Bryan Joseph Matillano

Author
General Botany (Lecture and Laboratory)
A Learning Module

Published 2020

Bryan Joseph Matillano

Author
 Course Syllabus
Introduction to Plants and Botany
Scientific Method
Laboratory Safety Guidelines
Using Concepts to Understand Plant
Plant Reading: The Intelligent Plant
OUTLINE IN SCI101

Module 1: Introduction to Plants and the Structure

Pre-Assessment
Lesson 1: The Plant World and Understanding Cell Structure
Lesson 2: Overview of Plant Structure and its Major Parts: Root, Stem, and Leaves
Lesson 3: Secondary Growth in Plants
Lesson 4: The Reproductive Cycle and Life Cycles of Plants
Post-Assessment
Laboratory Activity

Module 2. Plant Physiology

Pre-Assessment
Lesson 1: Basic Biochemistry of Plants
Lesson 2: Photosynthesis and Respiration
Lesson 3: Transport in Plants
Lesson 4: Environmental Stimuli and Plant Responses
Post-Assessment
Laboratory Activity
 Republic of the Philippines
LEYTE NORMAL UNIVERSITY
Paterno St. Tacloban City

VISION

A leading university of education and diverse disciplines attuned to local and global development needs

MISSION

To produce top performing professionals equipped to engage on knowledge and technology production so necessary to develop a
sustainable society

GOAL

Empowered students equipped with the knowledge, competencies, and attitudes needed to become effective teachers in various
disciplines and highly competent professionals in social work and communication
 Republic of the Philippines
LEYTE NORMAL UNIVERSITY
Paterno St. Tacloban City

Bachelor of Science in Biology

Outcomes-Based Syllabus
1st Semester, SY: 2020-2021

COURSE CODE: SCI101

COURSE TITLE: GENERAL BOTANY (Lecture)

COURSE CREDIT: 3 UNITS

PRE-REQUISITE: NONE

This course covers discussions on botany, the study of plants. Emphasis will be placed on the structure, physiology,
genetics, evolution and diversity of plants, types of plant cells, major parts of a plant (root, stem, and leaves), and
the different physiological processes in a plant. The course starts with the beginnings of Botany as a discipline in
taking into consideration the importance, classification and diversity of plants that have been given rise to the current
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
understanding of what plants are and how they function. In the process of developing understanding of plants, every
lecture is a building block for the next. Therefore, missing one lecture will weaken one’s structural understanding
for the rest of the lectures.
 I. COURSE COVERAGE
TEACHING AND REFERENCES/
STUDY ASSESSMENT
COURSE OUTCOMES (COs) CONTENT LEARNING INSTRUCTIONAL
SCHEDULE TASKS (ATs)
ACTIVITIES MATERIALS

At the end of the week the student, Course Orientation Week 1  Discuss the  Individual  Student’s Handbook
will be able to: a. Vision, Mission, Goals and Objectives of LNU and (2 hours) details of the Recitation  Course Syllabus
1. State and explain the Leyte CAS, and Science Unit VGMO of LNU,  Pre-Assessment
Normal University Quality b. The course: General Botany CAS and
Policy, Core Values, Vision c. University Policies Science Unit so
and Mission; d. Classroom Policies that students will
2. State and explain the e. Safety Guidelines while working in the Laboratory be able to recite
College of Arts and f. Good Laboratory Practice them
Sciences goals, and independently.
objectives;  Present the
3. Demonstrate Grading system
understanding of the BS of the course
Biology program objectives;  Inform the
4. Discuss the course students about
description, objectives, the Course
strategies, requirements requirements
and grading system;
5. Discuss the importance of
classroom policies, and
6. Express commitment to
pass the course.

Given a series of lecture- Module 1: Introduction to Plants and the Structure Introduction  Lecture-  Quiz Murray, General Botany
discussion, the students are to Module 1 discussion using  Graded
expected to: (30 minutes) PPT Recitation
1. Discuss briefly the presentation
importance of Plants; Pre-Test  Readings
2. Know the basic structure of (30 minutes)  Brainstorming
cells and plant cells and using guide
plant cell organelles; Lesson 1: The Plant World and Understanding Cell Lesson 1 questions
3. Examine plant cells and Structure (Week 1)  Reporting of the
tissues; group
 4. Describe the major parts of discussion by
a plant and its secondary Lesson 2: Overview of Plant Structure and The Major Lesson 2 group
growth; Parts of a Plant: Roots, Stem and Leaves (Week 2) representative
5. Name the different  Think-pair-share
reproductive structures of Lesson 3: Secondary Growth in Plants Lesson 3  Concept
plants, and (Week 3) mapping
6. Describe the life cycle of
plants or alteration of Lesson 4: The Reproductive Structure and Life Cycles Lesson 4
generation. of Plants (Week 4)

Post-Assessment (30 minutes)

Laboratory Activity: Week 1-4

Given a series of lecture- Module 2: Plant Physiology Introduction  Lecture-  Quiz  Murray, General
discussion, the students are to Module 2 discussion  Practical Work Botany
expected to: (30 minutes)  Brainstorming
1. Describe in detail the  Demonstration
molecular components of Pre-Test  Reporting
living organisms and the (1 hour)  Grouping
energy and chemical
reactions that take place in
plants; Lesson 1: Basic Biochemistry of Plants Lesson 1
2. Explore the process of (Week 5)
photosynthesis and
respiration;
3. Describe the molecular Lesson 2: Photosynthesis and Respiration Lesson 2
movement happens across (Week 6)
plant membranes, and
4. Point out the significance of
environmental stimuli and Lesson 3: Transport in Plants Lesson 3
how the plant responds to (Week 7)
such stimuli.
Lesson 4: Environmental Stimuli and Plant Responses Lesson 4
(Week 8)

Post-Assessment (30 minutes)

Laboratory Activity: Week 5-8
 MIDTERM EXAMINATION

Given a series of lecture- Module 3: Plant Genetics and Gene Introduction  Lecture-  Quiz  Murray, General
discussion, the students are Expression to Module 3 discussion  Graded Botany4
expected to: (30 minutes)  Demonstration Recitation
1. Describe Mendel’s  Brainstorming
experiment on Inheritance Pre-test
and how it revolutionized (30 minutes)
the Plant World;
2. Explain gene expression Lesson 1: Mendel’s Experiment on Inheritance Lesson 1
and how it affects plant and Non-Mendelian Genetics (Week 9)
development, and
3. Discuss the different
methods, Lesson 2: Differential Gene Expression Lesson 2
accomplishments, and (Week 10)
opportunities of plant
biotechnology. Lesson 3: Methods of Plant Biotechnology Lesson 3
(Week 11)

Post-Assessment (30 minutes)

Laboratory Activity Week 9-11

Given a series of lecture- Module 4: Plant Evolution and Diversity Introduction  Lecture-  Quiz  Murray General
discussion, the students are to Module 4 discussion  Graded Botanu
expected to: (30 minutes)  Powerpoint Recitation
1. Describe the history of Presentation
evolution on Earth and the Pre-Test  Brainstorming
mechanisms of evolution (30 minutes)  Reporting
2. Discuss the classification
system before Darwin and Lesson 1: Evolution Lesson 1
the major groups of plants, (Week 12)
and
3. Discuss the diversity of Lesson 2: Classification of Plants Lesson 2
Bryophytes, seedless (Week 13)
vascular plants,
gymnosperms and Lesson 3: Bryophytes Lesson 3
angiosperms. (Week 14)
 Lesson 4: Seedless Vascular Plants Lesson 4
(Week 15)

Lesson 5: Gymnosperms Lesson 5

(Week 16)

Lesson 6: Angiosperms Lesson 6

(Week 17)

FINAL EXAMINATION

I. GRADING SYSTEM:

Lecture:
Periodic Exam 40%
Recitation/Oral/Written 10%
Project 10%
Special Problem 15%
Quizzes 25%
100%

II. REFERENCES:
A. Books
Alters, Sandra, 1996. Biology. Understanding Life. (USA:Mosby-Year Book, Inc.)
Becker, Wayne et. al. 2004. The World of the Cell 5th (Phil: Pearson education SA PTE LTD)
Campbell, Neil & Jane Reece, 2005. Biology 7th ed. (CA: Benjmins/Cummings Publishing Company)
Enger, Eldon and Frederick Ross, 2000. Biology. (USA: Mc Graw-Hill Co., Inc.)
Essenfeld, Bernice et. al. 1994. Biology. (Canada: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., Inc.)

III. INTERNET LINKS:

http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell.bio/cell.bio.html
http://www.cellsalive.com
http://www.cytochemistry.net/biology/
 http://www.cytochemistry.net/biology/MedicalEndocytosisChils2005files/frame.htm
http://www.cox.mia,i.edu/cmallery/150/gene/histCMB.htm

Prepared by:

BRYAN JOSEPH MATILLANO

Associate Professor 5
Date: ______________________

Reviewed by:

JUSTINA T. LANTAJO, Ph.D.

Chair, Science Unit
Date: ______________________

Recommending Approval:

JACQUELINE I. ESPINA, DA-ELT

Dean, College of Arts and Sciences
Date: ________________________

Approved by:

MYRNA L. MACALINAO, Ph.D.

Vice President, Academic Services
Date: _____________________
Introduction to Plants and Botany

Concepts intro
Botany is the scientific study of plants. This definition
Outline
requires an understanding of the concepts “plants” and
“scientific study”. It may surprise you to learn that it is  Concepts
difficult to define precisely what plant is. Plants have  Plants
 Scientific Method
so many types and variations that a simple definition
 Laboratory Safety Guidelines
has many exceptions, and a definition that includes all
 Using Concepts to
plants and excludes nonplants may be too complicated Understand Plants
to be useful. Also, biologist do not agree about whether  Plant Reading:
Box 1-1 The Intelligent Plant
certain organisms – particularly algae – are indeed
plants.
PLANTS
Most plants have green leaves, stem, roots and flowers. But there are other plants
with specialized parts but still we consider them as plants. Conifers such as pine
and spruce have cones rather than flowers. Both conifers and succulents, however,
are obviously plants because they closely remember organisms that are
unquestionably are plants. Fungi were included in the Plant Kingdom because they
are sessile and can produce spores. But in later part, biologists don’t consider fungi
a plant anymore because recent studies found out that fungi show difference from
plants in many basic biochemical and genetic aspects.

Of all terrestrial plants, mosses have the least in common with Ferns have several features in common with flowering plants; they
angiosperms. They have structures called “leaves” and “stems,” but have leaves, stems, and roots; however, they never produce
these are not the same as in angiosperms. They have no roots at seeds, and they have neither flowers nor wood.
all.

This evening primrose (Oenothera) is obviously a flowering plant. It

Conifers produce seeds in cones; the conifers, together with the
has a short stem and a numerous simple leaves; its extensive root
flowering plants and a few other groups are known as seed plants.
system is not visible here.

Fungi are not considered to be plants. They are never green and
cannot obtain their energy from sunlight. Also, their tissues and
physiology are quite different from those of plants.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method requires that all information be gathered through
documented, repeatable observations and experiments. It rejects any concept that
can never be examined, and it requires that all hypotheses be tested and be
consistent with all relevant observations. It is based on skepticism.

“A hypothesis (unlike a
prediction) must make predictions
that can be tested.”

If a hypothesis continues to match

observations, we have greater
confidence that it is correct, and it
may come to be called a theory.

Four Principles of Scientific Method

1. The hypothesis is based on observations and can be tested

with experiments; we do not accept it simply because some
famous scientist declared it to be true.

2. Sunlight and plant growth are tangible phenomena that we can

either see directly or measure with instruments.

3. If we repeat the experiment anytime or anywhere, we expect to

get the same results.

4. We interpret the evidence as supporting the hypothesis, but

we keep an open mind and are willing to consider new data or
a new hypothesis.

Does anyone know the

steps of scientific
method?
 Laboratory Safety Guidelines

1. See to it that the laboratory is safe, clean, orderly, and well-ventilated in time
the laboratory is used;
2. Familiarize the safety rules, emergency procedures, and standard operating
procedures.
3. Know your emergency exit route. Never block emergency exits, emergency
equipment or electrical panels.
4. Do not use extension cords in laboratories on a permanent basis.
5. Know the location of emergency equipment in your area and how to use it. Know
the location of first aid kits, fire extinguishers, fire alarms;
6. Never make pranks or practical jokes in the laboratories.
7. Cigarette smoking, e-vape, and other related activities are prohibited inside the
laboratories.
8. Always report unsafe conditions and accidents promptly to the laboratory
manager.
9. Any injury or incident should be reported immediately to the laboratory manager
and must be dealt with appropriate first aid.
10. Do not work alone especially beyond office hours. Always ask permission from
the teacher or supervisor if you may work when the activity requires extended
time.
11. Make sure that bags are to be left on the area designated inside the laboratory;
12. Students shall wait for the laboratory manager before entering the laboratory;
13. Laboratory managers shall closely monitor the conduct of the students while
they are inside the laboratory.
14. Students are not allowed to bring food and beverages inside the laboratory.
Chewing gum, eating, drinking, smoking, littering is prohibited inside the
computer laboratory.
15. Anyone who is causing disturbance, trouble and exhibiting hostile or threatening
behavior will be requested to leave the computer laboratory.
16. Ensure that no trash is left behind.
17. Chairs or stools must be returned properly to its original places.
USING CONCEPTS TO UNDERSTAND PLANTS
The growth, reproduction, and death of plants – indeed, all aspects of their lives –
are governed by a small number of basic principles. These concepts will make plant
biology more easily understood – the numerous facts, figures names and data will
be less overwhelming when you realize that they all fit into the patterns governed
by a few fundamental concepts.

1. Plant metabolism is based on the principles of

chemistry and physics.

2. Plant must have a means of storing and using

information.

3. Plants reproduce, passing their genes and

information on to their descendants.

4. Genes and the information they contain, change.

2. Plants must survive in their own environment.

6. Plants are highly integrated organisms.

7. An individual plant is the temporary result of the

interaction of genes and environment.

8. Plants do not have purpose or decision-making

capacity.
 Application

Introduction:

It is easy to speak and write as if plants were capable of thinking and planning.
We might say, “Plants produce roots in order to absorb water;” however this
suggests that the plants are capable of analyzing what they need and deciding
what they are going to do in the absence of nervous system.

Are plants really capable of doing so?

Procedure:

1. You are to read and understand thoroughly a paper entitled “The

Intelligent Plant: Scientists debate a new way of understanding
flora” written by Michael Pollan.
2. Read the paper with comprehension. You may search for all available
resources to deepen your understanding about the paper, which
include and not limited to books, journal articles and related studies.
3. Write a critique paper.
4. The paper will be graded following the rubrics in the next page.
 Republic of the Philippines
LEYTE NORMAL UNIVERSITY
Paterno St., Tacloban City, Leyte, 6500

ASSESSMENT TOOL: RUBRIC FOR EVALUATION

Name: _______________________________________ Program/Year/Section: _______________Date of Submission: _____________________

CRITIQUE PAPER
Exemplary Superior Satisfactory Needs Improvement
Categories
4 3 2 1
Touches on every Covers the critical facts related Covers a majority of facts Contains only some of the
important fact related to the topic to the topic related to the topic obvious facts
Recollection of Facts
4 3 2 1
Original wording, Steps beyond simple recall and Recalls appropriate concepts or Apparent misconception(s) or
analogies, or attempts to interpret ideas to examples to address question knowledge gap(s)
examples. Applies taught better answer the question
Demonstrated Understanding concepts to answer the
question.

4 3 2 1

Carefully evaluates Incorporates multiple concepts Answers the question Answers the question using
multiple topics that apply to the to answer the question and using several concepts or topics a single concept or topic
question, and synthesizes them demonstrates judgment in
Linking of Topics
into a coherent answer applying concepts

4 3 2 1
 Every idea or conclusion is Every idea or conclusion is Relates ideas and conclusions Opinion and fact not clearly
logically supported by relevant logically supported by relevant to facts or concepts taught as separated. Basis for opinions
facts. Includes judgment of facts fact is unclear at times.
Persuasive Writing data reliability.

4 3 2 1

Submitted before the deadline Submitted on the deadline Submitted a day after the Submitted two days or more
deadline after the deadline
Punctuality
4 3 2 1
Comments:

Over-all Score Rating

Transmutation of Score to Grade/Rating

Score 20 19-18 17 16 15 14 13-12 11 10 9-8 7-below
Grade 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.5 2.75 3.0 3.5 5.0
99 96 93 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 71-below

Source:

 Retrieved June 10, 2020 from https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/commenting/samplerubric.c

 1

Introduction to Plants and the Structure

Concepts module 1
Plant structure is the physical, material body of a plant, Outline
composed of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals,
 Lesson 1: The Plant World and
water and other components. In term of both material Understanding Cell Structure
and energy; it is expensive for an organism to build a  Lesson 2: Overview of Plant Structure
and its Major Parts: Root, Stem, and
body – all of the energy and resources used by a tree to Leaves
construct its body could have been used in  Lesson 3: Secondary Growth in Plants
 Lesson 4: The Reproductive Cycle and
reproduction, increasing its number of offspring. The
Life Cycles of Plants
benefit is that the structure is the framework in which
metabolism occurs and the means by which
metabolism interacts with the environment.
Pre-Assessment in Module 1

Directions: This a 30-item multiple choice test that is good for 30 minutes only. Read all of the questions
and their corresponding choices very carefully. Write the best answer of your choice before the number in
each item. Write E if the correct answer is not among the options.
1. The food conducting of plant is _____________.
a. Xylem c. Collenchyma
b. Phloem d. Parenchyma

2. What part of the root increases the surface area for better absorption?
a. Pericycle c. Root canal
b. Root hairs d. Taproot

3. In woody dicots, the periderm eventually replaces the _________.

a. Epidermis c. Derma
b. Dermis d. derm

4. Which of the following analogy is correct?

a. Ovary : Seed c. Ovule : Fruit
b. Ovary : Fruit d. Ovary : Fruit and Seed

5. What do you call the arrangement of veins in the leaves?

a. Inflorescence c. Vanation
b. Venation d. Arrangement

6. Bark is composed of the following parts:

a. Epidermis, periderm, cortex, phloem, xylem, vascular cambium
b. Epidermis, periderm, cortex, phloem, xylem
c. Periderm, cortex, phloem, xylem, vascular cambium
d. Epidermis, periderm, cortex, phloem, vascular cambium

7. Why most plants are green?

a. Plants are green because the green wavelength is reflected.
b. Plants are green because the green wavelength is absorbed.
c. Plants are green because green wavelength is the most abundant wavelength.
d. Plants are green because green means vegetation.

8. Which of the following cells are a conspicuous component of the hard shells of nuts and hard coverings
of certain types of seeds?
a. Sclereid c. Both a and b are correct
b. Stone cell d. Both a and b are incorrect

9. Flowers are the most obvious part of many plants. Most flowers contain male and female parts. The
___ is the basic unit of female reproductive organ.
a. Carpel c. Style
b. Pistil d. ovary

10. The theory that the cell is the basic unit of life, living things are composed of cell and derived from pre-
existing cell?
a. Big Bang Theory c. Cell Theory
b. Life Theory d. None of the above
11. The co-founders of your answer in no. 10 EXCEPT
a. Matthias Schleiden
b. Theodore Schwann
c. Rudolf Virchow
d. Justus Liebig

12. Which of the following is correct?

a. Incomplete flowers are always imperfect.
b. Imperfect flowers are not always incomplete.
c. Imperfect flowers contain only male or female parts.
d. Incomplete flowers are complete flowers.

13. Who is the Father of Botany?

a. Theophrastus
b. Aristotle
c. Socrates
d. Plato

14. The part of cell that provides reactions to take place.

a. Cytoplasm c. Plasma Membrane
b. Neuroplasm d. Nuclear Membrane

15. The following are modified stems EXCEPT

a. Stolons c. Prop
b. Bulb d. Rhizome

16. The presence of this in leaves reduces evaporation.

a. Waxy cuticle c. Both are correct
b. Dye wax d. Both are incorrect

17. Which of the following is a primary or transitional meristem?

a. Root hair c. Intercalary meristem
b. Ground meristem d. Vascular cambium

18. The channels of protoplasm that exists through cell walls that connect one cell to another are called
___.
a. Plasmodesmata c. Watsamata
b. Stomata d. None of the following is correct

19. Onion is a modified form of _______.

a. Stem c. Roots
b. Leaves d. Flowers

20. Ginger is a stem and not a root because

a. It lacks chlorophyll. c. It has nodes and internodes
b. It stores food material. d. It grows horizontally in the soil.

21. Which of the following is the best answer on the site of photosynthesis?
a. Leaves c. Palisade Mesophyll
b. Spongy Mesophyll d. Chlorophyll
22. Why most plants are green?
a. Plants are green because the green wavelength is reflected.
b. Plants are green because the green wavelength is absorbed.
c. Plants are green because green wavelength is the most abundant wavelength.
d. Plants are green because green means vegetation.

23. The _____ of a flower produces pollen grains.

a. Filament c. style
b. Ovary d. Anther

24. Which of the following statements best explains why millions of pollen grains are produced by anther?
a. This increases the chances of pollen grains landing on the stigmas.
b. This increases the chances of pollination by animals and not wind.
c. This increases the chances of pollination by wind and not animals.
d. This ensures that the animals help in pollination have enough food.

25. Melba removed the anthers from flower X, which is a perfect flower. Assuming that there are other
flowers of the same type in the surrounding with an active bee hive, can flower X still produce a fruit?
a. Yes b. No

26. This is when pollen from the anther contacts the sticky stigma of a pistil.
a. Germination c. Reproduction
b. Regeneration d. Pollination

27. The oldest part of the wood is called _____.

a. Heartwood c. Sapwood
b. Annual Rings d. None of the above

28. The region between vascular bundles in wood formation is called ___.
a. Endodermis c. Pericycle
b. Medullary ray d. Sclenchyma

29. Usually, the monocots do not increase in girth because ____.

a. They possess actively dividing cambium
b. They do not possess actively dividing cambium
c. Ceases activity of cambium
d. All are correct

30. The common bottle cork is a product of ___.

a. Dermatogen c. Xylem
b. Phellogen d. Vascular cambium
Module 1 The Plant World and Understanding
Lesson 1 Cell Structure

Learning Outcome: At the of this lesson, you should be able to discuss briefly the importance of plants
and be acquainted with the basic structure of cells and plant cells and organelles.

Learning Tasks

Activity

Here are two different pictures from the Amazon

Rainforest.
Compare and contrast the pictures below of the Amazon
Rainforest. Why did this happen to the Rainforest? Do you
have any idea what are significance of plants living in the
Rainforest? How would it affect us, the human beings?
Expound your answers.

Write your response here.

Analysis
After the activity, you are to supply the correct answers to the following questions.

1. When you gave your answer as to the significance of the plants in the Amazon
Rainforest, you were also referring to the significance all the plants in the world. What then
is a plant?

2. Will there be any common plant structures regardless of where it strives and what
species of plant it is? What and why?

3. Will there be any differences of plant structures regardless of where it strives and
what species of plant it is? What and why?

4. Every living thing is composed of cell. Who coined the word cell and what does it
do? Does a plant have cell? Defend your answer.

5. Explain: The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. And how would you relate
it to cell.
 Abstraction

All organisms are composed of small structures called cells. In plants, each cell
consists of a box-like cell wall surrounding a mass of protoplasm, which in turn
contains its own smaller parts, the organelles, such as nuclei, mitochondria, and
chloroplast. Cell are also the physical framework within which a plant’s
metabolism occurs. Water and salts are absorbed from soil by root cells, they are
transported throughout the plant by cells of vascular tissues, and the energy of
sunlight is used in leaf cells to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbohydrates.
Plant reproduction is also based on cells and cell biology: some cells in flowers
produce pigments or nectar that attracts insects that carry pollen between flowers,
allowing sperm cells to contact egg cells.

What is a cell theory?

The Cell Theory or Cell doctrine states that all organisms are composed of
similar units of organization, called cells. The concept was formally articulated
in 1839 by Schleiden and Schwann and has remained as the foundation of
modern biology.

Robert Hooke’s coined the name- cell. Picture above shows the dead cork cells.
 First Cells Seen in Cork
While the invention of the telescope made the Cosmos accessible to human observation,
the microscope opened up smaller worlds, showing what living forms were composed
of. The cell was first discovered and named by Robert Hooke in 1665. He remarked that
it looked strangely similar to cellula or small rooms which monks inhabited, thus
deriving the name. However, what Hooke actually saw was the dead cell walls of plant
cells (cork) (see picture above) as it appeared under the microscope. Hooke’s description
gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. The first
man to witness a live cell under the microscope was Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who in
1674 described the algae Spirogyra. Anton van Leeuwenhoek probably saw bacteria.

MODERN CELL THEORY

1. All known living things are made up of cells.
2. The cell is structural and functional unit of all living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
4. Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during
cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.

A TIMELINE
1595 – Jansen credited with 1st compound microscope
1655 – Hooke described ‘cells’ in cork.
1674 – Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa. He saw bacteria some 9 years later.
1833 – Brown descibed the cell nucleus in cells of the orchid.
1838 – Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory.
1840 – Albrecht von Roelliker realized that sperm cells and egg cells are also cells.
1856 – N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell penetrated an egg cell.
1858 – Rudolf Virchow (physician, pathologist and anthropologist) expounds his famous conclusion: omnis
cellula e cellula, that is cells develop only from existing cells [cells come from preexisting cells]
1857 – Kolliker described mitochondria.
1879 – Flemming described chromosome behavior during mitosis.
1883 – Germ cells are haploid, chromosome theory of heredity.
1898 – Golgi described the golgi apparatus.
1938 – Behrens used differential centrifugation to separate nuclei from cytoplasm.
1939 – Siemens produced the first commercial transmission electron microscope.
1952 – Gey and coworkers established a continuous human cell line.
1955 – Eagle systematically defined the nutritional needs of animal cells in culture.
1957 – Meselson, Stahl and Vinograd developed density gradient centrifugation in cesium chloride solutions
for separating nucleic acids.
1965 – Ham introduced a defined serum-free medium. Cambridge Instruments produced the first commercial
scanning electron microscope.
1976 – Sato and colleagues publish papers showing that different cell lines require different mixtures of
hormones and growth factors in serum-free media.
1981 – Transgenic mice and fruit flies are produced. Mouse embryonic stem cell line established.
1995 – Tsien identifies mutant of GFP with enhanced spectral properties
1998 – Mice are cloned from somatic cells.
1999 – Hamilton and Baulcombe discover siRNA as part of post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) in
plants
 PLANT CELL
Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure includes various
components known as cell organelles that perform different functions to sustain
itself. These organelles include:

Cell Wall
It is a rigid layer which is composed of cellulose, glycoproteins, lignin, pectin and
hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane. It comprises proteins,
polysaccharides and cellulose.
The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support
to the cell. The plant cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against
mechanical stress and to provide form and structure to the cell. It also filters the
molecules passing in and out of the cell.
The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers,
namely, primary, secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is
formed by cellulose laid down by enzymes.

Cell membrane
It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is
composed of a thin layer of protein and fat.
The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of
specific substances within the cell.
For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and
essential minerals are transported across.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The
vital function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell
division, metabolism and growth.

1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cell’s protein-producing structures and ribosomes.

2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that
allows proteins and nucleic acids to pass through.

Plastids
They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to
store starch, to carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of
many molecules, which form the building blocks of the cell. Some of the vital types
of plastids and their functions are stated below:
Leucoplasts
They are found in non-photosynthetic tissues of plants. They are used for the
storage of protein, lipid and starch.

Chloroplasts
It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast
is shaped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a
circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a green coloured pigment called chlorophyll
required for the process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the
sun and uses it to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose.

Chromoplasts
They are heterogeneous, coloured plastid which is responsible for pigment
synthesis and for storage in photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chromoplasts have
red, orange and yellow coloured pigments which provide colour to all ripe fruits and
flowers.

Central Vacuole
It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a
membrane that surrounds central vacuole. The vital function of central vacuole apart
from storage is to sustain turgid pressure against the cell wall. The central vacuole
consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of salts, enzymes and other substances.

Golgi Apparatus
They are found in all eukaryotic cells which are involved in distributing synthesized
macromolecules to various parts of the cell.

Ribosomes
They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein.
They are the sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of
the cell.
Mitochondria
They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
They provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they
are also referred to as the “Powerhouse of the cell.”

Lysosome
Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed
membrane. They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out
organelles, food particles and foreign bodies in the cell.

PLANT CELL TYPES

Cells of a matured and higher plant become specialized to perform certain vital
functions that are essential for their survival. Few plant cells are involved in the
transportation of nutrients and water, while others for storing food.
The specialized plant cells include parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells,
collenchyma cells, xylem cells and phloem cells.
Following are some of the different types of plant cells:

Collenchyma Cells
They are hard or rigid cells, which play a primary role in providing support to the plants
when there is restraining growth in a plant due to lack of hardening agent in primary
walls.
Sclerenchyma Cells
These cells are more rigid compared to collenchyma cells and this is because of the
presence of a hardening agent. These cells are usually found in all plant roots and mainly
involved in providing support to the plants.

Parenchyma Cells
Parenchyma cells play a significant role in all plants. They are the living cells of plants,
which are involved in the production of leaves. They are also involved in the exchange
of gases, production of food, storage of organic products and cell metabolism. These cells
are typically more flexible than others because they are thinner.
Xylem Cells
Xylem cells are the transport cells in vascular plants. They help in the transport of water
and minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts of the plants.

Phloem Cells
Phloem cells are other transport cells in vascular plants. They transport food prepared by
the leaves to different parts of the plants.
 Application

Answer the following questions:

1. Draw a typical plant cell and include all organelles. Most cells have specialized
functions and increased proportions of certain organelles. How would you
change your drawing if the cell is involved in photosynthesis? Is part of yellow
or orange petal? Secretes protein-rich digestibe fluid? Needs a great deal of
ATP? Stores starch? Has just grown a great amount?

31. Which of the organelles in Question 1 are composed primarily of membranes?

What are some ways that the membranes participate in the mertabolic
activities of those organelles?

32. Many animals and algae have cells with flagella, but do any plants have
flagella? For example, do fern cells or moss cells have flagella?

33. How do microtubules act as a cytoskeleton? Are there times when they are
particularly abundant? What are centioles basal bodies and flagella?
 Overview of Plant Structure and its Major
Module 1 Parts: Root, Stem and Leaves
Lesson 2

Learning Outcome: At the of this lesson, you should be able to discuss the major plant parts, namely,
root, stem and leaves.

Learning Tasks

Activity

Below is an illustration of a plant.

You are to label the different parts of the plant. In your own
words, describe and give the functions of each part.
Expound your answers.

Write your answer here. Write your answer here.

Write your answer here.

Write your answer here.

 Analysis

After giving your answers from the activity, you are to identify the illustrations below. You are to
elucidate on how this illustration is a root, a stem or a leaf. Moreover, you are to explicate how this
particular plant uses this part to continue living.

Write your answer here. Write your answer here.

Write your answer here. Write your answer here.

Write your answer here. Write your answer here.

 Abstraction

The body of an herb contains just three parts: leaves, stems and roots. When
the first land plants evolved about 420 million years ago, they were basically
just algae that either washed up unto shore or were left there as lakes and
streams evaporated. They had no roots, stems or leaves and they just lay on
mud. As the shores gradually become crowded with such plants, some grew
over others, shading them. Any plant that had a mutation allowing it to grow
upright into the sunshine above the others had a selective advantage.
However, being upright is not easy: Elevated cells are out of contact with the
moisture of the mud; therefore, water must be transported up to them.
Elevated tissues act as a sail and tend to blow down, so supportive tissue is
necessary. Absorptive cells in mud are shaded and cannot photosynthesize;
thus, sugars must be transported down to them. Shortly after plants began
living on land, distinct, specialized tissues and organs began to evolve.

MORPHOLOGY OF A FLOWERING PLANT

The body of a typical flowering plant can be divided into the underground
root system and aerial shoot system. The root system is homogeneous and
consists of the main root and its lateral branches. The shoot system is
heterogeneous and consists of stem, branches, leaves and flowers. The parts
of the plant body which are mainly concerned with important functions and
nutrition are called vegetative parts, e.g. root, stem, and leaves. The parts
which perform the function of sexual reproduction are called floral or
reproductive parts, e.g. flower.
 THE ROOT SYSTEM

The root system is the descending portion of the plant axis. When a seed
germinates, the radicle is the first organ to come out of it. It elongates to form
the primary or the taproot. It gives off lateral branches (secondary and tertiary
roots) and thus form a root system.

FUNCTIONS OF A ROOT
 Its main functions are the absorption of water and minerals from the
soil.
 It provides a proper anchorage to the plant parts.
 It transports absorbed water and minerals to the stem through the
xylem.
 Storing reserve food material and synthesis of plant growth regulators
are its other functions.
 By undergoing modifications in their structure, roots perform special
physiological functions like food storage, assimilation, absorption of
atmospheric moisture, sucking food from the host, better gaseous
exchange and mechanical functions.
The elongating cells complete their differentiation into
REGIONS OF A ROOT the tissues of the primary body in this zone. It is easily
recognized because of the numerous root hairs that
extend into the soil as outgrowths of single epidermal
cells. They greatly increase the absorptive surface of
roots during the growth period when large amounts of
water and nutrients are needed. An individual root
hair lives for only a day or two, but new ones form
constantly nearer the tip as old ones die in the upper
part of the zone.

The cells in this zone stretch and lengthen as

small vacuoles within the cytoplasm coalesce
and fill with water. One or two large vacuoles
occupy almost all of the cell volume in fully
elongated cells. Cellular expansion in this zone
is responsible for pushing the root cap and
apical tip forward through the soil.

An apical meristem lies under and behind the root cap and, like the stem apical meristem, it produces the cells that give rise
to the primary body of the plant. Unlike the stem meristem, it is not at the very tip of the root; it lies behind the root cap. Between
the area of active division and the cap is an area where cells divide more slowly, the quiescent center. Most cell divisions
occur along the edges of this center and give rise to columns of cells arranged parallel to the root axis. The parenchyma cells
of the meristem are small, cuboidal, with dense protoplasts devoid of vacuoles and with relatively large nuclei.
TYPES OF ROOT SYSTEM

TAPROOT SYSTEM
In a majority of the dicotyledonous plants, the direct elongation of the radicle
leads to the formation of the primary root which grows in the soil. It gives off
lateral branches and thus forms the taproot system. This root system provides
a very strong anchorage as they are able to reach very deep into soil.

FIBROUS ROOT SYSTEM

It usually formed by thin moderately branching roots growing from the stem.
A fibrous root system is universal in monocotyledons plants and ferns. The
fibrous root system looks like a mat made of roots when the tree has reached
full maturity.
SOME MODIFICATION OF ROOTS

STORAGE ROOTS PROPAGATING ROOTS

PNEUMATOPHORES PROP ROOT

BUTTRESS ROOT PARASITIC ROOT

THE STEM
The stem is negatively geotropic, negatively hydrotropic and positively
phototropic. Branches arise from axillary buds present in the axil leaves. Each
axillary bud is a small, compact, underdeveloped shoot covered with a large
number of overlapping leaf primordia. Internodes of this bud enlarge and
develop into a branch. Therefore, the development of branches is exogenous.

FUNCTIONS OF A STEM
 Storage
 Perennation
 Vegetative Propagation
 Photosynthesis
 Protection
 Support, Climbing and Clinging

TYPES OF STEM

AERIAL SUBAERIAL UNDERGROUND

BRANCHING OF STEM
 TYPES OF BUDS ON THE BASIS OF THEIR FUNCTION

VEGETATIVE BUD FLORAL BUD

MIXED BUD TENDRILLAR BUD

SOME MODIFICATION OF STEM

Rhizome Tuber Bulb

Corm Runner Thorns

THE LEAF

The leaf is lateral, generally flattened structure borne on the stem. A leaf may
be defined as “A dorsoventrally compressed, lateral appendage of the stem,
produced at the nodes and is specialized to perform photosynthesis. It
develops at the node and bears a bud in the axil. The axillary bud later
develops into a branch. Leaves originate from shoot apical meristems and are
arranged in an acropetal order. They are the most important vegetative organs
for photosynthesis.

The Structure of a Leaf

Each leaf typically has a leaf blade called the lamina, which is also the widest part
of the leaf. Some leaves are attached to the plant stem by a petiole. Leaves that do
not have a petiole and are directly attached to the plant stem are called sessile
leaves. Leaves also have stipules, small green appendages usually found at the
base of the petiole. Most leaves have a midrib, which travels the length of the leaf
and branches to each side to produce veins of vascular tissue. The edge of the leaf
is called the margin. Within each leaf, the vascular tissue forms veins. The
arrangement of veins in a leaf is called the venation pattern. Monocots and dicots
differ in their patterns of venation. Monocots have parallel venation in which the
veins run in straight lines across the length of the leaf without converging. In
dicots, however, the veins of the leaf have a net-like appearance, forming a pattern
known as reticulate venation. Ginkgo biloba is an example of a plant with
dichotomous venation.
VENATION
The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the lamina of a leaf is termed
venation. Veins and veinlets are skeletal as well as conducting prominences
visible on the surface of the lamina, especially the under surface of
dorsiventral leaves.

FUNCTIONS OF VENATION
 Venation provides skeletal support to the lamina so that it can remain
stretched for its optimum functioning;
 Veins and veinlets reduce the effect of wilting, and
 They are important for the conduction of water and nutrients.

SOME TYPES OF VENATION

RETICULATE PINNATE OR UNICOSTATE

FURCATE PARALLEL

PALMATE OR MULTICOSTATE RETICULATE

TYPES OF LEAVES
A leaf is said to be simple, when its lamina is entire or when incised, the
incision does not touch the midrib.

When the incisions of the lamina reach up to the midrib breaking it into a
number of leaflets, the leaf is called a compound.

A bud is present in the axil of petiole in both simple and compound leaves,
but not in the axil of leaflets of the compound leaf.

TYPES OF COMPOUND LEAVES

PINNATELY COMPOUND LEAVES

A number of leaflets are present on a common axis, the rachis, which

represents the midrib of the leaf as in neem.

UNIPINNATE BIPINNATELY TRIPINNATELY

DECOMPOUND COMPOUND LEAVES

The rachis gets branched thrice or more than thrice and the leaflets arise on
the ultimate branches.

DECOMPOUND
 PALMATELY COMPOUND LEAVES

The leaflets are attached at a common point, i.e., at the tip of the petiole, as in
silk cotton. On the basis of the number of leaflets they are further classified as:

 Unifoliate Palmately Compound Leaf. With a single leaflet.

 Bifoliate Palmately Compound Leaf. With two leaflets.
 Trifoliate Palmately Compound Leaf. With three leaflets.
 Quadrifoliate Palmately Compound Leaf. With four leaflets.
 Multifoliate Palmately Compound Leaf. With more than four leaflets.

PHYLLOTAXY
It is the pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or branch. This is usually
of three types alternate, opposite and whorled.

ALTERNATE

A single leaf arises at each node in an alternate manner.

OPPOSITE

A pair of leaves arise at each node and lie opposite to each other.

WHORLED

If more than two leaves arise at a node and form a whorl.

 Application

We can find plants anywhere. In school, in our backyard, inside our house and
the like. Today, you are going to select a plant of your choice. And follow these
procedures:

1. Select a plant of your choice. Take a picture of your chosen plant.

2. You are going to identify the parts of the plant.
a. Roots. Identify and describe the root system. Is there any
modification of roots?
b. Stem. Identify and describe the parts of its stem. Identify the
branching, the type of stem and if there’s any stem modification.
c. Leaves. Identify and describe the parts of its stem. Identify the
venation, number of cotyledons, type of leaf and its phyllotaxy.
3. Write a synthesis paper following scientific article format. You may
provide your own title.
4. Search for all available resources that would describe or give information
about your chosen plant, which include but not limited to books, journal
articles and related studies.
5. The paper will be graded as follows:

Criteria Points

Content 40%

Format/Delivery 20%

Originality/Creativity 30%

Conciseness 10%

Total 100%
 Module 1 Secondary Growth in Plants
Lesson 3

Learning Outcome: At the of this lesson, you should be able to discuss and describe the major parts
of a plant and its secondary growth; differentiate between primary and secondary growth; identify and
describe the roles of apical vs lateral meristems in plant growth; compare and contrast the processes
and results of primary vs secondary growth in stems and roots and describe the function and organization
of woody stems derived from secondary growth.

Learning Tasks

Activity

Here are two different pictures, one is a picture of human

growing and the other one is a timeline of the growth in
plants.
Compare and contrast the growth and development of the
pictures below. Provide your answers comprehensively.

Write your response here.

 Analysis

After the activity, you are to supply the correct answers to the following questions.

4. What enables the plant or trees to grow much taller and wider than human beings?

3. Do plants can live over hundreds of years? If yes. how do the age of plants be measured? If
no, what hinders the plants to grow over hundreds of years?

2. Name at least three examples of woody plants that are trees and three that are shrubs. Briefly
describe each species of trees and shrubs chosen.

1. Many herbs live for several years. How do they respond to the bottleneck of the limited
conducting capacity of the first-year stem?
 Abstraction

Intermediate Plant Growth: Meristems

Unlike most animals, who grow to a specific body size and shape and then
stop growing (determinate growth), plants exhibit intermediate growth
where plant will continue adding new organs (leaves, stems, roots) as long as
it has access to the necessary resources. Plants are able to continue growing
indefinitely like this due to specialized tissues called meristems, which are
regions of continuous cell division and growth. Meristematic tissue cells are
either undifferentiated or incompletely differentiated, and they continue to
produce cells that quickly differentiate, or specialize and become permanent
tissues (dermal, ground and vascular).

Meristematic tissues consist of three types, based on their location in the plant.
Apical meristems contain meristematic tissue located at the tips of stems and
roots, which enable a plant to extend in length. Lateral meristems facilitate
growth in thickness or girth in maturing plant. Intercalary (also called basal)
meristems occur only in some monocots, at the bases of leaf blades and at
nodes. This tissue enables monocot leaf blade to increase in length from the
leaf base.

Meristems contribute to both primary (taller or longer) and secondary (wider)

growth. Primary growth is controlled by root apical meristems or shoot
apical meristems, while secondary growth is controlled by the two lateral
meristems, called the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. Not all
plants exhibit secondary growth.

Watch!

The video provides nice discussion of primary and secondary growth in plants
(beginning at 2:20). This is the link, https://youtu.be/QCzdGxXKGKY

Primary Growth in Roots

Root growth begins with seed germination. When the plant embryo emerges
from the seed, the radicle of the embryo forms the root system. The tip of the
root is protected by the root cap. The root cap is continuously replaced
because it gets damaged easily as the root pushes through soil. Behind the
root cap, within the first centimeter or so, the root tip can be divided into three
zones:

Zone of Cellular Division

contains the apical meristem, is the location immediately behind the root cap where
cells are actively dividing via mitosis.
 Zone of Cellular Elongation

the location where the newly formed cells are growing, or increasing in
length, to add length to the root. This process requires uptake of water, which
literally stretches the cells and increases their size.

Zone of Cellular Maturation

the location where newly elongated cells complete their differentiation into
the dermal, vascular, or ground tissues. Maturation is driven by changes in
gene expression.

Plants may also have lateral shoots that branch from the main tap root. The lateral roots
originate from the meristematic tissue in pericycle, which is the outermost cell layer in the
vascular cylinder in the center of the root. Once they emerged, lateral roots then display
their own primary growth, continually adding length to the lateral root.
Primary Growth in Shoots
In many plants, most primary growth occurs primarily at the apical (top) bud,
rather than axillary buds (buds at locations of side branching). The influence
of the apical bud on overall plant growth is known as apical dominance,
which prevents the growth of axillary buds that form along the sides of
branches and stems. Most coniferous trees exhibit strong apical dominance,
thus producing the typical conical Christmas tree shape. If the apical bud is
removed, then the axillary buds will start forming lateral branches. Gardeners
make use of this fact when they prune plants by cutting off the tops of
branches, thus encouraging the axillary buds to grow out, giving the plant a
bushy shape.

Secondary Growth in Shoots (and Roots)

The process of secondary growth is controlled by the lateral meristems, and
is similar in both stems and roots. Lateral meristems include the vascular
cambium and, in woody plants, the cork cambium (cambium is another term
for meristem). Herbaceous (non-woody) plants mostly undergo primary
growth, with hardly any secondary growth or increase in thickness.
Secondary growth, or wood, is noticeable in woody plants; it occurs in some
dicots, but occurs very rarely in monocots. The vascular cambium is located
between the primary xylem and primary phloem within the vascular bundle.
The cells of the secondary xylem contain lignin, the primary component of
wood, which provides hardiness and strength. The xylem together with the
pith form the wood of a woody stem.
In woody plants, cork cambium is the outermost lateral meristem. It produces cork
cells, which contain a waxy substance that can repel water. The phloem together with
the cork cells form the bark, which protects the plant against physical damage and helps
reduce water loss. The cork cambium also produces a layer of cells known
as phelloderm, which grows inward from the cambium. The cork cambium, cork cells,
and phelloderm are collectively termed the periderm. The periderm substitutes for the
epidermis in mature plants.

The combined actions of the vascular and cork cambia together result in secondary
growth, or widening of the plant stem. These structures are illustrated below:

A new layer of xylem and phloem are added each year during the growing season. The
interior xylem layers eventually die and fill with resin, functioning only in structural
support. The interior, nonfunctional xylem is called heartwood. The newer, functional
xylem is called sapwood. The exterior layers of phloem eventually become crushed
against the cork cambium and are broken down. Thus a mature tree contains many
interior layers of older, nonfunctional xylem deep within the stem, but only a small
amount of older phloem.
 Watch!

The video describes the process and result of secondary growth in stems. This is the
link, https://youtu.be/KKuZDWUQiI8

Secondary Growth and Annual Rings

The activity of the vascular cambium results in annual growth rings. During the spring growing
season, cells of the secondary xylem have a large internal diameter and their primary cell walls
are not extensively thickened. This is known as early wood, or spring wood. During the fall
season, the secondary xylem develops thickened cell walls, forming late wood, or autumn wood,
which is denser than early wood. This alternation of early and late wood is due largely to a
seasonal decrease in the number of vessel elements and a seasonal increase in the number of
tracheids. It results in the formation of an annual ring, which can be seen as a circular ring in the
cross section of the stem (shown below). An examination of the number of annual rings and their
nature (such as their size and cell wall thickness) can reveal the age of the tree and the prevailing
climatic conditions during each season.
 Application

Student Sheet 1

PROBLEM SOLVING ACTIVITY:

READING BETWEEN THE RINGS

One way scientists are learning about past climate is by studying tree-rings. This field of research is known
as dendrochronology. Scientists can use tree rings and cores to measure the age of a tree and learn more
about the local climatic conditions the tree experienced during its lifetime.

In temperate
areas, like most
of the United
States, trees
only grow during
the part of the
year calle d the
growing season,
t he length of
which depends on
the climate in a
particular
location. During
each growing
season, the trunk of the tree grows thicker, producing a layer of new wood called a tree ring. It’s possible
to see the boundary between one ring and the next because of differences in the color of the wood. Early
in the growing season, trees grow relatively quickly and produce less-dense, paler wood. Near the end of
the growing season, they produce denser, darker wood. The light-colored rings are the wood that grew in
spring and early summer, while the dark rings indicate growth in late summer and fall. So, a light ring and
dark ring together represent one year of growth. A sapling (young tree) grows much faster than an adult
tree. A cross section of an older tree shows rings that are broad at the beginning of its life (in the center)
but that become progressively smaller. An old tree produces very narrow rings and its diameter and height
growth are slower.

Student Sheet 2

Trees generally grow more during wetter growing seasons with favorable temperatures, forming wider rings.
Narrow rings may be caused by stressful periods such as droughts. Although tree rings only record conditions
during the growing season, droughts can build up over many months or even many years, so a lack of rain
or snow in the winter can lead to poor growing conditions in the spring. Because tree rings are sensitive to
local climate conditions such as precipitation and temperature, they give scientists some information about
an area’s past local climate or “micro-climate.” For example, rings generally grow wider in warm, wet years
and thinner in cold, dry years. When faced with extremely stressful or unfavorable conditions, a tree might
hardly grow at all.
 a. Narrow rings do not only signify a lack of sun
or water. A forest fire may have damaged the
tree's crown and slowed its growth. Defoliation by
insects or fungi can have the same effect. After
several years, this tree gained strength and
returned to normal growth.

This tree
had a rough time during its first ten years
and grew very slowly. It probably was not
receiving enough sunlight. Later on someone
helped it by cutting the large trees around it
to give it more light.

This tree doesn't have its heart wood in the right

place. It shows off-center growth. If the tree was
in a location exposed to high winds, its wood would
grow faster (wider rings) on the side away from the
wind than on the side facing the wind.

Student Sheet 3

This cross section probably comes from a

tree that was leaning. The tree formed
reaction wood (compression wood) that
enabled it to straighten up. The wider rings
are on the underside of the leaning trunk
because growth was faster there. There
are waves in the outer bark on the left
side. There was probably a branch there at
one time.

Another method that is used to gain information from trees about past climates is called a core sample.
Scientists use a tool called an increment borer to drill a small hole in the tree and extract the rings without
killing it. The core can be measured and used in place of the whole cross section of a tree trunk. The actual
core sample takes a small (0.200 inch diameter) straw-like sample from the bark (outermost layer) to the
pith (center) of the tree. Though this hole is small, it can still introduce decay in the trunk

On the core above, are 50 years of tree-ring information. By counting the tree-rings backward from the
bark (2007) to the pith it is possible to calculate the when the tree started growing. Every decade is
marked with a dot. The tree rings are the white spaces between the lines. The variation in the tree-ring width
was caused by climate conditions in the region where the tree grew.

By studying tree rings and core samples as well as other clues in our environment, scientists have learned
that there have been times when most of the planet was covered in ice, and there have also been much
warmer periods. Tree rings alone cannot tell us whether human activities are responsible, but they do help
by revealing patterns that scientists can investigate further.

Student Sheet 4

DATA TABLE 1:
YEAR YEAR
NO. OF CORE
AGE OF TREE TREE GROWTH
SAMPLE
WAS CUT BEGAN

GRAPH 1: TREE RING WIDTH

Student Sheet 5

FIGURE 1
Student Sheet 6

ANALYSIS:

1. Which core sample is the oldest?

2. How old was Tree A when it was cut?
3. How many years ago did Tree B start growing?
4. How old was Tree C when it was cut?
5. List the years that indicate drought conditions.
6. How many dry cycles were there? (2 or more years)
7. Is there a pattern to the droughts?
8. How many wet cycles were there? (2 or more years)
9. Compare the ring for the year you were born with the ring for 2002. How do they compare? Note down
any similarities or differences. What might have caused these?
10. What does your graph of tree-ring width against time represent?
11. Give a brief and general description of how the climate changed during the period that your tree
samples represent.
12. How could we obtain climatic information further back in time than tree rings provide?
13. If carbon dioxide levels are rising and global warming continues, what differences would you expect to
see in the tree rings between the modern ones and those laid down in 100 years’ time?
 The Reproductive Cycle and
Module 1
Lesson 4
Life Cycle of Plants

Learning Outcome: At the of this lesson, you should be able to name the different reproductive
structures of plants, and describe the life cycle of plants or alteration of generation.

Learning Tasks

Activity

Flower serves as the reproductive organ of the plants. This

is where reproduction in plants occurs. In this activity, you
are going to label the different parts of the flower and give
a brief description of each parts. You are also to supply the
scientific name of the plant below.

Scientific name
 Analysis

After the activity, you are to supply the correct answers to the following questions.

4. Reproduction can serve two very different functions. What are they?

3. Under what conditions is it selectively advantageous for a plant to

produce offspring identical to itself?

2. With asexual reproduction, are progeny ever more fit, more adapted
than the parent?

1. After pollination and then fertilization, what usually happens to each

of the following: stigma, style, carpel, ovule, integuments and zygote?
 Abstraction

FLOWERS OF DECEIT
• Insects help angiosperms to reproduce sexually with distant members of their own
species
– For example, male Campsoscolia wasps mistake Ophrys flowers for females
and attempt to mate with them
– The flower is pollinated in the process
– Unusually, the flower does not produce nectar and the male receives no benefit
• Many angiosperms lure insects with nectar; both plant and pollinator benefit
• Mutualistic symbioses are common between plants and other species
• Angiosperms can reproduce sexually and asexually
• Angiosperms are the most important group of plants in terrestrial ecosystems and in
agriculture

Was this wasp

trying to mate
with this flower?

FLOWERS, DOUBLE FERTILIZATION, AND FRUITS ARE UNIQUE FEATURES

OF THE ANGIOSPERM LIFE CYCLE
• Plant lifecycles are characterized by the alternation between a multicellular haploid
(n) generation and a multicellular diploid (2n) generation
• Diploid sporophytes (2n) produce spores (n) by meiosis; these grow into haploid
gametophytes (n)
 • Gametophytes produce haploid gametes (n) by mitosis; fertilization of gametes
produces a sporophyte
• In angiosperms, the sporophyte is the dominant generation, the large plant that we
see
• The gametophytes are reduced in size and depend on the sporophyte for nutrients
• The angiosperm life cycle is characterized by “three Fs”: flowers, double fertilization,
and fruits

FLOWERS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• Flowers are the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm sporophyte; they attach to a
part of the stem called the receptacle
• Flowers consist of four floral organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels
• Stamens and carpels are reproductive organs; sepals and petals are sterile
• A stamen consists of a filament topped by an anther with pollen sacs that produce
pollen
• A carpel has a long style with a stigma on which pollen may land
• At the base of the style is an ovary containing one or more ovules
• A single carpel or group of fused carpels is called a pistil
• Complete flowers contain all four floral organs
• Incomplete flowers lack one or more floral organs, for example stamens or carpels
• Clusters of flowers are called inflorescences
DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GAMETOPHYTES IN POLLEN GRAINS
• Pollen develops from microspores within
the microsporangia, or pollen sacs, of anthers
• Each microspore undergoes mitosis to produce two cells: the generative cell and the
tube cell
• A pollen grain consists of the two-celled male gametophyte and the spore wall
• If pollination succeeds, a pollen grain produces a pollen tube that grows down into
the ovary and discharges two sperm cells near the embryo sac
DEVELOPMENT OF FEMALE GAMETOPHYTES (Embryo Sacs)
• The embryo sac, or female gametophyte, develops within the ovule
• Within an ovule, two integuments surround a megasporangium
• One cell in the megasporangium undergoes meiosis, producing four megaspores,
only one of which survives
• The megaspore divides, producing a large cell with eight nuclei
• This cell is partitioned into a multicellular female gametophyte, the embryo sac
 POLLINATION
• In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma
• Pollination can be by wind, water, or animals
• Wind-pollinated species (e.g., grasses and many trees) release large amounts of
pollen

Hazel staminate flowers (stamens only) Hazel carpellate Common dandelion under
flower (carpels only) normal light
COEVULTION OF FLOWER AND INSECT POLLINATOR
• Coevolution is the evolution of interacting species in response to changes in each
other
• Many flowering plants have coevolved with specific pollinators
• The shapes and sizes of flowers often correspond to the pollen transporting parts of
their animal pollinators
– For example, Darwin correctly predicted a moth with a 28 cm long tongue
based on the morphology of a particular flower

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
• After landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain produces a pollen tube that extends
between the cells of the style toward the ovary
• Double fertilization results from the discharge of two sperm from the pollen tube
into the embryo sac
• One sperm fertilizes the egg, and the other combines with the polar nuclei, giving rise
to the triploid food-storing endosperm (3n)

SEED DEVELOPMENT, FORM AND FUNCTION

• After double fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed
• The ovary develops into a fruit enclosing the seed(s)
ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT
• Endosperm development usually precedes embryo development
• In most monocots and some eudicots, endosperm stores nutrients that can be used
by the seedling
• In other eudicots, the food reserves of the endosperm are exported to the
cotyledons

EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
• The first mitotic division of the zygote splits the fertilized egg into a basal cell and a
terminal cell
• The basal cell produces a multicellular suspensor, which anchors the embryo to the
parent plant
• The terminal cell gives rise to most of the embryo
• The cotyledons form and the embryo elongates

STRUCTURE OF THE MATURE SEED

• The embryo and its food supply are enclosed by a hard, protective seed coat
• The seed enters a state of dormancy
• A mature seed is only about 5–15% water
• In some eudicots, such as the common garden bean, the embryo consists of the
embryonic axis attached to two thick cotyledons (seed leaves)
• Below the cotyledons the embryonic axis is called the hypocotyl and terminates in
the radicle (embryonic root); above the cotyledons it is called the epicotyl
• The plumule comprises the epicotyl, young leaves, and shoot apical meristem
• The seeds of some eudicots, such as castor beans, have thin cotyledons
• A monocot embryo has one cotyledon
• Grasses, such as maize and wheat, have a special cotyledon called a scutellum
• Two sheathes enclose the embryo of a grass seed: a coleoptile covering the young
shoot and a coleorhiza covering the young root
SEED DORMANCY
• Seed dormancy increases the chances that germination will occur at a time and
place most advantageous to the seedling
• The breaking of seed dormancy often requires environmental cues, such as
temperature or lighting changes

SEED GERMINATION AND SEED DEVELOPMENT

• Germination depends on imbibition, the uptake of water due to low water potential
of the dry seed
• The radicle (embryonic root) emerges first
• Next, the shoot tip breaks through the soil surface
• In many eudicots, a hook forms in the hypocotyl, and growth pushes the hook above
ground
• Light causes the hook to straighten and pull the cotyledons and shoot tip up

FRUIT FORM AND FUNCTION

• A fruit develops from the ovary
• It protects the enclosed seeds and aids in seed dispersal by wind or animals
• A fruit may be classified as dry, if the ovary dries out at maturity, or fleshy, if the
ovary becomes thick, soft, and sweet at maturity
• Fruits are also classified by their development
• Simple, a single or several fused carpels
 • Aggregate, a single flower with multiple separate carpels
• Multiple, a group of flowers called an inflorescence

• Fruit dispersal mechanisms include

– Water
– Wind
– Animals
FLOWERING PLANTS REPRODUCE SEXUALLY, ASEXUALLY OR BOTH
• Many angiosperm species reproduce both asexually and sexually
• Sexual reproduction results in offspring that are genetically different from their
parents
• Asexual reproduction results in a clone of genetically identical organisms

MECHANISM OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Fragmentation, separation of a parent plant into parts that develop into whole
plants, is a very common type of asexual reproduction
• In some species, a parent plant’s root system gives rise to adventitious shoots that
become separate shoot systems

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL VS SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION
• Asexual reproduction is also called vegetative reproduction
• Asexual reproduction can be beneficial to a successful plant in a stable environment
• However, a clone of plants is vulnerable to local extinction if there is an
environmental change
• Sexual reproduction generates genetic variation that makes evolutionary adaptation
possible
• However, only a fraction of seedlings survives
• Some flowers can self-fertilize to ensure that every ovule will develop into a seed
• Many species have evolved mechanisms to prevent selfing

MECHANISMS THAT PREVENT SELF-FERTILIZATION

• Many angiosperms have mechanisms that make it difficult or impossible for a flower
to self-fertilize
• Dioecious species have staminate and carpellate flowers on separate plants
PLANT LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle of all plants is complex because it is characterized by alternation of
generations. Plants alternate between diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte
generations, and between sexual and asexual reproduction. The ability to reproduce
both sexually and asexually gives plants the flexibility to adapt to changing
environments. Their complex life cycle allows for great variation. A general plant life
cycle is represented by the diagram in Figure below. From the figure, you can see
that the diploid sporophyte has a structure called a sporangium (plural, sporangia)
that undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores. A spore develops into a
haploid gametophyte. The gametophyte has male or female reproductive organs
that undergo mitosis to form haploid gametes (sperm or eggs). Fertilization of
gametes produces a diploid zygote. The zygote grows and develops into a mature
sporophyte, and the cycle repeats.

One of the two generations of a plant’s life cycle is typically dominant to the other generation. Whether it’s the
sporophyte or gametophyte generation, individuals in the dominant generation live longer and grow larger. They are
the green, photosynthetic structures that you would recognize as a fern, tree, or other plant. Individuals in the
nondominant generation, in contrast, may be very small and rarely seen. They may live in or on the dominant plant.
 Application

Draw and discuss comprehensively in your own words the reproductive cycle and life
cycle of plants.

Write you answer here.

Post-Assessment in Module 1

Directions: This a 100-item essay test that is good for 60 minutes only. Read all of the questions very
carefully and supply your best answers. Each question has an equivalent of 20 points.
1. What are the most abundant components of a plant cell wall? How do the components interact, and how
are they arranged with respect to each other? What are the symplast and apoplast in the plants?

2. If you live to be 100 years old, how many set of organs will you have during your lifetime? If a plant lives
to be 100 years old, how many sets of leaves will it probably have? If it begins blooming when it is 10
years old, how many sets of flowers? When you are 70 years old, you will still depend on your digestive
system to supply you with energy for another 30 years, but how old is that set of organs? In a 70-year old
tree, how old are cells of the leaves that supply it with energy?

3. Some perrenial plants store significant amounts of nutrients in the stem during winter, but roots offer
certain advantages. Describe two of these advantages.

4. What is a growth ring? How does early wood differ from late wood? Do all species of wood show strong
differences between these two phases of a growth ring?

5. Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are not identical to each other or to either parent. Usually,
some are well adapted than the parents. Some are more poorly adapted, ad most are about as adapted.
Give at least three of the beneficial aspects of this biodiversity.
 Laboratory Activity No. 1

PLANT A TREE module 1

1. Pick out a tree. Very young trees are usually sold bare-root. Materials Needed:
Bare-root means that they will look like sticks with a bit of root at
one end. They can only be planted when they are dormant. The
 One tree (oak, maple, or any
roots of very young trees must be soaked in a bucket of water for
a few hours before planting. Larger trees are usually sold balled- other type of tree or bush, or
and-burlapped. This means that the roots are enclosed in dirt and any tree)
wrapped in burlap and twine or wire. These trees can be planted  Shovel
at any time.  Bucket of water
 Measuring tape
2. Pick a suitable spot in your yard to plant your tree. Be sure that  Journal
the tree has the amount of sunlight that it needs to grow.  Pen or pencil
 Camera (optional)
3. Dig a hole and set aside the soil, sod clumps, and rocks. You
want the hole large enough that the roots fit in without being
crowded.

 For bare-root trees, the hole should be a few inches deeper How does your tree grow?
than the length of the root and wider than the spread of the
root. At the beginning of each week, take a look
 For the ball-and-burlapped tree, you will want to measure at your tree. Record in your journal the
the height of the root ball and the depth of the hole before following observations:
planting it. Remove the twine or wire before putting in the
hole.  Measure the height.
 Measure the circumference of the
4. Put the tree in the hole and fill it 2/3 of the way with the dirt. Fill trunk.
the rest of the hole with water. Once it has settled, fill the rest of the  What does the bark look like?
hole with dirt.  How many branches does it have?
5. Make a saucer-like circle around the tree using the leftover  Does it have leaves? If so, how
rocks and dirt clumps. Water thoroughly and then mulch. many? What color are they?
 Does it have buds?
6. Stake the tree so that it does not get knocked over by strong  Does it have fruit or seeds, like
winds, lawn mowers, and other hazards. Water thoroughly once apples or acorns or pinecones?
a week in dry weather.  Draw or take a picture of your tree

7. Observation and recording in the journal will be until the end of

the semester.