Applied Eng Che

Chapter - 1: PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY
CHAPTER
PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Metals are playing very important role in human life. They are available in earth crust in a
combined state isolation and purification of metals from minerals is explained by metallurgy.
Metals and alloys (which are prepared from metals) are the back bone of all engineering
projects and products like Aircrafts, Automobiles, Buildings, Bridge construction, Railways,
Light and heavy machinery and equipments in all these areas metals are playing important
role.
1.1 Characteristics of Metals:
1 Physical state: Generally metals are solid in state except mercury (Hg) which is liquid
in state.
2 Hardness: metals are having hard surfaces except sodium (Na), potassium (K) which
are soft in nature.
3 Melting and Boiling points: metals are having high melting and boiling points except
mercury.
4 Malleability: the property of metals which allows it makes thin sheets. Gold is having
most malleable of all the metals.
5 Ductility: the property of metals which allows making into wires. Gold is having more
ductility over all the metals.
6 Metallic lusture: metals shows shiny surfaces when we polish the surface of the metal
are called metallic lusture therefore metals are used in making of armaments.
7 Tensile strength: the property of the metal which with stand a force applying on it.
Metals show highest tensile strength.
8 Thermal and electrical conductivity: metal are good conductors of thermal as well
as electrical conductors.
9 Reaction with dilute acids: metals react with dilute acids and releases hydrogen (H2)
gas.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
10 Metals are acting as reducing agents.
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Chapter - 1: PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY
1.2 Differences between metals and non-metals:
Metals Non metals

1. Metals are solid in state except mercury. 1. Non-metals solids, liquids and gases.
2. Metals are having hard surfaces. 2. Non-metals are soft in nature.
3. Metals are having high melting and 3. Non-metals are having low melting and
boiling points. boiling points.
4. Metals are having high density. 4.non metals are having low density
5. metals shows malleability and ductility. 5. Non-metals doesn’t shows malleability

and ductility.
6. Metals are lusturous. 6. Non-metals doesn’t shows lusture.
7. Metals having high tensile strength. 7. Non-metals having low tensile strength
8. Non-metals are good conductors of 8. Non-metals are insulators.
thermal as well as electrical.
9. Metals are acting as reducing agents. 9. Non-metals are acting as oxidizing agents
10. Metals undergoes corrosion 10. Non-metals doesn’t undergoes corrosion
1.3 TERMS USED IN METALLUGY:
1. Metallurgy: Extraction and purification of the metal from the mineral is called
metallurgy.
2. Mineral: Impure form of the metal which is readily available in the earth crust is called
mineral.
Ex: Minerals of Iron (Fe): Hematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite(Fe3O4) and Iron pyrites or
fool’s gold(FeS2).
Minerals of Aluminum (Al): Bauxite ( Al2O3.2H2O) and Cryolite (Na3AlF6).
3. Ore: ore is a mineral from which we can extract pure metal most efficiently with a low
cost is called ore.
Ex: 1) Hematite(Fe2O3) is a ore of Iron
2) Bauxite(Al2O3.2H2O) is a ore of Aluminum
4. Guange or Matrix: the earthy impurities associated with the ore are called guange or
matrix. Earthy impurities are rocks, sand, mud, calcite, siderite and quartz etc.
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
5. Flux: a chemical substance added to the ore to remove the Earthy impurities is called
flux
Flux is two types:

1) Acidic Flux
2) Basic Flux
Acidic flux is used to remove the basic impurities present in an ore

CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
(Basic impurity) (Acidic flux)
Basic flux is used to remove the acidic impurities present in an ore
SiO2 + CaO → CaSiO3
(Acidic impurity) (Basic flux)
6. Slag: it is a glass like by product left over after desired metal is separated
guange flux slag
Slag is formed by the reaction between guange and flux.
1.4 MINERALS AND ORES OF THE METALS:
S.No NAME OF THE MINERAL ORE

METAL
1 Iron 1)Hematite (Fe2O3) Hematite (Fe2O3)
2) Magnetite(Fe3O4)
3) Iron pyrites or fool’s
gold (FeS2).
2 Aluminum 1) Bauxite ( Al2O3.2H2O) Bauxite
2) Cryolite(Na3AlF6) (Al2O3.2H2O)
3 Copper 1) Copper pyrites(CuFeS2) Copper

2)Malachite(CuCO3.Ca(OH)2) pyrites(CuFeS2)
3) Cuprite (Cu2O)
4) Copper glance (Cu2S)
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Chapter - 1 : PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY
1.5 CONCENTRATION OF ORE

Removal of the impurities present in the ore is called concentration of ore (or) purification of
the ore. There are several methods are used to concentrate the ore some of the methods
discussed below.
1. Hand picking: If the guange particles are bigger in size they can be removed by simple
hand picking method.
Ex: Stones, clay, sand, etc are removed by hand picking method.
2.Levigation or Gravity Separation: This method is suitable for heavy oxide like haematite,
lime stone etc. in this the ore is crushed into powder then the powdered ore is placed on sloping
floor and washed by directing on it a strong current of water the lighter sand, earthy impurities
are removed while heavier ore particles are left behind.
3. Froth Flotation Method: This method is especially suitable for sulphide ores like Zinc
Blende(ZnS) and copper pyrites(CuFeS2) this process is based on that sulphide ores are only
wetted by oil. whereas oxide and guange particles are wetted by water. in this process the
powdered ore is mixed with water and pine oil( foaming agent) and the mixer is vigorously
stirred with compressed air a foam is generated while stirring of oil by the air then the ore
particles are stick to foam and raised to the surface and heavier particles are settled in the
bottom shown the Fig.1 the froth is removed, collected in another chamber and allowed to
subside to get concentrated ore.
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Applied Engraining CHEMISTRY
4) Electromagnetic separation: This method is used to separate the magnetic particles with
non-magnetic particles for example tinstone is the ore for Tin(Sn) in which tinstone is non-
magnetic whereas the impurities (Iron, manganese and tungsten) are associated with tinstone
are magnetic. the powdered ore is made to fall on the belt which is moving over
electromagnetic roller while the powdered ore along with impurities are moving the magnetic
impurities are falls in chamber nearer to magnet due to attraction, whereas the non-magnetic
ore particles falls in chamber away from the magnet due to the influence of centrifugal force.
1.6 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THE FURNACES:
(i) Reverboratory Furnace: Reverboratory furnace is used for smelting process in which
fuel is not in contact with ore and heats it by a flame blown over it from another chamber it is
used for refining of copper, Tin, nickel etc.
Construction: it is a horizontal furnace consists rectangular steel box which is lined with
refractory bricks, there is a vertically lifting door at the end of the furnace and burners are
placed at another side of furnace .opposite to the burner there is pouring spout and exhaust gas
duct (tube). Roofs of furnace also made with refractory bricks which supplies high temperature
leads to faster refining.
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Operation: heat is passed over the hearth which consists ore the main method of heat transfer
is through the radiation emitted from the with refractory bricks present in walls and roof ,
additional radiation from the burner . the roof of the furnace is arched and remains slanted towards
the bridge of fuels that deflects flame for reverbation the ore mixture heated until it touches melting
point means while molten metal is collected in hearth which looks as thick and made of strong material
that can resists any disintegration also by the slag. This is repeated in furnace until the ore concentrate
can tapped regular intervals collected material is sent to a converter for further process of refinement.
(ii) Blast Furnace: it is a vertical furnace which is used for the smelting of metals extracted
from their ores like Iron pig, copper etc. the word blast gives the idea of combustion air which
forcefully supplied to the atmosphere and above.
Construction: it is constructed in the form of vertical tall structure made with refractory bricks
which are resistant to decomposition by any of the environmental attack as soon as melting
starts to occur these bricks heat and reduces in size there are many zones in the construction
of blast furnace they are
1) BOSH: it is intermediate zone between hearth and belly. it is hottest part of the furnace.
2) Belly: the area where the smelting process takes place.
3) Hearth: it is bottom portion of the furnace hot gases are coming from one side and
atmospheric gases comes from the other side through tuyeres .it has a tap hole to collect the
molten metal from the bottom.
4) Shaft: area between throat and belly.
5) Throat: inlet to drop the charge (ore + carbon + limestone).
6) Tuyeres: these are the pipes by which we supply the hot air to the furnace to generate air
high pressure blowers are used.
operation: from the top face of furnace (throat) ore, coke and limestone(flux) are introduced
it is collected at hearth from the bottom tuyeres high temperature hot air is passed inside the
furnace the charge descending through the shaft where it is pre heated and react with
Reducing gases from the bottom produces a liquid metal and slag which are settled at the
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hearth. Pre heated coke forms reducing gases (carbon monoxide) that rises up goes out from
the outlet located beside the throat. Liquid metal collected from the tap hole below the hearth
and slag is collected separately from its tap.
1.7 EXTRACTION OF CRUDE METALS
1. Roasting: Heating of the ore below its melting point in excess air is called roasting
usually this method is used to purify sulphide ores. in this process sulphide converts sulphur
dioxides.
2ZnS + 3 O2 _____ Roasting → 2 ZnO + 2SO2
2PbS + 3 O2_____ Roasting → 2 PbO + 2SO2
2. Calcination: Heating of ore below its melting point in absence of the air is called
calcination. This method usually used to purify carbonate ores in this process carbonate
Converts to oxides moisture also removed in this process.

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ZnCO3_____Calcination → ZnO + CO2
CaCO3 ____Calcination → CaO + CO2
3. Smelting: Heating of roasted or calcined ore with reducing agent and flux is called
smelting.
Fe2O3 + 3CO _______Heating → 2F + 3CO2
1.8 ALLOYS
Combination of two or more than two metals form homogeneous mixture is called Alloy.
1.9 purpose of making Alloys

Advantages of Alloys: metals have some disadvantages to overcome the disadvantages alloys
are prepared advantages of alloys are
1) To improve tensile strength, ductility and toughness.
2) To improve elasticity, heat resistance.
3) To improve corrosion resistance.
4) To decrease melting temperature.
5) To decrease density.
1.10 Composition of Alloys:
1. Brass: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc

Composition: Cu = 60-90%
Zn= 40-10%
Uses:
1. Used in the preparation of hardwares, screws, nuts and bolts.
2. Used in plumbing, jewellery and battery caps.
3. Used in declaratory articles, condenser caps.
2. German silver: It is a alloy of copper zinc and tin metals.

Composition: Cu= 25-50%
Zn= 10-35%
Sn= 5-35%
Uses:
1) Used in the preparation of utensils like spoons and forks.
2) Used in preparation of table ware, bolts band screws.

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3) Used in preparation of coins and decorative articles.
3. Nicrome: It is an alloy of nickel, Iron and chromium metals.

Composition: Ni= 60%
Cr= 12%
Mn= 2%
Fe= 26%
Uses:
1) It is having high chemical and heat resistance therefore it is used to prepare
chemical containers, water heaters.
2) used in preparation of resistance coils, heating elements like stoves, electric Irons.
3) It is used in the preparation of coins.
4. Stainless Steel:
Composition: Fe = 50%
Cr = 16-19%
Mn = 6.5%
Ni = 5-10%
C = 0.12%
Cu = 1.75%
Mo = 0.7%
Uses:
1. Used in making kitchen utensils
2. Used in making of surgical instruments like tongs, blades.
3. Used in construction of buildings.
4. Used in the making the bodies of aircrafts.
6) Duralumin:
Composition: Al= 95%
Cu = 4%
Mn = 0.5%
Mg = 0.5%
Uses:
1. Due to light good strength and low density it is used in aircrafts, it is also used in
automobiles and locomotive parts.
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2. Due to high ductility and electrical conductivity it is used in surgical instruments
and cables, florosent tube caps etc.
SYNOPSIS
1. Metallurgy is extraction and purification of metal from the minerals.

2. The mineral from which we can extract the pure metal efficiently with low cost
called Ore.
3. Guange is the earthy impurities associated with mineral.
4. A chemical substance added to the ore to remove the guange is called flux.
5. Fusible mass formed by the reaction between flux and guange.
6. Handpicking and levigation methods are used to remove the sand, stones, clay etc.
7. Froth flotation method is used for concentration of sulphide ores.
8. Roasting is the process of heating the Ore in presence of air.
9. Calcination is the process of heating of the ore in absence of the air.
10. Heating of the Ore in presence of flux along with reducing agent called smelting.
11. Reverberatory and Blast Furnaces are used to smelting purpose.
12. Alloys the substance formed by homogeneous mixture of two or more metals.
QUESTION AND ANSWERS
1) What are the characteristics of metals?

Ans:
Characteristics of Metals:
1) Physical state: Generally metals are solid in state except mercury(Hg) which is liquid
in state.
2) Hardness: metals are having hard surfaces except sodium(Na), potassium(K) which
are soft in nature.
3) Melting and Boiling points: metals are having high melting and boiling points except
mercury.
4) Malleability: the property of metals which allows it makes thin sheets. Gold is having
most malleable of all the metals.
5) Ductility: the property of metals which allows making into wires. Gold is having more
ductility over all the metals.
6) Metallic lusture: metals shows shiny surfaces when we polish the surface of the metal
are called metallic lusture therefore metals are used in making of armaments.
7) Tensile strength: the property of the metal which with stand a force applying on it.
Metals show highest tensile strength.
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8) Thermal and electrical conductivity: metal are good conductors of thermal as well as
electrical conductors.
9) Reaction with dilute acids: metals react with dilute acids and releases hydrogen (H2)
gas.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
10) Metals are acting as reducing agents.
2) Write any six differences between Metals and Non Metals.

Ans:
Metals Non-metals
1. Metals are solid in state except mercury. 1. Non-metals solids, liquids and gases.
2. Metals are having hard surfaces. 2. Non-metals are soft in nature.
3. Metals are having high melting and 3. Non-metals are having low melting and
boiling points. boiling points.
4. Metals are having high density. 4.non metals are having low density
5. metals shows malleability and ductility. 5. Non-metals doesn’t shows malleability

and ductility.
6. Metals are lusturous. 6. Non-metals doesn’t shows lusture.
3) Define the following Terms,

a) Mineral b) Ore c) Guange d) Flux e) Slag
Ans:
a) Mineral: Impure form of the metal which is readily available in the earth crust is called
mineral.
Ex: Minerals of Iron (Fe): Hematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite(Fe3O4) and Iron pyrites or fool’s
gold(FeS2).
Minerals of Aluminum (Al): Bauxite( Al2O3.2H2O) and Cryolite (Na3AlF6).
b) Ore: ore is a mineral from which we can extract pure metal most efficiently with a low
cost is called ore. Ex: 1) Hematite(Fe2O3) is a ore of Iron
2) Bauxite(Al2O3.2H2O) is a ore of Aluminum
c) Guange or Matrix: the earthy impurities associated with the ore are called guange or
matrix. Earthy impurities are rocks, sand, mud, calcite, siderite and quartz etc.
d) Flux: a chemical substance added to the ore to remove the Earthy impurities is called
flux.
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Flux is two types
1) Acidic Flux: acidic flux is used to remove the basic impurities present in a ore
2) Basic Flux: basic flux is used to remove the acidic impurities present in a ore
e) Slag: it is a glass like by product left over after desired metal is separated
guange flux slag
Slag is formed by the reaction between guange and flux.
4) Explain the levigation and Electromagnetic methods used in concentration of ores.

Ans:
1)Levigation or Gravity Separation: This method is suitable for heavy oxide like
haematite, lime stone etc. in this the ore is crushed into powder then the powdered ore is
placed on sloping floor and washed by directing on it a strong current of water the lighter
sand, earthy impurities are removed while heavier ore particles are left behind.
2) Electromagnetic separation: This method is used to separate the magnetic particles with
non-magnetic particles for example tinstone is the ore for Tin(Sn) in which tinstone is non-
magnetic whereas the impurities( Iron, manganese and tungsten) are associated with tinstone
are magnetic. the powdered ore is made to fall on the belt which is moving over
electromagnetic roller while the powdered ore along with impurities are moving the magnetic
impurities are falls in chamber nearer to magnet due to attraction, whereas the non-magnetic
ore particles falls in chamber away from the magnet due to the influence of centrifugal force.
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5) Explain froth floatation method.

Ans:
Froth Flotation Method: This method is especially suitable for sulphide ores like Zinc
Blende(ZnS) and copper pyrites(CuFeS2) this process is based on that sulphide ores are only
wetted by oil. Whereas oxide and guange particles are wetted by water. in this process the
powdered ore is mixed with water and pine oil( foaming agent) and the mixer is vigorously
stirred with compressed air a foam is generated while stirring of oil by the air then the ore
particles are stick to foam and raised to the surface and heavier particles are settled in the
bottom shown the Fig.1 the froth is removed, collected in another chamber and allowed to
subside to get concentrated ore.
6) Explain construction and operation of Blast Furnace.

Ans:
Blast Furnace: it is a vertical furnace which is used for the smelting of metals extracted
from their ores like Iron pig, copper etc. the word blast gives the idea of combustion air
which forcefully supplied to the atmosphere and above.
construction: it is constructed in the form of vertical tall structure made with refractory
bricks which are resistant to decomposition by any of the environmental attack as soon as
Melting starts to occur these bricks heat and reduces in size there are many zones in the
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construction of blast furnace they are
1) BOSH: it is intermediate zone between hearth and belly. it is hottest part of the furnace.
2) Belly: the area where the smelting process takes place.
3) Hearth: it is bottom portion of the furnace hot gases are coming from one side and
atmospheric gases comes from the other side through tuyeres .it has a tap hole to collect the
molten metal from the bottom.
4) Shaft: area between throat and belly.
5) Throat: inlet to drop the charge (ore + carbon + limestone).
6) Tuyeres: these are the pipes by which we supply the hot air to the furnace to generate air
high pressure blowers are used.
operation: from the top face of furnace (throat) ore, coke and limestone(flux) are introduced
it is collected at hearth from the bottom tuyeres high temperature hot air is passed inside the
furnace the charge descending through the shaft where it is pre heated and react with
reducing gases from the bottom produces a liquid metal and slag which are settled at the
hearth. pre heated coke forms reducing gases (carbon monoxide) that rises up goes out from
the outlet located beside the throat. Liquid metal collected from the tap hole below the hearth
and slag is collected separately from its tap.
7) Define the following Terms.

a) Roasting b) Calcination c) Smelting.
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Ans:
1. Roasting: Heating of the ore below its melting point in execs air is called roasting usually
this method is used to purified sulphide ores. In this process sulphide converts sulphur
dioxides.
2ZnS + 3 O2 _____Roasting → 2ZnO + 2SO2
2PbS + 3 O2 _____Roasting
→ 2PbO + 2SO2
2. Calcination: Heating of ore below its melting point in absence of the air is called
calcination. This method usually used to purifie carbonate ores in this process carbonate
converts to oxides moisture also removed in this process.
ZnCO3_____Calcination → ZnO + CO2
CaCO3 ____Calcination
→CaO + CO2
3. Smelting: Heating of roasted or calcined ore with reducing agent and flux is called
smelting.
Fe2O3 + 3CO_______Heating → 2 Fe + 3CO2
8) Define Alloys and explain the purpose of making Alloys.

Ans:
Alloys: Combination of two or more than two metals form homogeneous mixture is
called Alloy.
Purpose of making Alloys: Advantages of Alloys: metals have some disadvantages to
overcome the disadvantages alloys are prepared advantages of alloys are
1) To improve tensile strength, ductility and toughness.
2) To improve elasticity, heat resistance.
3) To improve corrosion resistance.
4) To decrease melting temperature.
5) To decrease density.
9) Write the composition and mention any two uses of the following Alloys.
a) Brass b) German Silver c) Nicrome d) Duralumin.
Ans:
a) Brass: Brass is a alloy of copper and zinc
Composition: Cu = 60-90%
Zn= 40-10%
Uses:
1. Used in the preparation of hardwares, screws, nuts and bolts.
2) Used in plumbing, jewellery and battery caps.
b) German silver: It is an alloy of copper zinc and tin metals.

Composition: Cu= 25-50%
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Zn= 10-35%
Sn= 5-35%
Uses:
1) Used in the preparation of utensils like spoons and forks.
2) Used in preparation of table ware, bolts band screws.
3) Used in preparation of coins and decorative articles.
c) Nicrome: It is an alloy of nickel, Iron and chromium metals.

Composition: Ni= 60%
Cr= 12%
Mn= 2%
Fe= 26%
Uses:
1) It is having high chemical and heat resistance therefore it is used to prepare chemical containers,
water heaters.
2) used in preparation of resistance coils, heating elements like stoves, electric Irons.
3) it is used in the preparation of coins.
d) Duralumin:
Composition: Al= 95%
Cu = 4%
Mn = 0.5%
Mg = 0.5%
Uses:
1. Due to light good strength and low density it is used in aircrafts, it is also used in
automobiles and locomotive parts.
2. Due to high ductility and electrical conductivity it is used in surgical instruments and
cables, florosent tube caps etc.
QUESTIONS
1) List the any six characteristics of Metals.
2) Write any six differences between metals and non metals.
3) Define the following terms
a) mineral b) ore c) guange d) flux e) slag.
4) Explain the froth Floatation Method.
5) Explain construction and operation of Reverboratory Furnace.
6) Define the following Terms.
a) Roasting b) Calcination c) Smelting.
7) Define alloys And Write the composition and uses of the following alloys.
a) Brass b) German Silver c) Nicrome d) Duralumin.
Multiple choice questions:

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1) Which of the following metal has high Ductility. ( )

a) Al b) Ag c) Au d) Pt
2) Which of the following metal has high Malleability. ( )
a) Pt b) Au c) Ag d) Cu
3) Reaction of metal with dilute acids releases ----------------- ( )
a) O2 b) H2 c) CO2 d) SO2
4) Which of the following is the Ore of Aluminum? ( )
a) Haematite b) Cryolite c) Pitch blend d) Bauxite
5) Froth floatation method is used for the removal of the following Ores ( )
a) sulphide Ores b) oxide Ores c) Carbonate Ores d) fluoride Ores
6) Which of the following process is conducted in the Blast furnace. ( )
a) Roasting b) Calcination c) Smelting d) Oxidation
7) Which of the following are the properties of Alloys. ( )
a) Corrosion resistant b) decreased melting points c) low density d) all of the above
8) The major composition metal in the brass is _____________ ( )
a) Cu b) Zn c) Fe d) Ni
9) The composition of Nickel in Nicrome is____________ ( )
a) 30% b) 40% c) 50% d) 60%
10) Which of the following metal doesn't exist in German silver ( )
a) Ni b) Cu c) Zn d) Sn
11) Stainless steel is used in the making of _____________ ( )
a) Kitchen utensils b) surgical instruments c) both d) resistance coils
12) In Calcination process heating of the Ore takes place_____________ ( )
a) Presence of air b) absence of air c) presence of flux d) presence of reducing agent
Answers
1) c 2) b 3) b 4) d 5) a 6) c 7) d 8) a 9) d 10) a 11) c 12) b
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Chapter - 2 : CORROSION
CORROSION
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2.0 INTRODUCATION
Many metals are exist in nature in combined state like oxides, carbonates, sulphides etc. during
the isolation process of metals from their ores get exited state i.e high energy state than their
respective ores and they have tendency to come back to combined state i.e. lower energy state
when the metals are put in use they exposed to environment and combines with gaseous or
liquid environmental components forms metal oxides, chlorides, sulphides etc. due to this the
metal destruction starts at surface.
2.1 Corrosion:
"The process of destruction and consequent loss of metal through unwanted chemical attack
by the environment at the surface called corrosion".
2.2 Factors influencing rate of corrosion:

1) Nature of the metal: when two metals are in electrical contact in presence of
electrolyte the metal with high activity undergoes more corrosion. The rate of corrosion
depends upon the difference between the positions of metals in Electro Chemical
Series.
2) Purity of the metal: The rate of corrosion increases with increase in extent of
impurities present in the metal.
3) Relative area of the anodic and cathodic part: when anodic part is smaller than the
cathodic part the rate of corrosion is more because when anodic part is small there is
more demand for the electrons from cathode therefore the metal readily undergoes
corrosion.
4) Physical state of the metal: the rate of the corrosion is more when the metal in grained
state i.e. corrosion increases with decrease in grain size.
5) Solubility of corrosion product: the rate of the corrosion increases with increase in
solubility of corrosion product.
6) Temperature: the rate of the corrosion increases with increase in temperature because
when temperature increases the diffusion rate increases there by corrosion rate is also
increases.
7) Humidity: the rate of the corrosion increases with increase in humidity of the air.
8) Presence of impurities in the air: the impurities like CO2, H2S, SO2, acids like HCl,
H2SO4 present in the environment increase the rate of corrosion.
9) PH influence: the rate of the corrosion is more in acidic medium i.e. PH less than seven
compared to basic as well as neutral medium.
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10) Concentration of oxygen: the metal with less oxygenated area acting as anode and
more oxygenated area act as cathode so anodic area is undergoes corrosion. The rate
of corrosion increases with increase in oxygen concentration at cathode.
2.3 (i) Dry or acid theory of corrosion: dry corrosion also called as chemical corrosion. This
type of corrosion takes place in absence of moisture or water in atmosphere of metal which
are main driving force for conventional corrosion. In dry corrosion a direct chemical attack of
atmospheric oxygen on the metal surface and forms metal oxide layer which is sensitive to
temperature. The oxide solid film formed on the surface of the metal which can protect the
from further corrosion. Thickness of the solid film varies with metal temperature at high
temperature the rate of dry corrosion is high compare to low temperature. The scale (solid
film) formation takes place in two ways
1) Diffusion of O2 to the metal through oxide layers.
2) Diffusion of metal outward through scale.
2M 2Mn+ + ne- (oxidation)
n/2 O2 +2ne- nO2- (reduction)
2Mn+ + nO2- 2MO
Dry corrosion is not as severe as wet corrosion in most of the cases.
(ii) Wet or Electro Chemical Theory of Corrosion:

Corrosion is a electro chemical process which takes place at surface of the metal the corrosion
arises when a conducting liquid is in contact with metal or two dissimilar parts of metals
present then there is a formation of Galvanic cell setup one part act as anode another part act
as cathode at the anode oxidation takes place, reduction takes place at cathode the current
flows from anode to cathode so anodic area undergoes corrosion.
Reaction at cathode (oxidation)
M Mn+ + ne-
On the other hand the constituents present in conducting medium accepts electrons from anode
and forms ions like OH-,O2- the metal ions formed at anode and ions formed at cathode diffuse
towards each other and forms corrosion products.
Reaction at cathode (reduction)
1
H2O + O2 +2e- → 2OH-
2
O2 + 4 e- → 2O2-
Mn+ + n OH- → M(OH)n
M 2+
+ O2-- → MO
2.4 Types of corrosion cells:

During the corrosion process when a metal exposed to environment there is a various
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galvanic cells are formed they are
1. composition cell
2. stress cell
3. concentration cell
1) Composition cell: when two dissimilar metals are in contact and exposed to environment
the metal with high reactivity act as anode and another act as cathode, anodic metal undergoes
corrosion.
Ex: when Zn and Cu metals are electrically contact Zn act as anode (placed at the top of the
electro chemical series) Cu act as cathode. Zn will undergoes corrosion.
2)Stress cell: a corrosion arise when there is a difference in stressed and unstressed areas of
the metal the stressed area act as anode and unstressed area act as cathode anodic part
undergoes corrosion.
Ex: In bend pipes the curved part have more strain(stress) act as anode and remaining part act
as cathode the anodic part undergoes corrosion.
Fig.1. Stress cell
Fig.1. Stress cell
3) Concentration cell: a corrosion cell arises due to the difference in the concentration
of oxygen the area of metal with less oxygenated act as anode and the metal with more
oxygenated act as cathode. Anodic part will undergo corrosion.
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1. Fundamental units
2. Derived units
Ex: When Zn rod is partially immersed in NaCl solution the rod up to the dipped area act as
anode(less oxygenated area) and open area metal act as cathode anodic part undergoes
corrosion.
2.5 RUSTING OF IRON:

Usually on the surface of Iron coated with thin brown layer of Iron oxide by the chemical
attack by the environment called Rusting of Iron.
Mechanism: the dissimilar parts of Iron one part act as anode another part act as cathode at
the anode oxidation takes place and liberates electrons
Fe → Fe+2 + 2e-
The liberated electrons moves towards cathode through Iron metal and reacts with oxygen
and forms hydroxide ions.
1
H2O + O2 +2e- → 2OH-
2
The Fe+2 ions formed at anode and hydroxide (OH-) ions formed at cathode diffuse towards
each other and ferrous hydroxide is formed when they met.
Fe+2 + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2
When enough oxygen is present ferrous hydroxide is oxidized to ferric hydroxide.
4 Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4 Fe(OH)3
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Ferric hydroxide is rearranged to hydrated ferric oxide(Rust).

4 Fe(OH)3 → 2Fe2O3.6H2O
2.6 Prevention methods of corrosion:
Corrosion is a surface phenomenon if we protect the surface from the environment the
corrosion is minimized. Generally surface of the metal is protected by the following methods.
1) Proper designing: In the process of controlling the corrosion selection of metal should be
done. Not only on its cost and structure but also on its chemical properties and its environment.
some of the important designing principles are
1) Anodic part should be larger when two dissimilar metal are to be in contact.
2) If two dissimilar metal are to be in contact. They should be select that their oxidation
potentials nearer.
3) When contact of dissimilar metals are unavoidable an insulator is fixed between the two
metals.
4) Heat treatment like annealing (softening) helps reduce internal stress and corrosion.
5) When a structure of two metals consists it is better to use more active third metal is in
contact. So that the structure will be saved from corrosion.
6) The anodic metal should not be painted or coated when any break formed in the coating
would lead to rapid corrosion.
7) The equipment made by the metals should be designed as to avoid sharp bends (L Shaped,
U Shaped), buffles and lap joints which produce stagnates the scales or sediments leads to
corrosion.
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2) Modification of Environment: It can be done either by removing corrosive agents from
environment or by neutralizing by adding certain substances.
1) Moisture should be excluded where ever it is possible if moisture is present suitable
inhibitor should be employed like anodic, cathodic inhibitors.
2) Each metal shows a minimum corrosion at particular PH. corrosion can be controlled by
adjusting acidity or alkalinity of the environment.
3) Deactivation of corrosive gases involves involves addition of chemicals like Na2CO3,
NH2.NH2.H2O which absorbs oxygen.
3) Protective coatings: By the coating over the surface of metal which prevents direct
exposure to the environment. Protective coatings. Protective coatings are two types
1) Metallic coating
2) Non-metallic coating
I) Metallic coating: to protect the base metal another metal is coated on the surface of it.
Metallic coating again two types.
1) Anodic coating
2) Cathodic coating
1) Anodic coating: the base metal is coated with more active metal on it more active
metal act as anode, base metal act as cathode therefore anodic metal undergoes
corrosion.
Ex: when Zn metal is coated on the surface of the steel Zn act as anode (due to low
electrode potential than Iron), Iron act as cathode. Zn will undergo corrosion Iron
is protected.
Fig.3.Anodic coating
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2) Cathodic coating: the base metal is coated with the metal with high electrode
potential (i.e. less active than the base metal)so base metal act as anode and coated
metal act as cathode cathodic coating protects the base metal effectively until there
is no cracks are formed. If any cracks are formed much more corrosion takes place
to the base metal.
Ex: Tin metal is coated on the surface of Iron sheet Tin covers complete surface
area of Iron if any cracks are formed Tin act as cathode, Iron act as anode so base
metal will undergo corrosion
Fig.4.Cathodic coating
Differences between anodic coating and cathodic coating

Anodic coating Cathodic coating
1.base metal is coated with more active metal 1. base metal is coated with less active metal
2.base metal is having more electrode potential 2.base metal is having less electrode potential
than coated metal than coated metal
3.if cracks are formed in coating no corrosion 3. if cracks are formed in coating corrosion will
takes place takes place
II) Non-metallic coatings: Non-metallic coatings are two types.

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1) Inorganic coatings.
(i) Phosphate coating: the base metal is dipped in the solution of phosphoric
acid and phosphate of Zn and Fe or Mn and Fe forms a phosphate layer on
the surface of base metal which protects from the environment.
(ii) Chromate coating: the base metal is dipped in the solution of acidic
potassium chromate and neutral chromate solution forms a chromate layer
on the surface of base metal which protects from the environment.
(iii) Oxide coating: the base metal is chemically reacted with alkaline
oxidizing solution forms a oxide layer on base metal which protects from
corrosion.
2) Organic coatings: the organic compounds like plastics, paints, varnishes,
lacquers and enamels are applied on the surface of metal which protects the metal
from corrosion plastics are efficiently protects from corrosion on severe
conditions like sea water and industrial atmosphere.
4) Cathodic Protection:
In this method the base metal is protected by forced to act as cathode. There by cathode
metal is protected from corrosion. Cathodic protection is two types.
1) Sacrificial anode process: in this process the base metal is connected to more active
metal which act as anode and base metal is acting as cathode so anodic metal
undergoes corrosion base metal is protected. Anodic metal is replaced when it is
completely undergoes corrosion .metals commonly used as sacrificial anodes arte
Magnesium (Mg), Zinc(Zn), Aluminum(Al) etc. this process is used to in the
protection of buried pipes, underground cables, marine structures etc.
Fig.5. sacrificial anode process
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2) Impressed voltage method: in this process impressed current is supplied to base
metal to make corrosion current zero and make base metal from anode to cathode.
Usually the impressed current is supplied from a direct source like battery along
with insoluble anode like graphite. Therefore base metal is protected from
corrosion this is used in the protection of open water box coolers, water tanks,
buried oil or water pipes, condensers, transmission line towers, marine piers etc.
Fig.6. impressed voltage method.
2.7 Paint:
“The mechanical dispersion of one or pigments in vehicle. Where vehicle is a combination of
non-volatile film forming material (drying oil) and highly volatile thinner called paint"
2.8 Characteristics of good paint:

1) It should be spread easily over the protected surfaces.
2) It should be possess high covering power.
3) It should be possess high hiding power.
4) Film formed should not crack on drying.
5) It should have good resistance to atmospheric conditions.
6) It should give glossy film.

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7) It should protect the metal surface from the corrosion.
8) Color of the film should be stable.
9) It should be easily applicable with brush or spraying device.
10) It should possess high adhesion capacity.
2.9 constituents of paints and their functions:

The important constituents of paints are
1) Pigment: It is a solid substance which is essential constituent of paint. ex: clay, mica, talc,
chalk etc.
Functions:
1) It provides capacity to paint.
2) Provides desired color to the paint.
3) Provides pleasant look at the paint film.
4) Provides protection by reflecting UV rays.
5) Prevents the passage of moisture through paint film.
2) Vehicle or drying oil: It is film forming substance of paint on the surface these are glyceryl
esters of high molecular weight fatty acids generally presents in animals and vegetable oils.
Ex: linseed oil, dehydrated castor oil etc.
Functions:
1) Forms paint film.
2) Acts as vehicle or medium.
3) Provides adhesion of film.
4) Impact durability and water proofness to the paint.
3) Thinner: These are added to paint to reduce the viscosity then they can be easily applied
on the metal surface. Ex: turpent oil, petroleum spirits, benzene, kerosene etc.
Functions:
1) Reduces the viscosity of paint.
2) They dissolves film forming material and other additives in the vehicle.
3) Suspends pigments in the paint.
4) Evaporate rapidly and helps in drying of the film.
5) Increases elasticity of film.
4) Drier: driers are the oxygen carrying catalyst they accelerates the drying of oil film through
oxidation, polymerization and condensation. Ex: resinates, linoleates, tungstates etc.
Functions:
1) Act as oxygen carrier catalyst which helps absorption of oxygen and catalyzes the
drying of film by oxidation, polymerization and condensation.
5) Fillers or extends: low refractive index having materials with white color. Ex: talc,
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asbestos, gypsum etc.
Functions:
1) Reduces the cost.
2) Increases the durability of paint.
3) helps to reduce the cracking of dry paint.
4) Helps to fill voids in film.
5) Act as carriers for pigment colors.
6) Plasticizers: plasticizers are used in the paint to give elasticity to the film. Ex: tri phenyl
phosphate, dibutyl tartarates, tri butyl pthalate etc.
Functions:
1) Prevents the cracking in the film.
SYNOPSIS
1 Destruction of the metal by the action of environment called corrosion.

2 Corrosion is an electro chemical process takes place at the anode.
3 During the corrosion various corrosion cells are formed like Composition cell, Stress
cell, Concentration ell etc.
4 Formation of oxide layer over the surface of Iron metal is called Rusting of Iron.
5 Corrosion is surface phenomenon which can controlled by cover the surface of metal
from the direct exposure to the environment.
6 Corrosion is controlled by the different types of protective coatings like metallic
coating, organic coating and inorganic coating.
7 In the metallic coating one metal coated over the other metal.
8 More active metal is coated over the base metal in anodic coating.
9 Less active metal is coated over the base metal in cathodic coating.
10 Paint is the important organic coating in prevention of corrosion.
11 In cathodic protection the base metal is made as cathode by that it is protected.
12 In Sacrificial anode process the base metal is connected with more active metal.
13 In Impressed voltage method base metal is made as cathode by supplying impressed
voltage using external battery.

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1. Define Corrosion and explain the any six factors influencing rate of corrosion.
Ans:
Corrosion: the process of destruction and consequent loss of metal through unwanted
chemical attack by the environment at the surface called corrosion.
Factors influencing rate of corrosion:

1) Nature of the metal: when two metals are in electrical contact in presence of
electrolyte the metal with high activity undergoes more corrosion. The rate of corrosion
depends upon the difference between the positions of metals in Electro Chemical
Series.
2) Purity of the metal: The rate of corrosion increases with increase in extent of
impurities present in the metal.
3) Physical state of the metal: the rate of the corrosion is more when the metal in grained
state i.e. corrosion increases with decrease in grain size.
4) Temperature: the rate of the corrosion increases with increase in temperature because
when temperature increases the diffusion rate increases there by corrosion rate is also
increases.
5) Humidity: the rate of the corrosion increases with increase in humidity of the air.
6) Presence of impurities in the air: the impurities like CO2, H2S, SO2, acids like HCl,
H2SO4 present in the environment increase the rate of corrosion.
7) PH influence: the rate of the corrosion is more in acidic medium i.e. PH less than seven
compared to basic as well as neutral medium.
2. Explain the wet theory of corrosion

Ans:
Wet or Electro Chemical Theory of Corrosion:
Corrosion is a electro chemical process which takes place at surface of the metal the corrosion
arises when a conducting liquid is in contact with metal or two dissimilar parts of metals
present then there is a formation of Galvanic cell setup one part act as anode another part act
as cathode at the anode oxidation takes place, reduction takes place at cathode the current
flows from anode to cathode so anodic area undergoes corrosion.
Reaction at cathode (oxidation):
M → Mn+ + ne-
On the other hand the constituents present in conducting medium accepts electrons from anode
and forms ions like OH-,O2- the metal ions formed at anode and ions formed at cathode diffuse
towards each other and forms corrosion products. Reaction at cathode (reduction)
1
H2O + O2 +2e- → 2OH-
2
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O2 + 4e -
→ 2O 2-
Mn+ + n OH- → M(OH)n

M2+ + O2-- → MO
3. What are the corrosion cells formed during the corrosion.

Ans:
During the corrosion process when a metal exposed to environment there is a various galvanic
cells are formed they are
1) Composition cell
2) Stress cell
3) Concentration cell
1) Composition cell: when two dissimilar metals are in contact and exposed to environment
the metal with high reactivity act as anode and another act as cathode, anodic metal undergoes
corrosion.
Ex: when Zn and Cu metals are electrically contact Zn act as anode (placed at the top of the
electro chemical series) Cu act as cathode. Zn will undergoes corrosion.
2)Stress cell: a corrosion arise when there is a difference in stressed and unstressed areas of
the metal the stressed area act as anode and unstressed area act as cathode anodic part
undergoes corrosion.
Ex: In bend pipes the curved part have more strain(stress) act as anode and remaining part act
as cathode the anodic part undergoes corrosion.
3) Concentration cell: a corrosion cell arises due to the difference in the concentration of
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oxygen the area of metal with less oxygenated act as anode and the metal with more
oxygenated act as cathode. Anodic part will undergo corrosion.
4.Define the Rusting of Iron and Explain its mechanism.

Ans:
Definition: Usually on the surface of Iron coated with thin brown layer of Iron oxide by the
chemical attack by the environment called Rusting of Iron.
Mechanism: the dissimilar parts of Iron one part act as anode another part act as cathode at
the anode oxidation takes place and liberates electrons
Fe → Fe+2 + 2e-
The liberated electrons moves towards cathode through Iron metal and reacts with oxygen and
forms hydroxide ions.
1
H2O + O2 + 2e- → 2OH-
2
The Fe+2 ions formed at anode and hydroxide (OH-) ions formed at cathode diffuse towards
each other and ferrous hydroxide is formed when they met.
Fe+2 +2OH- → Fe(OH)2
When enough oxygen is present ferrous hydroxide is oxidized to ferric hydroxide.
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5. Define Rust and Write its formula.

Ans:
Rust: Usually on the surface of Iron coated with thin brown layer of Iron oxide by the chemical
attack by the environment called Rusting of Iron.
Formula for Rust: Fe2O3.xH2O.
6. Explain the following method used in prevention of corrosion.

(i) Proper designing of metals (ii) modification of environment.
Ans:
1) Proper designing: In the process of controlling the corrosion selection of metal should be
done. Not only on its cost and structure but also on its chemical properties and its environment.
Some of the important designing principles are
1) Anodic part should be larger when two dissimilar metal are to be in contact.
2) If two dissimilar metal are to be in contact. They should be select that their oxidation
potentials nearer.
3) When contact of dissimilar metals are un avoidable an insulator is fixed between the two
metals.
4) When a structure of two metals consists it is better to use more active third metal is in
contact. So that the structure will be saved from corrosion.
5) The anodic metal should not be painted or coated when any break formed in the coating
would lead to rapid corrosion.
6) The equipment made by the metals should be designed as to avoid sharp bends (L Shaped,
U Shaped), buffles and lap joints which produce stagnates the scales or sediments leads to
corrosion.
2) Modification of Environment: It can be done either by removing corrosive agents from

environment or by neutralizing by adding certain substances.
1) Moisture should be excluded where ever it is possible if moisture is present suitable
inhibitor should be employed like anodic, cathodic inhibitors.

2) Each metal shows a minimum corrosion at particular PH. corrosion can be controlled by
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adjusting acidity or alkalinity of the environment.

3) Deactivation of corrosive gases involves involves addition of chemicals like Na2CO3,
NH2.NH2.H2O which absorbs oxygen.
7. Define Cathodic Protection and explain the sacrificial anode process.

Ans:
Cathodic Protection: the base metal is protected by forced to act as cathode. There by cathode
metal is protected from corrosion called Cathodic protection.
1) Sacrificial anode process: in this process the base metal is connected to more active
metal which act as anode and base metal is acting as cathode so anodic metal undergoes
corrosion base metal is protected. Anodic metal is replaced when it is completely
undergoes corrosion .metals commonly used as sacrificial anodes arte Magnesium
(Mg), Zinc(Zn), Aluminum(Al) etc. this process is used to in the protection of buried
pipes, underground cables, marine structures etc.
8. Explain the Impressed Voltage method in the prevention of corrosion.

Ans:
Impressed voltage method: in this process impressed current is supplied to base metal
to make corrosion current zero and make base metal from anode to cathode. Usually
the impressed current is supplied from a direct source like battery along with insoluble
anode like graphite. Therefore base metal is protected from corrosion this is used in
the protection of open water box coolers, water tanks, buried oil or water pipes,
condensers, transmission line towers, marine piers etc.
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9. Define the Paint and mention the characteristics of good paint.

Ans:
Paint: The mechanical dispersion of one or pigments in vehicle. Where vehicle is a
combination of non-volatile film forming material (drying oil) and highly volatile thinner
called paint"
Characteristics of good paint:
1) It should be spread easily over the protected surfaces.
2) It should be possess high covering power.
3) It should be possess high hiding power.
4) Film formed should not crack on drying.

5) It should have good resistance to atmospheric conditions.
6) It should give glossy film.
7) It should protect the metal surface from the corrosion.
8) Color of the film should be stable.
9) It should be easily applicable with brush or spraying device.
10) It should possess high adhesion capacity.
10. Define the following constituents of Paint.

(i) Pigment (ii) Drying Oil (iii) Thinner (iv) drier (v) Plasticizer.
Ans:
1) Pigment: It is a solid substance which is essential constituent of paint.
Ex: clay, mica, talc, chalk etc.
2) Vehicle or drying oil: It is film forming substance of paint on the surface these are
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glyceryl esters of high molecular weight fatty acids generally presents in animals and
vegetable oils.
Ex: linseed oil, dehydrated castor oil etc.
3) Thinner: These are added to paint to reduce the viscosity then they can be easily
applied on the metal surface.
Ex: turpent oil, petroleum spirits, benzene, kerosene etc.
4) Drier: driers are the oxygen carrying catalyst they accelerates the drying of oil film
through oxidation, polymerization and condensation.
Ex: resinates, linoleates, tungstates etc.
5) Plasticizers: plasticizers are used in the paint to give elasticity to the film.
Ex: tri phenyl phosphate, dibutyl tartarates, tri butyl pthalate etc.
QUESTIONS
1. Define Corrosion and explain the any six factors influencing rate of corrosion.
2. Explain the Dry theory of corrosion.
3. Explain the wet theory of corrosion.
4. What are the corrosion cells formed during the corrosion?
5. Define the Rusting of Iron and explain its mechanism.
6. Define Rust and Write its formula.
7. Explain the following method used in prevention of corrosion.
(i) Proper designing of metals (ii) modification of environment.
8. Write the differences between Anodic coating and Cathodic coating.
9. Define Cathodic Protection and explain the sacrificial anode process.
10. Explain the Impressed Voltage method in the prevention of corrosion.

11. Define the Paint and mention any four the characteristics of good paint.
12. Define the following constituents of Paint.
(i) Pigment (ii) Drying Oil (iii) Thinner (iv) drier (v) Plasticizer.

1. Corrosion is a process of ( )
a) Oxidation b) reduction c) electrolysis d) decomposition
2. Which of the following factors influences the rate of Corrosion. ( )
a) PH b) Humidity c) Temperature d) all of the above
3. During the corrosion process which part of metal undergoes corrosion? ( )
a) cathodic part b) anodic part c) both d) whole metal
4. The corrosion cell formed when two dissimilar metals are in contact _____ ( )
a) Composition cell b) stress cell c) concentration cell d) electrolytic cell
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5. The part of the nail undergoes corrosion is________ ( )
a) Head part b) middle part c) head & end part d) whole
6. Which of the following causes corrosion to Iron. ( )
a) Oxygen b) hydrogen c) moisture & oxygen d) strong base
7. The method used to prevent the corrosion of Iron by zinc coating is called_ ( )
a) Electrolysis b) cathodic protection c) Galvanization d) anodic protection
8. Chemical formula of Rust is _______ ( )

a) Fe2O3 b) FeO c) Fe2O3.xH2O d) Fe3O4.H2O
9. When burred Iron pipeline is protected from corrosion by connecting to Mg block. It
is called as ( )
a) Impressed voltage method b) sacrificial anode method c) galvanization
d) Sacrificial cathode protection
10. The Vehicle or drying oil in the paint provides______________ ( )
a) Viscosity reduces b) gives elasticity c) drying of paint d) forms paint film.
Answers
1) a 2) d 3) b 4) a 5) c 6) c 7) c 8) c 9) b 10) d
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Chapter - 3 : POLYMERS
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3.0 INTRODUCTION
The word polymer came from Greek word poly (many) and mer (unit) thus polymer means
consists many units. It is formed by the combination of many singular units form a high
molecular weight large molecule called polymer.
Now a day’s polymers are playing a very important role in human life our life becomes simple
by the discovery of polymers the various polymers we are using in our daily life are buckets,
cups, saucers, toys, carry bags, auto mobile tyres, electric insulating materials and machine
parts etc. Different forms of polymers are plastics and rubbers etc.
3.1 Polymer:
A larger molecule formed by the combination of single units by the polymerization process
called polymer.
Monomer: single unit which is responsible for the formation of polymer by the polymerization
process.
Polymerization: the process of formation of polymer by the combination of two or more than
two monomers called polymerization.
3.2 Methods of polymerization:

Generally polymerization reactions are two types
1) Addition polymerization
2) Condensation polymerization
Addition polymerization: combination of two or more than two monomers forms a polymer
without elimination of any simple molecule called addition polymerization it occurs in two
ways one is if same monomers are combining together forms homo polymer. Second one is if
different monomers are combing together forms copolymer. In this process the polymer
contains exact multiple of original monomeric units this polymerization leads to the growth of
chain so it is also called as “chain growth polymerization” and structure of additional polymers
is linear structure.
Ex:
1) Polythene:
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2) Polyvinyl chloride( PVC):
3) Teflon:
4) Buna-S- Rubber:
Condensation polymerization: it is combination of two or more than two monomers

forms polymer with elimination of simple molecules like H2O, CH3OH, HCl etc.
called condensation polymerization. The number of monomer units is not same in
polymer during the condensation polymerization takes place in more than one step i.e
it is also called as “step growth polymerization” structure of condensation
polymerization is cross linked structure.
Ex:
1) Nylon 6,6 :It is formed by the condensation polymerization between adipic acid and
hexamethelene diamine.
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2) Bekalite: it is formedby bthe condensation reaction between phenol and formaldehyde

in presence of acid or base catalyst initially it forms ortho/para hydroxyl phenol
derivative which further condense to foprm novolac on heating of novolac form
bekalite.
3.3 Plastics:
It is a organic polymer which can be molded into any desired shape by applying heat and
pressure in presence of catalyst is called plastics.
3.4 Characteristics of plastics:

1) Plastics are light in weight.
2) Good thermal and electrical insulators.
3) Plastics show resistance towards corrosion.
4) Casting, molding etc of plastics are easily done.
5) Plastic surfaces possess shining and glossy surfaces.
6) Plastics are not affected by insects, fungi etc.
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7) Plastics show chemical inertness.

8) Plastics are highly transparent, they are used as optical lances.
9) Plastics are available in different colors and do not fade easily.
10) Plastics do not absorb water
3.5 Advantages of plastics over traditional materials:

2) Resistant to corrosion.
3) Resistant to insects.
4) Available in different colors.
6) Easy maintenance.
7) Plastics are transparent.
3.6 Disadvantages of plastics:

1) Plastics are non-biodegradable.
2) Plastics are combustible.
3) Plastics are having poor ductility.
4) They do not tolerate heavy weight.
5) Plastics are having low heat resistance.
3.7 Types of plastics: plastics are generally two types

1) Thermo plastics
2) Thermo setting plastics
Thermo plastics:
The organic polymer which softened on heating and hardened on cooling called thermo
plastics.Ex: polythene,poly vinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene etc.
Thermo setting plastics:

The organic polymer which hardened on heating but not softened on cooling on prolong
heating they burn called thermo setting plastics.Ex: nylon( 6,6), urea formaldehyde resin,
bekalite etc.
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3.8 Differences between thermo and thermo setting plastics:

Thermo plastics Thermo setting plastics
1. Plastics are softened on heating hardened on 1. Do not softened on heating on prolong
cooling. heating they burn.
2. These are formed by additional 2. These are formed by condensation
polymerization. polymerization.
3. These are having linear structure. 3. These are having crosslinked structure
4. These are recyclable. 4. These are non recyclable.

5. Weak, soft less brittle. 5. Hard strong more brittle.
6. Soluble in organic solvents. 6. Soluble in inorganic solvents.

7. Plasticity is reversible . 7. Plasticity is irreversible.
3.9 Preparation and uses of plastics:

1) Polythene: polythene is prepared by the additional polymerization of ethene under
high pressure and temperature at 1500C to 2500C in presence of oxygen.
Uses:
1) Used in making of high frequency insulators parts, bottle caps, flexible bottles.
2) Kitchen and domestic appliances, toys etc.
3) Preparation of sheet for packing materials, tubes, pipes, cables etc.
2) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): Heating of vinyl chloride in presence of small amount of

benzyl peroxide or hydrogen peroxide under pressure.
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Uses:
1) Used in the preparation of PVC pipes, making sheets, tank linings etc.
2) Used in lift fitting, safety helmets, tyres etc.
3) Used in preparation of cycle and motor cycle mud guards.
3) Teflon (poly tetra fluro ethene): it is formed by the polymerization of water emulsion of
tetra fluro ethene under high pressure in presence of benzyl peroxide.
Uses:
1) Used in the preparation of materials like motors, transformers etc.
2) In the making of gaskets, pump parts, chemical carrying pipes.
3) Used in making of non-stick utensils, stop corks in burettes, tubing and tanks.
4) Poly styrene: it is prepared by the polymerization of styrene in presence of benzyl peroxide.
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Uses:
1) Used in preparation of toys, combs, buttons etc.
2) Used in the preparation of radio, television parts, refrigerator parts, battery cases.
3) Used in making of lances, indoor lighting panels.
5) Urea formaldehyde resin: polymerization of urea and formaldehyde in the 2:1 ratio
respectively in basic medium at 500C.
Uses:
1) Used in preparation of grinding wheels.
2) Used in binder of glass fibers, rock wool etc.
3) Used in electrical insulators.
4) Used as decorative articles like plates, glasses and dishes etc.
5) Bakelite:
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Uses:
1) Used in preparation of switches, plugs, switch boards.
2) Used in telephone parts, cabinets for television and radio.
3) Used in making of bearings, propeller shaft for paper industry and rolling mills.
3.10 compounding of plastics:

"It is a process of incorporating additives, modifiers into polymers for achieving uniformity
on a scale appropriate to the quality of the articles made with polymers called compounding
of plastics"
3.11 types of Additives:
The main types of compounding ingredients as described below
1) Fillers: fillers added to the polymers to give better stiffness, better hardness , improve
tensile strength and transferency generally used fillers are wood flour, asbestos, talc, gypsum
etc.
2) Binders: binders are also called resins which holds different constituents together.
commonly used binders are polyesters, epoxy, acrylic, phenol formaldehyde, melamine,
polyimides, silicones, polyolefins, etc
3) Plasticizers: plasticizers are added to resins to increase their flexibility and plasticity. most
commonly used plasticizers are vegetable oils, camphor, esters, tricresyl phosphate etc.
4) Stabilizers: these are added to the polymers to improve thermal stability during processing.
commenly used stabilizers are white lead, lead chromate, red lead, lead silicate etc.
5) coloring materials: appearance of color is one of the most importance in the polymeric
Articles. Most commonly used coloring materials are organic dyestuffs and non transferent
inorganic pigments.
3.12 types of moulding of plastics:
fabricating the plastics into desired shape is called moulding of plastics. this is depending on
on types of resins used many types of moulding methods will be there they are
a) Compression moulding: this method is applicable to both thermo plastics and
thermosetting plastics the raw materials of right composition are get filled between two half
pieces of mould. which can be relatively movable to each other. now heat and pressure is
applied according to the specifications cavities filled with fluidized plastic after curing process
moulded article is taken out.
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b) Injection moulding : This method is generally used for thermoplastics . the moulding
composition is heated in suitable chamber connected by a tube leading to the mould. the hot
softened plastic then forced under high pressure into the relatively cool mould where it is set
by cooling and moulded object is then removed.
Injection moulding
c) Extrusion moulding: It is mainly used for the moulding of thermo plastic materials . the
thermo plastic ingredients are heated to plastic condition then pushed by screw conveyor into
die having required outer shape of the article to be prepare . now plastic mass get cooled by
exposing to atmosphere a long conveyor carries away cooled products.
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Extrusion moulding
3.13 NATURAL RUBBER:

Rubbers are also known as elastomers natural rubber is obtained from latex which is collected
from trees these rubbers shows elasticity property.
“The organic polymer which can stretched to twice or more than that to its original size as
soon as the stretching force released it returns to its original length is called elastomer or
rubber”
3.14 Processing of Natural rubber from latex:

Isolation of natural rubber from latex involves following steps. Latex is a milky white liquid
(which contain 25 to 45% of rubber) is collected from the bark of the rubber trees by marking
cuts on it. This process is called taping it is done in regular intervals of six months then the
collected latex is diluted with water called diluted latex (contain 15 to 20% of rubber) it is
filter to eliminate dirty particles present in it then the diluted latex is coagulated by the addition
of 5% acetic acid or formic acid which are called as coagulants. Then the rubber separates
from the liquid as white mass called coagulum the coagulum is rolled out into sheets and dried
at 500C in the air forms natural rubber.
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3.15 Structure of Natural Rubber:

Natural rubber is a polymer of isoprene. Isoprene units undergoes addition polymerization
forms poly isoprene called natural rubber.
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3.16 Characteristics of Natural Rubber:

1) It becomes soft at high temperature and brittle at low temperature.
2) Low tensile strength.
3) High water absorption capacity.
4) It is soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene and carbon tetra chloride.
5) It is attacked by oxidizing agents like nitric acid, concentrated sulphuric acid.
6) It swells considerably in organic solvents.
7) It has less durability.
8) When stretched to great extent it suffers permanent deformation.
3.17 Vulcanization of rubber:

To improve the properties of natural rubber it is combined with some chemicals like sulphur,
benzoyl chloride etc.
Vulcanization: The process of heating of natural rubber with sulphur at 100 -1400C is called
vulcanization. During the vulcanization sulphur combines chemically at the double bonds of
different rubber springs thus vulcanization serves stiffness to the natural rubber (raw rubber).
The extent of stiffness depends upon the amount of sulphur added to the raw rubber for
example a tyre rubber may contain 3 to 5% sulphur but battery case rubber contain upto30%
of sulphur.
3.18 Characteristics of Vulcanized Rubber:

1) It has high tensile strength it bear up to 2000kg/cm2
2) Low water absorption capacity.
3) It has resistance towards oxidation.
4) It is better electrical insulators.
5) It is not soluble in organic solvents like benzene and carbon tetra chloride.
6) It very easy to prepare vulcanized rubber into any desired shape.
7) Elasticity is low, depends upon extent of sulphur added.
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3.19 Elastomer : The organic polymer which can stretched to twice or more than that to its
original size as soon as the stretching force released it returns to its original length is called
elastomer.
3.20 Preparation and uses of synthetic rubbers:
1) Butyl rubber (GR-I): it is prepared by the copolymerization between isobutene and
small amounts of isoprene.
Uses:
It is used in making of cycle and automobile tyres, conveyor belts, tank linings,
insulation for high voltage wires and cables etc.
2) Buna –S- Rubber (GR-S): it is also called as styrene rubber . It is prepared by the
copolymerization between styrene and 1, 3 butadiene in the ratio of 1:3.
Uses:
It is used in making of cycle and automobile tyres, conveyor belts, tank linings,
insulation for high voltage wires and cables etc.
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Uses:
It is mainly used in preparation of motor tyres, floor tiles, shoe soles, gaskets,
footwear components, carpet baking, tank lining etc.
3) Neo prene Rubber (GR-M): it is prepared by the addition polymerization of chloroprene.
Uses:
1) For making hoses, gaskets, tubing for carrying corrosive gases and oil.
2) It is used in making of sponges, conveyor belts, lining of reaction vessels etc.
3.21 Fibre: natural or synthetic polymer significantly longer than its width is called
fibre or fiber.
Or
Long filaments of molecules interwoven to form a linear, string like structure known as fibre
or fiber. Fibers are natural or manmade such as cotton, silk, jute, nylon (6,6), polyester etc.
Preparation of Nylon 6,6:
Uses: It is used in making of socks, ladies hoses, dresses, carpets, tyres etc.
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Polyethelene terethalate(PET) or Poly ester: it is prepared by the condensation of ethelene
glycol and teri phthalic acid.
Uses:
1) It is mostly used in synthetic fibers like terylene, dacron etc.
2) Used as glass rein forcing material in safety helmets, aircrafts battery boxes etc.
3.23 Biodegradable Polymers:

a large number of polymers resistant to the environmental degradation. these are responsible
for accumulation of polymeric solid waste which cause acute environmental problems and
remains un degradable for long time .in view this certain new biodegradable synthetic
polymers designed and developed these are having functional groups as same as bio polymers.
"The materials whose chemical and physical characteristics undergoes completely
degradation when exposed to micro-organisms by aerobic and anaerobic process called
biodegradable polymers"
Ex:1) poly vinyl alcohol (PVA)
2) Nylon-2, Nylon-6.
3) Poly β-hydrobutyrate co β-hydroxy valerate(PBHV).
General applications of Biodegradable polymers:

1) PVA-HNT nano composites are prepared and used for replacement of non-biodegradable
plastics.
2) PVA is used in different fields of science and technology.
3) PVA used in food packaging, coating and adhesives.
4) PVA is also used in fabrication.
SYNOPSIS
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1) A larger molecule formed by the combination of single units is called polymer.

2) The process of formation of polymer from the monomers is called polymerization.
3) The single units which are participating the polymerization is called monomer.
4) The process of polymerization in which addition of polymerization takes place without
elimination called addition polymerization.
5) The process of polymerization in which addition of polymerization takes place with
elimination of simple molecules called condensation polymerization.
6) The organic polymer which can be moulded into any desired shape by applying heat and
pressure called plastic.
7) Plastics which are softened on heating and hardened on cooling is called thermo plastics.
8) Plastics which are not softened on prolangated heating they burn is called thermo plastics.
9) Fabricating the plastics into desired shape is called moulding of plastics.
10) The organic polymers with shows elasticity are called rubbers.
11) Natural rubber extracted from latex.
12) The monomeric unit present in natural rubber is isoprene.
13) The process of heating the raw rubber with sulphur at 120 0-1400C is called Vulcanization.
14) Manmade rubbers or synthetic rubbers called elastomers.
15) Natural or synthetic polymer significantly longer than its width is called fiber.
16) The polymers which are degradable the action of micro-organisms called biodegradable
polymers.

1) Define the following terms and give examples.
(i) Monomer (ii) polymer
Ans:
Monomer: single unit which is responsible for the formation of polymer by the
polymerization process.
examples: ethylene in polythene, vinyl chloride in PVC etc.
Polymer: a larger molecule formed by the combination of single units by the polymerization
process called polymer.
examples: polythene, PVC, Teflon etc.
2) Define polymerization. And what are the methods of polymerization?

Ans:
Polymerization: the process of formation of polymer by the combination of two or more than
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two monomers called polymerization.
Methods of polymerization:
Generally polymerization reactions are two types
1) Addition polymerization
2) Condensation polymerization
Addition polymerization: combination of two or more than two monomers forms a polymer
without elimination of any simple molecule called addition polymerization it occurs in two
ways one is if same monomers are combining together forms homo polymer. Second one is if
different monomers are combing together forms copolymer. In this process the polymer
contains exact multiple of original monomeric units this polymerization leads to the growth of
chain so it is also called as “chain growth polymerization” and structure of additional polymers
is linear structure.
Ex: polythene
Ethylene polythene
Condensation polymerization: it is combination of two or more than two monomers forms

polymer with elimination of simple molecules like H2O, CH3OH, HCl etc. called condensation
polymerization. The number of monomer units is not same in polymer during the condensation
polymerization takes place in more than one step i.e it is also called as “step growth
polymerization” structure of condensation polymerization is cross linked structure.
Ex: Nylon 6, 6: It is formed by the condensation polymerization between adipic acid and
hexamethelene diamine.
3) Write the differences between additional polymerization and condensation polymerization.

Ans:
4) Define plastic and write the characteristics of plastics.

Ans:
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Plastics: It is a organic polymer which can be molded into any desired shape by applying heat
and pressure in presence of catalyst is called plastics.
Characteristics of plastics:
3) Plastics show resistance towards corrosion.
4) Casting, molding etc of plastics are easily done.
5) Plastic surfaces posses shining and glossy surfaces.
6) Plastics are not affected by insects, fungi etc.
7) Plastics show chemical inertness.
8) Plastics are highly transparent, they are used as optical lances.
9) Plastics are available in different colors and do not fade easily.
10) Plastics do not absorb water.
5) What are the advantages plastics over traditional materials.

Ans:
Advantages of plastics over traditional materials:
2) Resistant to corrosion.
3) Resistant to insects.
4) Available in different colors.
6) Easy maintenance.
7) Plastics are transparent.
6) Differentiate the thermoplastics with thermosetting plastics.

Ans:
Thermo plastics Thermo setting plastics

1. Plastics are softened on heating hardened 1. Do not softened on heating on prolong
on cooling. heating they burn.
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2. These are formed by additional 2. These are formed by condensation
polymerization. polymerization.
3. These are having linear structure. 3. These are having cross linked structure
4. These are recyclable. 4. These are non-recyclable.
5. Weak, soft less brittle. 5. Hard strong more brittle.
6. Soluble in organic solvents. 6. Soluble in inorganic solvents.
7. Plasticity is reversible. 7. Plasticity is irreversible.
7) Explain the preparation and mention any two uses of the following plastics.
(i) Polythene (ii) PVC (ii) Teflon.
Ans:
1) Polythene: polythene is prepared by the additional polymerization of ethene under
high pressure and temperature at 1500C to 2500C in presence of oxygen.
Uses:
1) Used in making of high frequency insulators parts, bottle caps, flexible bottles.
2) Kitchen and domestic appliances, toys etc.
3) Preparation of sheet for packing materials, tubes, pipes, cables etc.
2) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): Heating of vinyl chloride in presence of small amount of

benzyl peroxide or hydrogen peroxide under pressure.
Uses:
1) Used in the preparation of PVC pipes, making sheets, tank linings etc.
2) Used in lift fitting, safety helmets, tyres etc.
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3) Used in preparation of cycle and motor cycle mud guards.
3) Teflon (poly tetra fluro ethene): it is formed by the polymerization of water emulsion
of tetra fluro ethene under high pressure in presence of benzyl peroxide.
Uses:
1) Used in the preparation of materials like motors, transformers etc.
2) In the making of gaskets, pump parts, chemical carrying pipes.
3) Used in making of non-stick utensils, stop corks in burettes, tubing and tanks.
8) Explain the functions of following additives in the compounding of plastics.

(i) Fillers (ii) Binders (iii) Stabilizers (iv) coloring materials.
Ans:
1) Fillers: fillers added to the polymers to give better stiffness, better hardness , improve
tensile strength and transferency generally used fillers are wood flour, asbestos, talc, gypsum
etc.
2) Binders: binders are also called resins which holds different constituents together.
Commonly used binders are polyesters, epoxy, acrylic, phenol formaldehyde, melamine,
polyimides, silicones, polyolefins, etc
3) Stabilizers: these are added to the polymers to improve thermal stability during processing.
commonly used stabilizers are white lead, lead chromate, red lead, lead silicate etc.
4) Coloring materials: appearance of color is one of the most importance in the polymeric
articles. Most commonly used coloring materials are organic dyestuffs and non transferent
inorganic pigments.
9) Define moulding of plastics and explain the compression moulding.

Ans:
Moulding of plastics: Fabricating the plastics into desired shape is called moulding of
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Plastics. This is depending on on types of resins used many types of moulding methods will
be there.
Compression moulding: this method is applicable to both thermo plastics and thermosetting
plastics the raw materials of right composition are get filled between two half pieces of mould.
Which can be relatively movable to each other. now heat and pressure is applied according to
the specifications cavities filled with fluidized plastic after curing process moulded article is
taken out.
10) Explain the process of extraction natural rubber from latex.

Ans:
Processing of Natural rubber Extraction from latex:
Isolation of natural rubber from latex involves following steps. Latex is a milky white liquid
(which contain 25 to 45% of rubber) is collected from the bark of the rubber trees by marking
cuts on it. This process is called taping it is done in regular intervals of six months then the
collected latex is diluted with water called diluted latex (contain 15 to 20% of rubber) it is
filter to eliminate dirty particles present in it then the diluted latex is coagulated by the addition
of 5% acetic acid or formic acid which are called as coagulants. Then the rubber separates
from the liquid as white mass called coagulum the coagulum is rolled out into sheets and dried
at 500C in the air forms natural rubber.
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11) Define Vulcanization and write the characteristics of Vulcanized rubber.

Ans:
Vulcanization of rubber: The process of heating of natural rubber with sulphur at 100 -
1400C is called vulcanization. During the vulcanization sulphur combines chemically at the
double bonds of different rubber springs thus vulcanization serves stiffness to the natural
rubber (raw rubber). The extent of stiffness depends upon the amount of sulphur added to the
raw rubber for example a tyre rubber may contain 3 to 5% sulphur but battery case rubber
contain upto30% of sulphur.
Characteristics of Vulcanized Rubber:

1) It has high tensile strength it bear up to 2000kg/cm2
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2) Low water absorption capacity.
3) It has resistance towards oxidation.
4) It is better electrical insulators.
5) It is not soluble in organic solvents like benzene and carbon tetra chloride.
6) It very easy to prepare vulcanized rubber into any desired shape.
7) Elasticity is low, depends upon extent of sulphur added.
12) Define Elastomer.

Ans:
Elastomer: The organic polymer which can stretched to twice or more than that to its original
size as soon as the stretching force released it returns to its original length is called elastomer.
13. Write the preparation and mention any two uses of the following rubbers.
(i) Buna -S- Rubber (ii) Neoprene Rubber.
(i) Buna –S- Rubber (GR-S): it is also called as styrene rubber. It is prepared by the
copolymerization between styrene and 1, 3 butadiene in the ratio of 1:3.
Uses:
It is mainly used in preparation of motor tyres, floor tiles, shoe soles, gaskets, footwear
components, carpet baking, tank lining etc.
(ii) Neoprene Rubber (GR-M): it is prepared by the addition polymerization of chloroprene.
Uses:
1) For making hoses, gaskets, tubing for carrying corrosive gases and oil.
2) It is used in making of sponges, conveyor belts, lining of reaction vessels etc.
13) Define Fiber and explain the preparation and uses of polyethylene teripthalates
(PET).
Ans:
Fibre: Natural or synthetic polymer significantly longer than its width is called fibre or
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fiber.
Ex: cotton, silk, jute, nylon (6,6), polyester etc.
Polyethelene terethalate (PET) or Poly ester: it is prepared by the condensation of
ethelene glycol and teri phthalic acid.
Uses:
1) It is mostly used in synthetic fibers like terylene, dacron etc.
2) Used as glass rein forcing material in safety helmets, aircrafts battery boxes etc.
14) What are Biodegradable polymers? And give examples.

Ans:
Biodegradable polymers: The materials whose chemical and physical characteristics
undergoes completely degradation when exposed to micro-organisms by aerobic and
anaerobic process called biodegradable polymers"
Ex: 1) poly vinyl alcohol (PVA)
2) Nylon-2, Nylon-6.
3) Poly β-hydrobutyrate co β-hydroxy valerate(PBHV).
QUESTIONS
1) Define the following terms and give examples.
(i) Monomer (ii) Polymer
2) Define polymerization. And what are the methods of polymerization?
3) Write the differences between additional polymerization and condensation
polymerization.
4) Define plastic and write any four the characteristics of plastics.
5) What are the advantages plastics over traditional materials?
6) Differentiate the thermoplastics with thermosetting plastics.
7) Explain the preparation and mention any two uses of the following plastics.
(i) Polythene (ii) PVC (ii) Teflon.
8) Define moulding of plastics and explain the compression moulding.

9) Define Vulcanization and write the characteristics of Vulcanized rubber.
10) Define Elastomer.give one example
11) Write the preparation and mention any two uses of the following ruubers.
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(i) Buna -S- Rubber (ii) Neoprene Rubber
12) Define Fiber and explain the preparationand uses of Nylon 6,6
13) What are Biodegradable ploymers? And applications of biodegradable
polymers.
1. A single units participating in polymerization to form a larger molecule is called as
_____ ( )
a) Polymers b) Monomers c) Micro molecules d) Macro molecules
2. PVC is formed by ___________ ( )
a) Additional polymerization b) condensation polymerization
c) Co polymerization d) none of the above
3. Teflon is an additional polymer of ____________ ( )
a) Ethelene b) vinyl chloride c) tetra fluoro ethelene d) styrene
4. Which of the following is additional polymer? ( )
a) Nylon 6, 6 b) Bakelite c) polythene d) urea formaldehyde
resin
5. The type of the polymerization in which different types of monomers are involved
called__ ( )
a) Additional polymerization b) condensation polymerization
c) Co polymerization d) none of the above
6. The monomeric units involved in Nylon 6, 6 is___________ ( )
a) Adipic acid b) hexamethylene diamine c) both d) formaldehyde
7) Which of the following is thermoplastic? ( )
a) PVC b) PVA c) Bakelite d) nylon 6, 6
8) Which of the following contains Isoprene units? ( )
a) Natural rubber b) Bakelite c) Dacron d) PVC
9. Elastomer is a ______ ( )
a) Synthetic rubber b) natural rubber c) vulcanized rubber d) all of the above
10. Which of the following is added to raw rubber in vulcanization process? ( )
a) P b) Si c) S d) Cl
11. The monomeric units present in Buna- S- Rubber is _______ ( )
a) Isoprene b) 1, 3 butadiene c) chloroprene d) ethelene
12. Which of the following is a biodegradable ploymer? ( )
a) PVC b) PVA c) polythene d) Teflon
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Chapter - 4 : FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
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4.0 INTRODUCTION
Fuels are playing very important role in our modern life they are very much useful in
domestic as well as industrial purpose. Fuel is a combustible substance which contain
carbon and hydrogen as constituent fuels on combustion gives large amount of heat
resulting formation of new compounds like CO2,H2O etc. fuels are deposited in the plants
and animals lived long back these fuels are called fossil fuels.
4.1 Fuel:
"A combustible substance which gives large amount of heat upon combustion in presence of
oxygen called fuel".
More energy content less energy content
4.2 Classification of fuels based on physical state:

Based on physical state of the fuels are three types they are
1) Solid fuels: Ex: Wood, coal, dung, coke etc.
2) Liquid fuels: Ex: Crude oil, petrol etc.
3) Gaseous fuels: Ex: Natural fuels, LPG etc.
These fuels which are naturally occurring primary fuels and artificial available are
secondary fuels.
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4.3 Classification based on occurrence:

Based on occurrence fuels are two types
1) Natural or primary fuels: the fuels which are naturally available in the
environment are called natural or primary fuels.
Ex: wood, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
2) Artificial or secondary fuels: the fuels which are prepared from the primary fuels
called secondary or artificial fuels.
Ex: petrol, diesel, LPG, Bio gas etc.
4.4 Characteristics of good fuels:

1) Fuel should possess high calorific value.
2) Moderate ignition temperature: minimum temperature required to pre heat the fuel is
called ignition temperature. Low ignition temperature leads to fire hazards, high
ignition temperature leads to difficult in igniting so good fuel have moderate ignition
temperature.
3) Low moisture content: moisture present in fuel reduces the heating value hence fuel
should have low moisture.
4) Low non-combustible matter: the ash or clinker formed during the combustion of fuel
reduces the heating value hence fuel should have low combustible matter.
5) Moderate velocity of combustion.
6) Products of combustion should not be harmful.
7) Good fuel should be low in cost.
8) Good fuel should be easy to transport.
9) Combustion should be easily controllable.
10) Good fuel should burn in air with efficiently without much smoke.
4.5 Advantages of gaseous Fuels:

Gaseous fuels are having many advantages.
1) They are easy to transport.
2) They are convenient to store without any risk.
3) Cost of production is low
4) They possess Moderate ignition temperature.
5) They burn without any soot.
6) combustion is easily controllable
7) Releases less amount of pollutants.
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4.6 Calorific Value:

"The amount of heat liberated when unit mass of fuel is combusted completely called calorific
value".
Units for calorific value: calaries, kilocalories (K Cal) etc.
Higher or gross calorific value (HCV): usually all fuels contain hydrogen gas when it is
combusted it converts into steam. If the products are condensed to room temperature the latent
heat of hydrogen is also included in measured heat (calorific value) now the HCV is defined
as “the total amount of heat produced when a unit mass of fuel is combusted completely and
products of combustion is cooled to room temperature”
Lower or Net calorific value ( LCV): in actual use of fuel the water vapor and gases etc. are
not condensed and escape as such along with hot combustion gases have less amount of heat
available the LCV is defined as “ the net amount of heat liberated when unit mass of fuel
combusted completely an d products are allowed to escape.
4.7 terms used in combustion of fuels:
(i) Knocking: fuel used in the internal combustion of engine gasoline vapor and air. once the
ignition starts in the cylinder the flame spread rapidly and smoothly through the gaseous
mixture there by the expanding gas drives the piston.
"In an internal combustion of engine sharp sounds caused by pre matured combustion of part
of the compressed air and fuel mixture in the cylinder called knocking"
The order knocking is as follows.
Straight chain paraffins > branched paraffins > olefins > cyclo paraffins
(ii) Octane number or octane rating: It is a measure of the resistance of gasoline against pre
ignition of fuel in the engine. It is measured relative to the mixture of iso-octane and n-
heptane. Higher octane numbered fuel has greater resistance to the auto ignition under high
pressure and heat.
(iii) Cetane number or cetane rating: It is a measure of quality or performance of diesel
fuel. The percentage of volume of cetane in a mixture of cetane and α- methyl naphthalene
which exactly matches in its knocking characteristics with the oil under test.
Higher the cetane number better the fuel burns within the engine of vehicle or shorter the
ignition delay.
4.8 calculation of oxygen required for combustion:
(i) Methane:
Calculate the mass and volume of oxygen required for the combustion of 15g of
Methane?
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + energy
From the above equation
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16g of methane requires 64g of oxygen

16g of methane requires 44.8 liters of oxygen
Now
(i) 16g of ethane requires 64g of oxygen
15g of methane requires how much of oxygen
15𝑋64
= 60𝑔
16
Hence 15g of methane requires 60g of oxygen
(ii) From the above equation

Now
15𝑋44.8
= 42 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
16
Hence 15g of methane requires 42 liters of oxygen
(ii) Ethane:
Calculate the volume and mass of the ethane required for combustion of 30g of methane?
2 C2H6 + 4 O2 → 2 C + 2 CO + 6 H2O + energy
60g of ethane requires 224g of oxygen
60g of ethane requires 156.8 liters of oxygen
Now
30g of ethane requires how much of oxygen
30𝑋224
= 112𝑔
60
Hence 30g of ethane requires 112g of oxygen.
60g of ethane requires 156.8 liters of oxygen
30g of ethane requires how much of oxygen
Now
30𝑋156.8
= 78.4 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
60
Hence 30g of ethane requires 78.4 liters of oxygen
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4.9 Composition and uses of gaseous fuels:
(a) Compressed natural gas (CNG):

Composition: main composition of CNG is pure methane (CH4) compressed less than 1%
volume occupied at standard atmospheric pressure.
Uses:
1) It is mainly used as fuel in motor vehicles and industries.
(b) Liquid petroleum gas (LPG):

Composition: n-butane, isobutane, butylene and propene with little amounts of propylene and
ethene.
Uses:
1) Used as domestic fuel and industrial fuel.
2) It is also used as fuel in motor vehicles.
3) Used in the industries as portable lamps, welding, steel cutting etc.
(c) Water gas: it is prepared by passing alternatively steam and little air through red hot coke
maintained at 900 to 10000C.
Composition: CO= 41% H2=51% N2=4% CO2=4%

Calorific value: 2800 K Cal/m3
Uses:
1) It is used as source of hydrogen gas.
2) Used as illuminant.
3) Used as fuel gas its flame is short but very hot.
(d) Producer gas: it is a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen associated with large
amount of non-combustible matter like N2, CO2 etc. prepared by the passage of steam
mixed with air over red-hot coke maintained at 11000C
Composition: CO= 22-30% N2= 52-55% H2=8-12% CO2=3%
Calorific value = 1300 K Cal/m3
Uses:
1) It is used for heating open hearth furnace, muffle furnace.
2) Used as reducing agent in metallurgical operations.
(e) Coal gas: it is obtained when coal is carbonized or heated in absence of air about
13000C.
Composition: H2= 40% CH4= 32% CO= 7% C2H2= 2% C2H4=3%

N2= 4% CO2= 1% and rest= 4%
Calorific value= 4900 K Cal/m3
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Uses:
1) It is used as illuminant in cities and towns.
2) It is used as fuel.
3) Used as reducing agent in metallurgical operations.
(f) Bio gas: bio mass such as wood, cattle dung, plant wastes, agriculture waste etc. is
collected in tank by the action of methanogenic bacteria it is decomposes and produces
biogas it mainly contains methane gas.
Composition: CH4 =50-60% CO2 =30-40% H2= 5-10% N2 =2-6%
Trace amount of H2S gas
Uses:
1) Used for cooking food.
2) Used as fuel for run engines.
3) As an illuminant in villages.
4.10 Explosives:
"It is reactive substance having great potential energy subjected to thermal or
mechanical shock undergoes rapid exothermic oxidation and release the products of increased
volume and heat energy"
As the explosives are the exothermic reactions which releases a large amount of heat with high
temperature and pressure exerted on the surroundings when an extreme rapid chemical change
takes place with high pressure at confined space causes breakage of confining walls.
4.11 Classification of Explosives:

Explosives generally classified into three types they are,
(i) Primary Explosives or Detonators: These are the sensitive mixtures or compounds that
can be explode by small impact, electric spark etc. because of high sensitivity of these material
we have to take utmost care to handle these are mainly used to produce (initiate) shock to less
sensitive.
Ex: lead azide, tetracene, DDNP etc.
(ii) Low Explosives or Propellants: These are the materials burns simply and they don't
explode suddenly chemical changes taking place in explosives are slow and gases released,
dispersed rapidly without high pressure. Hence they can be easily controlled
Ex: gun powder, nitro cellulose etc.
(iii) High Explosives: primary explosives are used to start the explosion of high explosives
they have high energy compared to primary explosives. these are quite stable and less sensitive
fire, flame, mechanical shock a small amount of primary explosives are used to place in contact
with high high explosives which starts chemical reaction in the body of high explosives.
Proceeds with high rate of 1500 to 10000 m/s
Ex: ammonium nitrate, trinitro toluene (TNT), RDX, picric acid etc.
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4.12 Constructive and Destructive applications of Explosives:
Constructive applications:
1) The very fine industrial-type diamonds used for grinding and polishing are produced by
the carefully controlled action of explosives on carbon.
2) Explosives are sometimes used to bond various metals to each other. .
3) Explosives blast rocks and ores loose in mines and quarries.
4) They also move great masses of earth and break coal into small pieces.
5) Explosive bolts are used to facilitate emergency evacuations from aircraft, and sometimes
other applications.
6) Used in Structural demolition of old buildings.
7) Blasting holes in mountains for construction of tunnels, excavating earth for dams etc.
Destructive applications:
1) Mainly used for military purpose during the times of war in the form of grenades, torpedoes,
aerial bombs, rockets etc.
4.13 Lubricants:
"A substance added between two moving or sliding surfaces to reduce the frictional
resistance between them is called lubricant. The process of introducing lubricant in between
sliding part of machines is called lubrication". Due to the lubrication the frictional resistance
minimized by the destruction of material is minimized.
4.14 Classification of Lubricants:

Based on the physical state of lubricants they are classified into the following types
1) Liquid lubricants or lubricating oils
2) Semi solid lubricants or greases
3) Solid lubricants
1) Liquid lubricants or lubricating oils: Reduces the friction between two metallic parts by
providing liquid film between them they also act as cooling medium, sealing agent and
corrosion preventive.
2) Semi solid lubricants or greases: It is a semi solid consisting a soup is dispersed

throughout lubricant oil like petroleum oil or synthetic oil greases have high frictional
resistance compared to oils.
3) Solid lubricants: these are used where the usages of lubricant oil and greases are not
acceptable solid lubricants used. Generally used solid lubricants graphite and molybdenum
disulphide etc.
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4.15 Functions of Lubricants:
1) It reduces the surface deformation by avoiding direct of rubbing surfaces.
2) It reduces the loss of energy in the form of heat i.e. it act as coolant.
3) It reduces wastage of energy.
4) It reduces unsmooth relative motion of moving parts.
5) It reduces the maintenance and running lost of machines.
6) It also act as sealing agent.
SYNOPSIS
1) A substance which releases large amount of heat on combustion is called Fuel.

2) Based on the occurrence the fuels are classified as primary and secondary fuels.
3) Based on the physical state fuels are classified into solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
4) Good fuels have high calorific value.
5) The amount of heat released on combustion of unit mass of the fuel called calorific
value.
6) Gaseous fuels are having more advantages over solid and liquid fuels.
7) In an internal combustion of engine sharp sounds caused by pre matured combustion
of part of the compressed air and fuel mixture in the cylinder called knocking.
8) Octane number is a measure of the resistance of gasoline against pre ignition of fuel in
the engine.
9) Cetane number is a measure of quality or performance of diesel fuel.
10) The substance having great potential energy subjected to thermal or mechanical shock
undergoes rapid exothermic oxidation and release the products of increased volume
and heat energy called explosives.
11) A substance added between two moving or sliding surfaces to reduce the frictional
resistance between them is called lubricant.
Question and Answers

1. Define fuel and give examples.
Ans:
Fuel: A combustible substance which gives large amount of heat upon combustion in presence
of oxygen called fuel.
Ex: wood, coal, petroleum etc.
2. Classify the fuels based on the occurrence.

Ans:
Classification based on occurrence:
Based on occurrence fuels are two types
i)Natural or primary fuels: the fuels which are naturally available in the environment
are called natural or primary fuels.
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Ex: wood, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
ii) Artificial or secondary fuels: the fuels which are prepared from the primary fuels
called secondary or artificial fuels.
Ex: petrol, diesel, LPG, Bio gas etc.
3. What are the characteristics of good Fuel?.

Ans:
1) Fuel should possess high calorific value.
2) Moderate ignition temperature: minimum temperature required to pre heat the fuel is
called ignition temperature. Low ignition temperature leads to fire hazards, high
ignition temperature leads to difficult in igniting so good fuel have moderate ignition
temperature.
3) Low moisture content: moisture present in fuel reduces the heating value hence fuel
should have low moisture.
4) Low non-combustible matter: the ash or clinker formed during the combustion of fuel
reduces the heating value hence fuel should have low combustible matter.
5) Moderate velocity of combustion.
6) Products of combustion should not be harmful.
7) Good fuel should be low in cost.
8) Good fuel should be easy to transport.
9) Combustion should be easily controllable.
10) Good fuel should burn in air with efficiently without much smoke.
4. Explain the advantages of gaseous fuels.

Ans:
Gaseous fuels are having many advantages.
1) They are easy to transport.
2) They are convenient to store without any risk.
3) Cost of production is low
4) They possess Moderate ignition temperature.
5) They burn without any soot.
6) combustion is easily controllable
7) Releases less amount of pollutants.
5. Define HCV and LCV.

Ans:
Higher or gross calorific value (HCV): usually all fuels contain hydrogen gas when it is
combusted it converts into steam. If the products are condensed to room temperature the
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Latent heat of hydrogen is also included in measured heat (calorific value) now the HCV is
defined as “the total amount of heat produced when a unit mass of fuel is combusted
completely and products of combustion is cooled to room temperature”
Lower or Net calorific value ( LCV): in actual use of fuel the water vapor and gases etc. are
not condensed and escape as such along with hot combustion gases have less amount of heat
available the LCV is defined as “ the net amount of heat liberated when unit mass of fuel
combusted completely an d products are allowed to escape.
6. Explain the following

(i) Knocking (ii) Octane number (iii) Cetane number.
Ans:
(i) Knocking: fuel used in the internal combustion of engine gasoline vapor and air. once the
ignition starts in the cylinder the flame spread rapidly and smoothly through the gaseous
mixture there by the expanding gas drives the piston.
"In an internal combustion of engine sharp sounds caused by pre matured combustion of part
of the compressed air and fuel mixture in the cylinder called knocking"
The order knocking is as follows.
Straight chain paraffins > branched paraffins > olefins > cyclo paraffins
(ii) Octane number or octane rating:
It is a measure of the resistance of gasoline against pre ignition of fuel in the engine. it is
measured relative to the mixture of iso-octane and n- heptane . Higher octane numbered fuel
has greater resistance to the auto ignition under high pressure and heat.
(iii) cetane number or cetane rating:
It is a measure of quality or performance of diesel fuel. The percentage of volume of cetane in
a mixture of cetane and α- methyl naphthalene which exactly matches in its knocking
characteristics with the oil under test. Higher the cetane number better the fuel burns within
the engine of vehicle or shorter the ignition delay.
7. Calculate the mass and volume of oxygen required for the 2 mole methane?
Ans:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + energy
16g of methane requires 64g of oxygen
Now
2 moles of methane = 32g
32 g of methane requires how much of oxygen
32𝑋64
= 128𝑔
16
Hence 2 moles of methane requires128g of oxygen
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Now
32𝑋44.8
= 89.6 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
16
Hence 2 moles of methane requires 89.6liters of oxygen
8. Write the composition and any two uses of following gaseous fuel.
(a) CNG (b) LPG (c) water gas.
Ans:
(a) Compressed natural gas (CNG):
Composition: main composition of CNG is pure methane (CH4) compressed less than 1%
volume occupied at standard atmospheric pressure.
Uses:
1) It is mainly used as fuel in motor vehicles and industries.
(b) Liquid petroleum gas (LPG):
Composition: n-butane, isobutane, butylene and propene with little amounts of propylene and
ethene.
Uses:
1) Used as domestic fuel and industrial fuel.
2) It is also used as fuel in motor vehicles.
3) Used in the industries as portable lamps, welding, steel cutting etc.
(c) Water gas: it is prepared by passing alternatively steam and little air through red hot coke
maintained at 900 to 10000C.
Composition: CO= 41% H2=51% N2=4% CO2=4%
Calorific value: 2800 K Cal/m3
Uses:
1) It is used as source of hydrogen gas.
2) Used as illuminant.
3) Used as fuel gas its flame is short but very hot.
9. Define Explosives and classify the explosives.

Ans:
Explosives: "It is reactive substance having great potential energy subjected to thermal or
mechanical shock undergoes rapid exothermic oxidation and release the products of increased
volume and heat energy"
Classification of Explosives:
Explosives generally classified into three types they are,
(i) Primary Explosives or Detonators: These are the sensitive mixtures or compounds that
can be explode by small impact, electric spark etc. because of high sensitivity of these
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Material we have to take utmost care to handle these are mainly used to produce (initiate)
shock to less sensitive.
Ex: lead azide, tetracene, DDNP etc.
(ii) Low Explosives or Propellants: These are the materials burns simply and they don't
explode suddenly chemical changes taking place in explosives are slow and gases released,
dispersed rapidly without high pressure. Hence they can be easily controlled
Ex: gun powder, nitro cellulose etc.
(iii) High Explosives: primary explosives are used to start the explosion of high explosives
they have high energy compared to primary explosives. these are quite stable and less sensitive
fire, flame, mechanical shock a small amount of primary explosives are used to place in contact
with high high explosives which starts chemical reaction in the body of high explosives.
Proceeds with high rate of 1500 to 10000 m/s
Ex: ammonium nitrate, trinitro toluene (TNT), RDX, picric acid etc.
10. State the constructive and destructive applications of explosives.

Ans:
Constructive applications:
1) The very fine industrial-type diamonds used for grinding and polishing are produced
by the carefully controlled action of explosives on carbon.
2) Explosives are sometimes used to bond various metals to each other. .
3) Explosives blast rocks and ores loose in mines and quarries.
4) They also move great masses of earth and break coal into small pieces.
5) Explosive bolts are used to facilitate emergency evacuations from aircraft, and sometimes
other applications.
6) Used in Structural demolition of old buildings.
7) Blasting holes in mountains for construction of tunnels, excavating earth for dams etc.
Destructive applications:
1) Mainly used for military purpose during the times of war in the form of grenades, torpedoes,
aerial bombs, rockets etc.
11. Define lubricant. What are the functions of lubricants?

Ans:
Lubricant: a substance added between two moving or sliding surfaces to reduce the frictional
resistance between them is called lubricant.
Functions:
1) It reduces the surface deformation by avoiding direct of rubbing surfaces.
2) It reduces the loss of energy in the form of heat i.e. it act as coolant.
3) It reduces wastage of energy.
4) It reduces unsmooth relative motion of moving parts.
5) It reduces the maintenance and running lost of machines.
6) It also act as sealing agent.
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QUESTIONS
1) Define fuel and give examples.
2) Classify the fuels based on the occurrence.
3) Write any four characteristics of good fuel.
4) Explain the advantages of gaseous fuels.
5) Define calorific value...
6) Explain the following
(i) Knocking (ii) Octane number (iii) Cetane number.
7) Calculate the mass and volume of oxygen required for the 1 mole Ethane?
8) Write the composition and any two uses of following gaseous fuel.
(i) Water gas (ii) Producer gas (iii) Bio gas.
9) Define Explosives and classify the explosives
10) State the constructive and destructive applications of explosives.
11) Define lubricant. Explain Classification of the lubricants?
Multiple choice questions

1. Which of the following is natural fuel? ( )
a) Petrol b) diesel c) kerosene d) wood
2. The secondary fuel in the following is ___________ ( )
a) Petroleum b) wood c) coal d) diesel
3. A good should possess ( )
a) High calorific value b) moderate ignition temperature
c) Burns with low combustible matter d) all of the above
4. The major component of the Bio gas ( )
a) C2H4 b) CH4 c) CO2 d) all of the above
5. The fuel with high calorific value is ( )
a) Wood b) petrol c) methane d) hydrogen
6 major component of LPG is ( )
a) Methane b) isobutene c) butane d) ethane
7. The anti-knocking tendency is high in case of gasoline contains ( )
a) More branched hydrocarbons b) long chain hydrocarbons
c) Less branched hydro carbons d) less moisture
8. The mass of oxygen required for the complete combustion of 1 mole methane is
( )
a) 32g b) 64g) c) 96g d) 100g
9. Functions of Lubricants are ( )
a) Reduces loss of energy b) reduce the friction c) sealing agent d) all of the above
Answers
1) d 2) d 3) d 4) b 5) d 6) a 7) a 8) b 9) d
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Chapter - 5 : ELECTRO CHEMICAL CELLS-BATTERIES
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
5.0 ELECTRO CHEMICAL CELLS - BATTERIES

Inter relation between electricity and chemistry takes place in electro chemistry i.e due to the
passage of electricity chemical reactions takes place (electrolytic cell) and by the chemical
reactions electricity generated(electro chemical cell) electro chemistry is very much useful in
electrolytic refining, electro plating and batteries etc.
5.1GALVANIC CELL (OR) ELECTRO CHEMICAL CELL

In galvanic cell the chemical energy is converts to electrical energy by the spontaneous
oxidation and reduction reactions. Galvanic cells are used in the preparation of batteries.
Example for galvanic cell is Daniel cell.
5.2 Construction and working of galvanic cell:

Construction:
Galvanic cell
In the galvanic cell two half cells are present one is anodic half-cell consists a zinc anode is
dipped in a zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) solution and second half cell consists a copper cathode is
dipped in copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution both these electrodes are internally connected to
volta meter through metal wire in the anodic half-cell oxidation takes place at zinc electrode
(anode) and reduction takes place at Cu cathode. The two half cells are internally connected
by salt bridge, salt bridge makes an electrically contact between the two electrolytes the
following reactions takes place in galvanic cell.
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Working:
The reaction at anodic half cell: (oxidation)
Zn → Zn+2 + 2e-
The Reaction at cathodic half cell: (reduction)
Cu+2 + 2e- → Cu
Net reaction:
Zn + Cu+2 → Zn+2 + Cu
5.3 Differences between Galvanic cell and Electrolytic cell:
Electrolytic cell Galvanic cell

1.It converts electrical energy into chemical 1. It converts chemical energy into electrical
Energy. energy.
2. Cathode is having –ve charge anode is 2. Cathode is having +ve charge anode is
having +ve charge. having -ve charge.
3. Salt bridge is absent. 3 Salt bridge is present.
4. Two electrodes are present in the same 4.Two electrodes are present in two
electrolyte. electrolytes
5. Electric current flows from anode to 5. electric current flows from cathode to
cathode. anode
6. It need external current for operation. 6. It self-generating current.
5.4 Standard electrode potential:

Electrode potential: the capacity of electrode to either loose of gain electrons is called
electrode potential.
It is two types
1) Oxidation potential
2) Reduction potential
Oxidation potential: the tendency of electrode to lose electrons when it is in contact with
electrolyte is called Oxidation potential.
Reduction potential: the tendency of electrode to gain electrons when it is in contact with
electrolyte is called reduction potential.
Standard electrode potential (E0): The electrode potential measured at 25o C temperature
and 1M Concentration of electrolyte is called standard electrode potential.
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5.5. REFERRENCE ELECTODE:

The electrode used to find out the electrode potentials of other is called reference electrode
.here references electrode has fixed standard electrode potential, the best reference electrode
used is standard and hydrogen electrode whose standard electrode potential is fixed as zero.
Due to the difficulties arise during the construction of hydrogen electrodes different reference
electrodes are used.
Types of electrode:
1. Primary electrode: Hydrogen electrode (Standard hydrogen electrode)
2. Secondery electrode: Metal- Metal ion electrode (calomel electrode)
3. Ion selective electrode (glass electrode)
4. Quin hydrogen electrode.
5.6.Primary Reference Electrode Normal Hydrogen Electrode (NHE) (or) Standard

Hydrogen Electrode (SHE):
It is constructed by platinum electrode is dipped in 1M concentration of HCl solution and
hydrogen gas at 1 atm pressure is constantly bubbled over it.
The reactions taking place in this at the electrode.
1
H+(aq) + e- → H2(g)
2
1
H2(g) → H+(aq) + e-
2
Normal Hydrogen Electrode

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The electrode potential of Normal Hydrogen Electrode (NHE) is taken as ZERO this electrode
is used to measure the electrode potentials other electrodes.
Secondary Electrode (Calomel Electrode):This electrode is based on the reaction between

mercury chloride and elemental mercury generally used in voltmeter and pH meter.
construction; outer glass tube is fitted with a frit at the bottom this permits electrical contact
with the solution outside the electrode .an inner tube is placed inside the outer tube bottom of
the inner tube has glass wool provides electrical contact between contents of both tubes
mercury chloride paste is filled in inner tube . which is dispersed in saturated Platinum chloride
wire is dipped in to the mercury layer.
It is formulated as Hg, HgCl2(s), KCl electrode reaction is
HgCl2 + 2e- ⇌ 2Hg + 2Cl-
Its electrode potentials varies with variation in concentration of KCl

KCl Concentration 0.1N 1.0 N Saturated
E0(Volts) 0.3335 0.2810 0.2422
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
5.7 Electro Chemical Services:

Arrangement of metals in the increasing order of their Standard electrode potentials
(Reduction potentials) or decreasing order of their oxidation potentials is called Electro
Chemical services.
In an electro chemical services the metal with high negative reduction potential placed at the
top of the services and high positive potential placed at the bottom of the services.
Name of the Metals E0(SRP) Values

Li -3.03
K -2.92
Ca -2.87
Na -2.71
Mg -2.37
Al -1.66
Zn -0.76
Fe -0.44
Pb -0.13
H2 0
Cu +0.34
Ag +0.80
Au +1.50
Significance:
1. Reducing ability of metals are decreases from top to bottom
Ex: Zn is good reducing agent than “Fe”
2. Oxidizing ability of metals are Increases from top to bottom
Ex: Ag is good oxidizing agent than “Cu”
3. The Metal which are placed on the top can replaces the atoms placed below to it
Ex: 1) Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
2) Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
4. The Metal Placed above the Hydrogen have higher reactivity they undergo corrosion
easily.
5.8 Electro Motive Force (EMF):

Electro motive force is the differences of potential produced by sources of electrical energy.
Which can be used to drive the current from high potential to low potential.
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EMF =Potential difference between anode and cathode.

EMF = E0cathode– E0anode
= E0R- E0L.
5.9 Numerical Problems based on EMF:
1. Calculate the EMF of the below redox reaction.

Mg (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Given: E0 (H+/H) = 0.0000 V
E0 (Mg+2/Mg) = -2.372 V
Solution:
Break the reaction into oxidation and reduction half-cell reaction
2H+ + 2e– → H2
Hydrogen ion takes an electron to form hydrogen gas (reduction reaction).
Magnesium undergo oxidation by losing two electrons
Mg → Mg2+ + 2 e–
E (Cell) = E0 (Cathode) + E0 (Anode)
0
E0 (Cell) = 0.0000 V + 2.372 V

E0 (Cell) = 2.372 V
The EMF of the redox reaction is +2.372 volts.
2. Calculate the potential of the following redox reaction?

Ag/Ag+||Li+/Li
Given: E0 (Li+/Li) = -3.045 V
E0 (Ag+/Ag) = 0.799 V
Solution:
Li+ + e– → Li (reduction reaction)
Ag → Ag+ + e– (Oxidation reaction)
E0 (Cell) = E0 (Cathode) - E0 (Anode)
E0 (Cell) = -3.045 V −0.799 V
E0 (Cell) = -3.844 V
The total potential of the cell is -3.844 V and the negative Potential indicates the spontaneous
reverse reaction.
3. Consider a redox reaction

2Ag+ + Cd → 2Ag + Cd2+
The standard electrode potential of reduction and oxidation reactions Are + 0.80 V and
-0.40 V respectively. Calculate the standard potential for the reaction.
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
Solution:
Step 1: Consider a half cell reactions
2Ag+ + 2e– → 2Ag (Reduction)
EoAg+/Ag =0.80 V
Cd → Cd2+ + 2e– (Oxidation)
EoCd+/Cd = -0.40 V
Step 2: Total EMF of the cell
Eo = E (Cathode) - E (Anode)
Eo =+0.80 V - (- 0.40 V)
= 0.80V + 0.40V
Eo = 1.20 V
The total EMF of the redox reaction is 1.20 V
5.10 Battery:
Battery is a device which produces electrons by electro chemical reactions. Consists two or
more than two electro chemical cells are connected in series which transform stored chemical
energy into direct electricity called battery.
Types of Batteries: Batteries are three types
1) Primary cells or primary battery.
2) Secondary cells or secondary battery.
3) Flow battery or fuel cell.
Primary Battery: In this the cell reaction (electro chemical reaction) is irreversible. The
chemical reaction in the battery used up the chemicals that generates electricity once they
exhausted there is no electriciy is generated (i.e. battery stops working).
Ex: Dry cell.
Secondary Battery: In this the cell reaction is reversible. i.e the electro chemical reaction is
reversible by running external electricity.
Ex: Ni-Cd Battery.
5.11 Construction and Working of batteries:

1) Dry Cell (Leclanche cell): it is a primary cell which cell reaction is not reversed (non-
rechargeable battery). It contains Zinc container( foil) act as a anode is filled with a electrolyte
paste consisting of NH4Cl, ZnCl2, MnO2 and starch chemicals and a graphite electrode(
cathode) is immersed in the electrolyte in the centre of the cell.
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The electro chemical reactions are

Reaction at anode (oxidation):
Zn Zn +2 + 2e-
Reaction at cathode (reduction):
2 MnO= + H2 O + 2e- Mn2O3 + 2OH-
- +
However, the reaction between OH and NH 4 (coming from NH4Cl) forms NH3 which
interrupt the current flow.
NH+4 + OH- NH3 + H2O
This is prevented by the ZnCl2 is reacting with NH3 and forms [Zn (NH3)2] Cl2 complex
Hence the electrode reactions at two electrodes are
At anode: Zn Zn +2 + 2e-
At cathode: 2 NH+4 +2MnO2 + 2e- + 2Cl- [Zn (NH3)2] Cl2
__________________________________________________________________________
Net reaction: Zn + 2 NH+4+2MnO2 +2Cl- Mn2O3 + [Zn (NH3)2] Cl2 + 2H2O
3) Lead storage Battery: it is a secondary battery (rechargeable battery) in which electro

chemical reaction is reversible. In this battery the lead plate is acting as anode and
PbO2 is acting as cathode both are arranged in an alternative manner and separated by
strips of wood or rubber. The entire set up is immersed in 20% of
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
sulphuric acid.
lead storage battery
Discharging: the battery when it is operating as voltaic cell or supplying electrical energy is
said to be discharging.
Pb Pb+2 + 2e-
Lead ions combines with SO42- forms PbSO4
Pb+2 + 2 SO42- PbSO4
Reaction at cathode (reduction): the electrons released from anode goes to cathode (PbO2) get
reduced from +4 to +2 oxidation state.
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e- Pb+2 + 2H2O
+2 2-
AgainPb combines with SO4 forms PbSO4
Net reaction:
Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O + energy
At both electrodes PbSO4 is precipitated.
Charging: at both electrodes PbSO4 is precipitated which stops the working of voltoic cell so
by the passage of external electricity the cell, reaction is reversed.
Reaction at cathode:
PbSO4 + 2e- Pb + SO42-
Reaction at anode:
PbSO4 + 2H2O + energy PbO2 + 4H+ + 2SO42-
Net reaction:
2PbSO4 + 2H2O + energy Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ +
2-
2SO4
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Lead storage battery is used to supply the electricity in vehicles, telephone exchanges, trains,
automobiles, power stations etc.
3) Ni- Cd Battery:
It consists Cd anode and cathode is prepared by the paste of NiO(OH).
Cell reactions are

Reaction at anode:
Cd + 2OH- Cd (OH) 2 + 2e-
2NiO (OH) + 2H2O + 2e- Ni (OH) 2 + 2OH-
Net reaction:
2NiO (OH) + 2H2O + Cd Cd (OH)2 + 2 Ni(OH)2
This reaction can be readily reversed by the passage of external electricity.
Ni – Cd batteries are used in electric calculators, transistors, battery powered small tools etc.
5.12 Hydrogen – Oxygen Fuel cell:

We know that voltaic cell involves oxidation and reduction reactions. Combustion reaction
also involves redox reaction. Fuel cell converts the chemical energy of fuel directly into
electricity.
Fuel + oxygen oxidation products + electricity
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
H2 – O2 fuel cell is one of the simple and successful fuel cell.

H2 – O2 fuel cell contains 25% KOH electrolyte is taken in between two inert porous electrodes
which were bubbled with H2 and O2 gases in which hydrogen chamber act as anode and
oxygen chamber act as cathode.
2H2 + 4OH- 4H2O + 4e-
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O
Net reaction:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
H2 – O2 fuels are used in space vehicles (Apollo space crafts), submarines etc.
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SYNOPSIS
1) The substance which decomposes into ions by the passage of electricity called Electrolyte.
2) The cell which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is called Galvanic cell.
3) Electrolytic cell converts electrical energy into chemical energy.
4) Potential of the electrode measured at 1M Concentration of Electrolyte, 1 atm pressure and
room temperature called Standard electrode Potential.
5) The electrodes with fixed potential value called reference electrodes.
6) Reference electrodes are used to know the electrode potentials of other electrode.
7) Electrode potential of Standard Hydrogen electrode is taken as ZERO.
8) The electrode potential of Calomel Electrode is varied with concentration of KCl.
9) Arrangement increasing order of standard reduction potentials of metals or decreasing
order of standard oxidation potentials is called Electro chemical series.
10) Reactivity of Metals explained by the Electro chemical series.
11) The potential difference between the two electrodes is called EMF.
12) Combination of two or more galvanic cells in a series forms Battery.
1.Define Galvanic Cell. Explain construction and working of Galvanic Cell.

Ans:
Galvanic Cell: In galvanic cell the chemical energy is converts to electrical energy by the
spontaneous oxidation and reduction reactions. Galvanic cells are used in the preparation of
batteries. Example for galvanic cell is Daniel cell.
construction:
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
In the galvanic cell two half cells are present one is anodic half-cell consists a zinc anode is
dipped in a zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) solution and second half cell consists a copper cathode is
dipped in copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution both these electrodes are internally connected to
Volta meter through metal wire in the anodic half-cell oxidation takes place at zinc electrode
(anode) and reduction takes place at Cu cathode. The two half cells are internally connected
by salt bridge, salt bridge makes an electrically contact between the two electrolytes the
following reactions takes place in galvanic cell.
Working:
The reaction at anodic half cell: (oxidation)
Zn Zn+2 + 2e-
The Reaction at cathodic half cell: (reduction)
Cu+2 + 2e- Cu
Net reaction:
Zn + Cu+2 Zn+2 + Cu
2. Write the differences between the Electrolytic Cell and Galvanic Cell.
Ans:
Electrolytic cell Galvanic cell

1.It converts electrical energy into chemical 1. It converts chemical energy into electrical
Energy. energy.
2. Cathode is having – ve charge anode is 2. Cathode is having +ve charge anode is
having +ve charge. having -ve charge.
3. Salt bridge is absent. 3 salt bridge is present.
4. Two electrodes are present in the same 4. Two electrodes are present in two
electrolyte. electrolytes
5. Electric current flows from anode to 5. electric current flows from cathode to
cathode. anode
6. It need external current for operation. 6. It self-generating current.
3. Define the Standard Electrode Potential.

Ans:
Standard electrode potential (E0): The electrode potential measured at 25o C temperature
and 1M Concentration of electrolyte is called standard electrode potential.
4. Explain the construction and working of Calomel Electrode.

Ans:
This electrode is based on the reaction between mercury chloride and elemental mercury
generally used in voltmeter and pH meter
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Construction; outer glass tube is fitted with a frit at the bottom this permits electrical contact
with the solution outside the electrode .an inner tube is placed inside the outer tube bottom of
the inner tube has glass wool provides electrical contact between contents of both tubes
mercury chloride paste is filled in inner tube . Which is dispersed in saturated Platinum
chloride wire is dipped in to the mercury layer.
It is formulated as Hg, HgCl2(s), KCl electrode reaction is

HgCl2 + 2e- ⇌ 2Hg + 2Cl-
Its electrode potentials varies with variation in concentration of KCl
KCl Concentration 0.1N 1.0 N Saturated
E0(Volts) 0.3335 0.2810 0.2422
5. What is Electro Chemical Series? And write its significance.

Ans:
Arrangement of metals in the increasing order of their Standard electrode potentials
(Reduction potentials) or decreasing order of their oxidation potentials is called Electro
Chemical services.
In an electro chemical services the metal with high negative reduction potential placed at the
top of the services and high positive potential placed at the bottom of the services.
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Name of the Metals E0(SRP) Values

Li -3.03
K -2.92
Ca -2.87
Na -2.71
Mg -2.37
Al -1.66
Zn -0.76
Fe -0.44
Pb -0.13
H2 0
Cu +0.34
Ag +0.80
Au +1.50
Significance:
1) Reducing ability of metals are decreases from top to bottom
Ex: Zn is good reducing agent than “Fe”
2) Oxidizing ability of metals are Increases from top to bottom
Ex: Ag is good oxidizing agent than “Cu”
3) The Metal which are placed on the top can replaces the atoms placed below to it
Ex: 1) Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
2) Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
4) The Metal Placed above the Hydrogen have higher reactivity they undergo corrosion
easily.
6. Define EMF and calculate the EMF of the Cell Ag/Ag+||Li+/Li

Given:
E0 (Li+/Li) = -3.045 V
E0 (Ag+/Ag) = 0.799 V
Ans:
Electro motive force (EMF): Electro motive force is the differences of potential produced by
sources of electrical energy. Which can be used to drive the current from high potential to low
potential.
Solution:
Li+ + e– → Li (reduction reaction)
Ag → Ag+ + e– (Oxidation reaction)
E0 (Cell) = E0 (Cathode) - E0 (Anode)

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E0 (Cell) = -3.045 V −0.799 V

E0 (Cell) = -3.844 V
The total potential of the cell is -3.844 V and the negative potential indicates the spontaneous
reverse reaction.
7. Define the battery and explain the classification of batteries.

Ans:
Battery: It is a device which produces electrons by electro chemical reactions. Consists two
or more than two electro chemical cells are connected in series which transform stored
chemical energy into direct electricity called battery.
Types of Batteries: Batteries are three types
1) Primary cells or primary battery.
2) Secondary cells or secondary battery.
3) Flow battery or fuel cell.
8. Explain Working Leclanche Cell with diagram.

Ans:
Dry Cell (Leclanche cell): it is a primary cell which cell reaction is not reversed (non-
rechargeable battery). It contains Zinc container( foil) act as a anode is filled with a electrolyte
paste consisting of NH4Cl, ZnCl2, MnO2 and starch chemicals and a graphite electrode(
cathode) is immersed in the electrolyte in the centre of the cell.
The electro chemical reactions are Reaction at anode (oxidation):

Zn Zn +2 + 2e-
2 MnO= + H2O + 2e- Mn2O3 + 2OH-
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However, the reaction between OH- and NH+4 (coming from NH4Cl) forms NH3 which
interrupt the current flow.
NH+4 + OH- NH3 + H2O
This is prevented by the ZnCl2 is reacting with NH3 and forms [Zn (NH3)2] Cl2 complex
Hence the electrode reactions at two electrodes are
At anode: Zn Zn +2 + 2e-
+ -
At cathode: 2 NH 4 + 2MnO2 + 2e + 2Cl- [Zn (NH3)2] Cl2
__________________________________________________________________________
Net reaction: Zn + 2 NH+4+2MnO2 +2Cl- Mn2O3 + [Zn (NH3)2] Cl2 + 2H2O
9. Explain working of Lead Storage Battery.

Ans:
Lead storage Battery: it is a secondary battery (rechargeable battery) in which electro
chemical reaction is reversible. In this battery the lead plate is acting as anode and PbO2 is
acting as cathode both are arranged in an alternative manner and separated by strips of wood
or rubber. The entire set up is immersed in 20% of sulphuric acid.
Lead storage battery

Discharging: the battery when it is operating as voltaic cell or supplying electrical energy is
said to be discharging.
Pb Pb+2 + 2e-
Lead ions combines with SO42- forms PbSO4
Pb+2 + 2 SO42- PbSO4
Reaction at cathode (reduction): the electrons released from anode goes to cathode (PbO2) get
reduced from +4 to +2 oxidation state.
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e- Pb+2 + 2H2O
+2 2-
AgainPb combines with SO4 forms PbSO4
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Net reaction:
Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O + energy
At both electrodes PbSO4 is precipitated.
Charging: at both electrodes PbSO4 is precipitated which stops the working of voltoic cell so
by the passage of external electricity the cell, reaction is reversed.
PbSO4 + 2e- Pb + SO42-
Reaction at anode:
PbSO4 + 2H2O + energy PbO2 + 4H+ + 2SO42-
Net reaction:
2PbSO4 + 2H2O + energy Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ + 2SO42-
Lead storage battery is used to supply the electricity in vehicles, telephone exchanges, trains,
automobiles, power stations etc.
10. Explain construction and working of Hydrogen -Oxygen Fuel Cells.

Ans:
Hydrogen – Oxygen Fuel cell:
We know that voltaic cell involves oxidation and reduction reactions. Combustion reaction
also involves redox reaction. Fuel cell converts the chemical energy of fuel directly into
electricity.
Fuel + oxygen oxidation products + electricity
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H2 – O2 fuel cell is one of the simple and successful fuel cell.

H2 – O2 fuel cell contains 25% KOH electrolyte is taken in between two inert porous electrodes
which were bubbled with H2 and O2 gases in which hydrogen chamber act as anode and
oxygen chamber act as cathode.
2H2 + 4OH- 4H2O + 4e-
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O
Net reaction:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
H2 – O2 fuels are used in space vehicles (Apollo space crafts), submarines etc.
QUESTIONS
1. Define Galvanic Cell.

2. Explain construction and working of Galvanic Cell.
3. Write the differences between the Electrolytic Cell and Galvanic Cell.
4. Define the Standard Electrode Potential.
5. Explain the construction and working of Calomel Electrode.
6. What is Electro Chemical Series? And write its significance.
7. Calculate the EMF of the below redox reaction.
Mg (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Given: E0 (H+/H) = 0.0000 V
E0 (Mg+2/Mg) = -2.372 V
8. Define the battery and explain the classification of batteries.
9. Explain Working Ni-Cd Cell with diagram.
10. Explain working of Lead Storage Battery.
11. Explain Advantages of Hydrogen -Oxygen Fuel Cells.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The cell which converts chemical energy into electrical energy called ( )
a) Electrolytic cell b) Galvanic cell
c) Reversible cell d) Concentration cell
2. In galvanic cell the electrons flow ( )
a) Cathode to anode b) From anode to cathode
c) From anode to solution d) From solution to cathode
3. The duty of salt bridge is ( )
a) Electrical contact between two electrolytes b) Allows the passage of ions
c) Prevents accumulation of ions d) All of the above
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4. Standard reduction potential of SHE is taken ( )

a) 1V b) 0.1V c) 0 V d) 0.24V
5. The reactions takes place at anode and cathode, respectively ( )
a) Oxidation, reduction b) Reduction, oxidation
c) Oxidation, hydrolysis d) Reduction, hydrolysis
6. The cell whose reaction is reversible is called ( )
a) Primary cell b) Secondary cell c) Fuel cell d) All of the above
7. H2-O2 fuel cells are used as energy source in ( )
a) Trains b) aero planes
c) Space vehicles d) automobile engines
8. Which of the following is primary cell?
a) Leclanche cell b) Lead storage battery
c) Lithium battery d) Ni- Cd battery
9. The SRP values of two electrodes given ( )
Eo Fe+2/Fe = -0.44 V
Eo Cu+2/Cu = 0.34 V
Calculate the EMF of the cell?
a) 0.78 V b)-0.78 V c) 0.1V d) -0.1V
10. Chemical substance formed at the both electrodes in lead storage battery is ( )
a) PbS b) PbO c) PbsO4 d) PbCl2
Answers
1) b 2) b 3) d 4) c 5) a 6) b 7) c 8) a 9) a 10) c
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Chapter - 6 : ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
6.0 INTRODUCTION
Environmental Consist both living and non-living thing like plants and animals, air, water,
food, land, oceans, rivers, sunlight, temperature etc. in our environment living things depends
on non-living things for their existence, if there is only disturbance created in environment
which shows adverse effect on the living things leads to environmental unbalance it is our
duty to study the environment what factors are disturbing the environment by our activities
deals in the environmental studies.
6.1 Air Pollution:

"Presence of unwanted substance in atmospheric air causes adverse effect on quality of air
and harmful effects on humans and animals called air pollution".
Composition of air is
Major components: N2=78%. O2= 21 %, water vapor
Minor components: CO2= 0.3%, Argon=1%
And trace amount of Ne, He, Xe, Kr, CH4, H2, N2O Etc.
6.2 Classification of air pollution:

Classification of air pollution based on Occurrence.
1) Primary or Natural pollution
2) Secondary or Artificial pollution
1) Primary pollutants: The pollution which are directly emitted into atmosphere from
identifiable source and exist same in the environment in which form they emitted.
2) Secondary pollutants: The pollution derived from the reaction between primary
pollutions called secondary pollution. Ex. Acid rain, PAN (Per oxy acetyl Nitrate),
Photochemical smog, Etc.
Classification of Air pollution based on Physical state based on physical state of pollutants.
They are two types
1) Gaseous Pollutants: Ex. CO, CO2, Sox, NOx, H2S Etc.
2) Aerosols: The Solid and liquid particles of microscopic size dispersed in the air called
Aerosols. Ex: Dust, Smoke, Smog, Fog, Pollen grains etc.
6.3 Causes of Air Pollution.

1) Transportation services: Now days we are using many vehicles for transportation
purpose to run the vehicles we are using fuels. On combustion of fuels releases large
amount of gaseous pollutants like CO, CO2, SOx, NOx, Hydro carbons etc into
atmosphere 75% of pollution due to vehicles only.
2) Industries : During manufacturing many products from industries releases pollution
like CO,CO2, SO2, H2S Cl2,HCl,NO2,CFC’s etc into atmosphere causes air pollution.
3) Agriculture activities: Pesticides and Insecticides used in agriculture are spread into
atmosphere causes air pollution
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4) Radioactive Materials: Radioactive rays comes from nuclear reactors, hospitals etc. are
pollute atmosphere.
5) Wars: many toxic chemicals used during war pollution the atmosphere. Ex: During the
Second World War atmosphere was used on horseman & Nagasaki which large amount
of pollution.
6) Accidents in Industries: Due to the human errors accidents are takes place in Industries
which release poisonous gases into atmosphere cause air pollution.Ex: In 1984 and
accident takes place in union carbide factory release methyl iso cyanate (MIC) into
atmosphere at Bhopal killed approximately 3000 people and 50000 more people are
affected.
7) Natural reasons :
1) Forest fires
2) Pollen grains from flowers
3) Eruption of volcanoes
4) Bacteria, Virus etc.
5) Dust and sand stones
6) Decay of vegetable matters
8) De forestation: Due to the deforestation increasing CO2 in Atmosphere causes air
Pollution.
6.4 Effects of Air Pollution:

1) Effects air pollution on human beings:
(i) Oxides of nitrogen cause inflammation of lung. Respiratory illness between the
children.
(ii) Carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin in the blood form carboxy
hemoglobin which leads to death.
(iii) Coal miners suffer from lung disease like black lung disease.
(iv) Sulphur oxides causes asthma, bronchitis and eye irritation.
(v) PAN, photo chemical smog causes irritation to eyes, nose.
(vi) Hydro carbons damages bone marrow and anemia.
(vii) Particulate matter causes breathing trouble, reduces visibility.
(viii) Arsenic dust from processing industries causes arsinosis.
2) Effects of Air Pollution on Animals:

(i) Fluorine causes lameness.
(ii) Lead causes loss of appetite.
(iii) Arsenic causes loss of appetite and death.
(iv) Ammonia causes swelling of throat.
(v) Ozone causes lung disease.
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3) Effects of air pollution on plants:

(i) Sulphur dioxide causes bleaching of leaves.
(ii) Acid rain on leaf pigments leads decrease in photosynthesis results low
yields of crops.
(iii) Nitrogen dioxide causes leaf bleaching and decreases fruit production.
(iv) Greenhouse effect changes the habitat and sources for the plants.
6.5 General effects of the Air pollution:

(i) Green House Effect.
(ii) Ozone Layer Depletion.
(iii) Acid Rains.
1) Green House Effect: 75%of solar energy coming from sun is absorbed by earth surface
which increases its temperature rest of the heat is radiates back to the atmosphere some of the
heat is absorbed by the gases like CO2, Ozone (O3), chloro fluoro carbons, methane etc. thus
they increases the temperature of atmosphere out of all CO2 gas shows much effect due to the
greenhouse effect the following changes are predicted.
Rising in the temperature will causes melting of icebergs in polar region as a result sea level
increases. If it continues low lying areas are submerged in to sea in near future.
Reduction of biodiversity.Due to increase in the atmosphere temperature some of the

biological communities may not survive it also effects rainfall.
It also effects agriculture yields.
2) Ozone Layer Depletion:

Ozone layer is acting as protecting layer for UV rays coming from sun the depletion of ozone
layer is occurring due to the chloro fluro carbon(CFC) coming from supersonic air craft’s and
jumbo jets flying in upper atmosphere and nitrogen oxides coming from aircrafts they react
with ozone and converts to oxygen.
1) CF2Cl2 CF2Cl + Cl
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
O + ClO Cl + O2
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
O + O3 2 O2
(ii) NO + ClO Cl + NO2

Cl + O3 ClO + O2
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
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Due to the ozone layer depletion following effects are predicted.

(1) Skin diseases like skin cancer.
(2) Eye diseases like cataract formation.
(3) Lung cancer, edema, breast cancer.
3) Acid Rains:
Acidic oxides like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and hydrogen chlorides are emitting from
the industries they combine with a moisture forms corresponding acids and fall on the earth
along with rain called acid rain.
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O 2H2SO4 (Sulphuric Acid)
4NO2 + 2H2O + O= 4HNO3 (Nitric Acid)
HCl + H2O HCl (aq)
Effects of acid rains:

(1) It damages aquatic life.
(2) It effects plant leaves in mist form
(3) Causes irritation to eyes and mucus membrane.
(4) Accelerates the rate of corrosion of metals.
6.6 Methods of Control Air Pollution:

The best method of control air pollution is control the pollutant at the source itself. Following
are control methods.
(1) The emission gases from automobiles may be purified by using catalysts.
(2) Use of long stacks or chimneys to dilute the pollutants.
(3) Cyclone collector: in this the air with particulate matter passed through the cyclone
collector chamber the centrifugal force exerts great. Inertial effect on particulate matter
there by particulate matter moves away from the gas and towards walls of the chamber
from there they settled at the bottom of the chamber the particulates collected at the
bottom of the chamber are removed frequently. Cyclone collector is most efficient
technique to remove the particulate matter.
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Fig.1.Cyclone Collector.
(4) Cotrells electrostatic precipitator: This method is used to remove the dust particles
present in the smoke. Smoke contains negatively charged carbon particles the smoke
is sent through a chamber which is maintained at high voltage under the influence of
high electric field the particles present in smoke get discharged and precipitate out and
settled at the bottom of the chamber.
Fig.2. Cottrells electrostatic precipitator.

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(5) The use of conventional fuels like coal, wood should be replaced by modern fuels like
electricity, tidal power, solar power etc.
(6) Zoning of industries: Zoning of industries must be done it have suitable buffer zone
between industries and residential areas in order to facilitate dilution of air pollutants.
(7) Control of pollution by plantation: plants are very effective in controlling of air
pollution plants use CO2 in photosynthesis and releases O2 gas .so they help to reduce
CO2 in atmosphere.
6.7 Water Pollution:

Water is essential for existing of all biotic component of the environment. It is useful for food,
drink, personnel and domestic hygiene, agriculture, transportation and industry. The water
pollution is defined as “any alteration in the physical, chemical and biological properties of
water as well as contamination with foreign substances causes health hazards or decreases
the utility of water is called water pollution”.
6.8 Causes of Water Pollution:

(1) Domestic sewage: It contain different pollutants like urine, kitchen wastes and organic
waste like vegetables, soap etc. are drain into canals and rivers causes the water
pollution.
(2) Industrial effluents: the industrial effluents like acid, alkalis, heavy metals, pesticides
and fungicides are released from industries causes pollution of water.
(3) Oil transportation: oil coming from refineries and automobiles pollutes the water.
(4) Agriculture practices: the fertilizers and insecticides used in agriculture may release
in to water causes water pollution.
(5) Nuclear explosion: atomic explosion and processing of radioactive materials near the
sources of water causes water pollution.
(6) UN hygienic practices: In all villages people and washer man wash clothes and
animals are allowed to bath in drinking water, lakes, open ponds and rivers causes the
water pollution.
(7) Biological pollution: presence of mammals like human, animals and plants dead
bodies present in the water decomposed by the action of microorganism causes water
pollution.
6.9 Effects of Water Pollution:

(1) Polluted water causes water borne diseases like typhoid, cholera, jaundice, diarrhea
etc.
(2) Radioactive materials present in water causes disorders in humans.
(3) The excess amount of fluorine in water causes flurosis.
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(4) Organic pollutants decrease the dissolved oxygen (DO).

(5) The heavy metals like mercury, arsenic, lead etc. present in water causes metal
disorder, kidney and liver damage.
(6) Polluted water is not suitable for agriculture and growing plants.
(7) The acidic and alkali effluents cause corrosion to metals.
(8) The suspended solids like hair, flesh, CaCO3 etc. interfere with aeration and photo
synthesis activities of aquatic flora.
(9) Suspended solids may causes bad odor and taste and also favors for the growth of
pathogenic bacteria.
(10) Polluted water reduces the soil fertility.
6.10 Controlling methods of water pollution:

1) Control domestic wastages: the drainage system maintained in proper way and it is
processed to remove pollutants.
2) Treatment of industrial effluents: the industrial effluents are purified before entering
into water bodies by using scientific method.
3) Control over unhygienic practices: the government has to bring mass awareness
among the people over the unhygienic practices.
4) Instead of throwing wastages into water recycle the wastages is better for example in
gobar gas plant cow dung was used for production of bio gas and also manufacture of
hard board and paper.
5) Control over pesticides and insecticides used in agriculture.
6) Use of modern techniques like reverse osmosis (RO), Ion exchange method and
electrolysis etc. Are used to remove the pollutants.
7) Stabilization of Eco system: this can be achieved by growing plants like chloronella
and hyacinth are absorbs some organic pollutants from polluted water.
6.11 Sewage Treatment:
Liquid waste containing domestic waste, industrial effluents, ground waste etc .it contains
dissolved form of organic and inorganic matter. Fresh sewage has ratter sweet smell but on
the decomposition starts gives offensive odor by the release of H2S, NH4S etc.
Before introducing into lands or water it should be treated given treatment during which
harmful compounds becomes harmless.
There are three types of sewage treatment
1) Primary treatment (Coagulation): sewage water passed through the bar screens and mesh
screen to remove large and coarse solids and inorganic matter which is suspended in water
after this water is allow to pass to sedimentation tanks. Before to the sedimentation
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chemical treatment also given to the sewage i.e addition chemical substance like alum, ferrous
sulphate etc. which produce gelatinous flocks, which traps organic matter and settle rapidly.
2) Secondary Treatment: In secondary treatment aerobic chemical oxidation of sewage takes

place.
(i) Trickling filters: these are rectangular or circular tubes filled with coarse, crushed rock or
blast furnace slag. sewage is delivered to the filters by rotating distributor as the sewage is
passing downwards through filtering medium the microorganisms present in sewage grow on
surface and aggregates using organic waste present in sewage as food and purified sewage is
removed from the bottom. 90% of BOD is removed from trickling filters.
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(ii) Activated sludge process: pre oxidized sewage used as activated sludge in this process.
Mixing of primarily treated sewage and activated sludge. Then mixture is sent aeration tank
in which the mixture is aerated and agitated for 4 to 6 hours during this process oxidation of
suspended organic matter i.e carbon converts to CO2 and nitrogen converts nitrates.
After this effluents are sent to sedimentation tank where sludge deposited and clean. a part of
the settled sludge is sent back for seeding fresh sewage.
3) Tertiary Treatment: it is a final cleaning process of sewage which decreases the loads of
nitrogen and phosphorous compounds present in effluents this takes place in following steps,
(i) precipitation: the effluents of secondary treated sewage is mixed with calcium oxide .which
reacts with phosphorous compounds forms insoluble calcium phosphate which settle in the
bottom of the tank and filtered off.
(ii) Nitrogen stripping: it is carried out by directing the filtered water into metal tower
containing small baffle plates and air is forced to trickling effluents where ammonia gas is
removed.
(iii) Chlorination: chlorination removes decease causing microorganisms like bacteria, virus
etc preset in sewage water.
6.12 soil pollution:

Presence of toxic chemicals in the soil in high concentrations which effects human’s health
and ecosystem called soil pollution.
6.13 cause of soil pollution:

1. Domestic and industrial waste disposed on land.
2. Agricultural activities like fertilizers, pesticides are applied to plants and soil to increase
the yields of crops.
3. During the storage and transportations of chemicals like fuels the chemicals present fuel
reduces the quality of soil and makes UN suitable for cultivation.
4. Acid rains: due to acid rains which reduces the PH of soil below 7 which is not suitable
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For cultivation.
5. Radioactive materials discharges from industries research institutes and hospitals.
6. Deforestation is one of the reason due for soil erosion takes place.
7. Improper disposal of human and animal excreta, solid and liquid waste.
6.14 Effects of Soil Pollution:

1. Effects human health due to consumption of food get from polluted land.
2. Effects soil fertility which reduces the yields of crops.
3. Effects the growth of plants.
4. Death of many soil organisms like earthworms in the soil can lead to alteration of soil
structure.
5. Poisoning of underground water takes place.
6. Due to direct contact or inhalation of polluted soil dust by humans causes headaches,
nausea and vomiting etc.
6.15 controlling methods of soil pollution:

1. Reducing chemical fertilizers and pesticides etc.
2. Recycling of plastic and paper and other materials reduces the volume of waste in landfills.
3. Afforestation: planting trees helps in preventing soil erosion.
4. Sanitary landfills are used.
5. Avoiding the discharge solid wastages like garbage, ash, sludge, building materials etc. on
the soil.
6. Industrial and sewage wastes are treated before disposal on the land.
7. Cropping techniques should be improved to prevent growth of weed (unwanted plants).
6.16 Carbon Credits:

It is tradable permit or certificate given to the industry holder of the credit. Right to emit one
ton of Carbon dioxide (CO2) or greenhouse gases the main goal for creation of carbon credit
is the reduction of emission of CO2 and other greenhouse gases to reduce effects of global
warming.
Carbon Trading: It is the process of buying and selling permit and credits that allow the
permit holder to emit CO2 .the model used in the carbon trading is called "Cap and Trade" in
this government body sets an overall legal limit on emission (cap) over specific period of time
and grants fixed number of permits to those releasing emission. Each permit of carbon trading
is equivalent to one ton of CO2.
6.17 Advantages and Disadvantages of Carbon trading:

Advantages:
1. The upper threshold limit is contributing to lower emission over the years.
2. Developing nations can earn money by selling carbon credits.
3. Carbon trade market supports free market system.

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4. Threshold limit encourages industries to adopt alternative sources of energy and invest in
green technology.
Disadvantages:
1. Industries in the ratified nations are purchasing legal rights to pollute the atmosphere.
2. Industries are opting the easy way purchase more allowances than implementing greener
technology.
3. Absence of centralized and accepted global standard acts are missing.
4. Leads carbon reduction at one place and increases another place.
SYNOPSIS
1. Excess concentration of unwanted substances in the atmosphere shows adverse effects on

the living component is called air pollution.
2. Air pollutants are classified into primary and secondary pollutants.
3. Increase in the atmospheric temperature due to the presence of greenhouse gases is called
greenhouse effect.
4. The oxides of sulphur and nitrogen present in the atmosphere are responsible for acid rains.
5. Dangerous UV rays fall on the earth due to the depletion of Ozone layer.
6. The carbon particles present in the smoke are removed by cottrels method.
7. Physical, chemical and biological properties of water effects by the water pollution.
8. Pesticides, insecticides used in the agriculture and industrial effluents causes the water
pollution.
9. Many water borne diseases like cholera, jaundice etc. Are coming from the water
pollution.
10. Dissolved salts of organic, inorganic compounds are present in sewage.
11. Processing of sewage is done in three stages.
12. Presence of toxic chemicals in the soil cause soil pollution.
13. Tradable permit or certificate given to the industry holder of the credit is called carbon
credit.
14. Process of buying and selling permit and credits that allow the permit holder to emit CO2
called Carbon trading
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1 .Define Air pollution. What are causes of Air pollution?

Ans:
Air pollution: Presence of unwanted substance in atmospheric air causes adverse effect on
quality of air and harmful effects on humans and animals called air pollution.
Causes of Air pollution:

1. Transportation services: Now days we are using many vehicles for transportation purpose
to run the vehicles we are using fuels. On combustion of fuels releases large amount of
gaseous pollutants like CO, CO2, SOx, NOx, Hydro carbons etc into atmosphere 75% of
pollution due to vehicles only.
2. Industries : During manufacturing many products from industries releases pollution like
CO,CO2, SO2, H2S Cl2,HCl,NO2,CFC’s etc into atmosphere causes air pollution.
3. Agriculture activities: Pesticides and Insecticides used in agriculture are spread into
atmosphere causes air pollution
4. Radioactive Materials: Radioactive rays comes from nuclear reactors, hospitals etc. are
pollute atmosphere.
5. Wars: many toxic chemicals used during war pollution the atmosphere.
6. Accidents in Industries: Due to the human errors accidents are takes place in Industries
which release poisonous gases into atmosphere cause air pollution.Ex: In 1984 and
accident takes place in union carbide factory release methyl iso cyanate (MIC) into
atmosphere at Bhopal killed approximately 3000 people and 50000 more people are
affected.
7. Natural reasons like fore fires, eruption of Volcanoes etc De forestation: Due to the
deforestation increasing CO2 in Atmosphere causes air Pollution.
2. Explain the effects of air pollution on Humans and plants.

Ans:
Effects air pollution on human beings:
1. Oxides of nitrogen cause inflammation of lung. Respiratory illness between the children.
2. Carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin in the blood form carboxy hemoglobin
which leads to death.
3. Coal miners suffer from lung disease like black lung disease.
4. Sulphur oxides causes asthma, bronchitis and eye irritation.
5. PAN, photo chemical smog causes irritation to eyes, nose.
6. Hydro carbons damages bone marrow and anemia.
7. Particulate matter causes breathing trouble, reduces visibility.
8. Arsenic dust from processing industries causes arsinosis.
Effects of air pollution on plants:

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1. Sulphur dioxide causes bleaching of leaves.
2. Acid rain on leaf pigments leads decrease in photosynthesis results low yields of crops.
3. Nitrogen dioxide causes leaf bleaching and decreases fruit production.
4. Greenhouse effect changes the habitat and sources for the plants.
3. What are the controlling methods of air pollution?

Ans:
The best method of control air pollution is control the pollutant at the source itself. Following
are control methods.
(1) The emission gases from automobiles may be purified by using catalysts.
(2) Use of long stacks or chimneys to dilute the pollutants.
(3) Cyclone collector: in this the air with particulate matter passed through the cyclone
collector chamber the centrifugal force exerts great. Inertial effect on particulate matter
there by particulate matter moves away from the gas and towards walls of the chamber
from there they settled at the bottom of the chamber the particulates collected at the
bottom of the chamber are removed frequently. Cyclone collector is most efficient
technique to remove the particulate matter.
Fig.1.Cyclone Collector.
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(4) Cotrells electrostatic precipitator: This method is used to remove the dust particles
present in the smoke. Smoke contains negatively charged carbon particles the smoke is
sent through a chamber which is maintained at high voltage under the influence of high
electric field the particles present in smoke get discharged and precipitate out and settled
at the bottom of the chamber.
Fig.2. Cottrells electrostatic precipitator.
(5) The use of conventional fuels like coal, wood should be replaced by modern fuels like
electricity, tidal power, solar power etc.
(6) Zoning of industries: Zoning of industries must be done it have suitable buffer zone
between industries and residential areas in order to facilitate dilution of air pollutants.
(7) Control of pollution by plantation: plants are very effective in controlling of air
pollution plants use CO2 in photosynthesis and releases O2 gas .so they help to reduce
CO2 in atmosphere.
4. Explain the following effects of air pollution.

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Ans:
1) Green House Effect: 75%of solar energy coming from sun is absorbed by earth surface
which increases its temperature rest of the heat is radiates back to the atmosphere some of the
heat is absorbed by the gases like CO2, Ozone (O3), chloro fluoro carbons, methane etc. thus
they increases the temperature of atmosphere out of all CO2 gas shows much effect due to the
greenhouse effect the following changes are predicted.
Rising in the temperature will causes melting of icebergs in polar region as a result sea level
increases. If it continues low lying areas are submerged in to sea in near future.
Reduction of biodiversity.
Due to increase in the atmosphere temperature some of the biological communities may not
survive it also effects rainfall.
It also effects agriculture yields.
2) Ozone Layer Depletion:
Ozone layer is acting as protecting layer for UV rays coming from sun the depletion of ozone
layer is occurring due to the chloro fluro carbon(CFC) coming from supersonic air craft’s and
jumbo jets flying in upper atmosphere and nitrogen oxides coming from aircrafts they react
with ozone and converts to oxygen.
1.CF2Cl2 CF2Cl + Cl
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
O + ClO Cl + O2
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
O + O3 2 O2
2.NO + ClO Cl + NO2

Cl + O3 ClO + O2
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
Due to the ozone layer depletion following effects are predicted.

1. Skin diseases like skin cancer.
2. Eye diseases like cataract formation.
3. Acid Rains:
Acidic oxides like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and hydrogen chlorides are emitting from
the industries they combine with a moisture forms corresponding acids and fall on the earth
along with rain called acid rain.
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O 2H2SO4 ( Sulphuric Acid)
4NO2 + 2H2O + O= 4HNO3 (Nitric Acid)
HCl + H2O HCl (aq)
Effects of acid rains:

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1) It damages aquatic life.
2) It effects plant leaves in mist form
5. Define water pollution and write causes of water pollution.

Ans:
Water Pollution: any alteration in the physical, chemical and biological properties of water
as well as contamination with foreign substances causes health hazards or decreases the utility
of water is called water pollution”.
Causes of Water Pollution:

(1) Domestic sewage: It contain different pollutants like urine, kitchen wastes and organic
waste like vegetables, soap etc. are drain into canals and rivers causes the water pollution.
(2) Industrial effluents: the industrial effluents like acid, alkalis, heavy metals, pesticides
and fungicides are released from industries causes pollution of water.
(3) Oil transportation: oil coming from refineries and automobiles pollutes the water.
(4) Agriculture practices: the fertilizers and insecticides used in agriculture may release in
to water causes water pollution.
(5) Nuclear explosion: atomic explosion and processing of radioactive materials near the
sources of water causes water pollution.
(6) UN hygienic practices: In all villages people and washer man wash clothes and animals
are allowed to bath in drinking water, lakes, open ponds and rivers causes the water
pollution.
(7) Biological pollution: presence of mammals like human, animals and plants dead bodies
present in the water decomposed by the action of microorganism causes water pollution.
6. What are the controlling methods of water pollution?

Ans:
Controlling methods of water pollution:
1) Control domestic wastages: the drainage system maintained in proper way and it is
processed to remove pollutants.
2) Treatment of industrial effluents: the industrial effluents are purified before entering
into water bodies by using scientific method.
3) Control over unhygienic practices: the government has to bring mass awareness among
the people over the unhygienic practices.
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4) Instead of throwing wastages into water recycle the wastages is better for example in gobar
gas plant cow dung was used for production of bio gas and also manufacture of hard board
and paper.
5) Control over pesticides and insecticides used in agriculture.
6) Use of modern techniques like reverse osmosis (RO), Ion exchange method and
electrolysis etc. Are used to remove the pollutants.
7) Stabilization of Eco system: this can be achieved by growing plants like chloronella and
hyacinth are absorbs some organic pollutants from polluted water.
7. Explain the treatment of sewage in the three stages.

Ans:
There are three types of sewage treatment,
1) Primary treatment (Coagulation): sewage water passed through the bar screens and mesh
screen to remove large and coarse solids and inorganic matter which is suspended in water
after this water is allow to pass to sedimentation tanks. Before to the sedimentation chemical
treatment also given to the sewage i.e addition chemical substance like alum, ferrous sulphate
etc. which produce gelatinous flocks, which traps organic matter and settle rapidly.
2) Secondary Treatment: In secondary treatment aerobic chemical oxidation of sewage takes

place.
(i) Trickling filters: these are rectangular or circular tubes filled with coarse, crushed rock or
blast furnace slag. sewage is delivered to the filters by rotating distributor as the sewage is
passing downwards through filtering medium the microorganisms present in sewage grow on
surface and aggregates using organic waste present in sewage as food and purified sewage is
removed from the bottom. 90% of BOD is removed from trickling filters.
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(ii) Activated sludge process: pre oxidized sewage used as activated sludge in this process.
Mixing of primarily treated sewage and activated sludge. Then mixture is sent aeration tank
in which the mixture is aerated and agitated for 4 to 6 hours during this process oxidation of
suspended organic matter i.e carbon converts to CO2 and nitrogen converts nitrates. After this
effluents are sent to sedimentation tank where sludge deposited and clean. A part of the settled
sludge is sent back for seeding fresh sewage.
3) Tertiary Treatment: it is a final cleaning process of sewage which decreases the loads of
nitrogen and phosphorous compounds present in effluents this takes place in following steps,
1. Precipitation: the effluents of secondary treated sewage is mixed with calcium oxide.
Which reacts with phosphorous compounds forms insoluble calcium phosphate which
settle in the bottom of the tank and filtered off.
2. Nitrogen stripping: it is carried out by directing the filtered water into metal tower
containing small baffle plates and air is forced to trickling effluents where ammonia gas is
removed.
3. Chlorination: chlorination removes decease causing microorganisms like bacteria, virus
etc preset in sewage water.
8. Define soil pollution. What are the effects soil pollution?

Ans:
Soil Pollution: presence of toxic chemicals in the soil in high concentrations which effects
human’s health and ecosystem called soil pollution.

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Effects of Soil Pollution:
1. Effects human health due to consumption of food get from polluted land.
2. Effects soil fertility which reduces the yields of crops.
3. Effects the growth of plants.
4. Death of many soil organisms like earthworms in the soil can lead to alteration of soil
structure.
5. Poisoning of underground water takes place.
6. Due to direct contact or inhalation of polluted soil dust by humans causes headaches,
nausea and vomiting etc.
9. What are the controlling methods of soil pollution?

Ans:
Controlling methods of soil pollution:
1. Reducing chemical fertilizers and pesticides etc.
2. Recycling of plastic and paper and other materials reduces the volume of waste in landfills.
3. Afforestation: planting trees helps in preventing soil erosion.
4. Sanitary landfills are used.
5. Avoiding the discharge solid wastages like garbage, ash, sludge, building materials etc. on
the soil.
6. Industrial and sewage wastes are treated before disposal on the land.
7. Cropping techniques should be improved to prevent growth of weed (unwanted plants).
10. Define carbon Credit and Carbon Trading and explain advantages of Carbon
trading.
Ans:
Carbon Credits: It is tradable permit or certificate given to the industry holder of the credit.
Right to emit one ton of Carbon dioxide (CO2) or greenhouse gases.
Carbon Trading: it is the process of buying and selling permit and credits that allow the
permit holder to emit CO2 .the model used in the carbon trading is called "Cap and Trade".
Advantages of Carbon trading:

1. The upper threshold limit is contributing to lower emission over the years.
2. Developing nations can earn money by selling carbon credits.
3. Carbon trade market supports free market system.
4. Threshold limit encourages industries to adopt alternative sources of energy and invest in
green technology.
QUESTIONS
1) Define Air pollution what are causes of Air pollution?

2) Classify the Air pollutant based on occurrence.
3) Explain the effects of air pollution on Humans and animals.

4) What are the controlling methods of Air pollution?
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5) Explain the Greenhouse effect.
6) Define water pollution and write causes of water pollution.
7) What are the effects of Water pollution?
8) What are the controlling methods of water pollution?
9) Explain the treatment of sewage in the three stages.
10) Define soil pollution. Explain causes of soil pollution.
Multiple choice questions
1. Which of the following is primary pollutant? ( )

a) CO b) CO2 c) NO2 d) all of the above
2. Natural reasons of air pollution is ( )
a) Forest fires b) volcanoes eruption c) pollen grains d) all of the above
3. The effects of air pollution on humans ( )
a) Inflammation of lung b) black lung disease.
c) Damages bone marrow and anemia d) all of the above
4. Greenhouse effect is caused due to ( )
a) Deforestation b) afforestation c) agricultural practices d) industries
5. Ozone layer depletion is due to ( )
a) CH4 b) CFC c) both d) CO2
6. Cottrels method is used to ( )
a) To remove CO2 from the smoke b) to remove CO
c) To remove the dust and soot d) to remove SO2
7. Which of the following plant is used to decease the water pollution ( )
a) Hyacinth b) chloronella c) both d) neem
8. Constituents of sewage is ( )
a) Dissolved organic salts b) dissolved inorganic salts
c) H2S d) all of the above
9. causes of soil pollution is ( )
a) disposal of domestic waste b) agricultural activities
c) Industrial effluents d) all of the above
10. Disadvantage of carbon trading is ( )
a) Nations can earn money
b) Supports free market system.
c) Encourages industries to adopt alternative sources of energy
d) Carbon reduction takes place at one place and increases another place.
Answers
1) d 2) d 3) d 4) a 5) c 6) c 7) c 8) d 9) d 10)
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Chapter - 5 : ELECTRO CHEMICAL CELLS - BATTERIES
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Chapter - 1: PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY

1.1 Characteristics of Metals:

1.2 Differences between metals and non-metals:

Metals Non metals

2. Metals are having hard surfaces. 2. Non-metals are soft in nature.

5. metals shows malleability and ductility. 5. Non-metals doesn’t shows malleability

1.3 TERMS USED IN METALLUGY:

Flux is two types:

Acidic flux is used to remove the basic impurities present in an ore

1.4 MINERALS AND ORES OF THE METALS:

S.No NAME OF THE MINERAL ORE

3 Copper 1) Copper pyrites(CuFeS2) Copper

1.5 CONCENTRATION OF ORE

1.6 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THE FURNACES:

1.7 EXTRACTION OF CRUDE METALS

Converts to oxides moisture also removed in this process.

1.9 purpose of making Alloys

1.10 Composition of Alloys:

1. Brass: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc

2. German silver: It is a alloy of copper zinc and tin metals.

2) Used in preparation of table ware, bolts band screws.

3. Nicrome: It is an alloy of nickel, Iron and chromium metals.

1. Metallurgy is extraction and purification of metal from the minerals.

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1) What are the characteristics of metals?

2) Write any six differences between Metals and Non Metals.

2. Metals are having hard surfaces. 2. Non-metals are soft in nature.

5. metals shows malleability and ductility. 5. Non-metals doesn’t shows malleability

3) Define the following Terms,

4) Explain the levigation and Electromagnetic methods used in concentration of ores.

5) Explain froth floatation method.

6) Explain construction and operation of Blast Furnace.

7) Define the following Terms.

8) Define Alloys and explain the purpose of making Alloys.

b) German silver: It is an alloy of copper zinc and tin metals.

c) Nicrome: It is an alloy of nickel, Iron and chromium metals.

Multiple choice questions:

1) Which of the following metal has high Ductility. ( )

2.2 Factors influencing rate of corrosion:

(ii) Wet or Electro Chemical Theory of Corrosion:

2.4 Types of corrosion cells:

galvanic cells are formed they are

Fig.1. Stress cell

Fig.1. Stress cell

2.5 RUSTING OF IRON:

Ferric hydroxide is rearranged to hydrated ferric oxide(Rust).

2.6 Prevention methods of corrosion:

Differences between anodic coating and cathodic coating

II) Non-metallic coatings: Non-metallic coatings are two types.

Fig.5. sacrificial anode process

Fig.6. impressed voltage method.

2.8 Characteristics of good paint:

6) It should give glossy film.

2.9 constituents of paints and their functions:

1 Destruction of the metal by the action of environment called corrosion.

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Factors influencing rate of corrosion:

2. Explain the wet theory of corrosion

Mn+ + n OH- → M(OH)n