Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 4

Chapter Four
4. Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)
In uniform flow the cross section through which water flows remains constant. Also the velocity
remains the same, in magnitude and direction. In varied flow the cross section changes in the flow
direction, the water depth changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may be either steady
or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term "Unsteady flow” is used for unsteady varied
flow exclusively. Varied flow may be either further classified as rapidly or gradually varied.

The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance; otherwise,
it is gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as local phenomenon examples are the
hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop.

Gradually varied flow is a steady flow, whose depth varies gradually along the channel. This means
that 3 conditions are met.

The hydraulic flow characteristics remain constant in time;

The streamlines are practically parallel meaning the hydrostatic pressure prevails,
Bed friction is assumed to be equal to the friction in uniform flow (Manning, Chezy). Also, the
uniform- flow formula may be used to evaluate the energy slope of GVF at a given channel section.

Therefore, when the depth of flow in an open channel flow varies with longitudinal distance, the flow
is termed as gradually varied. Such situations are found both upstream and downstream of control
sections. In this chapter, the theory and analysis of gradually varied flow are considered.
4.1. General Equation for Gradually varied flow
The main forces involved in open channel flow are inertia, gravity, hydrostatic force due to change in
depth and friction. The first three forces represent the kinetic and potential energy, while the forth
dissipates useful energy into the useless kinetic energy of turbulence and eventually into heat due to
action of viscosity. The total energy of an elementary volume of water is given as:

V2
H = Z + Y + 
2g
Where:

Z and Y is the potential energy head above a datum

V2
 is the kinetic energy head (v = mean velocity in the section).
2g

Each term of the equation represents energy. The gradually varied flow equation is derived by assuming
that for gradually varied flow the change in energy with distance is equal to the friction loss. For the
general equation other losses than friction, like eddy, bend and/or bridge losses are not included.

Therefore, at any section, the total energy is

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V2
H =Z+Y+
2g

Where y = depth of flow, Z = elevation of the channel bottom above a datum and assuming  = 1 and
cos 𝜃 = 1 (slope channel is small sin 𝜃  𝑆𝑜 ). Differentiating this equation with respect to the
longitudinal distance x yields:

 V2   v2 

d Z  Y  
 d  
dH 2 g 2 g   dy  dz
    
dx dx dx dx dx

The term dH is the change of energy with longitudinal distance or the friction slope.
dx
Define,
dH
  Sf
dx
It should be noted that the friction loss 𝑑𝐻 is always a negative quantity in the direction of flow (unless
outside energy is added)

The term dZ is the change of elevation of the bottom of the channel with respect to distance or the
dx
bottom slope.
Define,

dZ
  So
dX

It should be noted that the slope is defined as the sine of the slope angle and that it is assumed positive
if it descends in the direction of flow and negative if it ascends. But the change in the bottom elevation
𝑑𝑍 is a negative quantity where the slope descends.
Thus, the slope of the channel bottom 𝑆𝑜 = sin  = - dZ
dx
v 
2
d  
For a given flow rate Q, the term  2 g  becomes
dx

 v2 
d  
 2 g    Q 2 dA dy   Q T dy
2

dx qA3 dy dx qA3 dx
= Fr 2 dy
dx
 v2 
d  
dE  2 g  dy dz
Substituting, in    yields
dx dx dx dx

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dy 2 dy
 S f   Fr   So
dx dx
 So  Sf 
dy
dx

1  Fr
2

dy So  Sf
  2
dx 1  Fr

This equation is called the General Equation of Gradually Varied Flow (also known as Dynamic
Equation of GVF). It describes the variation of the depth of flow in a channel of arbitrary shape as a
 dE 
function of So, Sf and Fr2. Sf represents the slope of the energy line   . For uniform flow the bed
 dx 
slope (So) and the friction slope (Sf) are parallel. The friction slope (Sf) for non-uniform, gradually
varied flow is not parallel to the bottom slope, but is evaluated using Manning’s the Chezy’s
(Colebrook–white) equation. There is no general explicit solution (although particular solutions are
available for prismatic channels). Numerical methods are normally used.

Note that

dE
  Sf
dx
dZ
  So
dx
dEs
 So  Sf
dx
The later is derived as:
v2
E = Z+Y+
2g
 v 2 

d Z Y  
dE  2g   S
 f
dx dx

 v 2 
d  Y  
dEs 2g    dZ  S
But   f
dx dx dx

dEs  dZ 
  So  Sf    So 
dx  dx 

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𝑑𝑦⁄ dy
The slope of the water surface is equal to the bottom slope 𝑆𝑜 of 𝑑𝑥 = 0, Sw < So if dx is positive,
and greater than 𝑆𝑜 if dy is negative. In other words, the water surface is parallel to the channel
dx
dy dy
bottom when  o , rising when is positive, and lowering when dy is negative.
dx dx dx
Other Forms of GVF Equation

The term, Sf in the general GVF equation represents the energy slope. According to our initial
assumption, this slope at a channel section of GVF is equal to the energy slope of the uniform flow that
has the velocity and hydraulic radius of the section. When Manning’s formula is used
 1 2 / 3 1/ 2 
V  R S  .
 n 

n 2v 2 q 2n2
𝑆𝑓 = 
R4 / 3 y10 / 3

When the Chezy formula is used V  C RS 

V2
𝑆𝑓 = 2
C R

For uniform flow (So = Sf)

V 2n2 q 2n2
So   10 / 3
R4 / 3 yn

10 / 3
Sf  yn 
𝑌𝑛 – Normal or equilibrium depth  
So  y 

This general equation for GVF can also be driven as:

 v2   Q2   Q2   Q2 

d   
d 
2 

d 
2 
d  2 
2 g
    2 gA    2 gA   A 
dx dx dx dx 2 g
1 1
 2
dQ 2  Q 2 d 2
A A

1 2
 2
2Q dQ  Q 2 3 dA
A A
2
2Q Q
 2 dQ  2 3 dA
A A
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 Q2 
d  2 
A 2
  2Q dQ  2 Q dA
 
dx A 2 dx A 3 dx

dA dA dy dy
But   Bs
dx dy dx dx

Substituting,

 Q2 
d   2
 A   2Q dQ  2Q Bs dy
dx A2 dx A3 dx

But dQ  0 Assuming there is no inflow and outflow across the reach,

dx
 Q2 
d  2  2
  A   2Q Bs dy
dx A3 dx

Putting back 2g (i.e. dividing by 2g)

 Q2 
d  2 
 A    2Q Bs dy   Fr 2 dy
2

2 g dx 2 g A 3 dx dx

 So  S f  1  Fr 2 
2dy dy dy
  Sf   Fr  So 
dx dx dx

4.2. Classification of Flow Profiles

Surface profiles for gradually varied flow conditions in wide rectangular channels are analyzed by
dy So  Sr
using the expression: 
dx 1  Fr 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦⁄
The term ⁄𝑑𝑥 represents the slope of the water surface relative to the channel bottom. If 𝑑𝑥 is
positive, the depth is increasing in downstream direction (x). When the channel bottom is going down
in the direction of flow, 𝑆𝑜 is positive. Similarly Sf in downstream direction is always positive; the
𝑑𝑦
energy is decreasing in downstream direction. For uniform flow Sf = So, which means ⁄𝑑𝑥 is zero
and the water surface parallel to the bottom.

For a given discharge Q, Sf and Fr2 are functions of depth (y) only, e.g.

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2 2 4/3
nQ P
Sr 
A10 / 3

Q 2 Bs
Fr 2 
gA3

Both parameters decrease with increasing A and hence increasing y; Sf = So when y = 𝑦𝑛 (uniform
flow).

Hence:
Sf > So When y < yo Fr2 > 1 when y < yc
Sr < So when y > yo Fr2 < 1 when y > yc

𝑑𝑦⁄
These inequalities are used to find the sign of 𝑑𝑥 for any condition. For gradually varied flow the
𝑑𝑦⁄
surface profile may occupy 3 regions and the sign of 𝑑𝑥 is found for each region.
The profiles of the water surface depend on:

a. Bed slope
Horizontal slope So = 0 Type H
Mild slope 0 < So < Sc Type M
Critical slope So = Sc Type C
Steep slope So > Sc Type S
Adverse slope (negative) So < 0 Type A or N
b. Depth range
Region 1 y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 yn < y < yc
Region3 y < yn and y < yc

Letter Type of bottom slope Characteristics

S Steep So > Sc
C Critical So = Sc
M Mild 0 < So <Sc
H Horizontal So = 0
A Adverse So < 0

The common classification of varied flow consists of 12 classes.

Classification of varied flow profiles

S1 C1 M1 - -
S2 - M2 H2 A2
S3 C3 M3 H3 A3

The classification is based on the relationship between the actual water depth and the normal water
depth (if existing) and the critical water depth.

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Some frequent encountered curves are:

M1: The back water curve upstream of a dam or a gate. At the dam the water depth is given and y >
𝑦𝑛 and y > 𝑦𝑐 . Also is given a mild slope (M), which means 𝑦𝑛 > 𝑦𝑐 . The flow is sub–critical and
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑥 is positive, the water depth y increases in the downstream direction; or the water depth
decreases in an upstream direction.

M2: The draw–down curve, for example above a transition from a mild slope to a less mild.

M3: Supercritical flow downstream of a gate of weir. The transition of M3 to M2 or to M1 gives a

hydraulic jump (from super to sub critical flow). The slope is mild (𝑦𝑛 > 𝑦𝑐 ) and 𝑦𝑛 > 𝑦𝑐 > 𝑦.
𝑑𝑦
The flow is supercritical and ⁄𝑑𝑥 is positive, the water depth y increases in the downstream
direction; or the water depth decreases in an upstream direction.
C3: If a channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical throughout
the channel. In the proximity of a dam or a gate, however, the flow in upstream of the dam or
gate is sub–critical and the water surface will approach the horizontal.

Another example of a flow profile is that of a free outfall, where critical depth occurs and with sub–
critical flow upstream of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in the
direction of flow, it is clear that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any point upstream. As
critical depth is the value for which the specific energy is a minimum, one would expect critical depth
to occur at the outfall. However, the value for the critical depth is derived on the assumption that the
water is flowing in straight and parallel flow lines. A similar situation occurs when water from a
reservoir enters a canal in which the uniform depth is smaller than the critical depth (𝑦𝑛 < 𝑦𝑐 ). In this
case the depth passes through critical depth in the vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is
the control section.
There are limiting conditions to surface profiles. For example, as y approaches 𝑦𝑐 the denominator
𝑑𝑦⁄
approaches zero. Thus 𝑑𝑥 becomes infinite and the curves will cross the critical depth line
perpendicular to it. Hence, surface profiles in the vicinity of y = 𝑦𝑐 are only approximate. Similarly,
when y approaches to 𝑦𝑛 , the numerator approaches to zero. Thus the curves approach the normal
depth, 𝑦𝑛 asymptotically. Finally, as y approaches to zero, the surface profile approaches the channel
bed perpendicularly, which is impossible under the assumptions for gradually varied flow.

4.2.1. Summary of Flow Profiles

dy dy dy
0 0 0
dx dx dx
Backwater curve Uniform flow curve Draw–down curve

y > yn Sf < So So – Sf > 0 Gradually varied

y = yn Sf = So So – Sf = 0 Uniform flow
y < yn Sf > So So – Sf < 0 Gradually varied
y > yc Fr < 1 1 – Fr2 > 0 Subcritical
y = yc Fr = 1 1 – Fr2 = 0 Critical
y < yc Fr > 1 1 – Fr2 0 Supercritical

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y > yn y < yn
Water surface profiles y > yc y < yc y > yc y < yc
So – Sf + n.a. + -
2
1 – Fr + n.a. - -
yn > yc dy/dx + n.a. - +
type M1 n.a. M2 M3
So – Sf + n.a. n.a. -
yn = yc 1- Fr2 + n.a. n.a. -
dy/dx + n.a. n.a. +
type C1 n.a. n.a. C3
So – Sf + + n.a. -
2
yn < yc 1 – Fr + - n.a. -
dy/dx + - n.a. +
type S1 S2 n.a. S3
Remarks: + positive value; - negative; n.a. doesn’t exist

Bottom slope Flow type Depth range of y, yc and yn Type of Flow type
1 2 3 Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 curve
Steep S S1 y>yc>yn Backwater Sub-critical
So >Sc S2 Yc>y>yn Draw down Supercritical
Yn<yc S3 Yc >yn > y Backwater Supercritical
Critical C C1 Y > yc = yn Backwater Sub- critical
So = Sc C2 Yc =yn= yc Uniform Critical
yn = yc C3 Y < yc = yn Backwater Supercritical

Mild M M1 Y > yn > yc Backwater Sub- critical

0 < S o < Sc M2 Yn >y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
yn > yc M3 Yn > yc >y Backwater Supercritical
Horizontal H n.a.
So = 0 H2 y> yc Draw down Sub-critical
Yn =  H3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical
Adverse A n.a.
So < 0 A2 Y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
Yn = none A3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical

Depth range
Region 1 Y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 Yn < y < yc
Region 3 Y < yn and y < yc

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4.3. Gradually Varied Flow (GVF) Computations

Main Objective of the gradually varied flow computation is to determine the shape of water surface.

Graphical Integration Method

This method integrates the equation of gradually varied flow by a numerical procedure.
dy So  Sf

dx 1  Fr 2
dx 1  Fr 2

dy So  Sf
x y2
1 Fr 2
 dx  
o y1
So  Sf
dy

y2 y2
1  Fr 2 dx
L  x 2  x1  
y1
So  Sf
dy  dy dy
y1

Consider two channel sections at distance x1 and x2 and with corresponding depths of flow y1 and y2.
The distance along the channel is X. If a graph of y against f(y) is plotted, then the area under the curve
is equivalent to X. The value of the function f(y) may be found by substitution of A, P, So and Sf for
various values of y and for a given Q. Hence, the distance X between the given depths (y1 and y2) may
be calculated (numerical integration) or measured (graphical integration).this numerical/graphical
method gives the distance from depth. By this method the larges errors are found in the area with the
strongest curvature. This is the region near the control point(s). The accuracy can be improved by
varying the steps x as a function of the curvature. This method has broad application. It applies to
flow in prismatic as well as non-prismatic channels of any shape and slope.
The procedure is straightforward and easy to follow. It may become very laborious when applied to
actual field problems.

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The Direct Step Method (Distance from Depth)

The direct step method is a simple method applicable to prismatic channels. Depths of flow are
specified and the distances between successive depths are calculated. The equation may be used to
determine directly (with means explicit) the distance between given differences of depth y  . The
equation may be rewritten in finite difference form as:
1 Fr 2
Δx  * Δy
So  Sr
The equation can also be written as:
E s 2  E s1
Δx 
So  Sr
Es’ is the specific energy. In the computation Sf is calculated for the depths y1 and y2 and the average
is taken, which is denoted by Sfm. The hydraulic elements are independent of the distance along the
(prismatic) channel. An approximate analysis can be achieved by dividing the channel in a number of
successive, short reaches. For each of the reaches the water depth at the beginning can be estimated.
Next the length of reaches can be calculated (step by step) from one end of the reach to the other end.
The Chezy or Manning formula is applied to average conditions in each reach to provide an estimate
of Sfm and So, with the depth and velocity at one end of the reach given, the length can be computed.
Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive depths are calculated.

For the computations are needed:

 Discharge Q
 Depth of flow y
 Area A
 Hydraulic radius R
 Roughness coefficient n or C
 Coefficient of Coriolis
For the given data, the computations are carried out in tables.
Standard Step Method
The standard step method is carried out step by step from station to station. The distance between the
stations is given, and the procedure is to determine the depth of flow at he stations.
For the computation are needed:
 Discharge Q
 Length of the reach  ?
 Area A as function of y

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 Hydraulic radius R as function of y
 Roughness coefficient ( n or C)
 Corilois coefficient 
The total heads at the two end sections are:
i. Prismatic Cannels

α v12 α v 22
E1  Z1  E 2 1  Z2  E 2  2  E1  Sf * Δx
2g 2g
ΔEs  So  Sf  * Δx
ii. Natural Channels

α v12 α v 22
E1  Z1  E 2 1  Z2  E 2  2  E1  Δx
2g 2g
v2
ΔEs  h f  hc   S f * x  
2g
Z = stage, level of water surface above datum in m
Compare E2-2 and E2-1; if the difference is not within prescribed limits (e.g. 0.01m), Re-estimate Z2 and
repeat until agreement is reached.
The computation of the flow profile by the standard step method is arranged in tabular form.
Each column of the table is explained as follows:
1. The location of the stations is fixed.
2. Water-surface elevation Z at the station. A trial value is first entered in this column; this will be
verified or rejected on the basis of ht computations made in the remaining columns of the table.
For the first step, this elevations must be given or assumed. In most cases the first entry is
known. After this value in the second step has been verified, it becomes the basis for the
verification the trial value in the next step, and so on
3. Depth of flow y corresponding to the water-surface elevation in col. 2. For instance, the depth
of flow y at the second station is equal to water-surface elevation minus bottom elevation
(distance form the first site times bed slope)
4. Water area A corresponding to y in col.3
5. Mean velocity v equal to the given discharge divided by the water area in col. 4
6. Velocity head in m, corresponding to the velocity col. 5
7. Total head E computed, equal to the sum of Z in col. 2 and the velocity head in col. 6
8. Hydraulic radius R corresponding to y in col. 3
9. Friction slope Sf with n or C, V from col. 5 and R from col. 8
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10. Average friction Sfm slope through the reach between the sections in each step, approximately
equal to the arithmetic mean of the friction slope just computed in col. 9 and that of the previous
step.
11. Length of the reach x  between the sections.
12. Friction loss in the reach, equal to the product of the values in cols. 10 and11.
13. Elevation of the total head E. this is computed by adding the values of hf (and hc if calculated
in a previous column) in col. 12 to the elevation at the lower end of the reach, which is found
in col. 13 of the previous reach.
If the value so obtained does not agree closely with that entered in col. 7, a new trial value of the water-
surface elevation is assumed, and so on, until agreement is obtained. The value that leads to agreement
is the correct water-surface elevation. The computation may then proceed to the next step.

In the next examples the eddy losses in the reaches are equal to zero and neglected in the calculations.
If the eddy losses are not neglected an extra column should be inserted between column 12 and 13.

Summary:
Standard Step Methods
H1 = H2 + hf + he

hf = Sfmean *X
Again, start from known depth
Compute y at defined intervals x
Iterative solution, as both H and Sf are unknown at x + 
Standard Step table [general form]

H2 * = WL2 + V2 2/2g
H2 ** = H1 *+hf12+he12
Criteria: H2 * = H2 **
If not assume another WL and repeat computation

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