folding are all caused by geometrical influences.
• Plasticity, ductile/brittle breakdown, rupture and splitting damage are also material
considerations to consider.
• Original fabrication flaws, such as initial distortion, residual stresses or manufactur-
ing flaws.
• Low temperatures are correlated with activity in cold climates, and high temperatures
are associated with fire and fires.
• Dynamic factors (strain rate sensitivity, inertia influence, damage) linked to impact
pressure caused by explosions, dropped artefacts or related events.
• Fatigue cracking is an example of age-related degradation.
To determine the manner in which destruction occurs in a wind turbine blade as
well as to construct a blade against failure using analytical or computational techniques,
a significant amount of expertise is needed. Blades are often measured to failure in full-
scale trials to verify the specification and gain insight into potential harm modes and
their seriousness. Figure 16 depicts the failure modes discovered in a wind turbine blade
that was screened to failure [161]. According to a report by Jensen [162], there are many
common types of faults and defects in wind turbine blades. Table 1 presents a summary of
wind turbine blade failure modes
 as to construct a blade against failure using analytical or computational techniques, a
significant amount of expertise is needed. Blades are often measured to failure in full-scale
trials to verify the specification and gain insight into potential harm modes and their
seriousness. Figure 16 depicts the failure modes discovered in a wind turbine blade that
was screened to failure [161]. According to a report by Jensen [162], there are many
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 21 of 44
common types of faults and defects in wind turbine blades. Table 1 presents a summary
of wind turbine blade failure modes

Energies 2021, 14, 5241 22 of 47

Energies 2021, 14, 5241 Figure 16.
Figure 16. Damages in the aeroshell and box girder; sketches
22 of of
sketches of found
47 found failure modes
modes in a wind
turbine blade
turbine blade purposefully
purposefully tested
tested to failure [161].
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 Table 1. Failure modes of wind turbine blades [163]. 22 of 47

Mode of Failure Table 1. Failure modes of wind turbine blades [163].

Image Classification Reason for Failure
Mode of Failure
Table 1. Failure modes of wind turbine blades
Image
[163].
Classification
Reason for Failure
Table 1. Failure modes of wind turbine blades [163].
Mode of Failure
Mode of Failure Image
Image Classification
Classification Reason for Failure Reason for Failure

Brazier effect, bending

Interlaminar failure V2–V3
Brazier moment
effect, bending
Interlaminar failure V2–V3
moment
Interlaminar failure
Interlaminar failure V2–V3
V2–V3
Brazier effect, bending Brazier effect, bending moment
moment

Delamination–Faulty injection V1 Wear

Delamination–Faulty
Delamination–Faulty injection
injection V1 V1 Wear Wear

Delamination–Faulty injection V1 Wear

Peeling/Wear
Peeling/Wear V1 V1 Wear Wear
Peeling/Wear V1 Wear

Peeling/Wear V1 Wear

Erosion of the sealing of the root V2 Wear

Erosion of the sealing of the root V2 Wear

Erosion of the sealing of the root V2 Wear

Air bubbles from the

Flaking of the topcoat V1 manufacturing/poor
Air bubbles from the
Flaking of the topcoat V1 quality
manufacturing/poor
quality
Air bubbles from the
Flaking of the topcoat V1 manufacturing/poor
quality
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 22 of 44

Peeling/Wear V1 Wear

Table 1. Cont.

Mode of Failure Image Classification Reason for Failure

Erosion of the sealing of the root V2 Wear
Erosion of the sealing of the root V2 Wear

Air bubbles from the

Flaking of the topcoat V1 manufacturing/poor
Air bubbles from the
Flaking of the topcoat V1
quality manufacturing/poor quality
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 23 of 47
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 23 of 47
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 23 of 47

Flaking and external

Missing external parts V2–V3 Flaking and external Flaking and external objects
Missing
Missing external
external parts
parts V2–V3 objects
Flaking
V2–V3 andimpact
external
Missing external parts V2–V3 objects impact impact
objects impact

Fine cracks in topcoat V1 Low quality of material

Fine cracks in topcoat
Fine cracks in topcoat V1 V1quality of material
Low Low quality of material
Transverse
Finecracks
cracksfrom trailing edge
in topcoat V2–V3
V1 Poor design
Low quality of material
Transverse cracks
Transverse cracksfrom trailing
from trailing edge V2–V3 Poor design
Transverse cracks from trailing edge V2–V3 V2–V3Poor design Poor design
edge

Transverse cracks on blade surface V2–V3 Poor design

Transverse
Transversecracks onblade
cracks on blade
surface
Transverse cracks on blade surface
V2–V3
V2–V3
Poor design
Poor design
V2–V3 Poor design
surface

Front
FrontFront
edgeedge cracks(transverse
cracks (transverse and
edge cracks (transverse and
Front
andedge longitudinal)
cracks (transverse and
longitudinal)
longitudinal)
longitudinal)

Brazier Brazier effect, bending moment,

WebWeb
failure
failure V3 V3 effect, bending
Brazier effect, bending
Web failure V3 moment,
Brazier poorbending
effect, design poor design
Fatigue Web failure
failure in root V3 moment, poor design
Fatigue
Energies failure
2021, in root
14, 5241 connection V3 Poorpoor
moment, design 24 of 47
design
Fatigue failure in root connection V3 V3 Poor design Poor design
Fatigue
Fatigueconnection
failure
failureinin
root transition
root area
connection V1–V2
V3 Poor design
Fatigue failure in root transition area V1–V2
Fatigue failure
Fatigue ininroot
failure root transition
transition area V1–V2
V1–V2
area

Transversal shear
Fatigue failure
Fatigue in bond
failure in bondlines,
lines, Transversal shear distortion,
distortion, deformation
longitudinal cracksinin
longitudinal cracks thethe
trailing V1–V2 V1–V2
of trailing edge panels,
deformation of trailing edge
trailing edge
edge trailing edge buckling panels, trailing edge buckling

UV effect on the fibers V1 Wear, flaking

Lightning damage V3 Lightning

 Transversal shear
Energies 2021, 14,failure
Fatigue 5241in bond lines, 23 of 44
distortion, deformation
Transversal shear
longitudinal cracks
Fatigue failure in thelines,
in bond trailing V1–V2
of trailing deformation
distortion, edge panels,
edge in the trailing
longitudinal cracks V1–V2
trailing
of trailingedge
edgebuckling
panels,
edge
trailing edge buckling

Table 1. Cont.

Mode of Failure
UV effect on the fibers Image V1 Classification
Wear, flaking Reason for Failure
UV effect on the fibers V1 Wear, flaking
UV effect on the fibers V1 Wear, flaking

Lightning damage V3 Lightning

Lightning damage
Lightning damage V3 V3 Lightning Lightning

Tower hit by blade V3 High tip deflection

Tower hit bycracking
Balsa/composite
Tower hit
blade (transverse
by blade V3
V3
High tip deflection
High tip deflection
Balsa/composite
and cracking
longitudinal)
Balsa/composite cracking (transverse
(transverseandand longitudinal)
longitudinal)

Transport
Transport damage
damage V0–V3 V0–V3
Transport damage V0–V3

Complete separation V0
Complete separation V0
Where
Where V0:V0:
Complete Observation,
separation no
Observation, noharm,
harm,V1:V1:
Damage to be repaired
Damage at an opportunity,
to be repaired V2: Damage
at an opportunity,V0 must
V2: be repairedmust
Damage as soon
beasrepaired as soon as possible and V3:
possible
Where
Serious and
V0: V3:The
Serious
Observation,
damage. damage.
no harm,
turbine TheDamage
is V1: turbine is
stopped. tostopped.
be repaired at an opportunity, V2: Damage must be repaired as soon as
possible and V3: Serious damage. The turbine is stopped.
5.7. Maintenance for Wind Turbines
5.7. turbines,
Wind Maintenance
5.7. Maintenance for Wind for Wind
like Turbines
all other Turbines
mechanical, electrical or mobile systems, need repair
Wind turbines,
throughout like of
the course alltheir
otherlives.
mechanical,
Mone etelectrical
al. (2017)or [164]
mobile systems, the
calculated needprice
repair
of
throughout
operations and Wind turbines,
the maintenance
course of their like all
lives.forMone
(O&M) other
WT toetbeal.14.6 mechanical,
(2017)
$/MWh electrical
[164]forcalculated
a 2 MW the price
onshore or
of mobile systems, need repair
wind
turbinethroughout
operationsin aand
200maintenancethe and
MW project course
(O&M)49.6 for of
WTtheir
$/MWh to lives.
forbea 14.6
4.14 $/MWh
MW Mone et turbine
for a 2wind
offshore MW al. (2017)
onshore a 600 [164] calculated the price of
inwind
turbine in a 200
MW project.
operations MW
For project
onshore and 49.6
andasmaintenance
well as$/MWh
offshore for(O&M)
a 4.14turbines,
wind MWfor offshore
WT wind
equivalent
to be turbine
14.6in$/MWh
lifetime a 600
cost of for a 2 MW onshore wind
MW project.and
operations Formaintenance
onshore as (O&M)
well as are
offshore
aboutwind turbines,
$2 million and equivalent lifetime
$14.8 million, cost of
respectively.
Windturbine
operations andrepair
turbine in ais 200
maintenance MW
(O&M)into
categorised project
are about and 49.6and
$2 million
two: preventive $/MWh for
$14.8 million,
corrective. a 4.14 MW offshore wind turbine in a
respectively.
Planned service
Wind 600
turbineMW
and condition-based project.
repair is For are
categorised
maintenance onshore
into
twotwo:
types as well and
preventive as offshore
of preventive corrective.
maintenance. wind Wind turbines,
Planned service
turbine equivalent lifetime cost of
and condition-based
producers prescribe maintenance
6-month intervalsare twofortypes of preventive
scheduled repairs, maintenance.
and onshore wind Windturbines
turbine
operations
producers
are normally prescribe
and maintenance
6-monthatintervals
maintained 6-monthforintervals
(O&M)
scheduled
are
repairs,
[165].
about $2
and onshore wind
Condition-based
million
turbines
maintenance
and $14.8 million, respectively.
Wind turbine
are normally maintainedrepair is categorised
at 6-month intervals [165].into two: preventive
Condition-based maintenanceand corrective. Planned service
and condition-based maintenance are two types of preventive maintenance. Wind turbine
producers prescribe 6-month intervals for scheduled repairs, and onshore wind turbines are
normally maintained at 6-month intervals [165]. Condition-based maintenance necessitates
an additional expenditure in a condition management device, but it avoids unexpectedly
large malfunction costs as compared to planned maintenances. Corrective repair, on the
other hand, is performed in the event of a defect that necessitates restoration or replacement.
This categorization of wind turbine servicing is depicted in Figure 17 [166].
There are a variety of condition management procedures that can be utilised in both
routine and condition monitoring-based maintenance. As seen in Table 2, Tchakoua et al.
(2014) outlined potential malfunction mechanisms and associated testing procedures for
wind turbine systems and modules. In terms of operation, destructive testing (DT) and
nondestructive testing (NDT) for modules and subsystems of wind turbines are two forms
of preventive maintenance. The following are the most popular DT methods for tracking
wind turbine condition:
• Oil Analysis (OA) is used to assess the consistency of oil within a wind turbine gearbox
and whether debris contaminant is present due to harm to bearings and gearings [167].
• In a wind turbine, electrical results are added to electrical devices such as turbines,
pumps and accumulators [167].
• The shock pulse system (SPM) is a technique for detecting bearing harm utilising
transducers and signal reading [168].
• The below are the major NDT for wind turbine modules and subsystems:
 Energies 2021, 14, 5241 24 of 44

• Ultrasonic monitoring techniques (UTTs), which are used to assess surface and sub-
surface structural deterioration on wind turbine towers and rotor blades [168].
• Visual inspection (VI) is an ancient condition monitoring method that is used to detect
problems that other condition monitoring techniques fail to detect, such as loose bits,
contacts, oil leaks, rust and chattering gears [167].
• Vibration analysis (VA) on WT parts such as shafts, bearings and rotor blades, as
well as subsystems such as the gearbox [168]. Vibration sensors are applied to the
surface of the inspected object, and data for the frequency of the component’s vibration
is investigated.
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 • Strain measurement (SM), which uses strain gauges to calculate stress levels in situ
and predict lifetime in a laboratory [168]. It is primarily used on wind turbine blades.
• To locate defects in gearboxes, bearings, shafts and blades, acoustic emission uses
transducers and optic fiber displacement sensors [167].
• Infrared cameras
necessitates are used to
an additional identify hot spots
expenditure in aincondition
electrical and mechanical devices,
management as but it
device,
well as rotor blades, in thermography [168].
unexpectedly large malfunction costs as compared to planned maintenances. Co
• Using data such as strength, wind direction, rotor blade angle and rotor speed, perfor-
repair, on the
mance othermay
analysis hand, is performed
be used in thecondition
as a wind turbine event ofmonitoring
a defect that necessitates
technique [168]. rest
or• replacement.
X-ray imagingThisis usedcategorization of wind turbine
to expose close delaminations servicing
or cracks in a wind is depicted
turbine part in Fig
[166].during radiographic inspection [168].

Figure 17. Forms of wind turbine maintenance [166].

Figure 17. Forms of wind turbine maintenance [166].
Table 2. For modules and subsystems of wind turbines, a summary of potential malfunction mechanisms and associated
There(AE:
monitoring techniques [145] is given. areAcoustic
a variety of condition
emission, management
OA: Oil analysis, proceduresSPM:
SM: Strain measurement, thatShock
can be utilised
pulse method). routine and condition monitoring-based maintenance. As seen in Table 2, Tchakou
Wind Turbine (2014) outlined potential
Composition
malfunction mechanisms
Potential Failures
and associated testing procedu
Monitoring Technique
Subsystems
wind turbine systems and modules. In terms of operation, destructive testing (D
Deterioration, cracking Ultrasound, and active
nondestructive
Blades testing (NDT)error
and adjustment for modules and subsystems of wind turbines are tw
thermography
of preventive maintenance. The offollowing
Spalling, wear, defect are
Vibration, OA,the most popular DT methods for t
AE, SPM
Rotor Bearings bearing shells and rolling and performance Torque, AE, SM and VI
wind turbine condition:element monitoring
• Oil Analysis (OA)
Shaft
Fatigueis
andused
crack to assess the consistency of oil within a wind
Vibration
formation
gearbox and whether debris contaminant is present due to harm to bearin
gearings [167].
• In a wind turbine, electrical results are added to electrical devices such as tu
pumps and accumulators [167].
• The shock pulse system (SPM) is a technique for detecting bearing harm u
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 25 of 44

Table 2. Cont.

Wind Turbine
Composition Potential Failures Monitoring Technique
Subsystems
Vibration, SPM,
Main shaft bearing Wear and high vibration
temperature and AE
Mechanical brake Locking position Temperature
Torque, power signal
Wearing, fatigue, oil analysis, thermography,
Drivetrain leakage, insufficient AE and performance
lubrication, braking in Temperature, vibration, monitoring
Gearbox
teeth, displacement and SPM, OA and AE
eccentricity of toothed
wheels
Wearing, electrical
problems, slip rigs,
Generated effect, temperature, vibration, SPM, torque,
winding damage, rotor
Generator power signal analysis, electrical effects, performance
asymmetries, bar break,
monitoring and thermography
overheating and over
speed
Pitch system Pitch motor problem -
Pump motor problems
Hydraulic system Performance monitoring
Auxiliary system and oil leakage
Broken and wrong
Sensors Thermography
indication
Short circuit, component Current consumption and
Electrical system Control system
fault and bad connection temperature
Short circuit, component Current consumption and Arc guard, temperature
Power electronics
fault and bad connection temperature
High Voltage Contamination and arcs Arc guard, temperature
Smoke, heat, flame
Tower Nacelle Fire and yaw error
detection
Vibration, SPM, SM and VI
Crack formation, fatigue,
Tower vibration and foundation -
weakness
Problem with
contamination, breakers,
System transformer Thermography
disconnectors and
isolators

6. Overview on Cost of Wind Turbine

As highlighted in the analyses of improvement settings designed to guide national
and foreign climate policy, the implementation of clean energy resources must be increased
to reduce global warming [169–171]. Comprehending factors for green energy price savings
is critical. By breaking down overall cost savings through their component parts as well as
drivers, we will see which policy areas have the most cost-cutting ability. Onshore wind
energy was utilised as a real-life scenario to describe factors for technological cost savings
in present scenarios where prices have dropped significantly due to increased global pen-
etration and tailored policy structures. Onshore wind is now an established technology
with a growing international and local supply chain, with rising market growth [172].
Wind energy installed power crossed 540 GW at the end of 2018, accounting for 5% of
overall global electricity generation. The year 2018 saw the levelized cost of electricity
(LCOE) of onshore wind energy in Germany reduced compared to traditional fossil fuel
technology [173]. Governments use the LCOE to screen and review policy choices, since it
is commonly used to assess and compare renewable energy sources [174]. Costs of wind
turbine (Figure 18) have direct effect on the overall price [175]. Emphasis on identifying
the fundamental drivers of technology cost savings is not unique to the literature, where
qualitative debates have attempted to clarify cause for observable cost reductions at various
stages of technology growth. Using the principle of drivers, various macro dynamics affect-
 cost of electricity (LCOE) of onshore wind energy in Germany reduced compared to
traditional fossil fuel technology [173]. Governments use the LCOE to screen and review
policy choices, since it is commonly used to assess and compare renewable energy sources
[174]. Costs of wind turbine (Figure 18) have direct effect on the overall price [175].
Energies 2021, 14, 5241
Emphasis on identifying the fundamental drivers of technology cost savings is not unique26 of 44
to the literature, where qualitative debates have attempted to clarify cause for observable
cost reductions at various stages of technology growth. Using the principle of drivers,
various macro dynamics affecting advancement of a technology and their prices, such as
ing advancement
industrial of a technology
learning, economies of scaleandand
theirlearning
prices, such as industrial learning,
by engagement, coupled economies
with
of scale
influence and learning
of R&D growth, byhaveengagement, coupled
been established with
[176]. influence of
Researchers R&D
have growth,
often have been
attempted
established
to measure [176].ofResearchers
the effects have
these factors. Theoften attempted
one-factor to measure
learning the effects
curve (1FLC), whichof these
depictsfactors.
the relationship between costs and installed capability, is the most widely utilised method and
The one-factor learning curve (1FLC), which depicts the relationship between costs
[177].installed
Only one capability,
driver ofis cost
the most widely
shifts, utilised method [177].
deployment-induced Onlycan
learning, onebedriver of cost
captured byshifts,
1FLCs.deployment-induced learning, can
This high-level aggregation be captured
obscures by 1FLCs.
fundamental Thiswhich
drivers, high-level aggregation
may behave
obscures
another fundamental drivers, which may behave another way [178].
way [178].

Figure 18. Evaluation

Figure of wind
18. Evaluation turbine
of wind cost [175].
turbine cost [175].

A group of researchers has established and implemented more sophisticated strategies

such as multifactor learning curves (MFLC) that may include several criteria to model
technology cost decrease if data is usable [179,180]. So far, multifactor learning curves have
been used to explain the dynamics of technology cost decline by utilising largely device
constraints; techno–economic factors, e.g., commodity market costs and technology scale,
have only been explored in a limited capacity in recent investigations. Provided that learn-
ing curves are econometric models as well as the fact that this approach cannot attribute a
pivotal relationship between costs and parameters, only rare multifactor learning curve in-
vestigations have valuable focus into the effects of several drivers [181]. Furthermore, using
additional drivers in learning curve calculation introduces different empirical uncertainties,
such as statistical association between several variables; as a consequence, researchers tend
to use 1FLC to eliminate outcomes that are incorrectly associated [182,183]. Aside from
these procedural issues, learning curves characterise extended improvements. They are
frequently ineffective at understanding the dynamics that drive short-term cost growth.
They often seldom depict actual cost improvement patterns that arise at various stages
of a technology’s development [184]. Due to these drawbacks, an innovative bottom-up
cost model (BUCM) was suggested as a harmonizing approach for overcoming learning
curve constraints [185].
Using a basic bottom-up engineering cost model that determines effect of material,
capital downgrading, labour cost improvements and other factors on total technology
cost patterns, the BUCM approach begins by defining and quantifying the effects of each
 capital downgrading, labour cost improvements and other factors on total tech
patterns, the BUCM approach begins by defining and quantifying the effe
critical cost variable on technology cost drop. The BUCM approach is then imp
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 the aid of cost calculation to connect cost elements and techno–economi 27 of 44
together. These variables are measurable indicators that break down cost cla
framework into related metrics [186]. Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is key
defining and
critical cost assessing
variable core economics
on technology cost drop. The of power projects.is Itthen
BUCM approach includes
improved calculat
with the aid of cost calculation to connect cost elements and techno–economic
of operational wind power systems. The capital expenditures, process and repa variables
together. These variables are measurable indicators that break down cost classes in the
and anticipated
framework yearly
into related energy
metrics [186]. output
Levelizedarecost
primary components
of energy (LCOE) is key ofmethod
levelized cos
(LCOE) [187,188].
for defining Whencore
and assessing estimating
economics the priceprojects.
of power of a wind generating
It includes system,
calculation of it is
tocosts
do aofthorough
operationalanalysis
wind power of systems.
components The capital expenditures,
throughout the process
courseand repair
of scheme’s lif
expenses and anticipated yearly energy output are primary components of levelized cost
Capital costs, which is responsible for 10 to 15 percent of the overall cost of
of energy (LCOE) [187,188]. When estimating the price of a wind generating system, it is
comprise
important expenditures
to do a thorough spent
analysisin acquisitionthroughout
of components of land,the construction of structur
course of scheme’s
purchase and installation of machinery. The equipment represents of
lifetime [189]. Capital costs, which is responsible for 10 to 15 percent of the overall cost between
the project, comprise expenditures spent in acquisition of land, construction of structures
percent of the overall project cost, owing mostly to high price of turbine
and the purchase and installation of machinery. The equipment represents between 70
components.
and 80 percentConstruction accounts
of the overall project for between
cost, owing mostly to5high percent
price ofand 20 percent
turbine and of
project investment,
other components. depending
Construction on for
accounts thebetween
size of the project.
5 percent The cost
and 20 percent of the of ope
overall project investment, depending on the size of the
maintenance (O&M) for a wind farm is cost involved with the operationproject. The cost of operation and and m
maintenance (O&M) for a wind farm is cost involved with the operation and maintenance
ofofthe
the wind turbines,
wind turbines, themselves,
themselves, as highlighted
as highlighted in Figure 19in Figure 19 below.
below.

Figure
Figure 19. Theeconomics
19. The economics of wind
of wind energy. energy.

Fixed and variable expenses of operation and maintenance (O&M) account for a
substantial portion of the total lifetime cost of ownership (LCOE) of wind generation.
Costs associated with operations and maintenance (O&M) may account for anywhere from
11 percent to 30 percent of onshore wind LCOE, and they usually account for 20 percent
to 25 percent of the overall levelised cost of energy of contemporary wind generating
systems [190]. When wind farm promoters signed complete operation and maintenance
contracts with wind turbine manufacturers years ago, they were certain that technologists
would offer the greatest degree of development in the maintenance of their installations.
However, time has demonstrated that this has not always been the case, and over time,
the owners of the installation have begun to lose responsiveness and knowledge of their
own facilities, while also coming to believe that the interests of the technologist were more
important than the interests of the park and its owners. Consequently, in recent years,
various ideas for O&M of wind farms have emerged, some of which were not always
the most suitable, depending on the context and ownership of the installations [191], and
others which were. As of right now, there is no clear process for informing researchers
about new study areas with which they should spend their time [192–195]. Every year, the
 over time, the owners of the installation have begun to lose responsiveness and
knowledge of their own facilities, while also coming to believe that the interests of the
technologist were more important than the interests of the park and its owners.
Consequently, in recent years, various ideas for O&M of wind farms have emerged, some
Energies 2021, 14, 5241
of which were not always the most suitable, depending on the context and ownership28of of 44
the installations [191], and others which were. As of right now, there is no clear process
for informing researchers about new study areas with which they should spend their time
[192–195]. Every year, the number of accidents involving wind turbines increases. As a
number
result, the of
costaccidents involving
of constructing wind turbines
offshore increases.
wind turbines, As a result,
logistics the cost
for their of constructing
installation, grid
offshore wind
management andturbines, logistics
maintenance for their
continue installation,
to be expensive grid
[196].management
There has been anda significant
maintenance
continue
amount of to
workbe expensive [196]. There
put into creating windhas been acondition
turbine significant amount ofsystems
monitoring work put andinto
creating wind turbine condition monitoring systems and establishing
establishing specialised condition monitoring technologies over the last few decades. specialised condition
monitoring
However, the technologies
expensive cost over
of the last few
existing decades. However,
accomplishments, the as
as well expensive cost of limits
the numerous existing
of accomplishments,
their capabilities, ashavewellprevented
as the numerous limits of their
their widespread usecapabilities, have prevented
[197]. Unexpected their
drivetrain
widespread
failures account use
for[197]. Unexpected
a significant portion drivetrain failures
of the total account cost
maintenance for a[198].
significant portion
Currently, the of
the total maintenance
availability of wind turbinescost [198].
is oftenCurrently,
more than the 98
availability of wind turbines
percent [199,200] of the time. is often more
Taking
than
into 98 percent [199,200]
consideration of the
the scientific time. Taking
importance thatinto consideration
wind the scientific
energy has gained importance
throughout the
that
21st wind energy
century, as wellhas gained
as the throughout
influence the 21st and
that operating century, as well as
maintenance the have
costs influence
on thethat
operating and maintenance costs have on the determination of the levelized
determination of the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of the technology, the subject of this cost of energy
(LCOE)
section is of the technology,
extremely the subject
important in terms of of
thisthe
section is extremely
maintenance important
of wind farms. in Figure
terms of20the
maintenance
highlights of wind
the cost farms.
that goes Figure
into O&M. 20 highlights the cost that goes into O&M.

Figure 20.20.
Figure Overview of of
Overview wind energy
wind O&M
energy cost
O&M fields.
cost fields.

7. End of Life
With several wind farms being constructed across the globe, the amount of energy
used, pollutants emitted and volume of composite materials used grows, amplifying
the environmental effects of their production and use. These realities unquestionably
need appropriate disposal product life cycle phases, which must be handled with the
least amount of environmental effect possible. The European Union’s primary aim is to
increase resource efficiency. This may be accomplished by turning trash as a product. The
nature of composite materials makes recycling much more challenging, especially given
the limited resources available [201]. Life cycle assessment (LCA) for composite materials
purposes is considered a necessity in order to identify the material’s life cycle and serve as
a major element in environmental management. The main findings are that the high energy
intensity and price of carbon fibers used in composites are impediments to their usage.
Carbon fiber-reinforced composites have the ability to significantly reduce component
weight while retaining the strength and stiffness of widely used isotropic materials. As a
result, in this specific application, mechanical performance requirements drive material
selection. Definition of the intended result of a research as well as the functional unit of the
product under investigation is very important in LCA. Pollutant emissions and resource
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 29 of 44

usage per functional unit are listed in a life cycle inventory. The life cycle impact assessment
identifies the environmental effect of pollutants released throughout the life cycle and then
interprets the results to estimate performance and uncertainty [202]. At the carbon fiber
manufacturing and part production phases, as well as part recycling and disposal life cycle
stages, the carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) life cycle analysis examines competitive
solutions. The absence of standard compositions is the primary challenge in standardising
the recycling process when handling composites, and determining such proportions is
very difficult [203].
An evaluation of a recycling process’ environmental appropriateness must evaluate
all of the process’ possible environmental effects. The use of life cycle assessment is well
established in many sectors, and it is becoming increasingly popular in the composites area,
where it has been used to investigate the environmental implications of replacing more
frequently used material types with composites in transportation applications [204]. A
number of fascinating overviews of the challenges and new methods have been presented,
focusing primarily on the recycling of carbon fiber composites for structural purposes [205].
Individually recovered carbon fibers have been said to exhibit mechanical characteris-
tics that are similar to virgin fibers. They could be clearly characterised as similar goods
due to their recent advances and capacity to provide comparable service as their virgin
counterparts being impacted and so may be considered to have experienced downcycling.
Recycling produces low-cost carbon fibers that may be used in applications with fewer
criteria. Each of the current composite recycling methods has its own set of benefits and
drawbacks. Furthermore, each method is better suited to certain composites; for example,
mechanical recycling (milling, grinding) is better suited to glass fiber-reinforced composites,
while thermal and chemical techniques (matrix combustion) are better suited to carbon
fiber reinforced-composites [206].

7.1. Waste Management in a Composite Form

Originally, composite structures as well as materials, primarily from the aerospace a
well as automotive industries, were thrown away or burned when they reached the end of
their useful lives. During the past decade, the great majority of countries in the European
Union have ruled in support of laws prohibiting the dumping of hazardous waste in
landfills. Concerning burning, the most concerning aspect is the possibility of hazardous
byproducts being released into the environment (matrix) [206]. Recycling, although being
the more environmentally friendly option, is only economically viable if and only if the
worth of the recovered raw materials surpasses the cost of the recycling medium. Because
of the reasons described in the following paragraphs, composites offer some particular
challenges for recyclers in this situation.

7.2. Composite Materials Recycling Approach

Recycling composite materials on a large scale is a challenging job, owing to the
limited methods that are presently accessible [206,207]. The anticipated quantities of
outdated material, as well as the regulations that govern it, are driving the need for optimal
composite material recycling. The general recycling system shown in the flowchart below
(Figure 21) further discusses the fundamental elements that ensure functioning. Given that
the required materials have a lower volume of production than conventional (isotropic)
materials, the availability of outdated components products and manufacturing waste is
critical for effective functioning. This may result in a lack of availability, raising the cost of
operating the operation.
Dependent on the kind of composite materials, reprocessing may include mechanical,
thermal or chemical methods. Enhanced product quality, environmental restrictions and
processing costs are among the obstacles to be overcome. When compared to virgin
composites, optimization will allow satisfactory levels of quality and affordability, thereby
creating a market for recycled composites.
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 30 of 44

Figure 21. Diagram for a composite material recycling process.

7.3. Mechanical Recycling

The end of life (EOL) composite is gradually reduced in size throughout these op-
erations. The first stage is coarse cutting or crushing at a low speed (to approximately
100 mm). The second stage uses high-speed milling for fine grinding to decrease the size
to nearly one-tenth of its original size, which is subsequently separated into matrix and
fiber particles using separation methods. The fine particles of the waste composites are
next separated into fiber-rich (coarser) and matrix-rich (finer) fractions using cyclones and
sieves. The possible use of recycled glass fiber composite materials as a substitute for
virgin reinforcing elements in new thermoset composites has been investigated [208]. The
closed-loop mechanical recycling of dough and sheet moulding composites, which are
widely utilised in the automobile industry, was investigated. A new air separation method
was created to improve the mechanical recycling process and the gathering of usable fiber
grades of recycled materials, called recyclate. When the characteristics of these recyclate
fibers were directly compared to the properties of pristine fibers, it was discovered that the
recyclate fibers were weaker and had a worse matrix interface. Mechanical treatment is con-
sidered easy, but it is energy expensive, and it results in short fibers with poor mechanical
characteristics that are only utilised as filler reinforcement materials.

7.4. Thermal Recycling

7.4.1. Pyrolysis Recycling Technique
The polymer breaks down during pyrolysis, which occurs at elevated temperatures
of 300–1000 C in the absence of oxygen, to generate an oil, a gas and a char product,
leaving a solid residue. In addition, the fibers are recovered. It should be noted that greater
temperatures have an impact on the quality of the resultant fiber. It has the benefit of
possibly being able to use all of the by-products. The temperature control, in combination
with the time spent on the process, is a critical parameter for effective depolymerisation.
Due to the high cost of carbon fiber reinforced composites, pyrolysis recycling is a more
cost-effective option.

7.4.2. Fluidized Bed Combustion Recycling Process

The resin matrix is combusted, and the reinforcing fibers are reclaimed via a fluidised
bed recycling method, as shown in Figure 22 [201]. The EOL material is broken down into
 possibly being able to use all of the by-products. The temperature control, in combination
with the time spent on the process, is a critical parameter for effective depolymerisation.
Due to the high cost of carbon fiber reinforced composites, pyrolysis recycling is a more
cost-effective option.
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 31 of 44
7.4.2. Fluidized Bed Combustion Recycling Process
The resin matrix is combusted, and the reinforcing fibers are reclaimed via a fluidised
bed recycling method, as shown in Figure 22 [201]. The EOL material is broken down into
tiny
tiny pellets
pellets (20–30
(20–30 mm)
mm) and
and then fed into
then fed into aa fluid
fluid bed
bed reactor,
reactor, which
which achieves
achieves temperatures
temperatures
of
of up to 550 degrees Celsius depending on the composite recycled. The characteristics of
up to 550 degrees Celsius depending on the composite recycled. The characteristics of
recycled
recycled fibers,
fibers, such
such as
as physical
physical shape,
shape, fiber
fiber length
length and mechanical properties
and mechanical properties for
for fibers,
fibers,
are
are described
described inin [207],
[207], which
which indicates
indicates aa significant
significant deterioration
deterioration in
in general.
general.

Figure 22.
Figure 22. Schematics of fluidized bed recycling process [201].

7.4.3.
7.4.3. Chemical
Chemical Recycling
Recycling Process
Process
The
The technique of chemical depolymerisation
technique of chemical depolymerisation or or matrix
matrix removal
removal employing
employing chemical
chemical
dissolution
dissolution reagents for recovering fibers is known as chemical recycling. Both
reagents for recovering fibers is known as chemical recycling. fibers and
Both fibers and
matrices
matrices may
may bebe reclaimed
reclaimed via
via the
the chemical
chemical recycling
recycling method.
method. The
The method
method may
may be be used
used
on
on aa variety
variety of
of fibers.
fibers. In
In this
this instance,
instance, the recovered fibers
the recovered fibers have
have aa slight
slight loss of mechanical
loss of mechanical
characteristics [208,209]. The matrix chemicals have a significant impact on
characteristics [208,209]. The matrix chemicals have a significant impact on the process’ the process’
efficiency.
efficiency.This
This highlights
highlights the
the necessity
necessity to
to ensure
ensure awareness
awareness of of the
the EOL
EOL properties, which
properties, which
is a challenging job in an environment where a variety of composite materials
is a challenging job in an environment where a variety of composite materials is prevalent. is prevalent.

7.5. The Specific Sector

Large-scale wind turbines (up to 3 MW) typically include a three-blade rotor, which
accounts for about 4% of the overall turbine weight, with 40% of that being composite [186].
Furthermore, about 10% of the composite is wasted during the production process, which
is a considerable amount. At the end of the service life for such composite structures,
which is usually 20 years, the total mass of composite trash from EOL wind turbines is
expected to exceed 1 million tonnes. The fundamental nature of the issue to be addressed
is that composite materials are inherently difficult to recycle. In order to find a solution,
two aspects must be considered. The first is the creation of optimum recycling systems
capable of maximising material and energy recovery. The second is the development of
new composites with outstanding mechanical characteristics and the ability to be recycled.
The above should be done in accordance with economies of scale, which are linked to the
availability of EOL material, environmental regulations, overall cost and the possibility
of new environmentally hazardous derivative substances, all of which will eventually
determine the process’s long-term viability.

7.5.1. The Life Cycle Method

The life cycle assessment is a technique that may examine every direct and indirect
effect of a product or service over its entire life cycle. The manufacturing and installation
stages of renewable energy facilities have the greatest environmental effect. Figure 23
highlights the life cycle assessment for the turbine blades.
 which will eventually determine the process’s long-term viability.

7.5.1. The Life Cycle Method

The life cycle assessment is a technique that may examine every direct and indirect
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 effect of a product or service over its entire life cycle. The manufacturing and installation
32 of 44
stages of renewable energy facilities have the greatest environmental effect. Figure 23
highlights the life cycle assessment for the turbine blades.

Figure23.
Figure 23.Wind
Windturbine
turbineblades
bladeslife
lifecycle
cycleassessment
assessmentboundary
boundaryconditions
conditions[209].
[209].

Theefficiency
The efficiencyofofa awind
windturbine
turbineshould
shouldbe beassessed
assessedafter
afterdetermining
determiningthe thebalance
balance
betweenenvironmental
between environmentaleffects
effectsthroughout
throughoutits itslifetime
lifetimeand
andenergy
energysaved.
saved.The
Theembodied
embodied
energyofofaawind
energy windturbine
turbineisisthethetime
timeitittakes
takesfor
foritittotoproduce
produceenergy
energyequal
equaltotothe
theenergy
energy
spentover
spent overits
itsentire
entirelife
lifecycle,
cycle,whereas
whereasthe theemission
emissionpayback
paybacktime
timeisisthe
thetime
timeitittakes
takesfor
for
avoided emissions from the wind turbine to equal those released for
avoided emissions from the wind turbine to equal those released for manufacturing and all manufacturing and
all related
related processes.
processes.
Thereare
There aremany
many stages
stages to analysis.
to the the analysis. To begin,
To begin, one have
one must musta have a thorough
thorough under-
understanding
standing of the structure
of the structure being examined
being examined (Figure (Figure
24). This24). Thistotal
is the is the total amount
amount of energy of
energy
used used
on the on the manufacturing,
manufacturing, installation installation
and ongoing andmaintenance
ongoing maintenance
of a system.ofNaturally,
a system.
Naturally,
when whenbig
considering considering
buildings or big buildings
numerous or energy
units, numerous
spentunits, energy spent
on infrastructure on
must
be taken into account. There are many phases to the life cycle inventory analysis. The
resource inputs, all utilised materials and energy needed for the production of the various
components of the wind turbine are all included in the inventory study. Energy input
requirements include foundation manufacturing, transportation and on-site assembly oper-
ation and maintenance, as well as deconstruction and recycling at the end of service [210].
When it comes to wind turbines, blades are the most difficult part to recycle because of
their shape. The EOL process, in particular, consists of a number of stages that begin with
the planning of procedures and expenses. The elimination of the building is carried out
in accordance with the project management, followed by the completion of secondary
processes, such as logistics for the removed materials. Current waste management meth-
ods and choices are relevant to the post-decommissioning of composite materials, as are
existing waste management procedures and options. Consequently, with precise informa-
tion of the waste generation process, one may control the characterisation of composite
materials as well as the collection, separation-selection, recycling or energy recovery and
recirculation processes.
 The elimination of the building is carried out in accordance with the project management,
followed by the completion of secondary processes, such as logistics for the removed
materials. Current waste management methods and choices are relevant to the post-
decommissioning of composite materials, as are existing waste management procedures
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 and options. Consequently, with precise information of the waste generation process,33
one
of 44
may control the characterisation of composite materials as well as the collection,
separation-selection, recycling or energy recovery and recirculation processes.

Figure
Figure24.
24.Fundamental LCA
Fundamental LCAmodel
modelforfor
thethe
generator and
generator overall
and overallstructure of of
structure a a
wind turbine
wind turbine
showing wastes and corresponding disposal/recycling solutions [201].
showing wastes and corresponding disposal/recycling solutions [201].

7.5.2.
7.5.2.Materials
Materials
The
Thetotal
totalsize
sizeofofthe
theconstruction
constructionisisa asignificant
significantelement
elementinindetermining
determining the
thebill ofof
bill
materials
materialsfor forthe
theproject.
project.Furthermore,
Furthermore, the design
the designandandmanufacturing
manufacturing trends
trends forfor
small
smallandand
big
bigturbines
turbinesare aredistinct
distinctfromfromone
oneanother.
another.This is is
This owing
owingtotothe fact
the that
fact thatthe requirements
the requirements
for
forstrength
strengthand andfatigue
fatigueloading
loadingarearedifferent.
different.Because
Because ofofthethecontinuous
continuous dynamic
dynamic stress
stress
applied
appliedtoto some
some windwind turbine
turbinecomponents,
components,they they experience
experience significant
significant cyclecycle fatigue,
fatigue, which
which
is oftenis more
often thanmorewhat thanwould
whatbewould be anticipated
anticipated in other high-performance
in other high-performance engineering
engineering
structures, structures, such asAs
such as aircrafts. aircrafts.
a result,Asmaterial
a result,fatigue
material fatigue characteristics
characteristics are takenare into
taken
accountintothroughout
account throughout
the design the design
and and selection
selection of windcomponents.
of wind turbine turbine components.
There are
new are
There component
new componentinnovations that willthat
innovations have a major
will have aimpact
major on the patterns
impact of material
on the patterns of
use. In general, lightweight materials are being used more often, particularly
material use. In general, lightweight materials are being used more often, particularly on on moving
components.
moving components.As rotor size grows,
As rotor the tendency
size grows, the tendencywill be
willtowards materials
be towards withwith
materials great
strength and fatigue resistance. Various composites will most certainly be used in this
sector as turbine designs continue to develop, which implies that a solution to the problem
of industrial recycling capacity will be required, including for toxins contained in turbine
parts that are released when materials are recovered or incinerated at extremely high
temperatures [211]. The material used for the blades is fiber-reinforced plastics, which is
a resin that produces toxic gases and must be carefully filtered after being recovered or
incinerated at extremely high temperatures. Additionally, the dust generated by cutting
operations produces a potentially dangerous working environment. Damaged buildings
may expose people to a variety of different hazards, including airborne fibers and dust.
According to the application or modification of the structure, there is a different level of risk
for personnel exposure [212]. There are definitions for premanufacturing flies and dust, the
cured structure, manufacturing/machining and post event assessment, among other things.
When it comes to the recycling of composite materials, there seems to be a vacuum. Carbon
fibers are very fine and readily broken when stretched, and they may form a fine dust when
handled in any manner throughout any handling activities. Manufacturing, qualification,
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 34 of 44

processing, testing and evaluation, as well as servicing and disposal, are all included.
Typically, no combustion of the carbon fiber occurs; however, the resin may burn, causing
the fiber to be dispersed throughout the structure. The ensuing fire creates containment
and collection issues that need the use of hazard measures. The resulting plume should be
deemed carcinogenic and should be avoided at all costs via proper ventilation.

7.6. Extension of Life of Turbine Blades

When a wind turbine is approaching the end of its service life, it may be more cost-
effective to retrofit it in order to extend its service life rather than to shut it down and
decommission it under certain situations. It is common for a thorough examination to estab-
lish that the most important internal subsystems (such as the generator and blades) must
be replaced, while an exhaustive evaluation is required to evaluate the appropriateness
and safety of the sustained subsystems [213]. It is normal for the tower to still be in good
working order and to be utilised safely for many more years after it was built. The cost of
common spares is typically between 5 percent (rotor hub) and 20 percent (blades) of the
cost of a new wind turbine (WT) [214]. In 2014, a detailed study and posterior analysis of
the wind farms (WFs) in the United Kingdom was conducted, and it was estimated that the
majority of WTs would survive for about 25 years before they need to be updated [215]. It
was also determined that the first set of WTs in the United Kingdom, which were installed
in the 1990s and have now completed their normal service life, are still profitable due to
the fact that their power production is approximately 75% of their nominal production; as
a result, it was estimated that they may have another 5 years of profitable operation left
in them. In [216], a study of several life extension scenarios was carried out in order to
determine the feasibility of operational life extension as well as the environmental effect of
such an extension via the use of life cycle assessment (LCA). In this study, life extension
periods of 5 and 10 years were considered after a typical service life of 25 years was taken
into consideration. The LCA research took into account energy generation as well as extra
maintenance, such as materials and services, among other things. As previously stated,
the higher the quality and management of the inspection and operation and maintenance
operations of WTs, the greater the likelihood that they will be appropriate for life extension.
According to [217], the cost of offshore operations and maintenance activities is presently
two to five times higher than the cost of operations and maintenance onshore. According to
certain sources, one of the reasons for this may be the extra work being put into developing
WTs that can withstand the severity of the offshore environment and avoid those particular
environmental hazards, which increases not only capital expenditure (CAPEX) but also
O&M costs even more [218,219]. This is the reason why operators are now searching for
methods to improve the efficiency of these turbines’ operations, which will result in a
significant reduction in operating and maintenance expenses. In order to improve effi-
ciency and, as a result, life extension, the use of structural health monitoring and condition
monitoring (SHM/CM) systems in conjunction with smart loads management, as part of
a condition -based maintenance (CBM) paradigm, is one of the most effective methods
available [220]. CBM methods allow for the scheduling of maintenance operations and
inspections based on the data collected by SHM/CM systems [221] and other sources. It is
possible to schedule needed maintenance operations in advance and have them carried
out at the offshore emplacement rather than waiting until a failure has occurred [222,223]
by continuously monitoring the health of WTs’ structural components. At the moment,
these technologies are being modified to work with offshore wind. SHM/CM systems are
already extensively employed in certain subsystems, such as generators and gearboxes;
however, other subsystems are still awaiting the creation of a framework that evaluates all
of the gathered data and shows the health of the subsystem in question. When a specific
degree of damage is recognised by the SHM system at an early stage, the operation of WTs
depending on the health of the structure will enable for their deaeration to take place. This
will lower the amount of electricity produced, but it will also lengthen the service life of
the wind turbines, cut maintenance costs and improve the efficiency of wind farms in the
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 35 of 44

process. According to certain calculations conducted by [217], when a turbine is deaerated,

resulting in a 5 percent reduction in power output, a fatigue life extension in the blades
may approach 300 percent, owing to a reduction of 10 percent in the equivalent loading.
Furthermore, in order to accomplish the life extension of wind farms, a comprehensive
failure modes and risk identification, as well as an evaluation of the variables that affect
operation and maintenance costs, should be carried out in order to evaluate whether or not
life extension is feasible.

7.7. Repowering
Repowering is the technique of either rebuilding old WTs with new ones that have
higher rated power and efficiency or replacing the turbine while reusing the tower to
generate more power and efficiency. The owner of a WF may, therefore, determine if
repowering is a viable alternative in the last years of the WF’s operating life and under what
circumstances it should be carried out. This choice should be based on the considerations
listed below [224]:
• The WF’s profitability is decreasing with time, as both performance and dependabil-
ity deteriorate.
• Profit expectations for both life extension and the various repowering alternatives are
discussed in detail.
• The cost–benefit ratio that repowering will provide as compared to the complete
decommissioning of the wind farm and the recycling of the project’s components.
There are three distinct repowering options available, each of which is dependent on
the current condition of the WT and may be described as follows:
• The very same tower with a new, lower-capacity turbine: This option combines
a smaller WT that may even generate lower electricity, requires less maintenance
(resulting in higher availability) and has a nominal service life of an additional 25 years
with the same tower that, because the turbine’s power has been reduced, will have
fewer applied loads, hence a longer fatigue life.
• Same tower having higher-capacity turbine that will generate more energy and survive
an additional 25 years is combined with the same tower, which will be subjected
to larger loads as a result of the increased power of the turbine, and its structural
integrity should be carefully evaluated. Consequently, unless the structural integrity
of the tower will be adequate to meet the new standards, this choice will often be
unfavourable in the majority of instances.
• Modern tower with a new, greater-capacity turbine: This option involves the decom-
missioning of the tower and nacelle in preparation for the commissioning of a new
WT later on.
Using a portion of the existing infrastructure from the existing offshore wind farm
(OWF) to lower the capital cost of the new one is a tenet of all three alternatives (after
repowering). For example, the majority of the original subsea cables, as well as the existing
grid connection, may be utilised in certain cases. However, if the capacity of the WT has
been expanded, it is possible that the grid connection will need to be improved.
In order to repower, a separate financial procedure should be implemented, which
will result in a second building phase as well as an operations and maintenance phase,
with all of the ramifications that these phases involve [224]. In most cases, turbines
are installed in high-wind resource areas where it is economically feasible to replace a
turbine that has surpassed its normal service life with a new turbine that has the same
or better characteristics than the one that was originally installed. Several instances of
repowered WFs may be found in California, Nevada, the Netherlands and Denmark,
among other places. Repowering is now going on in the United Kingdom, where RWE
npower Renewables has been granted permission to carry out the repowering of one of
Europe’s first onshore wind farms (WF). The project will consider reducing the number of
WTs while simultaneously doubling the power generation, which means that the WF built
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 36 of 44

in 1993 and consisting of 20 WTs will be transformed into a WF consisting of 7 WTs with
a capacity of 17.5 MW, which accounts for more than twice the actual power generated
each year [215,216].

7.8. Decommissioning
When service life extension or repowering are not financially viable options, the
decommissioning of a WF is the last step of the project’s development. As a result, it is the
least desired end-of-life situation. The primary goal of this step is to restore the seafloor
to the state it was in before to the first deployment [224]. The decommissioning phase
of a WF requires the transportation of all WT components from offshore to onshore and
ultimately to their treatment site [225]. This is accomplished by boats and trucks. A WT
will be completely dismantled if it is required to be completely decommissioned. First, all
blades, the nacelle and the tower will be disassembled and hauled down by crane; next,
its posterior components will be separated and reduced into smaller pieces appropriate
for scrap [226]. It is expected that almost all of the WT material will be recycled. It should
be noted that the qualification and personnel for the decommissioning operations that
were utilised are similar to those that were used during the commissioning stage. The
recycling scenario provided by [216] illustrates how the offshore wind farm (OWF) is
divided among the decommissioning EOL alternatives available for decommissioning.
First, the offshore wind farm is dismantled and divided into its constituent parts, with the
energy consumption assumed to be similar to that of the commissioning phase. After that,
waste treatment is carried out according to the kind of material that was utilised. Waste
treatment may be broken down into three categories: recycling, landfilling and incineration.
The consequences and costs of decommissioning and recycling must be understood by all
parties involved (municipalities, small landowners and WT developers).

8. Conclusions
The future of energy generation is highly dependent on the practicality of expanding
current energy obtained from wind. This goal can only be obtained when the turbine blades
for wind energy systems are designed properly. The performance of these wind turbines
can only be enhanced when their material compositions are light in weight, durable, able to
resist fatigue, high in stiffness and capable of resisting failure damage. The blades of wind
turbines are produced via combined impact and cyclic loading. Most wind turbines are
manufactured from fiber-reinforced polymer composites. Most of the research efforts are
geared towards producing wind turbines that are strong, easy to recycle and eco-friendly
and have strong resistance to damage. Today, the research community has come out
with the latest epoxy resin systems that have low viscosity. Other characteristics of these
new materials for wind turbines are their excellent wetting of fibers and support infusion
pressure in vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM), and these reduce defects at
the manufacturing stage. The wind turbine blades are enhanced due to the automation of
some component deposition in VARTM, reducing defect possibilities, as well. The world
has also seen the evolution of resins with quicker curing times and reduced temperatures for
the curing process. An alternative to the common E-glass fibers are carbon fibers. Natural
glass, as well as basalt, are all alternatives to E-glass fibers. Some demerits of carbon fibers
are their price, less compressional strength and easy misalignment, even though their
high stiffness is promising. A solution to curb this challenge is combining carbon and E
glass. This increases the stiffness and does not increase the cost. Thermoplastics also have
some merits compared to thermosets, such as recyclability. Wind turbine blade strength is
determined by the damage at the micro level in fibers and the interface of the matrix. This
concludes the fact that, if these microscale characteristics are improved, the life span, as
well as the strength of the material, is likely to surge up appreciably. It is possible to achieve
this feat through nanoscale structure modifications. The future of wind turbines in terms
of energy generation from this report concludes that material composition, especially for
Energies 2021, 14, 5241 37 of 44

the turbine blades, affects the overall cost of the wind turbine, the lifetime of the turbines
and the efficiency of the turbine.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.G.O., M.A.A. and T.W.; methodology, K.E., E.T.S., T.S.
and A.B.; formal analysis, A.G.O., M.A.A. and T.W.; investigation, K.E., E.T.S. and A.B.; resources,
A.G.O., M.A.A. and T.W.; data curation, K.E., T.S., E.T.S. and A.B.; writing—original draft preparation,
A.G.O., T.W., M.A.A., T.S., K.E., E.T.S. and A.B.; writing—review and editing, T.W., M.A.A., K.E. and
A.G.O.; supervision, A.G.O. and M.A.A.; project administration, T.W. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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