2020 Energy in Agriculture Basics

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Department of Agricultural Engineering

Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences

University of Dschang

Energy in Agriculture

Lecturer Prof Julius Kewir TANGKA PhD

Course outline

Chapter 1 Energy Basics. Definition, Some Forms of Energy, Confusion of watts and watt-
hours, Energy and Power, Energy and Power

Chapter Two : Solar energy applications, Introduction, The sun, The solar Constant Gsc,
solar power on the earth, declination, solar electricity basics, Sizing a PV System from an
Electricity Bill, Design of solar collectors, Energy Supplied to a collector, collector efficiqncy,
energy storage

Chapter 3 Wind Energy. Energy from the moving air, The Daily Wind Cycle, Wind Energy for
Electricity Generation, Major wind locations, types of wind turbines,

Chapter 4 Chapter 4 Hydro Energy Hydro Energy, How hydro power works, scheme
components, Water into Watts, Turbines, Classification of turbine types, Load factor, Load
control governors , Advantages of hydro Power,

Chapter 5 Biofuels, Biodiesels ,Bioethanol, production of bioethanol, Conversion of biomass


into ethanol, Other Liquid Biofuels (from oil crops), octane number, cetane number

Chapter 7 Biogas
Chapter 1:

Energy Basics.

1) Definition:

The word energy comes from the Greek word energeia which means activity operation. The
word energos in Greek means active working. Energy describes the amount of work that can be
performed by a force. It is a scalar quantity which means that it does not depend on direction. We
can therefore define energy as the ability to do work. Or the product of the force and the distance
moved in the direction of the force. It is measured in Joules or Nm. If a load has enough weight
and resistance to movement to require a force of 20 Newton to move it vertically a distance of
3m, then: The amount of work done is 3m x 20N = 60 Nm. Or 60 Joules

Several different forms of energy exist to explain all known natural phenomena. These forms
include (but are not limited to) kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational sound, light elastic and
electromagnetic energy. The forms of energy are often named after a related force. Any form of
energy can be transformed from one form to the other. The total energy is always a constant. The
law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in an isolated system
remains constant. A consequence of this law is that energy cannot be created or destroyed. The
only thing that can happen with energy in an isolated system is that it can change form, that is to
say for instance kinetic energy can become thermal energy. (An isolated system, as contrasted
with an open system is a Physical system that does not interact with its surroundings). In
agriculture it is difficult to talk about energy without associating it to power. We are not always
only concerned about the amount of energy but on the rate at which the energy is used and this
calls for power considerations.

2) Some Forms of Energy

Kinetic energy of an object is the extra energy which it possesses due to its motion. It is defined
as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its current velocity. Having
gained this energy during its acceleration the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed
changes. Negative work of the same magnitude would be required to return the body to a state of
rest from that Velocity.

Ke = ½ Mv2 Where M = Mass kg V = velocity/sec

Potential energy can be thought of as energy stored within a physical system. It is called
potential energy because it has the potential to be converted into other forms of energy, such as
kinetic energy, and to do work in the process. The standard (SI) unit of measure for potential
energy is the joule, the same as for work or energy in general. The gravitational potential energy
is mgh

Thermal energy of a single particle in a thermal bath is: Thermal energy is the internal
energy of an object due to the kinetic energy of its atoms and/or molecules. The atoms and/or
molecules of a hotter object have greater kinetic energy than those of a colder one, in the form of

vibrational, rotational, or, in the case of a gas, translational motion


where f refers to the degrees of freedom, T refers to the temperature, and k to Boltzmann's
constant. For example, a monatomic particle in an ideal gas has three degrees of freedom, and

thus,

Gravitational energy is the energy associated with the gravitational field.

Other forms of energy include electromagnetic energy, sound energy, light energy, elastic energy
etc. Can you define these forms of energy?

3) Energy and Power

Power is the rate of doing work and it is measured in Watts. It should never be confused with
energy. Power (symbol: P) is the rate at which work is performed or energy is transmitted, or the
amount of energy required or expended for a given unit of time. As a rate of change of work
done or the energy of a subsystem, power is:

where P is power, W is work and t is time

If a load has enough weight and resistance to movement to require a force of 20 Newton to
move it vertically a distance of 3m, then:

The amount of work done is 3m x 20N = 60 Nm. If this is done in one minute, then power rating
is 60 N/60 s = 1 N m sec-1= 1 Joule/sec =1 Watt.

The units of power are units of energy divided by time. The SI unit of power is the watt (W),
which is equal to one joule per second. Non-SI units of power include

 Ergs per second (erg/s),

 Horsepower (hp),
 Metric horsepower (Pferdestärke (PS) or cheval vapeur (CV)), and

 Foot-pounds per minute.

One unit of horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the power required to
lift 550 pounds one foot in one second, and is equivalent to about 746 watts.

Other units include dBm, a logarithmic measure with 1 milliwatt as reference; (food) calories per
hour (often referred to as kilocalories per hour);

Btu per hour (Btu/h); and tons of refrigeration (12,000 Btu/h)

Confusion of watts and watt-hours

Power and energy are frequently confused in the general media. Power is the rate at which
energy is used (or generated). A watt is one joule of energy per second. For example, if a
100 watt light bulb is turned on for one hour, the energy used is 100 watt-hours or 0.1 kilowatt-
hour, or (60x60x100) 360,000 joules. This same quantity of energy would light a 40-watt bulb
for 2.5 hours. A power station would be rated in watts, but its annual energy sales would be in
watt-hours (or kilowatt-hours or megawatt-hours). A kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy
equivalent to a steady power of 1 kilowatt running for 1 hour, or 3.6 megajoules.

Terms such as 'watts per hour', which are sometimes used in the media, are meaningless in
practice (unless referring to change of power per hour).

Often energy production or consumption is expressed as terawatt-hours per year. As one year
contains about 8,765.82 hours, one terawatt-hour per year equals about 114,080 megawatts.

The following are some commercial terms used to quantify power plants

Watts Comments

Nanowatt 10 -9 From a single star of magnitude +3.5 a square meter receives one nanowatt.
Microwatt 10-6

Milliwatt 10-3 of a watt. A typical laser pointer might output 5 milliwatts.

Kilowatt 103 The kilowatt (symbol: kW), equal to one thousand watts, is typically used to
state the power output of engines and the power consumption of tools and
machines. A kilowatt is approximately equivalent to 1.34 horsepower. An
electric heater with one heating element might use 1 kilowatt. The power
consumption, averaged over a year, of a household in the Western world is
about 1 kW

Megawatt 106 Many things can sustain the transfer or consumption of energy on this scale;
MW some of these events or entities include: lightning strikes, large electric motors,
naval craft (such as aircraft carriers and submarines), engineering hardware,
Utility companies is often measured in MW. Modern high-powered diesel-
electric railroad locomotives typically have a peak power output of 3 to 5 MW,
whereas U.S. nuclear power plants have net summer capacities between about
500 and 1300 MW

Gigawatt 109 This unit is sometimes used with large power plants or power grids.
GW

Terawatt 1012 The total power used by humans worldwide (about 15 TW) is commonly
measured in these units. The most powerful lasers from the mid 1960s to the
mid 1990s produced power in terawatts, but only for nanoseconds.
Petawatt 1015

PW

4) Energy Sources in agriculture

The energy sources used in present day agriculture include man, animal, farm tractor,
solar energy (wind solar thermal and electrical), biogas biomass, hydro energy and
producer gas. Most of these sources are used in powering other units .
Chapter Two

SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS

Introduction

Solar energy can be exploited in agriculture in two ways. Solar thermal applications exploit solar
radiation to generate heat for drying, heating, cooking and for electricity generation. Solar
electricity uses photovoltaic cells to transform solar radiation into electricity which can be used
for heating, lighting and powering of small farm machinery.

You have treated these applications in the course Energy in Agriculture. In this chapter you will
dwell more on the theory of solar energy applications and how some simple equipment are
designed.

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient
times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar-
powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for
most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a very little fraction of the available solar
energy is used.

Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaic. Solar energy's uses
are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heating
and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection, day
lighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial
purposes.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on
the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use
of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal
mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air

The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper
atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds,
oceans and land masses.

Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their
temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric
circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low,
water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water
cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric
phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land
masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C. By photosynthesis green plants
convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from
which fossil fuels are derived.

Fig 3.1 Break down of incident radiation from the sun to the earth

The SUN

Constitute: 80% of Hydrogen 19% of Helium

Diameter: 1.39x106km ,

It is 109 times of the Earth diametral.

Quantity: 1.99x1030kg,

It is 33,000 times heavy than the Earth.

It is 745 times of all planets quantity in solar system.

Surface temperature: 5777 K (5504 ℃ )

Energy source: The nuclear fusion reaction of Hydrogen Change into Helium.

Life time: the sun has run 5,000,000,000 years and it will keep run another 5,000,000,000 years.
The solar Constant Gsc

 This is the energy from the sun, per unit time, received on a unit area of surface
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation, at the mean earth-sun
distance, outside of the atmosphere.

 Many studies on solar constant have been made, and several values suggested.
Commonly, Gsc =1353(1367) w/ m2 The estimated error is ± 1.5%

Fig 3.1 The solar constant

Total solar power

The total solar output Power :

Φ=Gsc x 4πD2e-s = 136Wm-2 x 4π x (1.495 x 108 Km)2


=3.84 x 1026W

Where De-s is the distance between the sun and the earth. It is the same power to burn coal as

Φ/(1000 x 7000 x 4186) = 1.32 x 1016 Tons

Solar Power on the earth:

The energy on the earth’s surface

Φe=IscnRe2=1367 x (6.35 x 106)2

= 1.7 x 1017W

This energy is the same as 10 000 000 00 KWh electricity. It is about 100 thousand times the
total electricity capacity of the whole world.

Types of Radiation

a. Beam radiation: the solar radiation from the sun pass through the atmosphere and direct
to earth surface. It is also called direct solar radiation.
b. Diffuse radiation: the solar radiation direction has been changed by scattering by the
atmosphere and finally to the earth surface.
c. Total radiation: The sum of diffuse and direct beam radiation

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 3.2 (a) Direct beam radiation (b) diffuse radiation (c) Total radiation
Iradaince : the rate at which radiant energy on a unit area of surface with beam or diffuse
radiation. The unit is w/m2.

Iradiation or radiant exposure: The incident energy per unit area on a surface, found by
integration of irradiance over a specified time, usually an hour or a day.(Insolation is a term
applying specifically to solar energy irradiation.) The symbol H is used for insolation for a day.
The symbol I is used for insolation for an hour. J/m2

Fig 3.1 Zenith angle, slope, surface azimuth angle and solar azimuth angle for a tilted surface

 Latitude Φ: angular location north or south of the equator, north positive –90° ≤ Φ ≤
90°.

 Declination δ: angular position of the sun at solar noon with respect to the plane of the
equator, north positive. –23.45° ≤ δ ≤ 23.45 °.
 Slope β, that is, the angle between the plane surface in question and the horizontal.
0° ≤ β ≤ 180 °

 Surface azimuth angle γ : the deviation of the projection on a horizontal plane of the
normal to the surface from the local meridian, with zero due south, east negative, west
positive. –180 °≤ γ ≤ 180 °.

 Hour angle ω: that is, the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local
meridian due to rotation of the earth on its axis at 15 ° per hour, morning negative,
afternoon positive.

Declination δ

 ө Angle of incidence, that is, the angle between the beam radiation and the normal to the
surface.

 Zenith angle, slop, and surface azimuth angle. The declination, δ , can be found
from the equation of Cooper: 84+n 23.45sin(360------------365)

where n is the day of the year

Solar Electricity Basics

How PV Cells are made

The process of fabricating conventional single- and polycrystalline silicon PV cells begins with
very pure semiconductor-grade polysilicon - a material processed from quartz and used
extensively throughout the electronics industry. The polysilicon is then heated to melting
temperature, and trace amounts of boron are added to the melt to create a P-type semiconductor
material. Next, an ingot, or block of silicon is formed, commonly using one of two methods: 1)
by growing a pure crystalline silicon ingot from a seed crystal drawn from the molten polysilicon
or 2) by casting the molten polysilicon in a block, creating a polycrystalline silicon material.
Individual wafers are then sliced from the ingots using wire saws and then subjected to a surface
etching process. After the wafers are cleaned, they are placed in a phosphorus diffusion furnace,
creating a thin N-type semiconductor layer around the entire outer surface of the cell. Next, an
anti-reflective coating is applied to the top surface of the cell, and electrical contacts are
imprinted on the top (negative) surface of the cell. An aluminized conductive material is
deposited on the back (positive) surface of each cell, restoring the P-type properties of the back
surface by displacing the diffused phosphorus layer. Each cell is then electrically tested, sorted
based on current output, and electrically connected to other cells to form cell circuits for
assembly in PV modules.

Simply put, PV systems are like any other electrical power generating systems, just the
equipment used is different than that used for conventional electromechanical generating
systems. However, the principles of operation and interfacing with other electrical systems
remain the same, and are guided by a well-established body of electrical codes and standards.

Although a PV array produces power when exposed to sunlight, a number of other components
are required to properly conduct, control, convert, distribute, and store the energy produced by
the array.

. Figure 3 show a basic diagram of a photovoltaic system and the relationship of individual
components.

Figure 1. Major photovoltaic system components.

Why Are Batteries Used in Some PV Systems?

Batteries are often used in PV systems for the purpose of storing energy produced by the PV
array during the day, and to supply it to electrical loads as needed (during the night and periods
of cloudy weather). Other reasons batteries are used in PV systems are to operate the PV array
near its maximum power point, to power electrical loads at stable voltages, and to supply surge
currents to electrical loads and inverters. In most cases, a battery charge controller is used in
these systems to protect the battery from overcharge and overdischarge.

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher
voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an
environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems.
Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable
unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV
modules and panels.

Figure 1. Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels and arrays.

The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their maximum DC
power output (watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions are
defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of 25o C (77o F), and incident solar irradiance
level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution. Since these conditions are not
always typical of how PV modules and arrays operate in the field, actual performance is usually
85 to 90 percent of the STC rating.
How to connect solar modules using different configurations.
Grid connected solar systems

Sizing a PV System from an Electricity Bill

An electricity bill typically reveals information about a residential or commercial customer’s


total monthly energy consumption. From this value alone, it is possible to approximate the
required size of a PV system that offsets monthly energy usage.

Take a hypothetical monthly energy consumption of 500 kilowatt-hours, Assuming there are 30
days in a month, an average daily energy use value can be reached by dividing the monthly use
by 30.

Em
Ed =
D
ED = Daily Energy use kWh; Em =Monthly Energy use in kWh D=
number of days in a month = 30

500
Therefore Ed = kW h=16.1 kW h/day
30 days

Next, insolation values are needed. insolation values are reported in kWh/m2-day. insolation
values reported in kWh/m2-day approximate the hours of full-sun equivalent that a location
receives over the course of a day.
Figure
1. Visualization of how total solar insolation received over the course of a day (left) can be
represented by number of full-sun hours (right).

Assuming that at your location the average daily irradiance value is 5.2 kWh/m2-day. By
dividing the daily energy usage by hours a day of full sun, the power output required by the PV
system is calculated.

Ed
P=
H

Where P = Power output required by your system in kW; H = hours of full sun
Power Output=Daily Energy Use Daily hours of full sun

16.7 kW /day
P= = 3.21kW
5.2 h ours /day

This would be the size of the PV system required, if our system was 100% efficient. However,
that is not the case because all PV systems have a corresponding derating factor that takes into
account the inefficiencies of the overall system, such as soiling of the panels and imperfect
electrical connections, inverter losses etc.

According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s PVWatts calculator, a typical derate
factor is 0.84. For the sake of this calculation, we assume the derate factor be 80%, or 0.8. In
order to determine the size of the PV system, divide the required power output by the derate
factor.

Therefore the required power if 3.21/ 0,8 = 4,01kW

From this analysis, the approximate size of a PV system required to completely offset the
average monthly energy usage of a 500 kWh/month home in Bamenda would be about 4 kW.
β

Design of solar collectors

Solar collectors are used in solar dryers, cookers stills and other solar thermal appliances. They
collect and solar radiation and transform it into heat energy to perform a specific task. Radiators
are made of

They consist of a

a. dark flat-plate absorber of solar energy,


b. transparent cover that allows solar energy to pass through but reduces heat losses,
c. heat-transport fluid (air, antifreeze or water) to remove heat from the absorber, and
d. heat insulating backing.

The absorber consists of a thin absorber sheet (of thermally stable polymers, aluminum, steel or
copper, to which a matte black or selective coating is applied

In water heat panels, fluid is usually circulated through tubing to transfer heat from the absorber
to an insulated water tank. This may be achieved directly or through a heat exchanger. There are
a number of absorber piping configurations for water heater:

 harp - traditional design with bottom pipe risers and top collection pipe, used in low
pressure thermosyphon and pumped systems
 serpentine - one continuous S that maximizes temperature but not total energy yield in
variable flow systems, used in compact solar domestic hot water only systems (no space
heating role)
 completely flooded absorber consisting of two sheets of metal stamped to produce a
circulation zone. Because the heat exchange area is greater they may be marginally
more efficient than traditional absorbers.

Energy Supplied to a collector

Qu= Ma.Cpa.(To-Tj)

Where Qu is the rate of energy supply to the collector,

Ma the mass rate of the fluid Kg/s

Cpa is the specific heat capacity of the fluid °C


Tj is the inlet temperature of the fluid °C

ρV
Also M a=
t

Where ρ is the volume of the mass of fluid ; V is the volume of the fluid in m 3. And t is the time
in secs.

Collector Efficiency


ηi =
A c Lc

Where ηi is the instantaneous efficiency of the collector ; q u is the energy supplied to the
collector over a given period; Ac is the surface area of the collector (m 2); Lc is the solar energy
available on the collector surface over the same period (W/m2)

This output has been given well defined time output period

∫ q u dt
o
ηi = T
∫ A c Lc dt
o

Where T is the time period over which the efficiency was calculated in (hours).

ηi = (Available solar energy- collector energy losses)/available solar energy

Energy Storage

 Solar energy can be stored in the following forms


 Fluid form: Water is mostly used because of the high specific heat capacity
 Solid medium: Rocks of approximate the same diameter, black color can be used in an
insulate the container
 Phase or medium change: Energy is liberated when a substance changes from one state to
another eg Refrigerants.
 Mechanical form: solar energy used to pump water to an elevation and released by
gravity when need arises.
 Electrical energy can be stored in Batteries for use later.

Chapter 3

Wind Energy

Energy from Moving Air

How Uneven Heating of Water and Land Causes Wind

Wind is simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the sun.
Because the Earth's surface is made of very different types of land and water, it absorbs the sun's
heat at different rates.

The Daily Wind Cycle

During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the air over water. The warm
air over the land expands and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its place, creating
wind. At night, the winds are reversed because the air cools more rapidly over land than over
water.

In the same way, the atmospheric winds that circle the earth are created because the land near the
Earth's equator is heated more by the sun than the land near the North and South Poles.

Wind Energy for Electricity Generation

Today, wind energy is mainly used to generate electricity. Wind is a renewable energy source
because the wind will blow as long as the sun shines.

How Wind Turbines Work

Diagram of Windmill Workings


Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy

Like old fashioned windmills, today’s wind machines (also called wind turbines) use blades to
collect the wind’s kinetic energy. The wind flows over the blades creating lift, like the effect on
airplane wings, which causes them to turn. The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an
electric generator to produce electricity.

With the new wind machines, there is still the problem of what to do when the wind isn't
blowing. At those times, other types of power plants must be used to make electricity.

A typical turbine generates 5.3 million units of electricity each year, sufficient to:

- Meet the average annual electricity needs of 1,000 homes


- Make 170 million cups of tea

- Run a computer for 1,620 years

- Prevent the emission of 2,000 tonnes of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide – equivalent to
taking 667 cars off the road.

Where Wind is Harnessed

Wind Power Plants Require Careful Planning

Operating a wind power plant is not as simple as just building a windmill in a windy place. Wind
plant owners must carefully plan where to locate their machines. One important thing to consider
is how fast and how much the wind blows at proposed locations.

Wind Turbines in the Ocean

Source: Stock photography (copyrighted)

As a rule, wind speed increases with altitude and over open areas that have no windbreaks. Good
sites for wind plants are the tops of smooth, rounded hills, open plains or shorelines, and
mountain gaps that produce wind funneling.

Major Wind Power Locations

Offshore Wind Power

Conditions are well suited along much of the coasts of the United States to use wind energy.
However, there are people oppose putting turbines just offshore, near the coastlines. However,
there are people who think the wind turbines will spoil the view of the ocean. Right now, there is
a plan to build an offshore wind plant off the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts.
Wind is a renewable energy source that does not pollute, so some people see it as a good
alternative to fossil fuels.

Types of Wind Turbines

There are two types of wind machines (turbines) used today, based on the direction of the
rotating shaft (axis): horizontal-axis wind machines and vertical-axis wind machines. The size of
wind machines varies widely. Small turbines used to power a single home or business may have
a capacity of less than 100 kilowatts. Some large commercial-sized turbines may have a capacity
of 5 million watts, or 5 megawatts. Larger turbines are often grouped together into wind farms
that provide power to the electrical grid.

Horizontal-Axis Wind Machine

Source: National Energy Education Development Project (Public Domain)

Darrieus Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine in Martigny, Switzerland


Source: Lysippos, Wikimedia Commons author (GNU Free Documentation License)

Horizontal-axis Turbines Look Like Windmills

Most wind machines being used today are the horizontal-axis type. Horizontal-axis wind
machines have blades like airplane propellers. A typical horizontal wind machine stands as tall
as a 20-story building and has three blades that span 200 feet across. The largest wind machines
in the world have blades longer than a football field. Wind machines stand tall and wide to
capture more wind.

BLADE THEORY
Blade power
The rotor blade assembly is the engine powering the wind generator. The blades produce
mechanical power to drive the alternator. The alternator will convert this into electrical power.
Both types of power can be measured in watts. It's a good idea to use metric units for
aerodynamic calculations.
The power (watts) in the wind blowing through the rotor is given by this formula:

3
P=1 /2 ρAv
Where
P= Power from the wind Watts;
ρ=air density in kg/m3 (where air density is about 1.2 kg/m3);
A= swept-area m2 and
v= wind speed in m/sec
The blades can only convert at best half of the wind’s total power into mechanical power. In
practice only about 25 -35% is a more typical figure for homebuilt rotor blades. Here is a simpler
rule of thumb:

2 3
P=0.15 D v Hence for a small wind turbine if the diameter is about 2.4m then the blade power
is
= 0.15 x 6 x 1000 = 900 watts approx.
(2.4m diameter rotor at 10 metres/sec or 22 mph)

Diameter is very important. If you double the diameter, you will get four times as much power.
This is because the wind turbine is able to capture more wind. Windspeed is even more
important. If you can get double the wind speed, you will get eight times as much power.
Blade speed The speed at which the blades rotate will depend on how they are loaded. If the
alternator has high torque and is hard to turn, then this may hold the speed down too low. If the
wiring is disconnected and electricity production is disabled, the rotor will accelerate and run
away at a much higher speed.
Rotor blades are designed with speed in mind, relative to the wind. This relationship is known as
tip speed ratio (tsr). Tip speed ratio is the speed the blade tips travel divided by the wind speed
at that time. In some cases the tips of the blades move faster than the wind by a ratio of as much
as 10 times. But this takes them to over 200 mph, resulting in noisy operation and rapid erosion
of the blades edges. We strongly recommend a lower tip speed ratio, around 7.
If we are building a rotor with diameter 8 feet [2.4 metres]. We want to know what rpm it will
run at best in a 7 mph [3 m/s] wind when first starting to produce
useful power.

Rpm = wind speed x tsr x 60/circumference


=3 x 7 x 60 /(2.4 x 3.14)= 167 rpm
Blade number
People often ask why not add more blades and get more power? It is true that more blades will
produce more torque (turning force), but that does not equate to more power. Mechanical power
is speed multiplied by torque. For electricity production you need speed more than you need
torque. Extra blades help the machine to start to turn slowly, but as the speed increases the extra
drag of all those blades will limit how much power it can produce. Multi-bladed rotors work
best at low tip speed ratios. Fast turning blades generate much more lift per square inch of blade
surface than slow ones do. A few, slender blades spinning fast will do the same job as many
wide ones spinning slowly.
Hence for high torque requiring operations like mechanical pumping of water, we use many
baldes that rotae slowly and give more torque than speed.

Chapter 4 Hydro Energy


HYDRO ENERGY

How Hydropower Works

Hydropower is using water to power machinery or make electricity. Water constantly moves
through a big global cycle, evaporating from lakes and oceans, forming clouds, precipitating as
rain or snow, then flowing back down to the ocean. The energy of this water cycle, which is
driven by the sun, can be tapped to produce electricity or for mechanical tasks like grinding
grain. Hydropower uses a fuel—water—that is not reduced or used up in the process. Because
the water cycle is an endless, constantly recharging system, hydropower is considered a
renewable energy.

When flowing water is captured and turned into electricity, it is called hydroelectric power or
hydropower. There are several types of hydroelectric facilities; they are all powered by the
kinetic energy of flowing water as it moves downstream. Turbines and generators convert the
energy into electricity, which is then fed into the electrical grid to be used in homes, businesses,
and by industry.

Water power can be harnessed in many ways;

a. Tidal flows can be utilized to produce power by building a barrage across an estuary and
releasing water in a controlled manner through a turbine.
b. Large dams hold water which can be used to provide large quantities of electricity.
c. Small dams can hold water and gradually release it to a water wheel to produce
mechanical power for machinery like mills or oil extraction, sawmill, carpentry
workshop, small scale mining equipment, and pumps etc without electricity.
d. Wave power is also harnessed in various ways. It is a technology that has been utilized
throughout the world, by a diverse range of societies and cultures, for many centuries.

Table 1, below outlines the categories used to define the power output form hydropower.

Large- hydro More than 100 MW and usually feeding into a large electricity grid

Medium-hydro 15 - 100 MW - usually feeding a grid

Small-hydro 1 - 15 MW - usually feeding into a grid

Mini-hydro Above 100 kW, but below 1 MW; either stand alone schemes or more often
feeding into the grid

Micro-hydro From 5kW up to 100 kW; usually provided power for a small community or
rural industry in remote areas away from the grid.

Pico-hydro From a few hundred watts up to 5kW

Table 1: Classification of hydropower by size.

Scheme components

Figure 1 shows the main components of a run-of-the-river micro-hydro scheme. This type of
scheme requires no water storage but instead diverts some of the water from the river which is
channelled along the side of a valley before being 'dropped' into the turbine via a penstock. In
figure 1, the turbine drives a generator that provides electricity for a workshop. The transmission
line can be extended to a local village to supply domestic power for lighting and other uses.
Figure 1: Layout of a typical micro hydro scheme

There are various other configurations which can be used depending on the topographical and
hydrological conditions, but all adopt the same general principle.

A typical hydro system will have the following key components.


a) Water source, from a river, an intake weir or a water reservoir to a
b) Channel, to deliver water to the
c) Forebay Tank, a limited capacity tank to guarantee a continuous steady flow of water into the
d) Penstock, through which water is channeled or piped under pressure (depending on the
head) directly into the
e) Power House containing the
f) Turbine, the
g) Gearbox (this may be required as the speed of rotation of the turbine
can be lower than the speed at which the generator will operate), and the
h) Generator, to produce electricity.
It is equally important that the water leaves the turbine as smoothly as possible and this requires
a suitably designed
i) Draft Tube or Tailrace, to take the water away from the turbine.

Water into watts

To determine the power potential of the water flowing in a river or stream it is necessary to
determine both the flow rate of the water and the head through which the water can be made to
fall. The flow rate is the quantity of water flowing past a point in a given time. Typical flow rate
units are litres per second or cubic metres per second. The head is the vertical height, in metres,
from the turbine up to the point where the water enters the intake pipe or penstock.

The potential power can be calculated as follows:

Theoretical power (P) = Flow rate (Q) x Head (H) x Gravity (g) (G= 9.81 m/s2)

When Q is in cubic metres per second, H in metres and g = 9.81 m/s2) then,

P = 9.81 x Q x H (kW)

However, energy is always lost when it is converted from one form to another. Small water
turbines rarely have efficiencies better than 80%. Power will also be lost in the pipe carrying the
water to the turbine, due to frictional losses. By careful design, this loss can be reduced to only a
small percentage. A rough guide used for small systems of a few kW rating is to take the overall
efficiency as approximately 50%. Thus, the theoretical power must be multiplied by 0.50 for a
more realistic figure.

Example: A turbine generator set operating at a head of 10 metres with flow of 0.3 cubic metres
per second will deliver approximately, (9.81 x 0.5 x 0.3 x 10 =) 15 kilowatts of electricity.

(for food processing such as milling or oil extraction, sawmill, carpentry workshop, small scale
mining equipment, etc.), but many applications require conversion to electrical power. For
domestic applications electricity is preferred. This can be provided either:

 directly to the home via a small electrical distribution system or,

 can be supplied by means of batteries which are returned periodically to the power house
for recharging - this system is common where the cost of direct electrification is
prohibitive due to scattered housing (and hence an expensive distribution system),

Where a generator is used alternating current (a.c.) electricity is normally produced. Singlephase
power is satisfactory on small installations up to 20kW, but beyond this, 3-phase power is used
to reduce transmission losses and to be suitable for larger electric motors. An a.c. power supply
must be maintained at a constant 50 or 60 cycles/second for the reliable operation of any
electrical equipment using the supply. This frequency is determined by the speed of the turbine
which must be very accurately governed.

To assess the suitability of a potential site, the hydrology of the site needs to be known and a site
survey carried out, to determine actual flow and head data. Flow data should be gathered over a
period of at least one full year where possible, so as to ascertain the fluctuation in river flow over
the various seasons. There are many methods for carrying out flow and head measurements and
these can be found in the relevant texts.

Turbines

A turbine converts the energy in falling water into shaft power. There are various types of
turbine which can be categorised in one of several ways. The choice of turbine will depend
mainly on the pressure head available and the design flow for the proposed hydropower
installation. As shown in table 2 below, turbines are broadly divided into three groups; high,
medium and low head, and into two categories: impulse and reaction.

Head pressure

Turbine Runner High Medium Low


Impulse Pelton Crossflow Crossflow
Turgo Turgo
Multi-jet Pelton Multi-jet Pelton

Reaction Francis Propeller


Pump-as-turbine (PAT) Kaplan
Pelton wheel
Tugor Turbine
Multi jet Turbine
Francis turbine

Cross flow turbine


Kaplan Turbine

Table 2: Classification of turbine types.


The difference between impulse and reaction can be explained simply by stating that the impulse
turbines convert the kinetic energy of a jet of water in air into movement by striking turbine
buckets or blades - there is no pressure reduction as the water pressure is atmospheric on both
sides of the impeller. The blades of a reaction turbine, on the o

ther hand, are totally immersed in the flow of water, and the angular as well as linear momentum
of the water is converted into shaft power - the pressure of water leaving the runner is reduced to
atmospheric or lower.

Load factor

The load factor is the amount of power used divided by the amount of power that is available if
the turbine were to be used continuously. Unlike technologies relying on costly fuel sources, the
'fuel' for hydropower generation is free and therefore the plant becomes more cost effective if run
for a high percentage of the time. If the turbine is only used for domestic lighting in the evenings
then the plant factor will be very low. If the turbine provides power for rural industry during the
day, meets domestic demand during the evening, and maybe pumps water for irrigation in the
evening, then the plant factor will be high.
Load control governors

Water turbines, like petrol or diesel engines, will vary in speed as load is applied or relieved.
Although not such a great problem with machinery which uses direct shaft power, this speed
variation will seriously affect both frequency and voltage output from a generator. Traditionally,
complex hydraulic or mechanical speed governors altered flow as the load varied, but more
recently an electronic load controller (ELC) has been developed which has increased the
simplicity and reliability of modern micro-hydro sets. The ELC prevents speed variations by
continuously adding or subtracting an artificial load, so that in effect, the turbine is working
permanently under full load. A further benefit is that the ELC has no moving parts, is very
reliable and virtually maintenance free. The advent of electronic load control has allowed the
introduction of simple and efficient, multi-jet turbines, no longer burdened by expensive
hydraulic governors.

Advantages of Hydro Power

a. Hydropower offers advantages over other energy sources but faces unique environmental
challenges.

b. Hydropower is a fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source. Hydropower doesn't pollute
the air like power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas.

c. Hydropower is a domestic source of energy, produced every where that there is a river or
a stream and a suitable flow head.

d. Hydropower relies on the water cycle, which is driven by the sun, thus it's a renewable
power source.

e. Hydropower is generally available as needed; engineers can control the flow of water
through the turbines to produce electricity on demand.
f. Hydropower plants provide benefits in addition to clean electricity. Impoundment
hydropower creates reservoirs that offer a variety of recreational opportunities, notably
fishing, swimming, and boating. Most hydropower installations are required to provide
some public access to the reservoir to allow the public to take advantage of these
opportunities. Other benefits may include water supply and flood control.

Environmental Challenges

Although hydroelectric power plants have many advantages over other energy sources, the
potential environmental impacts are also well known.

a. Reservoirs associated with large dams can cover land and river habitat with water and
displace human populations.

b. Diverting water out of the stream channel (or storing water for future electrical generation)
can dry out streamside vegetation.

c. Insufficient stream flow degrades habitat for fish and other aquatic organisms in the affected
river reach below the dam.

d. Water in the reservoir is stagnant compared to a free-flowing river, so water-borne sediments


and nutrients can be trapped, resulting in the undesirable growth and spread of algae and
aquatic weeds.

e. In some cases, water spilled from high dams may become supersaturated with nitrogen gas
and cause gas-bubble disease in aquatic organisms inhabiting the tailwaters below the
hydropower plant.

f. Hydropower projects can also affect aquatic organisms directly. The dam can block upstream
movements of migratory fish such as salmon, steelhead etc . Downstream-moving fish may
be drawn into the power plant intake flow and pass through the turbine. These fish are
exposed to physical stresses (pressure changes, shear, turbulence, strike) that may cause
disorientation, physiological stress, injury, or death.

Figure 2: Micro hydro scheme showing the power house, the penstock and the transmission lines
A pico hydro system makes use of the power in falling water. Figure 1 shows the layout of a pico
hydro system. Each of the components has been described in more detail below.

A. The source of water is a stream or sometimes an irrigation canal. Small amounts of water
can also be diverted from larger flows such as rivers. The most important considerations are
that the source of water is reliable and not needed by someone else. Springs make excellent
sources as they can often be depended on even in dry weather and are usually clean. This
means that the intake is less likely to become silted up and require regular cleaning.

B. The water is fed into a forebay tank. This is sometimes enlarged to form a small reservoir.

C. A reservoir can be a useful energy store if the water available is insufficient in the dry
season.

D. The water flows from the forebay tank or reservoir down a long pipe called the penstock.

E. At the end of the penstock it comes out of a nozzle as a high-pressure jet.

In fact, a drop (or head) of at least 20 meters is recommended. A drop of 20 metres or more also
means that the amount of water needed to produce enough power for the basic needs of a village
is quite small.

The power in the jet, called hydraulic power or hydro power, is transmitted to a turbine

runner which changes it into mechanical power.

The purpose of the generator is to convert rotating power into electrical power.

This is how the water flowing in a small stream can become electricity.

An electronic controller is connected to the generator. This matches the electrical power

that is produced, to the electrical loads that are connected. This is necessary to stop the voltage
from going up and down.
Without a load controller, the voltage changes as lights and other devices are switched on and
off.

POWER

Power is measured in Watts (W) or kilowatts (kW). There are 1000 W in 1 kW. Pico Hydro
Power has a maximum electrical power output of 5 kW. It is important to say which type of
power you are referring to when discussing a hydro power project as there are three types and
they will all have a different value. The water power (or hydraulic power) will always be more
than the mechanical and electrical power. This is because, as the power is converted from one
form to another, some is lost at each stage as illustrated in Figure 2

Figure 2 Some power is lost at each stage during the conversion from a water jet to electricity

The biggest loss usually occurs when the power in the jet of water is converted into rotating,
mechanical power by hitting the turbine runner. On a well-designed and constructed scheme
approximately one third (30%) of the power of the jet will be lost here. The losses can be much
higher on poorer quality schemes. A further 20% to 30% will be lost in the generator when the
mechanical power is converted to electricity. Some power is also lost in the penstock. Water in
contact with the walls of the pipe is slowed down by friction. This power loss is expressed in
metres of head loss. Its value is typically up to 20%-30% of the total head. Before the losses in
the pipe are taken into account, the drop is referred to as the gross head and after losses have
been subtracted it is called the net head.
EFFICIENCY

Efficiency is the word used to describe how well the power is converted from one form to
another. A turbine that has an efficiency of 70% will convert 70% of the hydraulic power into
mechanical power (30% being lost). The system efficiency is the combined efficiency of all the
processes together. The system efficiency for electricity generation using pico hydro is typically
between 40% and 50%. i.e. as a rough estimate, if there is found to be 2.8 kW of hydraulic power
in a small stream, the electricity which could reasonably be expected is: 2.8 x 45% = 2.8 x 0.45
= 1.26 kW

Example 1 Calculate the hydraulic power in a small stream

The Hydraulic Power in a stream can be calculated when the Head and the Flow have

been measured. The formula to calculate Hydraulic Power is as follows:

Power = Head (metres) x Flow (litres/sec) x9.81

What is the Power in a stream if the head is 60 m and the flow is 10 l/s?

Power = 60 x 10 x 9.81

= 5886 watts (W) or 5.9 kilowatts (kW

The Mechanical Load is a machine which is connected to the turbine shaft often using a

pulley system so that power can be drawn from the turbine. The rotating force of the turbine

runner can be used to directly turn equipment such as grain mills, or woodwork machinery.

Although approximately 10% of the mechanical (from the turbine). Mechanical Power

Power Loss in Penstock = up to 30% (from the Penstock) Hydro Power

Power Loss from Turbine = 30%

Power Loss from Generator = 20 to 30%


Electrical Power (from the generator)

power is lost in the pulley system, this is still a very efficient way of using the power. More

power is available because none is lost in the generator or in an electric motor

G. The Distribution System connects the electricity supply from the generator to the

houses. This is often one of the most expensive parts of the system.

H. The Consumer Loads are usually connected inside houses. Electrical load is a general name
which refers to any device which uses the electricity generated. The type of electrical loads that
are connected on a pico hydro scheme will partly depend on the amount of power that is
generated. Fluorescent lights are preferred because they use much less power for an equivalent
amount of light as filament light bulbs do. This means that more lights can be connected to the
same generator.

Example 2 Calculate (i) the net head, (ii) the useful mechanical power and (iii) the electrical
power which could be generated from the stream described in Example 1. Use the following
assumptions:

 25% of the head is lost as friction in the penstock,

 the turbine is 65% efficient and

 the generator is 80% efficient?

(i) Calculate the net head

If 25% of the head is lost as friction in the pipe the head loss is 0.25 x
60 = 15m.
If 15m are lost then the useful head ( or net head ) is = 60 - 15 = 45
m

The net hydraulic power available at the turbine is now less than the
hydraulic power using the total (gross) head:

Power = Net Head x Flow x 9.81

= 45 x 10 x 9.81 = 4414 W

(ii) Calculate the mechanical power

If the turbine is 65% efficient the mechanical power produced will be:

Power (Mechanical) =net hydraulic power x turbine efficiency

= 4414 x 0.65

= 2870 W

(iii) Calculate the useful electrical power

If the generator is 80% efficient, then the electrical power available for
lighting and other purposes is:

Power (Electrical)

= mechanical power x generator efficiency

= 2870 x 0.8

= 2295 W or 2.3 kW
CHapter 5

BIOFEULS

Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The term covers
solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased public and
scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy
security, and concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels.

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is
made mostly from sugar and starch crops. With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic
biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feed stocks for ethanol production. Ethanol
can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to
increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in
Brazil.

Biofuels provided 1.8% of the world's transport fuel in 2008. Investment into biofuels production
capacity exceeded $4 billion worldwide in 2007 and is growing.[2]

2.1 Biodiesel

What is biodiesel?
Biodiesel is the name of a clean burning alternative fuel, produced from domestic, renewable
resources. Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with petroleum
diesel to create a biodiesel blend. It can be used in compression-ignition (diesel) engines with
little or no modifications. Biodiesel is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic, and essentially
free of sulfur and aromatics.

How is biodiesel made?


Biodiesel is made through a chemical process called transesterification whereby the glycerin is
separated from the fat or vegetable oil. The process leaves behind two products -- methyl esters
(the chemical name for biodiesel) and glycerin (a valuable byproduct usually sold to be used in
soaps and other products).
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oil or animal fat (triglycerides) reacted with methanol or
ethanol and a catalyst (lye), yielding biodiesel (fatty acid methyl or ethyl esters) and glycerin as a
by-product. It can be used in any diesel engine without modifications — diesel engines run
better and last longer with biodiesel. And it can easily be made from a common waste product:
used cooking oil.

Biodiesel is a much cleaner fuel than conventional fossil-fuel petroleum diesel ("dinodiesel").

a. Biodiesel burns up to 75% cleaner than petroleum diesel fuel.


b. Biodiesel reduces unburned hydrocarbons (93% less), carbon monoxide (50% less) and
particulate matter (30% less) in exhaust fumes, as well as cancer-causing PAH (80% less)
and nitrited PAH compounds (90% less). (US Environmental Protection Agency)
c. Sulphur dioxide emissions are eliminated (biodiesel contains no sulphur).
d. Biodiesel is plant-based and using it adds no extra CO2 greenhouse gas to the
atmosphere.
e. The ozone-forming (smog) potential of biodiesel emissions is nearly 50% less than petro-
diesel emissions.
f. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions may increase or decrease with biodiesel but can be
reduced to well below petro-diesel fuel levels.
g.
h. Biodiesel exhaust is not offensive and doesn't cause eye irritation (it smells like French
fries!).
i. Biodiesel is environmentally friendly: it is renewable, and "more biodegradable than
sugar and less toxic than table salt" (US National Biodiesel Board, based on US
Environmental Protection Agency studies).
j. Biodiesel is a much better lubricant than petro-diesel and extends engine life -- even a
small amount of biodiesel means cleaner emissions and better engine lubrication: 1%
biodiesel added to petro-diesel will increase lubricity by 65%.
k. Biodiesel can be mixed with petro-diesel in any proportion, with no need for a mixing
additive.
l. Biodiesel has a higher cetane number than petroleum diesel because of its oxygen
content. The higher the cetane number, the more efficient the fuel -- the engine starts
more easily, runs better and burns cleaner.
m. With slight variations depending on the vehicle, performance and fuel economy with
biodiesel is the same as with petro-diesel.
n. Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine without modification

Biodiesel is defined as mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or
animal fats which conform to ASTM D6751 specifications for use in diesel engines. Biodiesel
refers to the pure fuel before blending with diesel fuel. Biodiesel blends are denoted as, "BXX"
with "XX" representing the percentage of biodiesel contained in the blend (ie: B20 is 20%
biodiesel, 80% petroleum diesel).

2.2 BIOETHANOL

(A) First generation biofuels

'First-generation' or conventional biofuels are biofuels made from sugar, starch, and vegetable
oil.Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly propanol and
butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of
sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more difficult). Biobutanol (also called
biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it can be used
directly in a gasoline engine (in a similar way to biodiesel in diesel engines).

Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Alcohol fuels are
produced by fermentation of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses
and any sugar or starch that alcoholic beverages can be made from (like potato and fruit waste,
etc.). The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored
starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying. The distillation process requires
significant energy input for heat (often unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic
biomass such as bagasse, the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to extract its juice, can also be
used more sustainably).

Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with
gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15%
bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than gasoline, which
means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An advantage
of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available
at roadside gas stations which allows an increase of an engine's compression ratio for increased
thermal efficiency. In high altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of gasoline
and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions. Ethanol is also used
to fuel bioethanol fireplaces. As they do not require a chimney and are "flueless", bio ethanol
fires [3] are extremely useful for new build homes and apartments without a flue. The downside to
these fireplaces, is that the heat output is slightly less than electric and gas fires.

In the current alcohol-from-corn production model in the United States, considering the total
energy consumed by farm equipment, cultivation, planting, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and
fungicides made from petroleum, irrigation systems, harvesting, transport of feedstock to
processing plants, fermentation, distillation, drying, transport to fuel terminals and retail pumps,
and lower ethanol fuel energy content, the net energy content value added and delivered to
consumers is very small. And, the net benefit (all things considered) does little to reduce un-
sustainable imported oil and fossil fuels required to produce the ethanol.

Although ethanol-from-corn and other food stocks has implications both in terms of world food
prices and limited, yet positive energy yield (in terms of energy delivered to customer/fossil fuels
used), the technology has led to the development of cellulosic ethanol. According to a joint
research agenda conducted through the U.S. Department of Energy, [5] the fossil energy ratios
(FER) for cellulosic ethanol, corn ethanol, and gasoline are 10.3, 1.36, and 0.81, respectively.
Many car manufacturers are now producing flexible-fuel vehicles (FFV's), which can safely run
on any combination of bioethanol and petrol, up to 100% bioethanol. They dynamically sense
exhaust oxygen content, and adjust the engine's computer systems, spark, and fuel injection
accordingly. This adds to the initial cost and ongoing increased vehicle maintenance. As with all
vehicles, efficiency falls and pollution emissions increase when FFV system maintenance is
needed (regardless of the fuel mix being used), but is not performed. FFV internal combustion
engines are becoming increasingly complex, as are multiple-propulsion-system FFV hybrid
vehicles, which impacts cost, maintenance, reliability, and useful lifetime longevity. Even dry
ethanol has roughly one-third lower energy content per unit of volume compared to gasoline, so
larger / heavier fuel tanks are required to travel the same distance, or more fuel stops are
required. With large current unsustainable, non-scalable subsidies, ethanol fuel still costs much
more per distance traveled than current high gasoline prices in the United States.

Methanol is currently produced from natural gas, a non-renewable fossil fuel. It can also be
produced from biomass as biomethanol. The methanol economy is an interesting alternative to
get to the hydrogen economy, compared to today's hydrogen production from natural gas. But
this process is not the state-of-the-art clean solar thermal energy process where hydrogen
production is directly produced from water.

Butanol is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol, ethanol) and experimental


modifications of the process show potentially high net energy gains with butanol as the only
liquid product. Butanol will produce more energy and allegedly can be burned "straight" in
existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car), [11] and is less corrosive and
less water soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via existing infrastructures. DuPont and
BP are working together to help develop Butanol. E. coli have also been successfully engineered
to produce Butanol by hijacking their amino acid metabolism.[12] Fermentation is not the only
route to forming biofuels or bioalcohols. One can obtain methanol, ethanol, butanol or mixed
alcohol fuels through pyrolysis of biomass including agricultural waste or algal biomass. The
most exciting of these pyrolysis alcoholic fuels is the pyrolysis biobutanol. The product can be
made with limited water use and most places in the world

2.2.1 Production of Bioethanol


a. Hydrolysis and fermentation Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis
and sugar fermentation processes. Biomass wastes contain a complex mixture of
carbohydrate polymers from the plant cell walls known as cellulose, hemi cellulose and
lignin. In order to produce sugars from the biomass, the biomass is pre-treated with acids
or enzymes in order to reduce the size of the feedstock and to open up the plant structure.
The cellulose and the hemi cellulose portions are broken down (hydrolysed) by enzymes
or dilute acids into sucrose sugar that is then fermented into ethanol. The lignin which is
also present in the biomass is normally used as a fuel for the ethanol production plants
boilers. There are three principle methods of extracting sugars from biomass. These are
concentrated acid hydrolysis, dilute acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis.

b. Concentrated Acid Hydrolysis Process


The Arkanol process works by adding 70-77% sulphuric acid to the biomass that has
been dried to a 10% moisture content. The acid is added in the ratio of 1.25 acid to 1
biomass and the temperature is controlled to 50C. Water is then added to dilute the acid
to 20-30% and the mixture is again heated to 100C for 1 hour. The gel produced from this
mixture is then pressed to release an acid sugar mixture and a chromatographic column is
used to separate the acid and sugar mixture.
c. Dilute Acid Hydrolysis
The dilute acid hydrolysis process is one of the oldest, simplest and most efficient
methods of producing ethanol from biomass. Dilute acid is used to hydrolyse the biomass
to sucrose. The first stage uses 0.7% sulphuric acid at 190C to hydrolyse the hemi
cellulose present in the biomass. The second stage is optimised to yield the more resistant
cellulose fraction. This is achieved by using 0.4% sulphuric acid at 215C.The liquid
hydrolates are then neutralised and recovered from the process.
d. Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Instead of using acid to hydrolyse the biomass into sucrose, we can use enzymes to break
down the biomass in a similar way. However this process is very expensive and is still in
its early stages of development.
e. Wet Milling Processe: Corn can be processed into ethanol by either the dry milling or
the wet milling process. In the wet milling process, the corn kernel is steeped in warm
water, this helps to break down the proteins and release the starch present in the corn and
helps to soften the kernel for the milling process. The corn is then milled to produce
germ, fibre and starch products. The germ is extracted to produce corn oil and the starch
fraction undergoes centrifugation and saccharifcation to produce gluten wet cake. The
ethanol is then extracted by the distillation process. The wet milling process is normally
used in factories producing several hundred million gallons of ethanol every Year.
f. Dry Milling Process:The dry milling process involves cleaning and breaking down the
corn kernel into fine particles using a hammer mill process. This creates a powder with a
course flour type consistency. The powder contains the corn germ, starch and fibre. In
order to produce a sugar solution the mixture is then hydrolysed or broken down into
sucrose sugars using enzymes or a dilute acid. The mixture is then cooled and yeast is
added in order to ferment the mixture into ethanol. The dry milling process is normally
used in factories producing less than 50 million gallons of ethanol every Year.
g. Sugar Fermentation Process The hydrolysis process breaks down the cellulostic part of
the biomass or corn into sugar solutions that can then be fermented into ethanol. Yeast is
added to the solution, which is then heated. The yeast contains an enzyme called
invertase, which acts as a catalyst and helps to convert the sucrose sugars into glucose
and fructose (both C6H12O6).
h. Fractional Distillation Process The ethanol, which is produced from the fermentation
process, still contains a significant quantity of water, which must be removed. This is
achieved by using the fractional distillation process. The distillation process works by
boiling the water and ethanol mixture. Since ethanol has a lower boiling point (78.3C)
compared to that of water (100C), the ethanol turns into the vapour state before the water
and can be condensed and separated.

Conversion of biomass into ethanol

Fermentation processes from any material that contains sugar can derive ethanol. The many and
varied raw materials used in the manufacture of ethanol via fermentation are conveniently
classified under three types of agricultural raw materials: sugar, starches, and cellulose materials.
Sugars (from sugar cane, sugar beets, molasses, fruits) can be converted to ethanol directly.
Starches (from grains, potatoes, root crops) must first be hydrolyzed to fermentable sugars by the
action of enzymes from malt or molds. Cellulose from wood, agricultural residues, waste sulfite
liquor from pulp and paper mills) must likewise be converted to sugars, generally by the action
of mineral acids. Once simple sugars are formed, enzymes from yeast can readily ferment them
to ethanol.

Sugar: The most widely used sugar for ethanol fermentation is blackstrap molasses which
contains about 35 – 40 wt% sucrose, 15 – 20 wt% invert sugars such as glucose and fructose, and
28 – 35 wt% of non-sugar solids. Blackstrap (syrup) is collected as a by-product of cane sugar
manufacture. The molasses is diluted to a mash containing ca 10 –20 wt% sugar. After the pH of
the mash is adjusted to about 4 – 5 with mineral acid, it is inoculated with the yeast, and the
fermentation is carried out non-aseptically at 20 – 32°C for about 1 – 3days. The fermented beer,
which typically contains ca 6 – 10 wt% ethanol, is then set to the product recovery in purification
section of the plant.
Starches: All potable alcohol and most fermentation industrial alcohol is currently made
principally from grains. Fermentation of starch from grain is somewhat more complex than
fermentation of sugars because starch must first be converted to sugar and then to ethanol. Starch
is converted enzymatically to glucose either by diastase presents in sprouting grain or by fungal
amylase. The resulting dextrose is fermented to ethanol with the aid of yeast producing CO 2 as
co-product. A second co-product of unfermented starch, fiber, protein and ash known as distillers
grain (a high protein cattle feed) is also produced.

Cellulosic Materials: Each step in the process of the conversion of cellulose to ethanol
proceeded with 100% yield; almost two-thirds of the mass would disappear during the sequence,
most of it as carbon dioxide in the fermentation of glucose to ethanol. This amount of carbon
dioxide leads to a disposal problem rather than to a raw material credit. Another problem is that
the aqueous acid used to hydrolyze the cellulose in wood to glucose and other simple sugars
destroys much of the sugars in the process.
One way of making cellulose wastes more susceptible to hydrolysis is by subjecting them to a
short burst of high energy electron beam radiation. An alternative to acid hydrolysis is the use of
enzymes. Although they avoid the corrosion problems and loss of fuel product associated with
acid hydrolysis, enzymes have their own drawbacks. Enzymatic hydrolysis slows as the glucose
product accumulates in a reaction vessel. This end-product inhibition eventually halts the
hydrolysis unless some way is found to draw off the glucose as it is formed.

The chemical equation below summarizes the fermentation of glucose, whose chemical formula
is C6H12O6. One mole of glucose is converted into two moles of ethanol and two moles of carbon
dioxide:

C12H22O11 +H2O + invertase → C6H12O6

C6H12O6 + Zymase → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

C2H5OH is the chemical formula for ethanol.


Table 1: Important Physical Properties of Ethanol
Property Value
Normal boiling point, °C 78.32
Critical temperature, °C 243.1
Density, d420, g/ml 0.7893
Heat of combustion at 25°C, J/g 29676.69
Autoignition temperature, °C 793.0
Flammable limits in air
Lower, vol% 4.3
Upper, vol% 19.0

Fermentation, one of th

2.4 Other Liquid Biofuels (from oil crops)

2.4.1 Jathropha When jatropha seeds are crushed, the resulting jatropha oil can be processed
to produce a high-quality biodiesel that can be used in a standard diesel car, while the residue
(press cake) can also be processed and used as biomass feedstock to power electricity plants or
used as fertilizer (it contains nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium). The plant may yield more
than four times as much fuel per hectare as soybean, and more than ten times that of maize
(corn). A hectare of jatropha has been claimed to produce 1,892 litres of fuel.[2] However, as it
has not yet been domesticated or improved by plant breeders, yields are variable

When jatropha seeds are crushed, the resulting jatropha oil can be processed to produce a high-
quality biodiesel that can be used in a standard diesel car, while the residue (press cake) can also
be processed and used as biomass feedstock to power electricity plants or used as fertilizer (it
contains nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium). The press cake can also be used for biogas
generation.

Soy Bean

Assignement: Write an essay on 15 West African oil crops and their suitability as energy
sources.

2.4 Properties of Bio fuels


Relative density :This otherwise known as the specific gravity refers to the
ratio of the density of a
fuel to the density of water at the same temperature. With it other properties
could be judged. The density of the fuels are measured by means of a
capillary stopper relative density bottle of 20ml capacity.

Cloud and pour point: Cloud point is the temperature at which


solidification of heavier components of
fuels resulting in a cloud of crystals within the body of the fuel first
appeared. While the temperature at which on further cooling of fuel, results
in increased size and number of wax crystals and eventual coalescent of the
fuel to form a rigid structure is termed pour point. The two temperatures are
of importance in knowing the behaviour of fuels in a cold weather. They are
determined using the Baskeyl Setapoint apparatus

Flash point This is the minimum temperature at which the vapour given off
by a fuel when
heated will flash when a test flame is held above the surface without the fuel
catching fire and its of importance when determining the fire hazard
(temperature at which fuel will give off inflammable vapour). Flash point of
the samples are measured by Pensky- Martens flash point closed apparatus

Viscosity The resistance to flow exhibited by fuel blends, as expressed in


various unit of viscosity, is a major factor of consequence in establishing
their suitability for the mass transfer and metering requirements of engine
operation. The coefficient of viscosity is expressed as
= τ/S ……..(1)
where,
= Dynamic (absolute) viscosity, Pa . s
τ = Shear stress, Pa
S = Shear rate, s-1
The commonly used unit of centipose (cP) is equal to one mPa.s. A U-tube
Saybolt viscometer is used for measurement of the dynamic viscosity

Calorific value: The calorific (heating) values of the blends are determined
with the help of a
Gallenkamp ballistic bomb calorimeter. A known amount of fuel is burnt in a
bomb. The air was replaced by pure oxygen. The maximum deflection of the
galvanometer on the control box is recorded after burning the samples. The
effective heat capacity of the system is also determined using same
procedure but with pure and dry benzoic acid as the test fuel.
Cetane and Octane numbers

Octane number (gasoline) Cetane number (diesel fuel) both measure the tendency of the fuel
to ignite spontaneously.

Octane number: In the octane number scale, high values represent fuels that resist spontaneous
ignition and, therefore, have less tendency to knock in a gasoline engine. The octane number of
a fuel is measured in a test engine, and is defined by comparison with the mixture of 2,2,4-
trimethylpentane (iso-octane) and heptanes (H3C(CH2)5CH3 or C7H16) which would have the same
anti-knocking capacity as the fuel under test: the percentage, by volume, of 2,2,4-
trimethylpentane in that mixture is the octane number of the fuel.

Petrol with the same knocking characteristics as a mixture of 90% iso-octane and 10% heptane
would have an octane rating of 90. Because some fuels are more knock-resistant than iso-
octane, the definition has been extended to allow for octane numbers higher than 100. Octane
rating does not relate to the energy content of the fuel. It is only a measure of the fuel's tendency
to burn in a controlled manner, rather than exploding in an uncontrolled manner.

Higher octane ratings correlate to higher activation energies. Activation energy is the amount of
energy necessary to start a chemical reaction.

Cetane Number

Cetane is a colorless, liquid hydrocarbon (a molecule from the alkane series) that ignites easily
under compression. For this reason, it was given a base rating of 100, and is used as standard
measure of the performance of compression ignition fuels, such as diesel fuel and biodiesel. All
hydrocarbon constituents of diesel fuel are measured and indexed to cetane's base 100 rating.

In the cetane number scale, high values represent fuels that ignite readily and, therefore, perform
better in a diesel engine. Diesel's cetane number is a measure of the fuel's delay of ignition time
(the amount of time between the injection of fuel into the combustion chamber and the actual
start of combustion of the fuel charge).

Because diesels rely on compression ignition (no spark), the fuel must be able to auto-ignite--and
generally, the quicker the better. A higher cetane number means a shorter ignition delay time and
more complete combustion of the fuel charge in the combustion chamber. This, of course,
translates into a smoother running, better performing engine with more power and fewer harmful
emissions.

Running a diesel engine on fuel with a lower than recommended cetane number can result in
rough operation (noise and vibration), low power output, excessive deposits and wear, and hard
starting.

Normal modern highway diesels run best with a fuel rated between 45 and 55. Following is a list
cetane numbers varying grades and types of compression ignition diesel fuels:
 Regular diesel 48
 Premium diesel 55
 Biodiesel (B100) 55
 Biodiesel blend (B20) 50
 Synthetic diesel 55

Review Questyions:

a. What are bio-fuels

b. How is biodiesel made?

c. What are the advantages of biodiesel over fossil fuels ?

d. What is bio-ethanol?

e. Describe in detail five different ways of manufacturing bio-ethanol

f. What are the effects of blending bio-ethanol with gasoline on engine performance?

g. Write an essay on five different types of oil crops found in your country and their

suitability as engine fuels.

h. Define the following terms as related to bio-fuels; Flash point, Pour Point, cloud point,

relative density, viscosity and calorific value.

i. What do you understand by cetane and octane numbers?

j. What are the effects of bio-ethanol on the octane number of gasoline?

k. What is the effect of bio-ethanol on the cetane number of diesel ?

Chapter 7

Biogas

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