ETAP

ETAP COURSE
By Engineer Ahmed Mahdy

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LOAD FLOW
• It is used to provide numerical solution for our power system.

• It is used to compute the steady state voltages and phase angles.
• It is used to compute real and reactive power flow through the power system.
• This would help in designing of substation, selection of cables, transmission lines,
insulators and circuit breakers.
LOAD FLOW
ITERATION TECHNIQUES
• Gauss Seidel method.

• Newton Raphson method.
• Fast decoupled method.
• Those are classified according to number of iterations computed and how fast the
system can converge to a solution.
• Fast decoupled has shorter computation time than Newton Raphson than Gauss
Seidel.
TYPES OF BUSES
• Load bus or PQ bus: We know the P,Q absorbed by the bus, but we don’t know
voltage and phase angle.
• Generator bus or PV bus: We know the P or active power and voltage values, but
we don’t know reactive power and phase angle.
• Slack bus or swing bus or reference bus: We know the voltage and phase angle, but
we don’t know the reactive power or active power.
• Slack bus is only one bus and connected to the largest generator.
WHY SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS?
• To be able to select switch gear equipment as circuit breaker, fuses, isolators,..

• To adjust relay settings which can distinguish between full load current and fault
current.
• Used in stability studies of power system.
TYPES OF FAULTS
• LLL-G or three phase to ground fault.

• LLL or three phase fault.
• LL or line to line fault.
• LLG or line to line with ground fault.
• LG or line to ground fault.
CAUSES OF FAULTS IN POWER
SYSTEM
• Insulation failure of cables or equipment.

• Temporary fault as phase to phase touching due to wind or tree.
• Cutting of transmission or distribution lines.
• Flashover by lightning strikes to transmission lines.
WHAT IS AN ARC FLASH ?
• An arc flash happens when electric
current flows through an air gap
between conductors.
• The term “arc flash” is used to describe
low impedance connections in an
electrical system, which allows
movement of electric current through
the air from one voltage phase to
another, or to ground.
• This leads to a rapid rise in temperature
and pressure in the air between electrical
conductors, causing an explosion known
as an arc blast.
WHAT ARE CAUSES OF AN ARC
FLASH?
• Arc flash occurs when several electrical conductors are placed close to each other,
with significant fault currents flowing through them.
• In this situation, ionization of the air can take place due to differences in potential
which leads to a low resistance path and allows current to flow through the air gap
between conductors.
• Sparks due to breaks or gaps in the insulation.
• Dust, corrosion or other impurities on the surface of the conductor.
WHAT ARE EFFECTS OF AN ARC
FLASH?
• Large shock waves that can blow personnel off their feet.
• Loss of memory or brain function.
• Hearing loss from ruptured eardrums. The sound associated with the blast can
greatly exceed the sound of a jet engine.
• Shock hazard due to touching energized conductors.
• Other physical injuries from being blown off ladders, into walls, etc.
WHAT ARE EFFECTS OF AN ARC
FLASH?
• The degree of injury depends on power of an arc flash, distance of the person at the
time of arc flash and the personal protective equipment (PPE) worn by individual
during arc flash.
• By using ETAP we will get values as incident energy (arc flash power), safety distance
from the equipment and PPE required according to NFPA ( National Fire Protection
Association).
ETAP BENEFIT USING ARC FLASH
STUDIES
• “Working Distance” is the distance between

you and the point of origin of an arc flash.
• The point of origin for an arc flash will
typically be inside a piece of electrical
equipment, at an energized conductor or
bus.
• If you are wearing 1.2 cal/cm2 PPE, then you
would be safe at 18 inch from source of arc.
STUDIES
• The arc flash boundary is calculated to 1.2

calories/cm2 of incident energy.
• That’s the distance where a worker without
appropriate PPE would receive second-
degree burns.
• It is the line no one should pass without
training and PPE.
STUDIES
• Limited approach boundary: it is possible to be

exposed to a shock hazard.
• Appropriate PPE should be worn by qualified
workers in the limited space.
• Non-qualified workers should stay outside of this
boundary unless wearing proper PPE and being
accompanied by a worker with specialized
training.
STUDIES
• Restricted boundary: The area closest to the

live, exposed equipment is within the
restricted boundary.
• In order to pass this boundary, you must be a
qualified worker with the proper training and
PPE.
• If you need to perform work on the energized
equipment, you may also need a work
permit and documentation.
STUDIES
• Prohibited approach boundary: Distance

from an exposed energized component
where the effects of an electric arc would be
the same as actually touching the live part.
• No-one should be within this boundary while
equipment is energized.
• In this example, 0.1 ft is nearly 1.2 inch.
PPE LEVELS
WHAT ARE HARMONICS?
• In an electric power system, harmonics are a voltage or current at a multiple of the

fundamental frequency of the system.
• They are produced by the action of non-linear loads connected to distribution
systems such as rectifiers, discharge lighting, or saturated magnetic devices.
• Non linear load means the current it draws does not have the same waveform as
the supply voltage.
• The flow of harmonic currents through system impedances in turn creates voltage
harmonics, which distort the supply voltage.
• The presence of harmonics in electrical systems means that current and voltage are
distorted and deviate from sinusoidal waveforms.
EXAMPLE OF WAVEFORMS
EFFECTS OF HARMONICS
• Voltage distortion can increase the effective peak value and also the RMS current in
some devices connected to the network.
• The heating effects of harmonic currents can cause destruction of equipment,
conductors, and fires.
• Voltage distortions can lead to overheating of equipment, electronic equipment
failure, expensive downtime, and maintenance difficulties.
• Current distortion causes overheating due to increase in the losses and affects all
electrical machines, transformers etc.
• This causes derating of equipment, the amount of derating will depend upon which
harmonics are present and the magnitude of the individual current and resistance.
EXAMPLES ON EFFECTS OF
HARMONICS
• Overheating of Transformers – due to increase in hysteresis and eddy losses.
• Capacitor Failure – it acts like a sink, attracting unfiltered high frequency harmonic
currents.
• Circuit Breakers Tripping – due to overloading
• Computer Malfunction or Lockup - Voltage Distortion
• Electronic Equipment Shutting down - Voltage Distortion
• Motor Failures (overheating) - Voltage Drop
• Overloading of Neutral Conductor – due to third harmonic current.
TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION
THD
• The total harmonic distortion is a measurement of the harmonic distortion present in a
signal.
• It is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all harmonic components to the
power of the fundamental frequency.
ACCEPTABLE HARMONIC
DISTORTION THD
• According To IEEE, THD of voltage should not exceed 5%

and THD of current should not exceed 3%.
PV EXAMPLE
• Peak power produced from panels = 7.8 kW.

• Q.Cells Panel: Pm = 230 watt, vm = 29.32 V, Im = 7.82 A.
• Number of series panels = 17, number of parallel panels = 2.
• Total panels = 34 panels.

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ETAP COURSE

By Engineer Ahmed Mahdy

Make Sure to Check Our Khadija Academy Membership

• It is used to provide numerical solution for our power system.

• Gauss Seidel method.

• To be able to select switch gear equipment as circuit breaker, fuses, isolators,..

• LLL-G or three phase to ground fault.

• Insulation failure of cables or equipment.

• “Working Distance” is the distance between

• The arc flash boundary is calculated to 1.2

• Limited approach boundary: it is possible to be

• Restricted boundary: The area closest to the

• Prohibited approach boundary: Distance

• In an electric power system, harmonics are a voltage or current at a multiple of the

• According To IEEE, THD of voltage should not exceed 5%

• Peak power produced from panels = 7.8 kW.

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