REVIEWS

applied and industrial microBiology

Microbial electrosynthesis —
revisiting the electrical route for
microbial production
Korneel Rabaey and René A. Rozendal
Abstract | Microbial electrocatalysis relies on microorganisms as catalysts for reactions
occurring at electrodes. Microbial fuel cells and microbial electrolysis cells are well known
in this context; both use microorganisms to oxidize organic or inorganic matter at an anode
to generate electrical power or H2, respectively. The discovery that electrical current can
also drive microbial metabolism has recently lead to a plethora of other applications in
bioremediation and in the production of fuels and chemicals. Notably, the microbial
production of chemicals, called microbial electrosynthesis, provides a highly attractive, novel
route for the generation of valuable products from electricity or even wastewater. This
Review addresses the principles, challenges and opportunities of microbial electrosynthesis,
an exciting new discipline at the nexus of microbiology and electrochemistry.

Biocatalyst
Electrical power can now be produced in a sustainable term microbial electrosynthesis was used to describe the
A catalyst of biological origin, way by, for example, wind turbines and photovoltaic electricity-driven reduction of CO2 (REF. 6) using whole
which can be an enzyme, an cells. This prospect of sustainable energy produc- microorganisms as electrocatalysts. In line with the
organelle or even a whole cell. tion has made electrical energy the key for our future definition of conventional (that is, non-microbial) elec-
transportation1 and chemical production needs (using trosynthesis, we expand microbial electrosynthesis here
Bioelectrosynthesis
the use of biocatalysts to battery-driven vehicles and electrosynthesis, respec- to mean ‘the microbially catalysed synthesis of chemi-
achieve electricity-driven tively). For electrosynthesis, adequate electrocatalysts cal compounds in an electrochemical cell’, which, in
synthesis. are needed to catalyse the electrode-driven chemical addition to the electricity-driven reduction of CO2, also
reactions. Owing to their higher specificity and versatil- includes the electricity-driven reduction or oxidation of
Overpotential
the difference between
ity relative to existing chemical catalysts, biocatalysts are other organic feedstocks. In this Review, we describe the
the thermodynamically increasingly being considered for these electrosynthetic known pathways of extracellular electron transfer (EET)
determined potential and processes. Bioelectrosynthesis relies on the interaction in bacteria and discuss the opportunities for microbial
the experimentally observed between biocatalysts and electrodes2,3 and mainly uses electrosynthesis.
potential of a half reaction;
enzymes or organelles that are physically immobilized on
in an electrolytic cell, this
corresponds to an energy the electrode surface. However, although enzymes Bioelectrochemical systems: the basics
loss, such that more energy and organelles can provide a high reaction specifi- Microbial electrosynthetic processes are conducted in
is required to carry out the city and controllability, the use of whole microorganisms so-called bioelectrochemical systems (BESs), which
reaction than is expected. in bioelectrosynthetic processes has several advantages, consist of an anode, a cathode and, typically, a mem-
including self-regeneration of the catalyst, adaptation of brane separating the two (FIG. 1). An oxidation process
the catalyst quantity to the required conversion activ- occurs at the anode (for example, acetate oxidation or
ity, flexibility in substrate use and higher versatility than water oxidation), whereas a reduction process occurs
enzymes or organelles for product formation or conver- at the cathode (for example, O2 reduction or H2 evolu-
Advanced Water
Management Centre, sion pathways. The disadvantage of microorganisms tion). The electrodes are surrounded by an electrolyte
Gehrmann Building, is that they consume part of the substrate or donor for — the fluid around the electrode containing the reac-
The University of Queensland, growth — albeit possibly only intermittently — and, tants and/or products — which is generally an aqueous
Brisbane, Queensland 4072, as such, they are not true catalysts. However, like true solution or wastewater (as a feed source). BESs can be
Australia.
Correspondence to K.R.
catalysts, whole microorganisms have been shown to operated in ‘microbial fuel cell’ mode, in which they
e-mail: [email protected] decrease the overpotentials at both anodes4 and cath- deliver power 7, in short-circuit mode, in which the
doi:10.1038/nrmicro2422 odes5, resulting in improved performance. Recently, the anode and cathode are connected without a resistor, or

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 REVIEWS

hydroxyl ions may become diffusion limited14. This also

Power production leads to a decrease in the power output or an increase in
e– e– the power requirement.
or
Short circuit drawing electrons from microorganisms
e– In 1910, M. C. Potter wrote that “The disintegration
or
of organic compounds by microorganisms is accom-
Power supply panied by the liberation of electrical energy” (REF. 15).
e– e–
or
This finding, made using Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was
perhaps the first observation of what we now know as
Renewable energy –
(solar or wind) e e– EET, the process by which microorganisms can trans-
port electrons into and out of the cell from or towards
an insoluble electron donor or acceptor. The primary
focus of most research on EET has been (and still is)
e– e– the transfer from organic electron donors towards min-
Microbially Chemically erals and electrodes. Community analyses of microbial
or Chemically Microbially
catalysed catalysed
catalysed
or
catalysed fuel cell anodes reveal a high species diversity, including
C+
e– both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms16,17.
CO2
Cathode

O2
Anode

Product Product However, the current models for EET are built around
e– H2O only Gram-negative isolates, as most Gram-positive
H+ isolates have not shown a strong capacity for EET thus
Organics A– Electron Electron
H2 far 18–20. Two key mechanisms for electron transfer can be
acceptor acceptor
discerned: these are direct and indirect transfer. Based
on the innate capabilities of organisms isolated from
microbial fuel cells, it seems that in microbial populations
C+ A– C+ multiple strategies are in operation simultaneously 21,
or or maximizing the use of available resources.
A– C+ A– Here we define direct EET as ‘not requiring the
diffusion of a mobile component to and from the cell
No membrane
for electron transport’. Direct transfer has been widely
studied in Geobacter sulfurreducens 22,23 and Shewanella
Figure 1 | A high-level overview of the concepts associated with bioelectrochemical oneidensis str. MR‑1 (REF. 24), and there are several excel-
Nature Reviews
systems. A plethora of choices can be made regarding the membrane, | Microbiology
the nature of the
lent reviews regarding the putative mechanisms of direct
catalysts at both the anode and the cathode, and the source of the reducing power. This
leads to a highly versatile technology that can carry out a diverse range of processes. transfer in these species17,25–27. Briefly, direct transfer typ-
ically involves at least a series of periplasmic and outer-
membrane complexes. For S. oneidensis, the apparent
in ‘microbial electrolysis cell’ mode, in which power is terminal cell-bound complex is MtrC, a decahaem cyto-
invested to increase the kinetics of the reactions and/or chrome located on the outside of the membrane and
to drive thermodynamically unfavourable reactions8. In capable of donating electrons in a broad potential range28.
theory, much energy could be derived from microbial Electrons are transported from the periplasm to MtrC
conversion reactions and limited energy would need through a transmembrane electron transfer module con-
to be invested to drive a microbial electrolysis process sisting of MtrA, the transporting protein, incorporated
(BOX 1), but in reality the energy gained or invested is inside MtrB, a sheath protein28. For G. sulfurreducens, a
considerably less or more, respectively. To understand similar dependency on membrane-bound cytochromes
this, one needs to consider the losses in the BESs (for has been well documented29. In recent years the involve-
an in depth discussion, see REFS 9–12). First, the oxi- ment of pili or pilus-like appendages (called nanowires
dation or reduction reaction at the electrode will incur in this context) was established30. These seem to be essen-
so-called activation overpotential, causing a voltage loss tial for high levels of current production in G. sulfur‑
due to imperfect catalysis at the electrode. The addition reducens31, in conjunction with OmcZ, a matrix-located
of a chemical or biological catalyst decreases this activa- cytochrome32. It has been suggested that nanowires
tion overpotential but will never eliminate it. Second, also establish electron transport between different
when electrons flow through an electrical circuit, ions microorganisms in a community 33.
simultaneously need to move through the electrolyte to The second, indirect method for EET involves the
restore the charge balance between anode and cathode. production or use of so-called electron shuttles, which
The electrolyte has a certain conductivity (for waste- transport the electrons from the cell to the electrode.
water, typically 1–10 millisiemens per cm)13 and this, Examples of electron shuttles produced as secondary
together with losses in the electrodes and the electrical metabolites by organisms in BESs are phenazines19,21 and
Humic substance circuit, will lead to an ohmic loss. Notably this aspect is flavins34,35, whereas humic substances are electron shuttles
Recalcitrant organic compound
that is formed during the
crucial for successful scaling up of the technology 13. last, that are not produced by the cell36. In addition, primary
decomposition of plant, animal at higher current densities (or low mixing) the supply of metabolites of bacteria such as sulphur species37–39 and
and microbial cells. substrate to the electrode or the discharge of protons or H2 (REFS. 2,40) can convey electrons towards iron oxides

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REVIEWS

Box 1 | theoretical cell voltages

Bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) can produce power (when they are known as microbial fuel cells) or require an input of
power (when they are known as microbial electrolysis cells), depending on the reactions taking place at the electrodes
(see the figure*). In a microbial fuel cell, oxidation of an electron donor at the anode (for example, the oxidation of acetate
to HCO3–; standard electrode potential at pH7 (E’0) = –0.28 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)) is coupled to
the reduction of an electron acceptor with a higher electrode potential at the cathode (for example, the reduction of O2
to water; E’0 = 0.82 V versus SHE). The resulting cell voltage (cathode potential minus anode potential; 1.10 V in this
example) is positive and, thus, power is produced. Conversely, in a microbial electrolysis cell, the oxidation of an electron
donor at the anode (for example, acetate/HCO3–; E’0 = –0.28 V versus SHE) is coupled to the reduction of an electron
acceptor with a lower electrode potential at the cathode (for example, H+/H2; E’0 = –0.41 V versus SHE). As the resulting cell
voltage is negative (–0.13 V), an input of power is required. If water is the electron donor (that is, H2O/O2; E’0 = 0.82 V versus
SHE), high energy inputs are required. This illustrates the advantage of bioanodes, which can reduce energy input.
In a BES, microbial reactions that do not proceed through direct electron transfer mechanisms can be catalysed by the use
of electron mediators, such as thionin, neutral red and methyl viologen. These compounds can shuttle electrons between
electrode surfaces and microorganisms.

1.0 1.0

0.9 0.9

0.8 O2 /H2O (0.82 V; 4e )

–
H2O/O2 (0.82 V; 4e–) 0.8
NO3 /N2 (0.75 V; 5e–)
–

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

Cathode
Anode

O2 /H2O2 (0.28 V; 2e–)

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1
Thionin (0.06 V) Fumarate/succinate (0.03 V; 2e–)
0.0 0.0

–0.1 –0.1
HCO3– /methane (–0.24 V; 8e–)
–0.2 AQDS (–0.18 V) HCO3– /acetate (–0.28 V; 8e–)
–0.2
Methane/HCO3– (–0.24 V; 8e–) HCO3– /butanol (–0.30 V; 24e–)
Acetate/HCO3– (–0.28 V; 8e–) –0.3 –0.3 HCO3– /ethanol (–0.31 V; 12e–)
Neutral red (–0.33 V) HCO3– /PHB (–0.31 V; 18e–)
Butyrate/butanol (–0.37 V; 4e–)
H2 /H+ (–0.41 V; 2e–) –0.4 –0.4 Acetate/ethanol (–0.39 V; 4e–)
Glucose/HCO3– (–0.41 V; 24e–) Methyl viologen (–0.46 V) HCO3– /formate (–0.41 V; 2e–)
–0.5 –0.5 H+/H2 (–0.41 V; 2e–)

PHB, poly-β-hydroxybutyrate. *The electrode potentials of all electron donor and acceptor couples are calculated from Gibbs free
Nature
energy data, from REFS 99,117, according to the methods described in REF. 13. The E’0 values of the Reviews
electron | Microbiology
mediators are from
REFS 83,118.

and electrodes, respectively. For Pelobacter carbinolicus, interest thus far for bioanodes has been in the context of
sulphur species are essential for EET towards miner- microbial fuel cells for wastewater treatment 45–47, and
als during the oxidation of ethanol41; whether this is for power production from renewable feedstocks 48
also the case for EET towards electrodes remains to be and sediments49.
investigated.
light can be used as additional driver of anode cataly- microbially assisted electrosynthesis
sis; anodic H2 production from malate by Rhodospirillum Already, the use of a bioanode in combination with a
rubrum was linked to cathodic O2 generation by a blue- chemical cathode for electrosynthesis is attracting much
green marine alga (tentatively identified as a member attention. H2 can be produced by adding power to a
of the Oscillatoriales)2. light drove both reactions, and microbial electrolysis cell with a platinum or otherwise
therefore this study is perhaps the first to describe a catalysed cathode50,51. In addition, the consumption of
biocatalysed cathode. This concept was later revived protons at the cathode, be it for the reduction of O2 or
by several independent groups42–44. However, the key water, leads to an increasing pH52,53, which was recently

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Timeline | major achievements towards microbial electrosynthesis

Electrically reduced
neutral red serves as the Mediated current
Current supply through Mediated current supply sole electron donor for the Direct electron transfer supply to a microbial
a mediator increases enhances butanol yield growth of Actinobacillus from cathodes to Geobacter A bioanode drives population allows
glutamic acid yield during Clostridium succinogenes and for spp. is established. An methane production acetate consumption
during glucose acetobutylicum methane production by attached biofilm reduces via cathodically and ethanol
fermentation 62,63. fermentations64. a mixed population81. fumarate to succinate57. generated H2 (REF. 74). production83.

1981 1988 1990 1999 2001 2004 2008 2010

The product of glucose fermentation is 6-bromo-2-tetralol Anodic biofilms are converted A biofilm of Sporomusa
shifted from acetate to propionate production by the yeast to cathodic biofilms for H2 or ovata produces acetate
through a mediated current supply103. Trichosporon capitatum is methane production95. and oxo-butyrate from
stimulated by a mediated Biofilm-based methanogenesis CO2 and electrical
current supply102. is studied in depth89. current6.

exploited for the production of caustic solutions 54. driver of a lithoautotrophic or lithoheterotrophic metabo-
likewise, the use of carbon cathodes in BESs leads to lism. The cathodic current supply for respiration has
the cathodic formation of hydrogen peroxide55, which been investigated mainly for bioremediation purposes,
can be harvested as a valuable chemical. This hydrogen such as perchlorate reduction66,67, denitrification57,68,69,
peroxide can be used for subsequent oxidation reactions, reductive dechlorination70–72 and uranium recovery73. The
not only for bioproduction but also for bioremediation. electrode potential at which cathodic electron transfer can
Recently, hydrogen peroxide was obtained at a BES occur for respiratory processes has typically been higher
cathode and used to degrade p-nitrophenol in a Fenton than the potentials applied to affect fermentation proc-
reaction56; this is a strong oxidation reaction requiring esses5,69, which is the logical consequence of the fact that
hydrogen peroxide and ferrous iron (Feii), typically in the midpoint potentials of most respiratory acceptors
acidic conditions. Thus, microbially assisted electrosynthesis are much higher than those of the fermentation ‘accep-
can effectively be used for the production of oxidants or tors’. Considering these differences in potentials, it is
Bioremediation disinfectants. likely that different pathways exist for electron uptake
the use of microorganisms or in microorganisms. The following sections discuss the
biocatalysts for environmental pumping electrons into microorganisms different options for EET towards microorganisms; a
clean-up.
whereas mechanistic information about microbially schematic representation is given in FIG. 2.
Microbially assisted catalysed electron flow towards electrodes is abundant, The first means of cathodic EET is through H2. This
electrosynthesis information about the reverse process is limited. In gas can readily be produced at cathodes and can serve
the use of whole recent years, several studies have investigated the com- as a driver for microbial metabolism without an appar-
microorganisms as electrode munities that develop on cathodes. As found for the ent negative effect on microbial integrity 74,75. This fact
catalysts to drive the chemical
synthesis of products at a
anodic communities, there was a high species diversity and the versatile range of products that can be formed
counter electrode. in the cathodic communities5,57,58, but more research when microbial metabolism is driven by H2 make this
is needed to establish whether these communities are approach a good first stepping stone towards electricity-
Lithoautotrophic directly or indirectly catalysing the electrode reaction59,60. driven bioproduction of chemicals such as methane74.
Of a microorganism: using an
Several studies of electron transfer towards microor- However, H2 has two shortcomings as a driver of micro-
inorganic electron donor and
CO2 as a carbon source. ganisms, mainly in the context of bioremediation, have bial metabolism. First, it has a low solubility, making
been excellently reviewed recently 61. In the context of high local concentrations difficult to achieve unless the
Lithoheterotrophic bioproduction, reducing power provided by means microbial environment is pressurized. This may be a
Of a microorganism: using an of an electrode can either redirect fermentation path- particular disadvantage for conversions that require
inorganic electron donor and
an organic compound as
ways (sometimes called electro-fermentation) or drive a low redox potential close to the H2 midpoint potential,
carbon source. respiration (tImElInE). Electro-fermentation has been as a low redox potential requires high H2 partial pressures.
investigated in bioproduction pathways such as the pro- Second, and perhaps more important, is the fact that H2
Electrode potential duction of l-glutamic acid62,63. within constraints such production comes with a high overpotential at non-
the potential of an electrode
as maintaining redox homeostasis and product toxicity, catalysed electrodes. This means that to achieve notable
relative to a reference
electrode. a reductive process is expected to drive the NADH pool current densities, even when using a platinum-catalysed
to a more reduced state, which forces the production cathode, the potential of the cathode will be consider-
Standard hydrogen of reduced metabolites such as butanol and ethanol ably lower than the theoretical standard electrode
electrode to increase64,65. In electro-fermentation the cathodic potential at pH 7 (E’0), which is –0.410 V as measured
the universal reference
electrode, which has a
current influences the fluxes in an existing fermenta- versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)51 (BOX 1).
standard electrode potential tion pathway, whereas in what we could label ‘electro- Thus, effective and safe cathodic bioproduction probably
(that is, at pH 0) of 0 V. respiration’ the cathodic current becomes the true needs to circumvent H2. Several studies using microbial

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REVIEWS

CO2 alcohols. Electron shuttles with higher midpoint poten-

PHB Substrate tials, such as anthraquinone-2,6-disulphonate (AQDS)
Products
(E’ 0 = –0.184 V versus SHE; BOX 1), were effective for
the cathodic reduction of perchlorate66. Again, the mid-
CO2 point potential of AQDS indicates that EET does not
Medox Products
necessarily occur at the NADH/NAD+ (E’ 0 = –0.320 V
Products H2 + 2OH –
2H2O Medred versus SHE) level or even at the H2 (E’ 0 = –0.410 V versus
Formate SHE; BOX 1) level. The use of iron as an electron shuttle
CO2 towards microorganisms in acidic conditions has also
e– e– been investigated85.
The third and, perhaps, most attractive means of
e– e– achieving EET from cathodes is through direct bio-
Cathode catalysis. As for anode systems, this decreases over-
potentials and, to a certain extent, eliminates the
Figure 2 | Mechanisms for electron transfer from electrodes to microorganisms. existing diffusional limitations for both H2 and shuttles.
The direct route of electron transfer (far left) seems the most attractive, but it is currently
Natureconversion
Reviews | Microbiology Moreover, from an engineering standpoint, a produc-
only speculative57,89. The production of H2 for subsequent microbial 74
(middle
left) and the use of mediators (Medred and Medox for reduced and oxidized mediator, tion process in which the biocatalyst is immobilized
respectively; middle right) (for example, methyl viologen)64 are more established. Finally, in the reactor simplifies the solid–liquid separations.
the production of intermediate building blocks such as formate (far right) has been Cathode-driven nitrate reduction was achieved using
shown to be useful for single enzymes92 and needs to be demonstrated with whole Geobacter metallireducens attached to the cathode57.
microorganisms. PHB, poly-β-hydroxybutyrate. These experiments indicated that Geobacter spp. accept
electrons directly from the electrode surface. Recently,
the same group described the formation of acetate and
populations describe cathode potentials of above 0 V oxo-butyrate from CO2 using Sporomusa ovata6. Direct
(at pH 7), strongly suggesting that electron transfer transfer was assumed to occur, because the micro-
does not involve either H2 or ferredoxin (for example, organisms were attached to an electrode with an applied
for ferredoxin, E’0 ≈ –0.400 V versus SHE)76. potential of around –0.400 V versus SHE, which is higher
The second method of cathodic EET is through elec- than previously described potentials for H2 evolution at
tron shuttles. As found for anodic EET, electron shuttles graphite cathodes86. In earlier, bioremediation-based
can provide an effective conduit for electrons towards studies, direct electron transfer was also investigated for
a microorganism during cathodic EET. The advantages species including Anaeromyxobacter dehalogenans and
of electron shuttles are that they can be dissolved at a Geobacter lovleyi 72,87. Recently, several studies using
higher concentration than H2, can decrease the overpo- mixed populations at the cathode have recorded high
tential at the electrode, can be chosen for their specific cathode potentials, limited or no H2 production, and
midpoint potential, can be reused many times and can be biofilm-based activity, all of which indicate that direct
used in a large reactor (provided that the reactor is suf- electron transfer also occurs in these microbial popu-
ficiently mixed). The disadvantages of shuttles are their lations67–69,88,89. In cases in which direct electron trans-
often limited stability, their possible toxic effects on the fer or the formation of an electro-active biofilm is not
microorganisms and their loss in flow through systems. possible, an approach using bacteria that are physically
Neutral red, methyl viologen and thionin are the most immobilized in, for example, latex can be considered90.
studied compounds in this context 62,64,77,78. In an early last, rather than achieving direct production based
study on butanol fermentation mediated by Clostridium on electrical current, an intermediary microorganism
acetobutylicum, shuttles like neutral red (E’ 0 = –0.325 V or biocatalyst could be used to produce an initial build-
versus a SHE; BOX 1) were thought to stimulate H 2 ing block, such as formate or acetate, from CO2. Such
uptake79, but it was later shown in vitro, using methyl building blocks are subsequently used by other micro-
viologen (E’ 0 = –0.460 V versus SHE; BOX 1)80, that elec- organisms for the production of larger molecules91. For
tron shuttles can directly drive NAD(P)+ reduction to instance, a tungsten-containing formate dehydrogenase
NAD(P)H using NAD(P)+ ferredoxin oxidoreductase64. enzyme (FDH1) adsorbed to an electrode can convert
It was subsequently demonstrated that neutral red can CO2 to formate when electrical current is provided92.
serve as the sole electron donor for growth and succinate Furthermore, transient formate production has also
production from fumarate by Actinobacillus succino‑ been achieved using different microbial cultures that
genes 81,82, and its presence in conjunction with electrical were provided with H2, and a positive relationship
current was shown to enhance glucose consumption, between formate yield and H2 partial pressure was estab-
cell growth and product formation. Therefore, neutral lished93. The product pattern shifted over time to acetate
red can be used as a true driver for microbial conver- for Acetobacterium carbinolicum and to methane for the
sions and the generation of proton motive force, whereas tested methanogen, Methanobacterium formicicum.
methyl viologen combines redox effects with (perceived) likewise, homoacetogens such as Clostridium aceticum
toxicity effects83. It has been suggested that methyl produce acetate from CO2 and H2 (REF. 94). The capac-
viologen induces a shift from an acidogenic phase to a ity for cathodes to deliver reducing power, equivalent to
solventogenic phase in C. acetobutylicum84, thus shifting H2, is an indication of their potential to produce such
the output products from fatty acids to the corresponding building-block chemicals.

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From electricity to product removal from the atmosphere is desirable because of

Microbial electrosynthesis: starting from CO 2. The concerns about its increasing concentration. Cathodic
reduction of CO2 can occur in either ‘dark’ or ‘light’ processes can be driven at least partially by the introduc-
conditions. The production of methane has been the tion of light energy. A biomass production process has
most common aim for respiratory bioproduction in been developed whereby light drives cathode catalysis
dark conditions. Although it is sometimes considered and CO2 fixation by a phototrophic consortium100.
a nuisance byproduct 95, several studies have made the
production of methane a key objective74,81,89. Advantages Microbial electrosynthesis: starting from organics.
of bioelectrochemical methane over conventional biogas Organic compounds, such as acetate, butyrate and lactate,
are the possibility to store electricity or H2 as methane89 are ubiquitously present in wastewaters and fermenter
and the limited sensitivity of the process to ammonia, effluents. Although these compounds are considerably
which can be present in the feedstock74 (this relates to valuable as products, their typically low concentrations
the sensitivity of methanogens to ammonia, which is make extraction economically unfeasible. Recently,
formed at high pH values). The disadvantages are the acetate was converted to ethanol using a cathode and
low value of methane as a product, the energy invest- a mixed microbial community 83. The coulombic efficiency
ment that is required to produce the methane and the of the process was 49% at best, with the highest yield
cost of pressurizing such a gas for transport. The concept observed in the presence of methyl viologen as an elec-
of methane bioproduction was taken further with the tron shuttle. H2 was observed in the off gas, indicat-
development of a BES that produced methane through ing that H2 may have been a key pathway for EET. The
a biofilm that was immobilized on the cathode89. It was methyl viologen depleted rapidly owing to irreversible
suggested that the EET towards the microorganisms reduction at the cathode101, and in its absence high yields
was direct and thus did not proceed through H2. This was of butyrate (an undesired end product) were found. The
also suggested in a recent report 96 detailing the use of details of the metabolism involved in ethanol production
electrochemical analyses to examine cathode catalysis. in this study are currently unclear, as no apparent ATP
Direct EET enables electron flow without electron shut- formation process was identified and excess equivalents
tle loss, for example, and enables the use of biofilms for were discharged through methanogenesis. In a separate
methane production, two aspects that are highly attrac- study, the same group used H2 to reduce butyrate to
tive from an engineering standpoint. Further research butanol at low overall alcohol yields98; if this could be
through, for example, pure cultures and biofilm-based achieved effectively in the aforementioned set-up con-
systems will unequivocally establish whether EET in verting acetate to ethanol, then the butyrate formation
these systems is indeed direct. could lead to butanol as a more attractive end product.
Conceptually, the above examples can probably be Conversion of fumarate to succinate has been achieved
expanded to most (if not all) H2-based microbial produc- using A. succinogenes, with electrically reduced neutral
tion processes. Examples of H2-driven reactions include red as an electron donor 81. Interestingly, neutral red
the production of the bioplastic poly-β-hydroxybutyrate could also be used to drive respiration and to enhance
by Cupriavidus necator (also known as Alcaligenes glucose fermentation coupled to product formation82.
eutrophus)97 and the production of acetate by homo- Moreover, the same process was achieved without the
acetogens, such as C. aceticum94. The need to establish addition of a mediator using G. sulfurreducens 57. lastly,
the energetic favourability of the processes is important BESs can also be used for the production of higher-value
for all these conversions, as the reduction of organics compounds. For instance, a kinetically enhanced proc-
proceeds at low redox potentials (examples of energetic- ess has been established to convert 6-bromo-2-tetralone
favourability calculations are available in REF. 98, and to 6-bromo-2-tetralol, which is an intermediate in the
basic thermodynamic data can be found in REF. 99). synthesis of the potassium channel blocker MK-0499 (a
A key disadvantage of CO2 as an electron acceptor chiral drug candidate)102. For such higher-value com-
is the large electron requirement for the synthesis of pounds, for which the resource cost (in energy and
organic compounds. Although the theoretical potentials chemicals) is typically a small fraction of the produc-
for the reduction of butyrate to butanol (E’0 = –0.37 V tion cost, it remains to be seen whether redox control or
versus SHE; BOX 1) and the reduction of CO2 to butanol electron supply with a cathode are sufficiently attractive
(E’ 0 = –030 V versus SHE; BOX 1) are similar, the reduction compared with the existing approaches.
of butyrate to butanol requires only 4 electrons, whereas
the reduction of CO2 to butanol requires 24 electrons, Rerouting the metabolism. The control of fermentation
which implies a 6-fold higher current demand and an pathways using electrical current — referred to as ‘electro-
equivalently large power demand for this reaction. The fermentation’ or ‘an electro-energizing method’ in the
conversion of CO2 to butanol will also probably involve past — has been investigated for a range of chemicals.
multiple synthesis steps, each with certain efficiency The first demonstration of this concept involved provid-
losses. Moreover, in most cases CO2 needs to be obtained ing electrical current through a platinum cathode (using
Coulombic efficiency from the atmosphere or from waste gas at industrial sites neutral red as an electron shuttle) to increase the yield
the efficiency of charge (for example, coal-fired power plants), limiting either of l-glutamic acid production from glucose62. A 26%
transfer from the electron
donor to the anode, or from
the kinetics or the geographical location of the produc- increase in butanol formation by C. acetobutylicum was
the cathode to the electron tion site. On the upside, CO2 is ubiquitously available, also observed during current supply 64. Butanol produc-
acceptor. it is a reasonably good electron acceptor (BOX 1), and its tion has since been the focus of several studies, mainly

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a e– e–
b e– e–

Effluent C+ Products Effluent C+ Products

Cathode
Cathode
Anode

Anode
Wastewater A– Reactants Wastewater A– Reactants
(organics, (organics,
CO2 or O2) CO2 or O2)

c d
e– e– e– e–

O2 C+ Products Effluent C+ Medred Medred Products

Cathode

Cathode
Anode

Anode
Water A– Reactants Wastewater A– Medox Medox Reactants
(organics, (organics,
CO2 or O2) CO2 or O2)

Figure 3 | configurations for bioelectrochemical system-based bioproduction. a | The use of a bioanode in

Nature Reviews | Microbiology
combination with a chemical cathode (example: hydrogen peroxide production from wastewater). b | The use of a
bioanode in combination with a biocathode (example: bioplastic production from wastewater and CO2). c | The use of a
chemical anode in combination with a biocathode (example: solar-driven butanol production from CO2). d | The use of
either a chemical or biological anode in combination with a cathode that reduces mediators. The mediators (Medox and
Medred; oxidized and reduced mediator, respectively) can be used either in situ or in an external vessel to drive a
bioproduction process (example: butanol production from glucose and wastewater).

assisted by methyl viologen as an electron shuttle79,84, to their use. The bioanode represents an energy saving
and the recent interest in butanol as a sustainable fuel is relative to chemical anodes, as the electrons are gener-
sparking renewed interest in this area of research. The ated at a low potential (that is, a high energy level). This
impact of electrical current on the fermentative forma- is in contrast to anodic water splitting and generating
tion of propionate by Propionibacterium freudenreichii O2, during which the electrons are generated at a high
was also investigated, and it was found that, by virtue potential (that is, a low energy level)104 (E’0 = 0.82 V versus
of a redox shuttle, reducing equivalents could be trans- SHE; BOX 1). It is interesting to note that the resulting
ported from a platinum cathode to the cells, leading to O2 also represents a risk towards the cathodic process, as
a shift in the fermentation end products towards higher it may diffuse from anode to cathode. In addition, bio-
propionate yields103. In addition to these examples, a anodes are typically made from low-cost carbon materi-
wide range of attractive conversions can be envisaged, als, in contrast to the costly dimensionally stable anodes
the energy levels required for which are highlighted in (such as titanium-coated electrodes) that are required
BOX 1. In many cases, the key role for electrical current for water splitting. Furthermore, the oxidation of organ-
is as a potentially cheaper source of reducing power than ics delivers CO2, which can be reused at the cathode for
conventional substrates such as glucose. the electrosynthesis reaction, as well as nutrients such
as nitrogen. The supply of both is presently of concern
towards a production process for existing biofuel approaches. In conjunction with
Three configurations supporting biocatalysed cathodes peripheral technology, and provided that they perform
can be envisaged (FIG. 3). In the first set-up, both anode at larger scales, BESs could become the cornerstone of a
and cathode can be biocatalysed (FIG. 3b). A typical exam- wastewater biorefinery, in which solids (for composting),
ple of such a configuration is a BES using organics present energy (for bioproduction), nutrients (through chemi-
in wastewater or sludge hydrolysates to drive the anode cal precipitations) and water are sequentially recovered
and achieve microbial electrosynthesis on the cathode74. (FIG. 4). As advances in hydrolysis increasingly allow the
This setting has been described for methanogenesis74,89, use of solid waste or sludge for bioproduction purposes,
but it can be applied for any of the microbial electrosyn- so these feedstocks will become available for BESs105.
thesis processes at the cathode that are discussed above. The second and third configurations for biocata-
BESs in this context can combine a mixed-population lysed cathodes involve a chemical anode that is linked
anode, tackling the complexity of waste organics, with to either a biocathode or a cathode that indirectly drives
a pure-culture, high-quality cathodic process aimed at a biological reaction (FIG. 3c,d). An example of this would
specific product generation. Although one can argue that be solar-driven biofuel production, comparable to the
water is more abundant than organics for current supply, recently described acetate production set-up 6. Solar
the available quantities of these organics should not be panels can achieve up to 40% sunlight-to-power effi-
underestimated, and there are some distinct advantages ciency today 106; here, we assume a future solar panel

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Raw wastewater
practical applications are yet to be fully realized. In fact,
intensive research has only begun in the past year. In
December 2009, the uS Department of Energy launched
Screen/DAF the first funding call in this area, under the banner
‘electrofuels’. So why this renewed focus?
First, it is only in the past few years that the techno-
Solids logical advances in microbial fuel cells and BESs have
provided a strong technology platform. Materials science
Pretreatment is increasingly capable of providing better materials to
Methane Digester interface with the biological world and to function in
bioelectrochemical systems108–111. Nevertheless, key
Anode passage developments are still needed to create highly conduc-
tive, scalable scaffolds with suitable surface properties
Compost
Electrons to produce: for microbial attachment and electron exchange. Pilot
• Ethanol trials are currently underway and will hopefully deliver
• Methane the required information on scalability, electrical control
• H2
• 1,3-propanediol
and reactor engineering 112.
• Drugs Second, although considerable progress in under-
• Other biochemicals standing EET has been made, the key challenge to
CO2 Anode effluent making microbial electrosynthesis work will be the
microorganism. The pool of available biocatalysts is
extremely restricted to date, and the pathways for EET
towards microorganisms are not yet known. After min-
Nutrient recovery ing functional genes in natural and engineered environ-
• Struvite
• Ammonia ments, effective metabolic engineering to manipulate
Effluent
electron flows and to establish a catalytic interface
between the cathode and the microorganism may be
Discharge Drinking water the next step. This will move the field of microbial
electrosynthesis into synthetic biology. The opposite to
Process water this approach is the use of microbial populations at the
cathode, the key impediment to this being selectivity
Figure 4 | A ‘bioelectrochemical’ refinery. Wastewater represents a net treatment cost towards a desired end product. Moreover, according to
Nature Reviews | Microbiology
today. Following a biorefinery concept, it is feasible to recover nutrients, energy or our knowledge, an important issue in most, if not all,
products, and water from this resource. The wastewater solids can be separated and known cathode studies is the lack of effective growth
used for the production of biogas and composting. The liquid flow can be used as of the microorganisms over extended time periods.
feedstock for a bioelectrochemical system, leading to the recovery of products.
For pure-culture studies, generally either a biofilm is
Nutrients (notably phosphorus and nitrogen) can be crystallized from the anode
primed by heterotrophic growth57 before the cathode
effluent, and this prepares the water flow for further polishing by, for example,
membrane technology, to generate drinking water (as well as process water and operation or a high-density culture is inoculated at
discharge). DAF, dissolved-air flotation. the onset of current provision5. It was suggested that a
lithoheterotrophic metabolism is required for effective
cathode growth5. This finding is supported in part by
with 20% efficiency or 200 w per m2 ground surface for the increased longevity of mixed-population cathode
12 hours per day. If the power derived from these sys- systems, in which cross feeding of organics between
tems is used at 2 V, this implies a current of 100 A per m2 organisms can occur, and by the observation that sup-
ground surface. If the electron conversion efficiency of plying the cathode with the anode effluent containing
butyrate to butanol is 50%, this implies an annual pro- trace organics enhances performance69,88,113.
duction of 151 kg butanol per m2, which is a staggering Third, the pH of the system is important. It is now well
1,512 tonnes butanol per hectare. Starting from CO2 established that anode current densities are restricted by
(if such a quantity can be provided), the production at the accumulation of protons at the electrode surface14,114.
this efficiency would be 252 tonnes butanol per hectare likewise, the medium in the vicinity of the cathode
per annum. For a comparison, algae currently produce may become alkaline, rendering reductions less ther-
around 50 tonnes biomass dry weight per hectare per modynamically feasible or introducing toxicity caused
annum, of which only a fraction is diesel or biodiesel107. by, for example, free ammonia115. Structural design of
A plethora of compounds could be produced using this the electrodes, manipulating the biofilm structure (if
approach; the key considerations are the investment present) and controlling the hydrodynamic profile will
cost and which reaction drives anodic oxidation. be essential for maximizing conversion.
Fourth, and finally, the benchmark for renewables
Another fuel cell promise? Despite the strong cases out- has changed, as legislation is driving the increased
lined above and the promise of these techniques, one development of novel production processes. Renewable
cannot ignore the fact that, although electricity-driven electricity is the harbinger of sustainable energy and
metabolism has been studied for several decades, chemical production. Electrical current can now be

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REVIEWS

produced almost anywhere, and local use of this elec- knowledge about EET gained over the past few years
tricity for bioproduction will therefore become increas- and the several decades of more empirical use of elec-
ingly attractive in the coming decades. However, detailed trical current and microorganisms are driving rapid
life cycle analyses, as recently performed for chemical development in this area. Fuels and chemicals can be
production116, will be essential for establishing whether produced from CO2 or basic organics by either redirect-
this approach is a good idea, from an environmental and ing fermentation pathways to produce more reduced
economic perspective. metabolites or driving a respiratory production process.
The key challenge will be to turn microorganisms into
conclusion effective electrocatalysts by understanding how micro-
Microbial electrosynthesis has the potential to become organisms deal with supplied reducing power and how
a key process in future bioproduction. The increased they interact with the surface of an electrode.

1. Campbell, J. E., Lobell, D. B. & Field, C. B. Greater are not the only factors that are important for This work uses deletion mutants to demonstrate
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(2009). vital activity of microorganisms. Proc. Durham Univ. 32. Nevin, K. P. et al. Anode biofilm transcriptomics
A comparison between electricity and fuels in the Phil. Soc. 3, 245–249 (1910). reveals outer surface components essential for high
context of transport and sustainability shows that 16. Logan, B. E. Exoelectrogenic bacteria that power density current production in Geobacter
the low energy yield of combustion makes microbial fuel cells. Nature Rev. Microbiol. 7, 375–381 sulfurreducens fuel cells. PLoS ONE 4, e5628 (2009).
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4. Lowy, D. A., Tender, L. M., Zeikus, J. G., Park, D. H. & of electricity by the spore‑forming, Gram‑positive, electron transport media, not only to minerals but
Lovley, D. R. Harvesting energy from the marine Desulfitobacterium hafniense strain DCB2. also to electrodes and other microorganisms.
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materials. Biosens. Bioelectron. 21, 2058–2063 19. Rabaey, K., Boon, N., Höfte, M. & Verstraete, W. mediate extracellular electron transfer. Proc. Natl
(2006). Microbial phenazine production enhances electron Acad. Sci. USA 105, 3968–3973 (2008).
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by bacteria in microbial fuel cells. ISME J. 2, 519–527 3401–3408 (2005). Secretion of flavins by Shewanella species and their
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