Optical Materials 144 (2023) 114356

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Optical Materials
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optmat

Research Article

Design of CuO @ SiO2 core shell nanocomposites and its applications to

photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B dye
S. Cathrin Lims, S. Divya, M. Jose *
Department of Physics, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur, 635601, Tamilnadu, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this work, photocatalytic behavior of CuO@SiO2 core shell nanocomposites (CuO@SiO2 CSNs) is reported. The
Semiconducting material formation and structure of the prepared samples were confirmed using powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier
CuO@SiO2 core shell transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and High resolution transmission electron
UV spectroscopic analysis
microscopy (HRTEM) techniques. UV analysis revealed that the incorporation of SiO2 onto CuO resulted in a
Enhanced photocatalysis
notable decrease in the bandgap energy from 3.2 eV to 2.8 eV, along with a reduction in the rate of electron-hole
Visible light
recombination and in consequence of that CuO@SiO2 CSNs demonstrated an impressive degradation rate of 92%
for Rhodamine B (Rh B), while CuO Nanoparticles (NPs) exhibited a relatively lower rate of 80%. The BET
surface area analysis revealed that CuO@SiO2 CSNs had a greater surface area of 68.418 m3/g as opposed to
9.364 m3/g for CuO NPs, which contributed to the former’s remarkable catalytic performance.

1. Introduction mentioned techniques. Owing to its toxic nature, the unfavorable impact
disrupts not only to aquatic life but also to humans. Hence, it is crucial to
In the midst of the ongoing crisis, wastewater treatment has become develop an appropriate material that successfully detoxifies hazardous
a significant challenge due to the diverse and constantly changing organic contaminants, ensuring environmental preservation for the
composition of wastewater. The rapid growth of industries has released forthcoming generations.
large amounts of toxic pollutants into the environment, and threatening The primary reason for choosing photocatalytic degradation as a
aquatic life, micro-organisms and human health. Unfortunately, these method for degradation of dyes is its eco-friendly nature, remarkable
uncontrolled dumping of sewage and a release of contaminants without stability, lack of secondary pollution, affordability, capability to operate
proper treatment contributes to environmental pollution and increases under mild conditions, and efficient elimination of organic contami­
the risk of various infections and diseases such as cancer, acne, skin nants and dyes. Besides, the adoption of nanomaterial-based photo­
allergies etc., Addressing this issue is crucial for safeguarding the envi­ catalysis holds potential in tackling ecological challenges associated
ronment and public health [1]. Removal of dyes from contaminated with the degradation of organic pollutants in the environment [3].CuO
water has emerged as primary concern. Various techniques have been possesses remarkable features, including stability, cost-effectiveness,
developed for dye removal, but not all of them prove to be efficient and non-toxicity, and a powerful candidate as a photocatalyst in the field
successful due to their inherent drawbacks. The time needed to undergo of photocatalysis. Despite these notable advantages, its potential re­
the removal process and productions of secondary pollutants are the two mains constrained due to accelerated electron-hole recombination and
critical factors in evaluating the efficiency of a dye removal procedure. optimal efficiency. To overcome these constrains of the photocatalytic
Obviously, the effective dye removal process must be liable for performance, scientists are directing their attention towards incorpo­
degrading large amounts of dye in a very short period of time without rating bare CuO nanoparticles with semiconductors, metals/non-metals,
yielding secondary hazardous substances. Scientists have explored three and carbonaceous materials etc [4].
main categories of dye removal processes: biological, physical, and The core-shell composite nanostructure offers a solution to the
chemical methods. Each category has its unique approach to tackle dye aforementioned issues and also paving the way for industrial applica­
contamination in contaminated water [2]. Despite its drawbacks, tions. This is mostly attributable to the ease with which the character­
chemical method stands out as an efficient method among all the above istics of core-shell composites may be tailored by tuning their shape,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (M. Jose).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2023.114356
Received 1 August 2023; Received in revised form 24 August 2023; Accepted 8 September 2023
Available online 13 September 2023
0925-3467/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Cathrin Lims et al. Optical Materials 144 (2023) 114356

Fig. 1. Synthesis mechanism of CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2 CSNs.

shell morphology, and shell materials. Amid the ongoing crisis, the
utilization of Cu based core-shell systems with SiO2 as either the core or
shell hold distinct benefits in terms of chemical inertness, stability,
coagulation resistance, excellent transparency to electromagnetic radi­
ation, and cost-effectiveness. They find valuable applications in various
fields, including environmental detoxification, photovoltaics, photo­
electronics, energy storage devices, and supercapacitors [4–6]. During
our research, we have encountered minimal challenges related to
structural variations and the photocatalytic behavior of CuO@SiO2
CSNs.
The objective of this manuscript is to explore new research areas by
investigating the physicochemical properties of CuO@SiO2 CSNs pre­
pared through chemical synthesis routes. Additionally, we aim to
investigate their photocatalytic behavior to gain a better understanding
of their properties and potential applications. The powder XRD analysis
reveals the presence of pure CuO phase, while a hump observed at the
Bragg’s angle between 20◦ and -30◦ supports the presence of amorphous
SiO2. TEM analysis confirms the successful formation of CuO@SiO2
CSNs, aligning well with the findings from powder XRD analysis. The
TEM images indicate that the particle size is approximately 114 nm,
while the shell thickness measures around 10 nm. The elemental
composition and valence states of the CuO@SiO2 CSNs have been
established using X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), which Fig. 2. XRD patterns of CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2CSNs
confirmed the existence of Cu, Si, C, and oxygen, providing valuable
insights into the composition of the CSNs. In this study, the photo­ of every 20 min, ammonia and 1.5ml of Tetra Ethyl OrthoSilicate (TEOS)
catalytic activities of CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2 CSNs were compared, and were added to the mixture, and stirring was continued for 36 h at room
the results provided compelling evidence of the superior photocatalytic temperature to ensure a homogeneous mixture. The resulting solution
performance of the CuO@SiO2 CSNs catalyst in the degradation of Rh B was centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 5 min, and the collected precipitate was
dye. The main focus of our current research is to safely degrade this dye, dried in a hot air oven at 373 K for 12 h. Later, the dried sample was
and in this paper, we specifically selected Rh B as the model dye for our calcined at 773 K for 2 h, leading to the formation of the CuO@SiO2
study. Remarkably, the CuO@SiO2 CSNs demonstrated an impressive CSNs.Various characterization techniques, such as XRD, FTIR,UV, TEM,
degradation rate of 92% for Rh B under visible light irradiation for 135 XPS and Photocatalytic studies, were applied to investigate the forma­
min, surpassing the relatively lower rate of 80% exhibited by CuO NPs. tion, structure, morphology and photocatalytic behavior of the
Due to their comparatively larger surface area of 68.418 m3/g compared nanocomposites.
to CuO NPs’ 9.364 m3/g, CuO@SiO2 CSNs exhibit enhanced degradation
efficiency. 3. Results and discussion

2. Experimental procedure 3.1. XRD

The synthesis of pure CuO NPs was carried out using the co- XRD analysis was performed to gain a deeper understanding of the
precipitation method with a nitrate precursor. A solution containing structure of the synthesized CuO@SiO2 CSNs. The synthesized CuO@­
0.2 mol of Cu(NO3)2 was prepared by adding it to 100 mL of distilled SiO2 CSNs were analyzed using Bruker D2 phaser powder X-ray
water and stirring for an hour to ensure homogeneity. NH4OH solution diffractometer, with Cu kα radiation (λ = 1.54 × 10− 10 m), over a wide
was added to the aqueous solution to achieve a pH of 10. The obtained angle range of 2θ = 10◦ –80◦ with a step size of 0.05◦ . The recorded
solution was then washed and subsequently dried in a hot air oven at powder XRD profile is displayed in Fig. 2, where the observed peaks
373 K for 14 h. The dried sample was then calcined at 973 K for 5 h to have been indexed to the (110), (002), (111), (20–2), (020), (202),
remove the supernatants. After calcination, black-colored CuO NPs were (11–3), (31–1), (220), (311) and (22–2) planes for pure face-centered
obtained. cubic phase of CuO, which are in good agreement with the JCPDS
The Stober technique was utilized for the formation of core-shell card no. 48–1548 [7]. Furthermore, the sharp diffraction peaks suggest
structure with SiO2 as the shell material and CuO as the core. As that the sample is crystalline and no other peaks were detected, con­
shown in Fig. 1, the synthesis procedure involved the combination of firming the formation of pure CuO NPs. Importantly, the wide peak
0.5 g of CuO NPs with 25 ml of distilled water and 25 ml of ethanol. The (hump) shown in the insert Fig. 2 within the XRD graph, spanning the
mixture was continuously stirred for 30 min. Subsequently, at intervals diffraction angle range of 17◦ –28◦ , convincingly supports the presence

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S. Cathrin Lims et al. Optical Materials 144 (2023) 114356

Fig. 3. FTIR spectra of CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2CSNs

Fig. 4. UV–visible absorption spectra of CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2CSNs

of amorphous SiO2 shell structure on the CuO core, though, the existence
photo-catalysis, it is essential to possess a thorough understanding of the
of the SiO2 shell does not completely affect the crystallinity of CuO NPs.
electronic spectral features exhibited by the prepared samples. Specif­
Moreover, the XRD pattern of the CuO@SiO2 CSNs exhibits a noticeable
ically, when considering materials for photo-catalysis, the absorption
decrease in the intensity of all diffraction planes compared to that of
spectrum serves as a valuable tool for identifying potential candidates
pure CuO NPs. This reduction serves as convincing evidence for the
with outstanding photo-catalytic capabilities. The optical absorption
presence of the amorphous SiO2 shell, providing undeniable proof of the
spectra for both CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2 CSNs were measured using a
uniform coating of the shell material onto the core nanoparticles which
UV-3600Plus Series in the wavelength range between 200 and 800 nm
is witnessed in TEM micrographs. The reduction in XRD peak intensities
(Fig. 4(a)). The obtained optical absorption spectra exhibit a absorption
of the CuO@SiO2 CSNs is associated with the thickness of the SiO2 shell.
band around 450 nm for both CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2 CSNs. In the case
As the shell thickness increases, the intensity decreases owing to the
of core-shell CuO@SiO2 CSNs where amorphous SiO2 serves as the
amorphous nature of the shell and the HRTEM measurements signified
dielectric shell material, notable changes like spectral shifts and varia­
the SiO2 shell thickness is 10 nm. The Debye-Scherrer formula was
tions in the intensity levels can be observed in the absorption spectrum.
employed to calculate the crystallite size of the sample which is17 nm
These parameters play a critical role in determining the optical activity
and 34 nm for bare CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2 CSNs respectively.
of the nanoparticles and hold considerable significance in the applica­
tions related to optical properties and performance. Therefore, it is
3.2. Functional group analysis crucial to carefully examine this aspect to extract valuable insights. The
obtained results reveal that the absorption of CuO@SiO2 CSNs [11,12],
The functional group analysis of both pure CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2 showing a red shift which is mainly attributed to spectral interferences
CSNs was conducted at room temperature using a PerkinElmer spec­ caused by the presence of the amorphous SiO2 phase. These in­
trophotometer, scanning between the wavenumber range 400 cm− 1to terferences are likely responsible for enhancing photo excitation be­
4000 cm− 1 (Fig. 3).The appearance of distinct peaks in the fingerprint tween the energy levels, leading to the observed red shift. The
region at 468 cm− 1, 554 cm− 1and 877 cm− 1is attributed to the aforementioned parameters clearly indicate a substantial increase in the
stretching vibration of Cu–O bonds, indicating the presence of CuO [8]. interaction between light and particles for CuO@SiO2 CSNs. Moreover,
Additionally, the peaks observed at 799 cm− 1 and 1088 cm− 1suggest the the absorption of CuO@SiO2 CSNs indicates a possible improvement in
asymmetric stretching vibration of Si–O–Si bonds, which signifies the the scattering ability and electric field enhancement than that of the CuO
formation of a silica network around the core material. Furthermore, the NPs. Subsequent to analyzing the absorption peak characteristics, the
peaks observed at 2927 cm− 1 and 2848 cm− 1 corresponds to the optical band gap energy was calculated from tauc’s plots (Fig. 4(b))
stretching vibrations of the amine groups, which act as a self-catalysis. using the equation (αhυ) = β(hυ -Eg)n, where α is the absorption coef­
Moreover, the peaks at 1392 cm− 1indicated the symmetric stretching ficient, hυ is the energy of the incident photon and n is the exponent. The
vibration of the carboxyl groups, serving as the coordination sites to bandgap values were found to be 3.2 eV and 2.8 eV respectively for CuO
facilitate the incorporation of copper ions into the silica matrix. More­ and CuO@SiO2 CSNs. The lower band gap energy of the CuO@SiO2
over, the presence of a CN stretching vibration of secondary amine was CSNs may be associated with the factors like shell materials of SiO2,
observed at 1125 cm− 1, indicating the successful completion of nucle­ stoichiometry, crystallinity and density of oxygen vacancies etc. [13,
ophilic substitution while the observed absorption peak at 1018 cm− 1 in 14].
the spectra can be attributed to the C–O stretching vibration. Further­
more, the FTIR spectra revealed two broad bands at 1636 cm− 1and
3280 cm− 1, which indicated the bending vibrations of –OH groups from 3.4. TEM analysis
the adsorbed water molecules which confirms the presence of hydroxyl
ions originating from water adsorbed on the samples [9,10]. The TEM analysis was conducted using a Tecni G2 (TF-20) by evenly
dispersing CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2 CSNs on a carbon-coated Cu grid.
3.3. UV spectroscopic analysis Irregular nanocubes and nanospheres in different size distributions with
an average particle size of 77 nm with clear boundaries were observed
In order to effectively utilize optical properties in applications like for CuO NPs (Fig. 5(a&b)). The powder XRD data (Fig. 5(c)) is precisely

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Fig. 5(a–b). Micrographs of CuO NPs, (c) HR-TEM, (d) SAED pattern.

consistent with the lattice spacing of 0.23 nm, which correlates to the in the case of CuO@SiO2CSNs, the intensities of SAED pattern dots are
interplanar spacing of the (111) plane. Moreover, the SAED pattern substantially reduced, thus confirming the consistency, which accord
(Fig. 5(d)) reveals the formation of polycrystalline CuO NPs, with the well with the results obtained from XRD findings. Remarkably, the
rings indexed to their corresponding (hkl) values of (220), (202), (020), crystalline nature of the CuO NPs remains intact even after coating with
(111) and (110), respectively. an amorphous SiO2 shell. Additionally, the disappearance of rings that
The TEM images (Fig. 6(a)) reveal clusters of CuO NPs which are are indexed with (hkl) planes of (202), (111) and (110) in the SAED
effectively encapsulated by an amorphous SiO2 layer that demonstrates pattern (Fig. 6(d)) supports the presence of amorphous SiO2 in the
that the core has been properly coated with amorphous SiO2 shell. The material.
black innermost segment indicates the presence of the CuO core, and the
gray coating around CuO core represents the SiO2 shell. However, the
3.5. XPS analysis
particle agglomeration and a considerably rougher surface on CuO@­
SiO2 CSNs is attributed to the surface coating of CuO with SiO2 shell. The
The chemical states of CuO@SiO2 CSNs are examined using an X-ray
average particle size of the core-shell structures is determined to be 114
Photoelectron Spectrometer (PHI Versa Probe III) and the survey spec­
nm, with a shell thickness measuring 10 nm. The CuO@SiO2 CSNs
trum (Fig. 7(a)) reveals the distribution of O, C, Cu, and Si elements at
(Fig. 6(c)) with clear lattice fringes surrounded by SiO2 shell are seen
their characteristic fingerprint regions. Fig. 7(b) presents the deconvo­
with an interplanar spacing of 0.21 nm corresponding to (202) lattice
luted spectrum of the O 1s peak, with two distinguished peaks. The
planes, in accordance with the XRD results. The presence of an amor­
existence of oxygen is indicated by the peak observed at the binding
phous SiO2 shell is responsible for a significant reduction in the number
energy (B.E) 530.4 eV having an atomic percentage (at.%) of 64.6%,
of spots and their intensity. The intensity of rings or dots in SAED pattern
which corresponds to surface lattice oxygen. Furthermore, an additional
is directly correlated to the degree of crystallinity, where higher spot
minor peak observed at B.E 532.3 eV provides evidence for the presence
intensity indicates a high degree of crystallanity. It is worth noting that
of OH groups. As seen in Fig. 7(b), the intensity of the lattice oxygen

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S. Cathrin Lims et al. Optical Materials 144 (2023) 114356

Fig. 6(a–b). Micrographs of CuO@SiO2 CSNs, (c) HRTEM,(d) SAED pattern.

peak significantly surpasses the surface O–H band which strongly sug­ typically displays peaks around 932 and 952 eV, while Cu(II) manifests a
gests that the lattice structure of CuO@SiO2 CSNs does not contain O–H bands approximately at 934 and 954 eV. The presence of pure and mixed
groups, and these groups are exclusively present on the particle surface oxidation states has a significant impact on the functional properties,
due to atmospheric contamination. The presence of carbon content (8.2 particularly in terms of electrical transport. In Fig. 7(d), only the Cu(I)
at.%) mainly originates from atmospheric contaminants. The deconvo­ oxidation peak is observed, indicating the absence of Cu(II) in the crystal
luted C 1s spectra (Fig. 7(c)) exhibit three distinct B.E values at 284.6 structure. This suggests that CuO@SiO2 CSNs are chemically pure and
eV, 285.4 eV, and 288.2 eV corresponding to the chemical bonds of C–C, consists only of Cu (I) oxidation state, without any mixed oxidation
C–N, and O–C– – O respectively. The intensity levels of these bands states. Additionally, intensity profiles of Cu 2p3/2 and Cu 2p1/2 are in a
clearly reveals that the C–C band exhibits a higher intensity in com­ ratio of approximately 2:1, and the satellite peak intensity is nearly
parison to the C–N and O–C– – O bands. These intensity profiles offer equal to that of Cu 2p1/2.Based on the overall Fig. 7(d) out of the Cu2+
potential evidence supporting the absence of chemical impurities in the XPS spectra, Cu 2p3/2 orbital ions have the major contribution in the
atomic crystal structure. In such conditions, the intensities of the C–N functional physical and chemical properties [16,17]. The deconvoluted
and O–C– – O bands are significantly dominated [15]. The B.E peaks spectra of the Si 2p peak, as depicted in Fig. 7(e), at the B.E value 103.1
(Fig. 7(d)) existing at 932.01 eV and 952.80 eV with an at.% of 1.0 are eV B E value with an at.% of 26.2 assigned to Si–O bonding providing a
attributed to the Cu 2p3/2 and Cu 2p1/2 signals respectively. The sat­ strong evidence for the existence of SiO2 is present in the prepared
ellite peak observed at 942.0 eV due to the overlap between the kinetic material [18].
energy of the emitted Auger electron and the binding energy range of the
main peak. Copper (Cu) can exist in different oxidation states, including
Cu(I) and Cu(II), within the sample, and each oxidation state has distinct 3.6. Photocatalysis experiment
peak locations in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Specifically, Cu (I)
Photocatalytic activity is primarily employed in water purification,

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S. Cathrin Lims et al. Optical Materials 144 (2023) 114356

Fig. 7(a). Survey spectrum (b) O 1s (c) C 1s, (d) Cu 2p, and (e) Si 2p spectra.

wherein light energy triggers a chemical reaction through absorption by with constant stirring for 30 min using a magnetic stirrer. Subsequently,
certain substances. This provides a useful oxidation agents alongside 1 ml of the prepared dye solution was added to a dual jacketed beaker
electron-hole (e− & h+) pairs which work together effectively on organic containing 100 ml of double distilled water.
contaminants transforming them into CO2 and water. The photocatalytic Additionally, 1 mg of the CuO NPs was added to this solution which
capabilities of the synthesized CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2 CSNs by was subjected to continuous stirring in a darkened room over some 30
measuring their effectiveness in breaking down harmful elements pre­ min to ensure homogeneous mixing and uniform adsorption/desorption
sent in water sources is carried out with Rh B as the ideal pollutant. To equilibrium of the solution. Before subjecting the solution to visible light
expose the solution to visible light radiation, a Halagon lamp with a radiation, a 5 ml sample was extracted to conduct initial concentration
power output of 250 W was utilized. The aqueous solution of Rh B was testing. This step aimed to measure the degradation efficiency with
prepared by dissolving 1 mg of Rh B in 100 ml of double distilled water, higher precision. To test the photocatalytic degradation efficiency of the

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Fig. 8. (a–b) Absorbance spectra of RhB aqueous solution (c) Degradation efficiency Vs Irradiation time and (d) Degradation Mechanism.

Fig. 9. (e) Photocatalytic D% of Rh B (f) the pseudo-first-order kinetics.

CuO@SiO2 CSNs, the same procedure is repeated. Then, this solution ml of the solution was withdrawn until the total exposure time of 135
was exposed to visible light emitted by a halogen lamp operating at min. Subsequently, the UV–vis absorption of different solutions extrac­
250W. At every 30 min intervals, starting from the initial incubation, 5 ted at 15-min intervals was studied (Fig. 8(a and b)). After 135 min of

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S. Cathrin Lims et al. Optical Materials 144 (2023) 114356

Table 1
Photocatalytic degradation parameters.
S. no Sample name Dye concentration (ppm) Efficiency of degradation (%) Rate constant k(x10− 2min− 1) Time (min) correlation constant (R2)

1 CuO NPs 10 80 1.25 135 0.97

2 CuO@SiO2 CSN 10 92 2.5 135 0.96

photoexposure, the initially pink solution had turned almost colorless, timeframe. However, the uncoated CuO NPs exhibited no noticeable
indicating that exposure to photo irradiation reduced the concentration photocatalytic activity under the similar duration of photo irradiation
of Rh B in the solution (Fig. 8(a and b) insets). Fig. 8(c) shows a (Fig. 9(e)). This exceptional performance can be attributed to several
noticeable decrease in the intensity of the absorption peak associated factors, including a decrease in its characteristic energy gap, which
with the Rh B dye as the exposure time to light radiation increases. When enhances its light absorption capabilities. Additionally, the CuO@SiO2
the positively charged cationic Rh B dye interacts with the negatively CSNs interface facilitates efficient and rapid electron transfer reactions,
charged CuO NPs and CuO@SiO2 CSNs under light radiation, energy further boosting the photocatalytic activity. Moreover, the combination
transfer occurs, which excite the electrons from the valence band to the of the SiO2 layer with CuO nanoparticle clusters effectively suppresses
conduction band. This excitation causes a reduction reaction; resulting the recombination of e− and h+ pairs, leading to improved overall effi­
in effective decomposition of oxygen radicals of Rh B dye. The simul­ ciency in photocatalytic degradation. The results assert that selecting
taneous transfer of electrons creates holes, generating hydroxyl radicals, appropriate core and shell materials promotes the exchange of charges
which further aid to the degradation of the Rh B dye (Fig. 8(d)) at the core-shell interface which in turn, enhances the catalytic photo­
The degradation percentage (D%) is determined using formula D%= activity [19].
(Co-Ct/Ct)*100 where C0 is the initial dye concentration before light The photocatalytic reactions adhere to the Langmuir-Hinshelwood
irradiation and Ct is the dye concentration after light irradiation at time adsorption model, which can be simplified to a pseudo-first-order ki­
t. CuO@SiO2 CSNs exhibited the highest photocatalytic efficiency under netics expression of photocatalytic degradation of Rh B were assessed
visible light, achieving an impressive removal rate of 92% for Rh B. In using the relation ln(Ct/C0) = -kt, where k represents the pseudo-first-
comparison, CuO NPs achieved 80% degradation rate for Rh B. The order rate constant (min− 1) and t is the exposure time. Fig. 9(f) de­
results enable to understand that, CuO@SiO2 CSNs samples successfully picts the pseudo-first-order kinetics plot associated with the irradiation
achieved complete photo degradation of the RhB dye within a 135 min time [20]. Table 1 provides the photocatalytic degradation parameters

Fig. 10. (a–b) N2 adsorption desorption isotherm and (c–d) Pore size distribution.

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S. Cathrin Lims et al. Optical Materials 144 (2023) 114356

like Dye concentration (ppm), degradation efficiency (%), rate constant Acknowledgement
(k), degradation time (min), and correlation constant (R2) for CuO NPs
and CuO@SiO2CSNs. Notably, the rate constant for CuO@SiO2 CSN is The authors (S. Cathrin Lims and M. Jose) gratefully acknowledge
2.5 × 10− 2 min− 1, which is higher than that of CuO NPs at 1.25 × 10− 2 the management of Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur for
min− 1. Linear regression techniques were employed to fit the plots with the award of Fr. Carreno Research grant (Sanction Number: SHC/Fr.
the slope serving as the representation of the apparent pseudo-first-order Carreno Research Grant/2021/6). We also thank DST-FIST for providing
reaction rate constant. The closeness of these correlation constants to Power X-Ray diffractrometer facility in Abdul Kalam research centre,
unity suggests that the degradation process adheres to pseudo-first-order Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur, India.
kinetics, aligning seamlessly with the Langmuir–Hinshelwood model
[21]. A higher rate constant suggests that the photocatalyst has a better References
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