ELE C T RO M A G N ET I C S A N D

RADIATING S Y S T EM S
COURSE CODE: ECE3007A

COURSE C ATEGORY: PROGRAM CORE

CREDITS: 3+1
Course Outcomes:
•Apply different laws to solve problems in electrostatics and
magnetostatics

•Use Maxwell’s equations to obtain electric and magnetic field

solutions for time varying cases.

•Apply antenna fundamentals for analysis of wire antennas

•Distinguish various antenna arrays and design of antennas for special
applications
 Course Outline:
Module Name Contents
Unit 1 Electrostatics:
Electrostatics and Coulomb’s law, electric field and electric flux density, Gauss’s law and divergence
magnetostatics: theorem, electric potential, boundary conditions.
Magnetostatics:
12 hrs Biot Savart law, magnetic field, Ampere’s circuital law and stoke’s theorem, magnetic
flux density, permeability, boundary conditions.
Unit 2 Faraday’s Law, translational and motional emf, displacement current, time varying
Electrodynamics and Maxwell’s equations, Energy density, Helmholtz’s wave equation and uniform plane
Transmission Lines waves in lossy and lossless dielectrics, Transmission line model, parameters and
11 hrs equations
Unit 3 Types of Antenna and Radiation mechanism, Antenna fundamental parameters, Friss
Antenna Fundamentals and Transmission equation, Radiation Integrals, Analysis of dipole and loop antenna
Wire Antennas
10 hrs
Unit 4 Two-element array, N-element array, Planar array, uniform amplitude, uniformly spaced
Antenna arrays and special linear broad side and end-fire array. Design considerations, Radiation pattern and
applications antenna applications of the following antennas: Yagi Uda and Microstrip. Introduction to smart
12 hrs antenna
Text Books:
1. Mathew N. O. Sadiku and S. V. Kulkarni, “Principles of Electromagnetics”, 6th
Edition, Oxford University Press, May 2020.

2. C. A. Balanis, “Antenna Theory-Analysis and Design”, John Wiley , 4th edition,

2016
Assessment Scheme
CCA- 30 marks
Mid-term test Quiz
15 marks 15
LCA- 30 marks
Mid Term Oral Exam End term Oral Exam
15 15
List of Practical
1. To calculate the force due to point charge, line charge and surface charge at a point.

2. Implementation of Biot-savart law.

3. Applying Maxwell’s equations to different electric and magnetic fields.

4. Applying boundary conditions for Electric and Magnetic field to find tangential or normal components.

5. To plot standing wave patterns and measure SWR for open and short-circuited transmission lines.

6. To design and plot radiation pattern and determine half-power beam width of dipole antenna.

7. To design and plot radiation pattern and determine half-power beam width of folded dipole and Yagi Uda
antenna.

8. To measure S-parameters, Impedance bandwidth and VSWR of Helical and Microstrip patch antenna using
VNA.

9. To design and simulate Broad-side antenna arrays.

UNIT 1

ELECTROSTATICS AND
MAGNETOSTATICS:
PART 1 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Scalars and Vectors
•A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude.

•A vector is a quantity that is described by both magnitude and

direction.

•A field is a function that specifies a particular quantity everywhere in

a region.
Scalars and Vectors
Unit Vector
• A vector A has both magnitude and direction.
• The magnitude of A is a scalar written as A or |A| . A unit vector aA along A is defined as a vector
whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its directionAisvector
alongAA,
in Cartesian coordinate is given by:

The magnitude of vector A is given by:

The Unit vector along A is given by:

Vector Addition and Subtraction
• The vector C is given by addition of two vectors A and B

• Addition/subtraction will be component by component, if A=(Ax,Ay,Az) and B=(Bx,By,Bz)

• Vector Addition:
• Vector Subtraction:
Position Vector
• The position vector rP (or radius vector) of point P is defined as the directed distance from the
origin O to P; that is,

Illustration of position vector

Distance Vector
• The distance vector is the displacement from one point to another.
• If two points P and Q are given by (xP, yP, zP) and (xQ, yQ, zQ), the distance vector (or separation
vector) is the displacement from P to Q that is,

Distance vector rPQ

Problem

Answer:

a) Ay =-4

b) 35.74

c) ac = 0.9113ax-0.1302ay+0.3906az
Problem

• Answer:
• a) rP= 2ay+4az
• b) rPQ = (-3,-1,1)
• c) d=3.317
• d) A=
Vector Multiplication
1. Scalar (or dot) product: A∙B

2. Vector(or cross) product: A x B

3. Scalar triple product: A∙(B x C)

4. Vector triple product: A x (B x C)

Dot Product
• The dot product of two vectors A and B, written as A . B, is defined geometrically as the product
of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the smaller angle between them when they are
drawn tail to tail.

• where ƟAB is the smaller angle between A and B.

Dot Product
Cross Product
• The cross product of two vectors A and B, written as A x B, is a vector quantity whose
magnitude is the area of the parallelogram formed by A and B and is in the direction of advance
of a right-handed screw as A is turned into B.
Part 2: Coordinate systems and
Transformation
•Cartesian Coordinate (x,y,z)
• A point P can be represented as (x,y,z). The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y, and z are

• A vector in Cartesian coordinates can be written as

Circular cylindrical coordinates (ρ,φ,z)
• The range of variables are

• A vector in circular cylindrical coordinates can be written as

• Rules of unit vectors:

OR
Relationship between (x,y,z) and (ρ,φ,z)
Transformation
•(Ax,Ay,Az) → (Aρ,Aφ,Az)

•(Aρ,Aφ,Az) → (Ax,Ay,Az)
Spherical coordinates (r,Ɵ,φ)
• The range of variables are

• A vector in circular cylindrical coordinates can be written as

• Rules of unit vectors:

Relationship between (x,y,z) and (r,Ɵ,φ)
Transformation
• (Ax, Ay, Az) → (Ar ,AƟ ,Az)

• (Ar ,AƟ ,Az) → (Ax,Ay,Az)

 Part 3: Vector Calculus
Differential length, Area, and Volume
A. Cartesian Coordinate System Differential Elements

1. Differential displacement is given by

2. Differential normal surface area is given by

Differential normal
surface areas
3. Differential volume is given by
 B. Cylindrical coordinate system
1. Differential displacement is given by Differential Elements

2. Differential normal surface area is given by

3. Differential volume is given by

Differential normal surface areas
 C. Spherical coordinate system
Differential Elements
1. Differential displacement is given by

2. Differential normal surface area is given by

3. Differential volume is given by

Differential normal surface areas
Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
•Line Integral

•Given a vector field A and a curve L, we define the integral,

Surface Integral
• Given a vector field A, continuous in a region
containing the smooth surface S, the surface integral or
the flux of A through S as

or

• For a closed surface, above eq becomes

Which is referred to as the net outward flux of A from S.

Volume Integral
•The volume integral is defined as

•As the volume integral of the scalar ρv over the volume v

Del Operator
• The del operator, written ∇, is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian coordinates,

1. The gradient of scalar V, written as ∇V

2. The divergence of a vector A, written as ∇∙A

3. The curl of a vector A, written as ∇xA

4. The laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇2 V

 Gradient of Scalar
• The gradient of a scalar field at any point is the maximum rate of change of the field at that point.

• In Cartesian,

• In cylindrical,

• In spherical,

Physical significance of gradient scalar

Divergence of a vector and Divergence
Theorem
• The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks
about P.
Divergence of a Vector
• In Cartesian coordinate,

• In cylindrical coordinate,

• In spherical coordinate,
Curl of A Vector and Stokes’s Theorem

• Where the area ΔS is bounded by the curve L and an is the unit vector normal to the surface ΔS
and is determined by using the right-hand rule.
Curl of a Vector A
• In Cartesian,

• In cylindrical,

• In spherical,
Stoke’s Theorem
Laplacian of a Scalar
• A single operator, that is the composite of gradient and divergence operators.
Laplacian of a Scalar
• In cylindrical coordinate,

• In spherical coordinate,
Part 4: Electrostatics

•Coulomb’s law,
•Electric field and electric flux density,
•Gauss’s law and divergence theorem,
•Electric potential,
•Boundary conditions.
Electrostatics
• An electrostatic field is produced by a static charge distribution.
• Applications: In medical work, In Agriculture,

• Electrical power transmission • Electrocardiograms • To sort seeds

• X-ray machines • Electroencephalograms • Direct spraying of plants
In Industry,
• Lightning protection • To measure moisture content
• Paint spraying of crops
• Touch pads,
• Electrodeposition • To spin cotton
• Capacitance keyboards,
• Electrochemical machining • Speed baking bread
• Cathode ray tubes, and separation of fine particles
• Smoking meat
• Liquid crystal displays
Coulomb’s Law
• Formulated in 1785 by Charles Augustin de Coulomb

• Expressed mathematically,
Coulomb’s Law
• The force F is given by considering k value

• If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points having

position vectors r1 and r2, then the force F12 on Q2 due to Q1

• Where
Key points to note:
1. The force F21 on Q1 due to Q2 is given by

Or

Since

2. Like charges (charges of the same sign) repel each other, while unlike charges attract.
Contd…
3. The distance R between the charged bodies Q1 and Q2 must be large compared with the linear

dimensions of the bodies; that is, Q1 and Q2 must be point charges.

4. Q1 and Q2 must be static (at rest).

5. The signs of Q1 and Q2 must be taken into account in equation of F12. For like charges, Q1 Q2

> 0. For unlike charges, Q1 Q2 < 0.

6. Charges cannot be created or destroyed; the quantity of total charge remains constant.
What if more than two point charges?
• Principles of superposition applied to determine force on a particular charge
• The principle states that if there are N charges Q1, Q2, . . . , QN located, respectively, at points
with position vectors r1, r2, . . . , rN, the resultant force F on a charge Q located at point r is the
vector sum of the forces exerted on Q by each of the charges Q1, Q2, . . . , QN.

• Hence,
Electric Field Intensity (E)

• Thus,

• For Q > 0, the electric field intensity E is obviously in the direction of the force F and is measured
in newtons per coulomb or volts per meter.
Electric Field Intensity (E)
• The electric field intensity at point r due to a point charge located at r’ is readily obtained

Or
E for multiple charges
• For N point charges Q1, Q2, . . . , QN located at r1, r2, . . . , rN, the electric field intensity at point
r is obtained

or
 Example
• Point charges 1 mC and 2 mC are located at (3, 2, -1) and (-1, -1, 4), respectively. Calculate the electric
force on a 10 nC charge located at (0, 3, 1) and the electric field intensity at that point.
Practice Problem
E due to continuous charges

ρL- Line charge ρS- Surface ρυ- Volume

density charge density charge density
In C/m In C/m2 In C/m3
E due to continuous charges
Example
Solution:
Solution:
 Electric Flux Density D
• Electric field intensity (E) is dependent on the medium in which charge is placed (generally free
space is considered).

• The usual definition of Electric flux density is not applied here due to above reason.
• A new vector field D is defined by

• The electric flux ψ in terms of D, namely,

In SI units, one line of electric flux emanates from +1C and terminates on -1C. Therefore, the
•
unit Also,
is coulombs.
known asAnd Unitdisplacements
electric of D is coulombs per square meter.
D for surface and volume charge
• For an infinite sheet of charge,

• For a volume charge distribution,

Example
Determine D at (4,0,3) if there is a point charge -5π mC at (4,0,0) and a line charge 3π mC/m along
the y-axis.

Solution:
Let D= DQ+DL
Solution:
Gauss’s Law- Maxwell’s Equation

• Thus,

• That is,

Or Integral Form of Gauss’s

Law
 Gauss’s Law- Maxwell’s Equation
• By applying divergence theorem to the middle term in previous equation

Differential or point form of

• Comparing previous two integrals, Gauss’s Law

• This is one of the Maxwell’s Equation.

• Interpretation: The volume charge density is the same as the divergence of the electric flux
density.
 Electric Potential
• Suppose we wish to move a point charge Q from point A to
point B in an electric field E as shown in Figure.

• From Coulomb’s law, the force on Q is F=QE so that the work

done in displacing the charge by dl is

• The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an

external agent.

• Thus the total work done, or the potential energy required, in

moving Q from A to B, is
Electric Potential
• Dividing W by Q gives the potential energy per unit charge.
• This quantity, denoted by VAB, is known as the potential difference between points A and B. Thus

• Note that
1. In determining VAB, A is the initial point while B is the final point.
2. If VAB is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving Q from A to B; this implies that the work
is being done by the field. However, if VAB is positive, there is a gain in potential energy in the movement;
an external agent performs the work.
3. VAB is independent of the path taken (to be shown a little later).
4. VAB is measured in joules per coulomb, commonly referred to as volts (V).
Electric Potential
• As an example, if the E field in Figure is due to a point charge Q located at the origin, then

• So now, VAB is given by

Or

Where VB and VA are the potentials (or absolute potentials) at B and A, respectively.
Electric Potential
• In problems involving point charges, it is customary to choose infinity as reference; that is, we
assume the potential at infinity is zero. Thus if VA =0 as rA → ꝏ in eq. (4.62), the potential at any
point (rB → r) due to a point charge Q located at the origin is

• In general,
Electric Potential
• In other words, if one assumes zero potential at infinity, the potential at a distance r from the point
charge is the work done per unit charge by an external agent in transferring a test charge from
infinity to that point. Thus,

• If the point charge Q in eq. (4.63) is not located at the origin but at a point whose position vector
is r’, the potential V(x, y, z) or simply V(r) at r becomes
Electric Potential
• We have considered the electric potential due to a point charge. The same basic ideas apply to
other types of charge distribution because any charge distribution can be regarded as consisting of
point charges.

• The superposition principle, which we applied to electric fields, applies to potentials also.
• For n point charges Q1, Q2, . . . , Qn located at points with position vectors r1, r2, . . . , rn, the
potential at r is
Electric Potential for continuous charge
distributions
• For continuous charge distributions, we replace Qk in previous eq. with charge element ρL dl, ρs
dS, or ρυ dυ and

• The summation becomes an integration, so the potential r becomes

• where the primed coordinates are used customarily to denote source point location and the
unprimed coordinates refer to field point (the point at which V is to be determined).
 Example
• Two point charges -4 μC and 5 μC are located at (2,-1,3) and (0,4,-2), respectively. Find the
potential at (1,0,1) , assuming zero potential at infinity.
Boundary Conditions
• If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that the field must
satisfy at the interface separating the media are called boundary conditions.

• We shall consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating

• Dielectric 1 (ԑr1) and dielectric 2 (ԑr2)
• Conductor and dielectric
• Conductor and free space
and
• To determine the boundary conditions, we need to use Maxwell’s equations:

where Qenc is the free charge enclosed by the surface S.

Boundary Conditions
• The electric field intensity E is decomposed into two orthogonal components:

• where Et and En are, respectively, the tangential and normal components of E to the interface of
interest. A similar decomposition can be done for the electric flux density D.

• Same decomposition is applied to the electric flux density D

D = Dt + D n
A. Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
• Consider the E field existing in a region that consists of two
different dielectrics characterized by ԑ1 = ԑ0 ԑr1 and ԑ2 = ԑ0 ԑr2 as
shown in figure.

• The fields E1 and E2 in media 1 and media 2 respectively, can be

decomposed as

• Calculating closed line integration of E along path abcda,

 A. Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary Conditions

Thus the tangential components of E are the same on the two sides of the boundary.

In other words, Et undergoes no change on the boundary and it is said to be continuous across
the boundary.
 For D
• Since D = ԑE = Dt+Dn , the boundary condition can be given by

Or

• The contribution due to the sides vanishes. Allowing Δh →0 gives

Or

Where ρs is the free charge density placed deliberately at the boundary and D is directed from region 2 to region 1
For D
• If no free charge exist at the interface, ρs =0

• Since, D=ԑE,
 Refraction of D or E at a dielectric-dielectric
Boundary
• Besides this, we can use the boundary conditions to
determine the “refraction” of the electric field across the
interface.

• Consider D1 or E1 and D2 or E2 making angles Ɵ1 and

Ɵ2 with the normal to the interface as illustrated in
Figure.

• Using continuous boundary conditions,

or
Refraction of D or E at a dielectric-dielectric
Boundary
• Similarly, using Boundary condition for D

Or

Dividing both, results into

Law of Refraction of the

electric field at a boundary
free of charge. (since ρs=0 is
assumed at the interface).
B. Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
• The conductor is assumed to be perfect (i.e., σ→ꝏ or ρc →0). Although such a conductor is not
realizable for most practical purposes, we may regard conductors such as copper and silver as though
they were perfect conductors.
B. Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
• To determine the boundary conditions for a conductor–dielectric interface, we follow the same
procedure used for the dielectric–dielectric interface except that we incorporate the fact that E = 0
inside the conductor.

• Applying to the closed path abcda of previous figure

• As, Δh→0,
• Similarly, by applying same equation to the cylindrical pillbox and letting Δh→0, we get
B. Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
• Because D=ԑE =0 inside the conductor, previous equation may be written as

or
Conclusion about Perfect Conductor
1. No electric field may exist within a conductor

2. Since E = -∇V = 0, there can be no potential difference between any two points in the
conductor; that is, a conductor is an equipotential body.

3. An electric field E must be external to the conductor and must be normal to its surface; that is,
C. Conductor Free Space Boundary Conditions
• The conductor–free space boundary conditions,
illustrated in Figure, comprise a special case of
conductor–dielectric conditions.

• The boundary conditions at the interface between a

conductor and free space can be obtained by replacing
ԑr by 1 (because free space may be regarded as a special
dielectric for which ԑr = 1).

• The electric field E must be external to the conductor

and normal to its surface. Thus the boundary conditions
are
Example
Practice Example
An Electric Dipole and Flux Lines

• The potential at point P(r,Ɵ,φ) is given by

• where r1 and r2 are the distances between P and 1Q

and P and -Q, respectively.

• If r >>d, r2-r1 ≈ d cosƟ

An Electric Dipole
• Since d cos Ɵ=d ∙ar, where d = d az, if we define p as the dipole moment

• The eq. may be written as

• If dipole centre is not at the origin but at r’, eq. becomes

Or
 Electric Flux Lines

• In other words, they are the lines to which the electric flux
density D is tangential at every point.

• For equipotential line or surface,

•A typical application of field mapping (flux lines and
equipotential surfaces) is found in the study of the human
heart.

• The human heart beats in response to an electric field

potential difference across it. The heart can be characterized
as a dipole with the field map similar to fig (b)
Problem
• Two dipoles with dipole moments -5az nC ∙ m and 9az nC ∙ m are located at points (0, 0, -2) and
(0, 0, 3), respectively. Find the potential at the origin.
POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS

which is known as Laplace’s equation.

 Applications
❑ THESE ARE USED TO SOLVE ELECTROSTATIC PROBLEMS INVOLVING A SET OF
CONDUCTORS MAINTAINED AT DIFFERENT POTENTIALS.

✔ EXAMPLES OF SUCH PROBLEMS INCLUDE CAPACITORS AND VACUUM TUBE

DIODES.

❑ OTHER APPLICATIONS:
✔ MAGNETIC POTENTIAL (V) IN MAGNETOSTATICS
✔ TEMPERATURE IN HEAT CONDUCTION
✔ STRESS FUNCTION IN FLUID FLOW
✔ PRESSURE HEAD IN SEEPAGE
RESISTANCE
❑ Capacitor may have two (or more) conductors (or plates) CAPACITANCE
carrying equal but opposite charges.
❑ This implies that all the flux lines leaving one conductor must
necessarily terminate at the surface of the other conductor.
❑ The plates may be separated by free space or a dielectric
 Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Parallel-plate capacitor Fringing effect due to a parallel-plate capacitor

 Coaxial Capacitor
It is essentially a coaxial cable or coaxial
cylindrical capacitor.
 Spherical Capacitor
It is the case of two concentric spherical
conductors

Isolated spheres
 METHOD OF IMAGES
❑ It is commonly used to determine V, E, D, and ρs due to charges in the presence of conductors.
❑ By this method, we avoid solving poisson’s or laplace’s equation but rather utilize the fact that a
conducting surface is an equipotential.

❑ Although the method does not apply to all electrostatic problems, it can reduce a formidable
problem to a simple one.

❑ The image theory states that a given charge configuration above an infinite grounded perfect
conducting plane may be replaced by the charge configuration itself, its image, and an
equipotential surface in place of the conducting plane.
A Point Charge above a Grounded Conducting Plane
PART 5
MAGNETO STATICS
 Biot-Savart’s Law

• That is,

Or

where k is the constant of proportionality. In SI units, k=1/4π, so

eq. (7.2) becomes
Biot-Savart’s Law
• where R = |R| and aR = R/R; R and dl are illustrated in previous fig.

• From the definition of cross product in eq. (1.21), it is easy to notice that eq. (7.3) is better put in
vector form as
Right hand Rule for Direction
• It is customary to represent the direction of the magnetic field intensity H (or current I) by a small
circle with a dot or cross sign depending on whether H (or I) is out of the page, or into it
respectively
 For different current distributions
• If we define K as the surface current density in
amperes per meter and J as the volume current density
in amperes per meter squared, the source elements are
related as
H for different charge distributions

• Where aR is a unit vector pointing from the differential element of current to the point of interest.
• Let us determine the field due to a straight current carrying filamentary
conductor of finite length AB as in figure.

• Assumptions:
• Placed along the z-axis with its upper and lower ends, respectively,
• Subtending angles α2 and α1
• H is to be determined at point P.
• Note that current flows from point A, where α=α1, to point B, where
α=α2.

• If we consider the contribution dH at P due to an element dl at (0, 0, z)

• But,

Hence,

Letting

Or
• As a special case, when the conductor is semi-infinite (with
respect to P) so that point A is now at O(0, 0, 0) while B is at
(0, 0, ꝏ), α1= 90°, α2 = 0°, and eq. becomes

• Another case, when the conductor is infinite in length so that

point A is now at O(0, 0, - ꝏ) while B is at (0, 0, ꝏ), α1=
180°, α2 = 0°, and eq. becomes
Problem
• The conducting triangular loop in below figure carries a current of 10 A. Find H at (0, 0, 5) due to side
1 of the loop.
Practice Problem
Ampere’s Circuit Law-Maxwell’s Equation
• In other words, the circulation of H equals Ienc; that is,

• By applying Stokes’s theorem to the left-hand side

• But

• After comparing the surface integrals,

Magnetic Flux Density – Maxwell’s Equation
• The magnetic flux density B is similar to the electric flux density D.
• The magnetic flux density B is related to the magnetic field intensity H according to

• where μo is a constant known as the permeability of free space.

• The constant is in Henrys per meter (H/m) and has the value of

• The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

where the magnetic flux Ψ is in webers (Wb) and the magnetic flux density is in webers per square
meter (Wb/m2) or teslas (T).
• A magnetic flux line is a path to which B is tangential at
every point on the line.

• The direction of B is taken as that indicated as “north” by the

needle of the magnetic compass.

• In an electrostatic field, the flux passing through a closed Magnetic flux lines due to a
straight wire with current coming out of the
surface is the same as the charge enclosed; that is, page.

• Thus it is possible to have an isolated electric charge as

shown in Figure (a), which also reveals that electric flux
lines are not necessarily closed.

• Unlike electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines always close

upon themselves as in Figure (b).

• This is because it is not possible to have isolated magnetic

poles (or magnetic charges).
• Thus the total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic field must be zero; that is,
Gauss’s Law for
Magneto static fields

• By applying divergence theorem to above eq.,

Maxwell’s Equation
Maxwell’s Equation for Static Field
Classification of materials: Permeability
• Classification of material is based on magnetic susceptibility χm or the relative permeability μr
• Material is said to be nonmagnetic if χm = 0 (or μr = 1) e.g. free space, air
• It is magnetic otherwise

Bismuth, Mercury, Silver Air, Aluminium, etc. Soft iron, cobalt, etc.
etc.
Superconductor cannot contain magnetic
field!!!
• Diamagnetism occurs when the magnetic fields in a material that are due to electronic motions of
orbiting and spinning completely cancel each other.

• Thus, the permanent (or intrinsic) magnetic moment of each atom is zero and such materials are
weakly affected by a magnetic field.

• For most diamagnetic materials (e.g., bismuth, lead, copper, silicon, diamond, sodium chloride),
χm is of the order of -10-5.

• “perfect diamagnetism” occurs at temperatures near absolute zero: χm = -1 or μr = 0 and B = 0.

Thus superconductors cannot contain magnetic fields.
 Typical magnetization (B-H) curve

retentivity

Coercive
fields

Hysteresis- Greek name of Lag

Problem
 Magnetic Boundary Condition
• We define magnetic boundary conditions as the conditions that H (or B) field must satisfy at the
boundary between two different media. Let us use Gauss’s law for magnetic fields

• and Ampère’s circuit law

 Magnetic Boundary Condition for B
• Consider the boundary between two magnetic media 1 and 2,
characterized, respectively, by μ1 and μ2 as shown in Figure.

• Applying eq. of Gauss’s law for magnetic field to the pillbox

(Gaussian Surface) and allowing Δh→0, we obtain

• Thus,

• Since B=μH.
The normal component of B is continuous at the boundary.
It also shows that the normal component of H is discontinuous at the boundary;H undergoes some change
at the interface.
 Magnetic Boundary Condition for H
• Similarly, we apply Ampere’s circuit law to the closed path abcda of fig. b,
where surface current K on the boundary is assumed normal to the path.

• As Δh → 0, above eq. Leads to

• This shows that the tangential component of H is also discontinuous.
Equation may be written in terms of B as
 Magnetic Boundary Condition for H
In the general case,

• where an12 is a unit vector normal to the interface and is directed from
medium 1 to medium 2.

• If the boundary is free of current or the media are not conductors (for K is
free current density), K=0 and above eq. becomes

• Thus the tangential component of H is continuous while that of B is

discontinuous at the boundary.
 Magnetic Boundary Condition
• If the fields make an angle u with the normal to the interface, then it results into
ref

• While eq. Produces

• Dividing second equation with first equation

The law of reflection for magnetic flux lines at a boundary with no surface current.
Problem
Practice problem
Thank you!!!