NATIONALISM IN INDIA

Q: Explain the new economic situation created in India during World War 1
In India and as in many other colonies, the growth of modern nationalism is intimately
connected to the anti-colonial movement. The sense of being oppressed under colonialism
provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.

• World War -1 created a new economic and political situation.

• It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans.
• Taxes and customs duties were raised to meet the growing expense.
• Income tax was introduced.
• Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural
areas caused widespread anger. (Forced recruitment – A process by which the
colonial state forced people to join the army)
• Crops failed in many parts of India,
• It resulted in acute shortages of food.
• This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic.
• According to the 1921 census, about 12 to 13 million people died because of
faminesand epidemics.
Explain the meaning of Satyagraha.

• Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 from South Africa. Gandhiji’s
novel method of mass agitation is known as ‘Satyagraha’. Satyagraha was a
peaceful agitation launched by Mahatma Gandhi.
• Satyagraha is a novel method of non-violent mass agitation.
• It emphasizes the Power of truth.
• If the cause is true and the struggle is against injustice, then physical force is not
necessary.
• ‘Satyagraha’ is pure soul-force. Truth is the very substance of the soul. That is why
this force is called satyagraha.
• A satyagrahi could win the battle through nonviolence.
• By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph.
• Gandhi ji believed that the dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.
• Truth was bound to ultimately triumph.
Early Satyagraha Movement
Champaran Movement: The Champaran Satyagraha was the first Satyagraha movement led by
Gandhi in Bihar. It was a farmer's uprising that took place in Champaran district of Bihar. The
Thegovernmentforced farmers of Champaran to cultivate Indigo (required for coloring cloth) to feed
the textile mills in England. In 1917 he travelled to Champaran to inspire the peasants to
struggle againstthe oppressive plantation system.
Kheda Movement: In 1917, he organised a satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda

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district of Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could
not pay the revenue and were demanding that revenue collection be relaxed.
Ahmedabad: In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organise a satyagraha
movement amongst cotton mill workers.
The Rowlatt Act
This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united
opposition of the Indian members.
The Rowlatt Act gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities.
It allowed detention (arrest and imprison) of political prisoners without trial for two years.
Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which would
start with a hartal on 6 April 1919. Rallies were organised in various cities; workers went on
strike and shops closed down. The government responded with brutal repression.
Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre
Protests against the Rowlatt Act were widespread across the country. On 10 April, the police
in Amritsar (Punjab) fired upon a peaceful procession, provoking widespread attacks. Martial
lawwas imposed, and General Dyer took command. Indian National Congress organised a
meeting at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on 13th April to contempt the repression and arrest of
leaders. On that day a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh. Some
came toattend the annual Baishaki fair. Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and
without giving any warning opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. His object was to
‘produce amoral effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe.
There were strikes, clashes with the police, and attacks on government buildings. The
government responded with brutal repression.
Khilafat Movement
Ali Brothers, Mohammad Ali and Shoukat Ali started the Khilafat Movement
The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey.
Briton and her allies decided to impose a harsh treaty with the Ottoman Emperor- the spiritual
head of the Islamic world (Khalifa).
To defend the khalifa’s temporal powers, a Khilafat committee was formed in Bombay in March
1919. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of a unified
national movement. At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced
other leaders of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as
for swaraj.

Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM)

Hind Swaraj _ book written by Gandhiji in 1909.

In this book, he declared that British rule in India was established with the cooperation of
Indians. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse. He proposed a
non-cooperation movement. He planned to unfold it in stages.
Began with the surrender of titles and boycott of civil service, army, police, courts, and legislative
councils. (Boycott – The refusal to deal and associate with people, or participate in activities, or
buy and use things, usually a form of protest). He also proposed a full civil disobedience campaign
in case of repression. Some leaders feared that this movement would lead to popular violence.
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The Congress session at Nagpur (December 1920) adopted the NCM programme.
Differing Strands within the Movement
The Non-Cooperation Movement began in January 1921. Various social groups participated in this
movement. All of them responded to the call of Swaraj, but the term meant different things to
different people.
NCM in the Towns.
The movement started with middle-class participation. Thousands of students left government-
controlled schools and colleges. Headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their
legal practices. The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except in Madras (the
Justice Party contested the election).
Economic Impacts of NCM in Towns.
The effects of non-cooperation on the economic front were more dramatic.
Foreign goods were boycotted, and liquor shops were picketed. Foreign cloth burnt in
huge bonfires.The value of imports of foreign cloth dropped from 102 crore to 57 crore.
Merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods.
People discarded imported clothes and wore only Indian ones. Production of Indian textile
mills and handlooms went up.
Limitations: NCM in towns gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons.
• Khadi cloth was more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not
afford to buy it.
• Boycott of British institutions posed a problem. The number of alternative institutions
and arrangements were inadequate.
• Students and teachers began trickling back to government schools.
• Lawyers joined back work in government courts.
NCM in the Countryside
How did the peasants of Awadh see the Movement?
In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramachandra. The movement was against Talukdars
(head of a Taluk ) and landlords.
• They demanded a reduction of revenue, the Abolition of begar, and social
boycotts of oppressive landlords.
• By October 1920, the Oudh Kissan Sabha was set up and headed by Jawaharlal Nehru,
BabaRamachandra, and a few others. The effort of Congress was to integrate the
Oudh Peasant struggle into NCM.
• As the movement spread, the houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked,
bazaarswere looted, and grain hoards were taken over.
• That is why the Congress leadership was unhappy with the peasants.
• In many places local leaders told peasants that Gandhiji had declared that no taxes were
to be paid and land was to be redistributed among the poor.
Tribal peasants and their notion of swaraj?
Tribal peasants interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of Swaraj in yet
another way.
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 • In the Gudem hills of Andhra Pradesh a guerrilla movement spread in 1920s after
enacting the Forest Acts. These acts prevented them from entering the forests to
graze their cattle or to collect fuelwood and fruits.
• Revolt started when govt. forced the hill people to contribute begar for road building.
• Alluri Sitrama Raju was the leader of the revolt.
• He had a variety of special powers. He could survive even bullet shots.
• He was inspired by NCM and persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.
• But he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force.
• Gudem rebels attacked a police station and attempted to kill British officials.
• Raju was captured and executed in 1924.
• Gandhi's philosophy aimed not only at achieving political freedom but also at
transforming society and individuals morally.
• While Raju adhered to some of Gandhiji's principles, he overlooked the crucial
understanding that non-violence was the sole effective weapon to contend with the
formidable British power during that period. That was his failure.
• For tribal peasants, particularly those whose traditional way of life revolves around forests
and natural resources, the freedom to move into the forest for their livelihood can indeed be
seen as an expression of swaraj. For them, the notion of swaraj includes the freedom to live
in harmony with nature, to sustainably manage their resources, and to resist encroachments
on their traditional territories.
Swaraj in the Plantations
• Workers had their own understanding of the notion of swaraj.
• Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to
leave the tea gardens without permission.
• When they heard of the NCM, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the
plantations, and headed home.
• They expected that Gandhi Raj was coming in place of ‘The British Raj’
• Stranded on the way due to railway strike. They were caught by the police and brutally
beaten up. They were forced to go back to their tea garden.
• For plantation workers, swaraj signifies liberation from the confines of their plantations.
Their ability to move or travel was constrained by a range of legislative measures.
The visions of all these movements were not completely as part of the Congress programme.
Participants interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways. When the tribal people chanted
Gandhiji’s name and raised slogans demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat’, they were also emotionally
relating to an all-India agitation to free the country.
Why did Gandhiji call off the Non-Cooperation Movement?
Chauri Chaura incident: At Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur (UP), a peaceful demonstration in a
bazaar turned into a violent clash with the police. Hearing of the incident Mahatma Gandhi
called a halt to the Non-Cooperation Movement (violated his principle of non-violence).
Civil Disobedience Movements (Events from 1922-1930)
After the Chauri Chaura incident in February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Non-Cooperation
Movement.

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Swaraj Party : Some leaders felt that it was important to oppose British policies within the councils. C.
R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party within the Congress to argue for a returnto council
politics. But younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pressed for more radical
mass agitation and full independence.
Economic Depression: It was one of the factors that shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s.
Agricultural prices began to fall from 1926 and collapsed after 1930. As the demand for agricultural
goods fell and exports declined, peasants found it difficult to sell their harvests and pay their revenue.
Simon Commission: The Tory government in Britain constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John
Simon. The commission was set up to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and
suggest changes. It was a ‘White Men Commission’. It did not have a single Indian member. They were
all British. When the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was greeted with the slogan ‘Go
back,Simon’.
Dominion status: Dominion status refers to a constitutional status granted to certain self-governing
territories within the British Empire. These territories had a great degree of autonomy in their internal
affairs but, to acknowledge the British monarch as their head of state. The viceroy, Lord Irwin,
announced in October 1929, a vague offer of ‘dominion status’ for India in an unspecified future. He
also announced a Round Table Conference to discuss afuture constitution.
Rise of Radicals: The radicals within the Congress were led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra
Bose. The liberals and moderates, who were proposing a constitutional system within the framework of
British dominion (dominion status), gradually lost their influence.
Lahore Congress: In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress
formalized the demand for ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It was declared that 26
January 1930 would be celebrated as Independence Day when people were to take a pledge to struggle
forcomplete independence.
Q: Why did Congress change its demand from ‘Swaraj’ to ‘Purna Swaraj’?
• Vague declaration of dominion status for India for India in an unspecified future.
• Rise of radical leaders and their leadership – Subash Chandra Bose & Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Failure of Simon Commission
Dandi March / Salt Satygraha/ Beginning of Civil Disobedience.
• Mahatma Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation.
• On 31 January 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands. The most
stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax.
• Gandhiji declared, the tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production
revealed the most oppressive face of British rule.
• He started his famous salt march from Sabarmati. Accompanied by 78 volunteers, he
marched for 24 days to reach Dandi.
• He manufactured salt without paying tax. This marked the beginning of the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
Q: “Two factors again shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920” – What are those two
factors?
• The first was the effect of the worldwide economic depression.
• The Tory government in Britain constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John
Simon. The commission did not have a single Indian member.

Civil Disobedience Movement.

• People were asked to refuse cooperation with the British and also to break colonial laws.
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 • Thousands in different parts of the country broke the salt law and manufactured salt.
• As the movement spread, foreign clothes were boycotted, and liquor shops were picketed.
• Peasants refused to pay revenue, village officials resigned, and in many places, forest
people violated forest laws.
Mahatma Gandhi and his disciples including Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi in
Peshawar) were arrested.
Peaceful satyagrahis were attacked, women and children were beaten, and about 100,000people
were arrested.
Mahatma Gandhi once again decided to call off the movement and entered into a pactwith
Irwin on 5 March 1931.
Gandhi- Irwin Pact(5 March 1931)
• Gandhiji consented to participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London.
• The government agreed to release the political prisoners.
• Congress agreed to suspend CDM.
• Right to make salt for consumption in villages along the coast
• Right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing
The following two demands of Gandhi and Congress were turned down:
• Demand for a public inquiry into police excesses. Commutation of the death sentences
of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev, and otherpolitical prisoners.
Why did Gandhiji relaunch the Civil Disobedience Movement?
• In December 1931, Gandhiji went to London to attend the Second Round Table
Conference. Thenegotiations broke down and he returned disappointed.
• Lord Irwin turned a deaf ear towards thedemands of the Congress. British followed their
‘divide and rule’ policy. The Congress had been declared illegal.
• Gandhiji restarted the Civil Disobedience Movement. By 1934 CDM lost its momentum.
Think & Answer
Q: Why was Salt chosen as the central formula for the Civil Disobedience Movement?
Q: Why did Gandhiji launch a civil disobedience movement rather than a complete violation of
laws?
How did peasant Participants see the Movement?
Rich Peasants: In the countryside, rich peasant communities – like the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of
Uttar Pradesh – were active in the movement.
They were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices. They found it impossible to pay the
government’s revenue demand due to crop failure.
And the refusal of the government to reduce the revenue demand led to widespread resentment.
These rich peasants became enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• They organised their communities and participated in the boycott programmes. For them, the fight
for Swaraj was a struggle against high revenues. When the movement was restarted in 1932, many
of them refused to participate.
Poor Peasants
• The poorer peasantry was not just interested in the lowering of the revenue demand.
• Many of them were small tenants cultivating land they had rented from landlords.
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 During the Depression they found it difficult to pay their rent.
Their demand for land and low revenue upset the rich peasants and landlords.
• The Congress was unwilling to support ‘no rent’ campaigns in most places. So the relationship
between the poor peasants and the Congress remained uncertain.
Business classes / Industrial Group & Civil Disobedience Movement.
How did the business class relate to the CDM?
They reacted against colonial policies because it restricted their business activities.
They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods, and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange
ratio that would discourage imports.
They formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the
Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
Prominent industrialists Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G. D. Birla were their leaders.
Industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian economy. They gave financial assistance and
refused to buy or sell imported goods.
Most businessmen came to see swaraj as a time when colonial restrictions on business would no
longer exist and trade and industry would flourish without constraints.

Q: When Civil Disobedience was restarted (after the failure of the Second Round Tableconference
business groups were no longer uniformly enthusiastic. - Why?

• They were apprehensive of the spread of militant activities,

• they worried about prolonged disruptionof business,
• growing influence of socialism amongst the younger members of the Congress.

Industrial workers and CDM: How did the Industrial workers relate to the CDM?
• They did not participate in the CDM in large numbers.
• As the industrialists came closer to Congress, workers stayed aloof.
• Some workers selectively adopted some of the ideas of the Gandhian programme, like
the boycott of foreign goods as part of their own movements against low wages and poor
working conditions.
• There were strikes by railway workers in 1930 and dockworkers in 1932.
• Thousands of workers in Chottanagpur mines wore Gandhi caps and participated in
protestrallies.

Women's participation in CDM

• An important feature of CDM was the large-scale participation of women.
• They participated in the Salt Satyagraha.
• They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, and picketed foreign cloth and
liquor shops.
• Many went to jail.
• In urban areas, these women were from high caste families; in rural areas they came from
rich peasant households.
• Moved by Gandhiji’s call, they began to see service to the nation as a sacred duty of women.

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 The Limits of Civil Disobedience

Q: Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of Swaraj’ – Explain
1. Dalits Groups (untouchables):
Gandhiji declared that Swaraj would not come for a hundred years ifuntouchability was not
eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan or the children of God.
• Many leaders were taken on a different political solution to the problems of the community. So,
Dalit participation in the CDM was limited.
• Dr. Ambedkar organised the Dalits into the depressed class organisation.
• He demanded a separate electorate for Dalits.
• Gandhiji opposed the demand and started a fast unto death when govt conceded
Ambedkar’s demand.
• He believed that the decision would slow down the process of their integration into
society.
• Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position, and the result was the POONA PACT of
Sept 1932.
i. It gave the depressed (SC/ST) class reserved seats in legislative councils.
ii. They were to be voted in by the general electorate.
2. Muslims & CDM
▪ Some Muslim organisations were also lukewarm in their response to CDM.
▪ Some organisations felt alienated from the Congress (divide and rule policy)
▪ The Congress and Muslim League made efforts to renegotiate an alliance.
▪ The differences over the question of representation in the future
assemblies thatwere to be elected put the talk in a deadlock.
▪ The ‘Two Nation Theory’ of Jinnah and the demands of the Hindu
Mahasabha madematters worse.

The Sense of Collective Belonging

Q: “Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation
when they discover some unity that binds them together” – Explain.

The sense of collective belonging came through the experience of united struggles and a variety of
cultural processes. History and fiction, folklore and songs, and popular printsand symbols, all played
a part in the making of nationalism.
• Allegory: The identity of the nation is most often symbolised in a figure or image. This
helps create an image with which people can identify the nation. With the growth of
nationalism, the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat
Mata. Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata
• National Song: In the 1870s Bankim Chandra wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the
motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the
Swadeshi movement in Bengal.

• Literature & Indian folklore: Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to
revive Indian folklore. It was essential to preserve this folk tradition in order to discover

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 one’s national identity and restore a sense of pride in one’s past. In Madras, Natesa Sastri
published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern
India
• National Anthem: Rabindranath Tagore composed India’s National anthem.
• National Flag: Nationalist leaders became more and more aware of icons and symbols in
unifying people and inspiring in them a feeling of nationalism. During the Swadeshi
movement, a tricolour flag (red, green, and yellow) was designed. It had eight lotuses
representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and
Muslims. By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolor (red,
green,and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of
self-help.
• Reinterpretation of history: Another means of creating a feeling of nationalism was
through reinterpretation of history. Many Indians began looking into the past to discover
India’s great achievements. They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times
when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and
philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished.

Significance and Impact of the Civil Disobedience Movement

• Even though the Civil Disobedience Movement did not succeed in attaining its main
objective ofindependence from British Rule or even manage to obtain the concession of
Dominion Status from the government, it had a significant impact for the following reasons:
• The number of participants was much more in the Civil Disobedience Movement as
compared tothe Non-Cooperation Movement. More than three times the number of
Satyagrahis went to jail.
• Foreign imports of cloth and cigarettes fell by half. Government income from land
revenue andliquor excise also took a hit.
• The movement saw the participation of poor and illiterate people on a large scale who
alsounhesitatingly went to jail for the just cause.
• Women and students participated in the movement on a large scale and it was a
liberating experience for Indian women who entered the public space in such large
numbers for the firsttime.
• Muslims participated actively in the North-West Frontier Province and Bengal. The
Muslimweaving community in Bihar, Delhi, and Lucknow was also effectively
mobilized.
• Most importantly, as mentioned above, it was for the first time that the government
negotiatedwith Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress as an equals which had not happened
earlier in the freedom struggle.

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 Lesson Revisit

1. What did Mahatma Gandhi in his book, Hind Swaraj declare?

2. Two factors shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s.- What were they?
Explain.
3. What was the main problem with the Simon Commission?
4. Who organised the Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association?
5. What moved Abanindranath Tagore to paint the image of Bharat Mata?
6. What were the causes of the withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement?
7. Which ideas of the Gandhian Programme were adopted by the industrial working
class?
8. Why was ‘salt’ considered a more effective weapon for protest against Britishers?
9. “Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive Indian culture”-
Explain.
10. “Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of swaraj”. – Explain.
11. Locate the following places on the outline map of India.
Freedom Movement centres:
1. Champaran- struggle againstthe oppressive plantation system (indigo plantation)
2. Kheda- Peasants’ Movement
3. Ahamadabad – Cotton mill workers satyagraha
4. Amritsar – Jallianwala Bagh incident
5. Chauri Chaura- calling off of NCM.
6. Dandi- Salt satyagraha- Beginning of Civil Disobedience Movement.

Indian National Congress – Important sessions

1. Calcutta (Sept 1920) – Resolution of Non-cooperation moved.

2. Nagpur (1920) _ NCM resolution adopted.
3. Madras (1927) _ No Payment of tax resolution.

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Picture based question :
Identify the personalities depicted in the provided image

Case study
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Read the following abstract and answer the questions provided afterward.

‘It is said of “passive resistance” that it is the weapon of the weak, but the power which is the subject of
this article can be used only by the strong. This power is not passive resistance; indeed, it calls for intense
activity. The movement in South Africa was not passive but active … ‘Satyagraha is not physical force. A
satyagrahi does not inflict pain on the adversary; he does not seek his destruction … In the use of
satyagraha, there is no ill-will whatever. ‘Satyagraha is pure soul-force. Truth is the very substance of the
soul. That is why this force is called satyagraha. The soul is informed with knowledge. In it burns the flame
of love. … Nonviolence is the supreme dharma … ‘It is certain that India cannot rival Britain or Europe in
force of arms. The British worship the war-god and they can all of them become, as they are becoming,
bearers of arms. The hundreds of millions in India can never carry arms. They have made the religion of
non-violence their own ...’
a) What do you mean by Satysgraha? (1 marks)
b) What did Mahatma Gandhi mean when he said satyagraha is active resistance? (1 marks)
c) Why did Mahatma Gandhi choose nonviolent resistance over a militant approach in the struggle
for independence? (2 marks)

Do as directed
There are two statements marked as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Mark your answer as per the codes
provided below:

1. Assertion(A): Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch a nationwide Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act in
1919
Reason(R): The Rowlatt Act gave the government unrestricted power to arrest Indian political prisoners
without trial for 2 years.

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true but R is false.

(d) A is false but R is true

2. Assertion(A): The notions of freedom were different for every social group.

Reason(R): Every class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently .

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true but R is false.

(d) A is false but R is true

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