Thesis Amirkhani MTRR 14ott19

Effective signaling system management
on an upgraded railway:
The case study of Ghana Western Line
Faculty of Civil and Industrial Engineering
Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering
Master’s Degree in Transport Systems Engineering
SHOKOUFEH AMIRKHANI
MATRCOLA 1746602
Supervisor
Prof. STEFANO RICCI
A.A. 2018-2019
Abstract
Railway can be considered one of the best way to move goods and people all over the
worlds, because of the low costs, high regularity and punctuality as well as the minimal
environmental impact, in comparison with other transportation systems.
The railway system is one the most efficient and environmentally friendly transportation
systems regarding to highly energy efficient, safe operation, and low CO2 emission.
Train control is an important part of the railway operations management system. The
railway signaling is a complex and fascinating subject and it is the key system to ensure
the safe operation of railway traffic and it used to direct railway traffic and keep trains
clear of each other at all times. Therefore, it is important to have a safe and reliable railway
signaling system.
Railway signaling systems from the structural point of view are divided into two main
categories named as Fixed-block signaling system and Moving-block signaling systems. In
fixed-block railway systems, railway lines are divided into blocks with fixed-length and
trains are moving according to the route reservation procedure whereas in moving-block
railway systems, each train is regarded as a moving-block and more than one train
occupancy is allowed in the same railway block.
Furthermore, this dissertation compares Moving-block signaling system with Fixed-block

signaling system to show the differences of these two signaling systems according to some
factors such as delay and running time for showing the result of this comparison in the
research by applying the optimum timetable to the case study project.
The thesis illustrates simulation of the case study railway line (Western-line Ghana
Railway) with optimal situation according to the existing demand with applying
OpenTrack simulation software.
Finally, the research examines the effect of changing signaling system (the moving-block
signaling system and fixed-block signaling system) in case study project with two separate
railway lines, without any effect of opposite traffic on the project.
To summarize, the thesis demonstrates that the differences between two signaling systems
(Fixed-block signaling system and Moving-block signaling system) and represents the
more efficient signaling system according to some factors such as delay and running time
in base on case study project.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 8
1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Railway Systems ........................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Signaling Systems in Railway ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.3 Aims and Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Structure of the Thesis ................................................................................................................................. 9
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................. 10
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Railway Systems ......................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Railway Signaling Systems .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Interlocking Systems ................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.2 Track Circuits............................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2.3 Balise Group ................................................................................................................................................................ 19
2.2.4 Level Crossing ............................................................................................................................................................. 20
2.2.5 Traffic Management System (TMS) ............................................................................................................................ 20
2.2.6 Signals ......................................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.2.7 Signaling Boards ......................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.3 Fixed-Block Signaling Systems .................................................................................................................... 24
2.3.1 Components Fixed-Block Signaling Systems ............................................................................................................... 28
2.4 Moving-Block Signaling Systems ................................................................................................................ 31
2.4.1 European Train Control System .................................................................................................................................. 33
2.5 Punctuality and Delay ................................................................................................................................ 35
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................. 53
3 METHODOLOGY APPROACH (CASE STUDY) .......................................................................... 53
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 53
3.2 Ghana Railway ............................................................................................................................................ 53
3.3 Western Line Railway ................................................................................................................................. 54
3.4 Evolution of Transport Demand ................................................................................................................. 57
3.5 Telecommunications .................................................................................................................................. 58
3.6 Signaling and Telecommunication Systems ............................................................................................... 59
3.6.1 Signaling ..................................................................................................................................................................... 59
3.6.2 Telecommunications Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 62
3.7 OpenTrack Simulator.................................................................................................................................. 65
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CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................. 67
4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS....................................................................................... 67
4.1 OpenTrack Simulation Software ................................................................................................................ 67
4.2 OpenTrack Simulation Results ................................................................................................................... 74
4.2.1. Fixed-Block Signaling System Results (Freight Transport) ......................................................................................... 75
4.2.2. Fixed-Block Signaling System Results (Passenger Transport) .................................................................................... 77
4.2.3. Moving-Block Signaling System Results (Freight Transport) ..................................................................................... 79
4.2.4. Moving-Block Signaling System Results (Passenger Transport) ................................................................................ 81
4.3 Cost Analysis............................................................................................................................................... 84
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................. 86
5 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................... 86
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................... 88
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List of Figures
Figure 2-1: Functional structure for railway operations and planning ................................................................ 11
Figure 2-2: Hierarchical system structure for railway operations ........................................................................ 12
Figure 2-3: Control loop of the railway signaling system (6) ............................................................................... 13
Figure 2-4: Different signaling systems and their interfaces ............................................................................... 14
Figure 2-5: Mechanical Interlocking System (9) ................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2-6: Unoccupied Block............................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2-7: Occupied Block................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2-8: Balise ................................................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 2-9: Traffic Management System (TMS) ................................................................................................... 21
Figure 2-10: Semaphore Signals (left) & Color-light Signals (right) ..................................................................... 22
Figure 2-11: RBD of a Signaling System ............................................................................................................... 24
Figure 2-12: Fixed-block Signaling System (16) ................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-13: Elements of the blocking time ......................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2-14: Blocking time stairways .................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 2-15: General Block Diagram of a Fixed-block Signaling System ............................................................... 29
Figure 2-16: General Representation of a Fixed-block Signaling System .............................................................. 30
Figure 2-17: Different between Fixed-block & Moving-block signaling systems in schematic view ..................... 31
Figure 2-18: ETCS – Level 1 ................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 2-21: Movement of Trains in a Railway Line .............................................................................................. 35
Figure 2-22: Delay Attribution Process ................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 2-23: The Delay-Volume (a) & Delay-Heterogeneity relationship (b) ........................................................ 40
Figure 2-24: Average Delay by conflict and Ratio of Bulk to Intermodal Trains ................................................... 41
Figure 2-25: Average Delay by Source and Ratio of Bulk to Intermodal Trains .................................................... 42
Figure 2-26: Schematic of casual total running time model ................................................................................. 43
Figure 2-27: Signaling and automation system block diagram ............................................................................ 45
Figure 2-28: Elements of the block occupation time ............................................................................................. 46
Figure 2-29: Station with parallel movement facilit. (31) ..................................................................................... 46
Figure 2-30: Crossing station without parallel movement facility (31) ................................................................. 47
Figure 2-31: Detailed block occupation time for platform tracks of a crossing station (31) ................................ 47
Figure 2-32: Two initial delays shortly after each other (broken lines are the planned timetable) ...................... 48
Figure 2-33: Different types of simulation models and their main types of analysis (33) .................................... 49
Figure 2-34: Typical steps when simulating delays in railway networks (33) ....................................................... 49
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Figure 2-35: Socioeconomic utility of a given timetable (for an idealized situation) depending on the amount of
timetable supplement (31) ................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 2-36: Headway Time .................................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 2-37: Continuous Operating Time (a) & Discontinuous Operating Time (b) .............................................. 52
Figure 3-1: Ghana Existing Railway Network........................................................................................................ 54
Figure 3-2: Western Railway Line Sections ........................................................................................................... 56
Figure 3-3: MS L2 system concept ........................................................................................................................ 59
Table 3-1 Ghana Traffic Demand in Different years ............................................................................................ 57
Figure 3-4: CCE Functional Diagram .....................................................................................................................60
Figure 3-5: Line Signaling functional diagram ...................................................................................................... 62
Figure 3-6: Typical Solution for Fiber Optic Network Panel in Station Technical Room ........................................ 63
Figure 3-1: Line Fiber Optic Network Functional Diagram .................................................................................... 63
Figure 3-8: BTS and Communication Tower with Antenna ................................................................................... 64
Figure 3-9: Line Radio Network Functional Diagram ............................................................................................ 64
Figure 3-10: OpenTrack Simulator ........................................................................................................................ 65
Figure 3-11: Input, Simulation, and Output in OpenTrack Simulator ................................................................... 66
Figure 4-1: Z/V – Diagram Window ...................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 4-2: Document with Locomotive Image ..................................................................................................... 68
Figure 4-3: Train Inspector for Trains Running Under ETCS-Level 2...................................................................... 69
Figure 4-4: Line with non-ETCS / ETCS Level 2 ...................................................................................................... 70
Figure 4-5: OpenTrack Flowchart: Track Segment Reservation ............................................................................ 71
Figure 4-6: Successful Track Segment Reservation ............................................................................................... 71
Figure 4-7: Unsuccessful Track Segment Reservation (Through Route Not Free) ................................................. 72
Figure 4-8: OpenTrack Flowchart: Route Reservation with Moving Block ............................................................ 73
Figure 4-9: Moving Block: Braking Behavior ......................................................................................................... 73
Figure 4-10: OpenTrack Model – Fixed-Block Signaling System ........................................................................... 74
Figure 4-11: Timetable & Delay - Freight Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System) ............................................ 76
Figure 4-12: Delay - Freight Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System) ................................................................ 76
Figure 4-13: Speed-Distance Diagram - Freight Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System) .................................. 75
Figure 4-14: Distance-Time Diagram - Freight Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System) ................................... 75
Figure 4-15: Timetable & Delay - Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System) ....................................... 78
Figure 4-16: Delay - Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System) ........................................................... 78
Figure 4-17: Speed-Distance Diagram - Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System) ............................. 77
Figure 4-18: Distance-Time Diagram - Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System) .............................. 77
Figure 4-19: Timetable Diagram – Freight & Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System) ..................... 79
Figure 4-20: Timetable & Delay - Freight Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System) ........................................ 80
Figure 4-21: Delay - Freight Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System) ............................................................ 81
Figure 4-22: Speed-Distance Diagram - Freight Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System) .............................. 79
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Figure 4-23: Distance-Time Diagram - Freight Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System) ................................ 80
Figure 4-24: Timetable & Delay - Passenger Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System) ................................... 82
Figure 4-25: Delay - Passenger Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System) ....................................................... 83
Figure 4-26: Speed-Distance Diagram - Passenger Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System) ......................... 81
Figure 4-27: Distance-Time Diagram - Passenger Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System) ........................... 82
Figure 4-28: Timetable Diagram – Freight & Passenger Transport (moving-Block Signaling System) ................. 83
Figure 4-29: Moving-Block Signaling System Cost Comparison ............................................................................ 85
Figure 4-30: Fixed-Block Signaling System Cost Comparison ................................................................................ 85
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Chapter 1
1 Introduction
1.1 Railway Systems
The railway system is one the most efficient and environmentally friendly
transportation systems. For example, some of the most significant characteristics of
railway system are highly energy efficient, safe in operation, and low in CO 2
emission. Railway operation should be highly reliable.
Two major worldwide markets in railways are Main Line Railways and Urban Rail
Transportation Systems (Metro, LRT (Light Rail Transit), Tramway).
Train control is an important part of the railway operations management system.
Train movement safety and the control and management of trains depend on
signaling system. Over the years many signaling and train control systems have
been evolved so that today a highly technical and complex industry has developed.
1.2 Signaling Systems in Railway

Railway signaling is a complex and fascinating subject in research and development
area in the railways. The purpose of a signaling system is to facilitate the safe and
efficient movement of trains on the railway and ensuring the safe operation of
railway traffic. Therefore, it is important to have a safe and reliable railway signaling
system.
Signaling is one of the most important components of the railway system. Signaling
is Mechanism by which the station master conveys information to the Loco driver to
Stop, go with Caution or Proceed.
Railway signaling systems from the structural point of view are divided into two
main categories named as fixed block (conventional) and moving-block signaling
systems. In fixed-block railway systems, railway lines are divided into blocks with
fixed-length and trains are moving according to the route reservation procedure
whereas in moving-block railway systems, each train is regarded as a moving-block
and more than one train occupancy is allowed in the same railway block.
Furthermore, there are many infrastructure and superstructure components in
railway. However, Independent of the signaling category, the vital component of
railway systems which provides safe travel and transportation is the signaling
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system is the interlocking system. Nowadays, by increasing speed and density of
railway, the need of reliable and safe signaling systems in railway is much more
important and crucial.
1.3 Aims and Objectives

The objective of this thesis is to find a more efficient signaling system for railway
systems (between Fixed-block signaling system and Moving-block signaling system)
in order to improve the railway control and signaling (RCS) systems along railway
line. For this purpose, some factors such as delay and running time by applying a
optimum timetable in the case study project (Western-line Ghana Railway) will be
examined in this research. For simulating both fixed-block and moving-block
signaling system in the case study project, the Opentrack simulation software will be
used.
1.4 Structure of the Thesis

As first a brief overview of railway systems and signaling systems for railway
including Fixed-block signaling system and Moving-Block signaling system are
explained. Secondly, some factors such as delay and running time in different
signaling systems in railways presented (chapter 2). As next it follows by description
of case study project. (Chapter 3). This chapter represents some information about
case study project (Western-line Ghana Railway) and a brief description of
simulation software (Opentrack). In chapter 4, simulation of case study model for
both signaling system (Fixed-block and Moving-block signaling systems) is
presented. Then, the results of these two simulation model were analyzed according
some factors such as delay and cost. Consequently, the best option is selected
according to be more efficient and cost analysis. Finally, the conclusions, included in
chapter 5, where results are analyzed and commented.
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Chapter 2
2 Literature Review
2.1 Railway Systems
The railway network is a complex and distributed system with several technologies
working together to fulfill the demands on capacity, speed and mobility to transport
goods and passengers. The railway system can be divided into different systems
depending on functionality, such as the rolling stock, the track, the power supply,
the signaling system, etc. (1)
Railway can be considered one of the best way to move goods and people all over
the worlds, because of the low costs, high (nominal) regularity and punctuality as
well as the minimal environmental impact, in comparison with other transportation
systems (2).
In general, a rail system consists of four domains: (3)
 the infrastructure on which the trains run (including its power supply,
telecommunication, safety and traffic control systems);
 the rolling stock;
 the schedule, which defines the agreed offer; and
 the operation rules.
Operation rules thus impact the design and construction of both infrastructure and
rolling stock and they decisively affect the rail system’s performance and efficiency.
Depending on technological or regulatory developments, the operation rules are
adjusted continuously to enhance the effectiveness and competitiveness of rail
traffic. Nowadays, infrastructure, rolling stock, and operation rules are designed in a
way that passengers and goods can be transported to their destination as safely,
quickly, punctually, cheaply and comfortably as possible. It must therefore not be
forgotten that several principles are still based on ideas and solutions from the early
beginnings of railway operation. Also infrastructure elements, applied technologies
and rolling stock have been in use for many decades. Upgrading adjustments are
thus not always possible (3).
The structure of the railway system and its processes are designed as a pyramid with
several layers (Figure 2.1). The functional structure consists of several layers with an
integrated control and communication system. This general structure is transferred
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from other automation industries and adjusted to the specific requirements and
particularities of railway systems (3).
Figure 2-1: Functional structure for railway operations and planning
The bottom operational layer consists of the immediate production and its safety
supervision. The transport product - the movement of passengers and goods by
trains - is thus generated by commanding and controlling infrastructure and trains.
The large geographical distribution of the network and the enormous amount of
actions taking place at the same time are the specific characteristics of the operation
of trains and infrastructure. A signaling system prevents or minimizes accidents and
hazardous situations due to human errors or technical failures. A signalman in a
local interlocking system or movement inspectors with remote control in centralized
traffic control centers control the trains by setting routes. Thereby, also the sequence
of trains on tracks can be set based on the specifications on the timetable and the
actual situation (3).
The tactical layer within a railway system is used to supervise the network and to
solve deviations, failures, interruptions or unplanned events. The superior overview
of the location of all trains and infrastructure status allows conflicts to be identified
and solved. This so-called dispatching process is executed by a few traffic
management centers. Thereby, connections to be held and decisions with large
impacts on trains are defined. Nowadays, dispatching and operation is functionally
strictly separated for railway systems. Communication to give orders and measures
is mainly carried out verbally by phone; system states and status reports can only be
monitored but not directly accessed between the operational and the tactical layers.
A closer connection or merging of both layers into a single unit is foreseeable and
will improve rail operation’s efficiency (3).
Timetables are the basis of operations. Planning the schedule is a strategic task.
However, the planning process can also be divided into several sub-levels, starting
with long-term tasks and ending with the daily schedule. Experience based on past
operational data analysis is used as an important input to enhance the schedule.
Furthermore, the top-layer includes management tasks (for example investment
strategies, archiving or accounting). These activities are not directly connected with
the daily operational work and the time horizon can cover up to several decades (3).
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The resulting hierarchical technical structure is visualized in Figure 2.2.
Communication and information exchange between the layers depends on various
requirements, for example safety, reliability, availability, or temporal demands and
the actors involved. Use is made of telecommunication systems for oral and data
exchange, computer networks with data-bus systems, documents as handouts,
bulletins or leaflets, visual displays like signals, and so on (3).
Figure 2-2: Hierarchical system structure for railway operations
The system structure is influenced by operating rules and developments in many

fields but mainly in electrical engineering, telecommunication, and computer
science. These principles result in the fact that rail operation is an extremely safe
transportation mode even for high speed and hazardous goods. And additionally,
up to a certain level of operated trains, the pyramidal structure also allows fast and
flexible intervention whenever an error or disturbance occurs.
Safe, efficient and cost-effective operation is thus assured. Of course, the technical
structure differs for rail networks with low traffic density, less automation or a
different traffic management concept.
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2.2 Railway Signaling Systems
Railway signaling systems are composed of several different systems; each has its
own purpose, but the main functionality of the overall system is determined by the
interoperability between them. Railway signaling systems ensure the safe operation
of the railway network, and their reliability and maintainability directly affect the
capacity and availability of the railway network, in terms of both infrastructure and
trains. The functionality of the signaling system is based on the principle of “fail
safe”; this means that the railway section where a failure is located will be not fully
operative until the failure is repaired (since safety cannot be ensured). Hence, the
dependability of these systems directly affects the capacity of the network (4).
Signaling systems are complex combinations of software and hardware; they play an
important role in the control, supervision and protection of rail traffic, and their
availability affects the performance of the whole system. Further complicating the
issue is the fact that signaling systems are composed of several different systems;
each has its own purpose, but the main functionality of the overall system is
determined by the interoperability between them (4).
The primary purpose of a signaling is to keep trains safely separated by providing
enough distance to stop the train in case of failure. However, this distance cannot be
too long, otherwise delay can happen and instead of a train arriving every three
minutes, trains may arrive every five minutes, it means that headway between trains
will be increased.
Railway signaling system is needed for ensuring the safe operation in rail traffic. The
signal devices are located on the side of railway line to give information of the state
of railway line ahead to train drivers. A generic interpretation of the control loop of
the railway signaling system is presented in Figure 2.3. (5)
Figure 2-3: Control loop of the railway signaling system (6)
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The development of signaling is closely linked to the development of railways. It
began as a manual system determining access to a line, but the growing demand for
transportation and the increasing number of trains made this system inadequate.
Advanced technologies were implemented to supervise and control railway lines.
These were mainly analogue systems, based on relay technology (e.g. track circuit,
axle counter, relay interlocking). Today these systems are being replaced by digital
control systems based on electronics (e.g. balise, electronic interlocking, lineside
electronic unit – LEU), but both systems coexist in most of the railway network. Over
the years, many signaling and train control systems have evolved, creating a highly
technical and complex industry. Every country has developed different solutions
over the years. The operation of trains must not be country-dependent, however,
and the creation of a unified signaling system would prevent the need to make
changes between countries. In order to achieve interoperability between the control
and supervision systems, several contributions via standardization have been made
(UNISIG SUBSET 026, 2011; EIRENE SRS, 2006). Standards have been developed for
the RAMS of the different railway systems (EN 50126, 1999), with special focus on
the systems for signaling, communications and processing systems on the railway
(EN 50128, 2001; EN 50129, 2003). These standards aim to enable interoperability
while ensuring safety (4).
There are a number of items within the larger category of signaling systems. For
example, track circuits, axle counters and GPS-based systems can be used to locate a
train. Track circuits and signals can help to control the traffic on the railway line to
prevent collisions. Balises and radio based systems allow the train control centre to
restrict the movement of trains, and advanced systems i.e. European Rail Traffic
Management System (ERTMS) or Automatic train control system (ATC), supervise
and control the railway network. They interpret the inputs from the other systems,
creating restrictions on the train route to ensure safe operation. An example of the
parts of a signaling system and their relationship is shown in Figure 2.4 (4).
Figure 2-4: Different signaling systems and their interfaces
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The various systems, such as track circuits or level crossings, provide input to
interlocking systems and radio block centre systems (RBC). Interlocking systems
receive information, process it and make new restrictions on system components.
For example, they can provide information to onboard signaling systems through
the GSM-R system, by means of the base transceiver stations (BTS) located along the
railway network. The onboard signaling system is composed of a centralized
computer that processes the different inputs, giving supervision during the train’s
operation. An odometry system constantly measures the speed and acceleration of
the train. The balise antenna reads the information from the balises placed on the
track. The man-machine interface allows the driver to interact with the onboard
computer. The juridical recorder records the information generated during the
operation (e.g. driver operations, balises and odometry information, etc.). Other
systems, such as the GSM-R or the radio infill, exchange information between the
wayside signaling system and the onboard signaling system. Some auxiliary
systems, such as the Lineside electronic unit (LEU) whose purpose is to exchange
information between wayside systems, do not depend on the interlocking system to
process information (4).
Railway signaling systems are composed of several different systems that have their
own purpose but the main functionality is given by the interoperability between
them: the supervision and protection of the railway network will not be possible if
any of the items of the signaling system do not work properly or there is a lack of
interoperability between them. Signaling systems are challenging to model, given
the amount of information derived from both software and hardware in the various
locations of the systems’ many devices (7).
Previous studies have shown the importance of signaling systems on the
dependability of the railway network. Signaling systems supervise and control the
railway operation with different technologies installed both in the infrastructure
along the track and in the rolling stock. To operate on a specific railway corridor, the
signaling systems of train and infrastructure must be interoperable (4).
The signaling system is composed of the following sub-systems: (8)
 Interlocking (IXL) / Radio Block Center (RBC): receives input from the
different systems (e.g. track circuits, level crossings, signals, TMS), calculates
and returns as an output the train operation restrictions to ensure safe traffic
operation.
 Track circuits: responsible for the train location.
 Balise group: input from the track to the onboard signaling system (e.g. speed
limits, driving mode, etc.).
 Level crossings: coordinate the road traffic crossing the railroad.
 Traffic management system (TMS): interface between the traffic operator and
the railway network.
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 Signals: give or restrict permission to the train to enter a track section.
 Signaling boards: inform the train of fixed information (e.g. tunnels, bridges,
speed restriction area, etc.).
2.2.1 Interlocking Systems
The methods behind railway signaling system are information transmission and
information processing. The function of information processing is typically realized
by interlocking. The purpose of interlocking is to connect the track elements and
signals. This can be achieved by means of data detection and control action. Here
data detection includes discovering the position information of the movable track
elements and information of track occupation. Control action involves evaluating the
received information and giving instructions to the train drivers via signals. These
two actions form the basic principles for interlocking functions (6) :
 A train movement can be permitted only if all track elements are in desired
positions and locked.
 It is only allowed to enter a section for one train, no other train may be
permitted to enter that section.
An interlocking system has many functions. Generally, they can be categorized into
three levels of functions: operation control level, interlocking level and element
control level. They are defined as (6):
 The operation control level includes the interface to the signaler and may
include different non-vital functions of automatic operation control such as
automatic train routing etc.
 The interlocking level includes the vital functions to interlock signals, routes,
movable track elements, block applications with each other.
 The element control level includes functions of commanding, power and
information transmission to and from the field elements, such as signals,
movable track elements, track sections, level crossing etc.
Since the safe operation of railway is always primary concern, different technologies
have been implemented for those interlocking systems to ensure the safety
worldwide in the rail transport. They are human interlocking, mechanical
interlocking, electric (relay) interlocking and electronic interlocking (5).
The oldest solution for interlocking is the human interlocking. Human is in charge of
checking the preconditions for clearing signals, switching movable track elements
and for transmitting information to the field elements by walking between them (6).
The mechanical interlocking system was introduced in the late 1800’s, see Figure 2-5.
In mechanical interlocking system, the mechanical levels that are interlocked with
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each other are operated by signaler. The safety of this system is secured by using
robust mechanical and/or electrical components (6).
Figure 2-5: Mechanical Interlocking System (9)
Relay-based interlocking system was introduced after mechanical interlocking

system. A signal relay is specially designed for the safety-related operation. The
interlocking consists of complex circuitry implemented by relays and the field
elements are operated and controlled purely electrically.
Electronic interlocking systems became prevailing after 1980s. The systems have
high degree of complexity and are easily affected by external influences. The
interlocking functions are programmed by software, and the hardwares are made by
electronic components which are not robust as mechanical components. These cause
that the inherent fail-safe design is hardly applied to electronic interlocking systems
as before. To increase the reliability, hardware dependency are widely used in
electronic interlocking systems. There are three major forms of system redundancy,
depended on special national requirements, in various electronic interlocking
systems. (5)
Signals and switches are controlled from signal boxes as they are known. Points and
routes are thus interlocked to ensure safe movements. In most signal boxes, the
interlocking apparatus only controls points and signals over a short distance. For
modern (relay and electronic) interlocking systems, it is technically possible to
remotely control several interlocking together from a single central command center
by movement inspectors (3).
Several additional features can thus help to increase the level of automation (3):
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 a track clear detection systems is needed to detect whether a block section is
occupied or available for a next train;
 a train describer system is needed in order to assign a train number to the
occupation of a block; and
 an automated route setting system where alternative routes are stored and
can be set automatically in the case of a conflict or occupancy.
Consequently, automation and, in particular, the remote control of interlocking is an

important precondition for efficient and cost-effective rail operation (3).
2.2.2 Track Circuits
Track circuit is the fundamental method of train detection. The first track circuit,
based on a DC technology, has been invented at the end of nineteenth. Over the
years, the continuous technological development has enabled to realize track circuits
in an increasingly performing way by using AC technology and modulations, but
the basic principle for train detection is still the same. An alternative approach is the
Axle Counter system, which uses a “check-in/check-out” logic. By comparing the
result for the axles counted in a block section with the result for those counted out, it
is possible to know the status of the track section (free or occupied). Track circuits
contributes also for the vehicle’s speed control, since the electrical signals used for
train detection can be exchanged between wayside and on-board for the
transmission of speed commands. This can be realized through a modulation of the
track signal and is known as “coded track circuits”. Perhaps, no single invention in
the history of the development of railway transportation has contributed more
towards safety and dispatch in that field than the track circuit. (10)
Figure 2-6: Unoccupied Block
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When a train approaches the block, its wheels and axles connect the two running
rails together shorting the battery and thereby reducing to zero the current through
the relay. This causes the relay to “drop” (Figure 2-7), turning off the green signal
light and turning on the red light to indicate that the block is occupied by a train. A
series resistor with the battery protects it by limiting the current that it must provide
when a train is present. (10)
Figure 2-7: Occupied Block
2.2.3 Balise Group
A balise is a physical equipment installed on a sleeper (e.g. wood or concrete

sleeper). The balise does not require external power supply; it is activated/energized
by a specific equipment and related antenna installed on a train. The function of a
balise is mainly to send information (fixed or variable) to the on-board that
energizes/activates it. (11)
Figure 2-8: Balise
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Balise is an electronic beacon or transponder placed between the rails of a railway as
part of an automatic train protection (ATP) system. Transmission device (passive
transponder) that can send telegrams (or tele-powering) to an on-Board subsystem
passing over it. The on-board system tracks the train’s location by counting wheel
rotations, and correcting at fixed locations known as balises. Balises constitute an
integral part of the European Train Control System, where they serve as “beacons”
giving the exact location of a train. A balise which complies with the European Train
Control System specification is called a Eurobalise.
2.2.4 Level Crossing
A level crossing is a place where a railway is crossed by another type of way on the
same level. There are about 120,000 level crossings in the EU. On average, there are
five level crossings per 10 line-km in the EU. Level crossings represent the largest
single risk of catastrophic train accident on European railways. In 2010, 619
significant level crossing accidents occurred in the EU resulting in 359 fatalities and
327 serious injuries. Level crossing accidents represent 27 % of all significant railway
accidents and 28 % of all fatalities on railway, suicides excluded. At the same time,
only one in one hundred of road users that die each year on EU roads dies on level
crossing. Economic impact of fatalities and serious injuries in level crossing accidents
in 2010 is estimated at EUR 350 million. Costs of delays due to level crossing
accidents are not available at EU level, but level crossing accidents have damaging
impact on the key strengths of the rail transport: safety, reliability and speed.
In physical terms, a level crossing is a comparatively simple thing. Legally, it is
much more complicated. The legislation governing level crossings is complex and
antiquated, much of it dating back to the nineteenth century when the main railways
were constructed. The provisions relevant to level crossings are difficult to access.
This arises partly because they are spread across legislation relating to a number of
different subject areas – railways, highways/roads, health and safety, planning and
criminal law. Furthermore, the provisions are contained in a combination of public
general Acts, private Acts, bye-laws, and subordinate legislation in the form of
Orders and Regulations, many of which have been amended heavily in recent years.
More specifically, under the current system, the procedure for making generic
changes to the protective measures at level crossings is cumbersome and expensive.
In addition, the procedures for closure of level crossings are complicated and time-
consuming. (12)
2.2.5 Traffic Management System (TMS)
TMS is an autonomous system for the complete real-time management of railway

traffic over a given network.
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The goal of the TMS is to execute a predefined plan as well as possible, given a
certain optimization criterion. The TMS detects and solves future conflicts and
generates a new conflict free plan by shifting timetable target times and exploiting
alternative routes. The TMS also supports the implementation of this plan by giving
advisory speeds (or time-location-speed slots) to train drivers and advices about
routes, route setting times and order changes to dispatchers.
The TMS is highly suitable to support dispatchers, solving routine conflicts with a
high level of automation (which can be adapted to the desires of a dispatcher), thus
freeing the dispatcher of this work so that he/she can focus on tactical decisions and
also preventing that small deviations become large ones by intervening at an early
stage.
Even problems with a limited number of trains on a limited network (e.g. 5 trains
approaching‘s Hertogenbosch from different directions) have many solution
possibilities and involve many relevant details, while there can be large differences
in quality between various solutions. This quickly grows beyond human capabilities
and response times. At the same time, computers are very good at this.
On the other hand, humans are very good at a tactical level, requiring a broader
overview and creativity, dealing with problems that as yet cannot easily be
formulated in mathematical terms or are too complex to solve.
Figure 2-9: Traffic Management System (TMS)
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The Rail system is not unique, not in process, not in complexity, not in operator
interfacing needs. Decision support and control systems have been implemented
successfully for similar systems. Clearly, a step by step approach in implementation
is advisable. Due to its modularity TMS is suitable for this.
In simulation studies and a pilot implementation TMS already has shown its value,
increasing punctuality, reducing energy consumption and reducing the number of
non-commercial stops for freight trains.
2.2.6 Signals
Railway signal is a visual display device that conveys instructions or provides

advance warning of instructions regarding the driver’s authority to proceed. The
driver interprets the signal's indication and acts accordingly. Typically, a signal
might inform the driver of the speed at which the train may safely proceed or it may
instruct the driver to stop.
Figure 2-10: Semaphore Signals (left) & Color-light Signals (right)
Originally, signals displayed simple stop or proceed indications. As traffic density

increased, this proved to be too limiting and refinements were added. One such
refinement was the addition of distant signals on the approach to stop signals. The
distant signal gave the driver warning that he was approaching a signal which might
require a stop. This allowed for an overall increase in speed, since train drivers no
longer had to drive at a speed within sighting distance of the stop signal.
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Under timetable and train order operation, the signals did not directly convey orders
to the train crew. Instead, they directed the crew to pick up orders, possibly stopping
to do so if the order warranted it.
Signals are used to indicate one or more of the following:
 That the line ahead is clear (free of any obstruction) or blocked

 That the driver has permission to proceed
 That points (also called switch or turnout in the US) are set correctly
 Which way points are set
 The speed the train may travel
 The state of the next signal
 That the train orders are to be picked up by the crew
Signals can be placed:
 At the start of a section of track

 On the approach to a movable item of infrastructure, such as points or
switches or a swingbridge
 In advance of other signals
 On the approach to a level crossing
 At a switch or turnout
 Ahead of platforms or other places that trains are likely to be stopped
 At train order stations
'Running lines' are usually continuously signaled. Each line of a double track railway
is normally signaled in one direction only, with all signals facing the same direction
on either line. Where bidirectional signaling is installed, signals face in both
directions on both tracks (sometimes known as 'reversible working' where lines are
not normally used for bidirectional working). Signals are generally not provided for
controlling movements within sidings or yard areas.
Signals were originally controlled by levers situated at the signals, and later by
levers grouped together and connected to the signal by wire cables, or pipes
supported on rollers (US). Often these levers were placed in a special building,
known as a signal box (UK) or interlocking tower (US), and eventually they were
mechanically interlocked to prevent the display of a signal contrary to the alignment
of the switch points. Automatic traffic control systems added track circuits to detect
the presence of trains and alter signal aspects to reflect their presence or absence.
2.2.7 Signaling Boards
Signaling boards give the driver fixed information (e.g. tunnels, bridges, speed
restriction area, etc.) (13).
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To ensure safe operation, a track section is supervised by an interlocking located at
the end of that section, usually at a station. Signals are placed at the entrance of
every section and sometimes in the middle to allow or restrict the passing of a train
into that section. Signals restrict the passing of a train when a failyre occurs on a
track circuit or an interlocking, and warns it to circulate with caution when there is a
failure in a level crossing. When a signal fails, the balise group associated with it will
force the train to stop. If a balise does not work properly, it will produce an
emergency brake (EB). A single TMS fails, the operation has an automatic mode that
allows normal operation for a maximum of 2 hours. After that time, operation is not
possible. If there is a stoppage of operation caused by a failure on the signaling
system of a track section, railway operation can still be possible on that section if the
dispatcher allows the driver to circulate with caution in a degraded operational
mode. In this case, the maximum speed is 40 km/h and the driver’s visual
supervision is required to ensure safe circulation (e.g. there is no damage in the
track; the switch is in the correct position etc.). (13)
The operation time between failure is represented by the total duration of operation
time between two consecutive restorations. Signaling systems supervise the railway
at all times, not only when a train passes, making them continuously operating
items. Therefore, all maintenance time will affect the operation of the signaling
system. (13)
Figure 2-11: RBD of a Signaling System
Railway signaling systems are mainly divided into two main groups on a railway
block basis, which is consist of Fixed-block signaling systems (conventional railway
signaling systems), in that railway lines are partitioned into blocks with fixed length,
and Moving-block signaling systems, in that the sum of the length of train and its
braking distance is considered as a moving block. In this chapter, basic definitions of
these two signaling systems are presented.
2.3 Fixed-Block Signaling Systems

Fixed-block signaling is a solution based on a technology invented in the 1860’s.
Fixed-block signaling creates an artificial separation between trains. Fixed-block

signaling divides the track into small blocks which determines how far apart trains
will be kept for safety and how frequently stations will be serviced.
Looking back over the past few decades, railway signaling technology has been
based mainly on the so called “Conventional Fixed-Block System” principle.
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Traditional signaling systems are based on fixed blocks: the railway is divided into
sections of track, which are separated by signals. A train is not allowed to enter a
given track section (=block) before the preceding train has cleared it.
This system has a number of disadvantages, one being its lack of flexibility: the block
size is the same for all trains regardless of their speed and braking performance.
Thus the big safety distances required by fast trains are imposed on slower trains as
well. Obviously this reduces track capacity.
The fixed-block technology inherently imposed a service limitation because of the

need to reserve buffer block(s) for train separation. With increasing patronage,
demand grew to achieve higher line capacities on existing rail infrastructures. In
order to realize this requirement without major upgrades to the rolling stock and rail
infrastructure, intelligent signaling and train control systems have become a crucial
technology for the new age of rail systems and services. The distance-to-go
principle has therefore been developed on the “Fixed-Block System,” which provides
flexible control of the buffer block(s) for train separation.
In fixed-block railway signaling systems, railway lines are divided into fixed length
subsections, named as railway blocks. The length of a railway block is determined
according to different variables such as the permitted line speed and the gradient of
the railway line. Each block has entrance and exit signals with different types
depending on the location of the signal (14). Dispatchers (responsible officers)
request routes for incoming and outgoing trains in the region of their responsibility
(15).
Figure 2-12: Fixed-block Signaling System (16)
Figure 2-12 represents blocks are defined as the distance between two signals. Trains
are prevented from colliding by ensuring that only one train is allowed into a block
at once (16).
In fixed block signaling, movement authority is provided by signals that instruct

train divers on whether to stop or to progress through a block. Movement authority
is given to a fixed point on the track - i.e. the location of the next signal. Train
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detection equipment, for example electrical circuits built into the track, can detect
whether a train is occupying a particular block. Other track-side equipment (known
as interlocking) analyses information from the train detection equipment to
determine whether a block is available for a train to move into, before the signals can
give a train permission to move (16).
Typically, the lengths of the blocks on a particular route are chosen to safely
accommodate the fastest trains with the longest stopping distances. Stopping
distances vary between trains because of a number of factors, such as the speed of
the train, the age of the brakes and the weight of the freight being transported. Fixed
block signaling therefore prevents better-performing trains with shorter stopping
distances from travelling closer together. In some cases, block lengths are chosen to
optimize capacity for the trains that use the line most frequently. Trains with longer
stopping distances can still use the line, but are run at a reduced speed (16).
An automatic fixed block signaling system consists of lineside signals and train
detection devices (axle counters). In its basic form, it uses fixed block sections, which
are protected by signals. Signals allow control of the traffic on the network, and to
avoid collisions among trains. A block section is a track segment between two
signals, which may be red, yellow or green. A red signal means either another train
occupies the subsequent block or it is not in use, a yellow signal means that the
subsequent block section is empty but the following block section is occupied, and a
green signal means the next two block sections are empty ensuring the train ride
without any obstruction. Thus, a train is allowed to occupy a certain block section
either the signal released is green or yellow. The later indicates the train driver to
decelerate to 40 km/h, keeping this “sight” speed until the next indication. Due to
safety reasons, it is assumed that a block section must be at least as long as the
braking distance required for a train running at the maximum allowed speed.
Travelling time in each block section is called block running time, calculated
according to the physical characteristics of the railway infrastructure and rolling
stock, and also the running time supplements added as scheduled running times to
recover the planned operation. Besides, this running time can also include dwell
time at stops and surrounding acceleration or deceleration times.
The time interval in which a block is allocated to a train and blocked for other trains
is called blocking time (17) the blocking time is the most important design variable to
estimate infrastructure capacity and to design schedules. The minimum time
between two succeeding trains, or headway as it is known, is determined by the
blocking time (3). The headway is the interval between two following trains. The
minimum headway on a line with a fixed block system depends on the blocking
time, the time interval in which a section of track is exclusively allocated to a train
and therefore blocked for all other trains. In this sense, the blocking times describe
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the occupation of the infrastructure sections. The blocking time is longer than the
block running time, and it consists of:
 Time for clearing the signal

 Sight and Reaction time to view the signal aspect
 Approach Time between the signal that provides the approach indication and
the entrance signal
 Time between block signals: Block Running Time
 Time to clear the block section, including safety margin of one train length
 Release time to “unlock” the block system
Figure 2-13 illustrates that the blocking time is significantly longer than the time
used to pass the block distance. The occupation and clearance of a track section is
detected by a track clear detection device, which could either be implemented by
axle counters or track circuits, or by human staff (3).
Figure 2-13: Elements of the blocking time
It is possible to detect the position of a train using track clear detection devices. This
information is used by dispatchers to detect deviations and possible consequential
conflicts. This position and time information is discrete data in general. Between two
detection points no information about a train is therefore available. Continuous train
detection systems are available, but are not widespread due to their high cost (3).
Automated route setting and releasing based on track clear detection systems helps
to minimize the fixed, train-independent system times for route setting and
releasing. Having a total route setting and release time of almost two minutes for
mechanical interlocking and manual block systems in the 1970s [43], these times are
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minimized for automatic systems to a few seconds nowadays depending on the
complexity of interlocking area and conflicting routes (3).
In the case of a cab signaling system, the fixed minimum approach time (depending
on the distance between the distant and main signal and the track speed) can be
replaced by the duration based on the braking time depending on the actual, specific
speed and position (braking curves). Therefore, the use of cab signaling systems can
reduce blocking times.
By stringing together, the blocking times along the line on which a train is running,
the blocking time stairways in the time-distance diagram represent the use of the
infrastructure perfectly (Figure 2-14). The minimum headway of two trains between
two stations, overtaking or crossing points may accordingly be determined. In
addition, conflicts in the schedule or during operations can be identified (3).
Figure 2-14: Blocking time stairways
Blocking time stairways show that the number of trains operating on a track section
is maximized when the blocking time for each train and the speed differences
between the trains are minimum. Another insight is that capacity is improved by
reducing the block distance. And finally, blocking times depend on train speeds.
Higher speeds, on the one hand, reduce the occupation time for the block section,
but increase approach time because of the braking distance extension on the other
hand. This leads to a non-linear dependency between travel speed and minimum
headway time. Depending on the safety system (especially the fixed block length)
and braking coefficient, the optimum travel speed to minimize the headway (and
maximize capacity) is between 60 and 100 kilometers per hour (18)
2.3.1 Components Fixed-Block Signaling Systems
The components of fixed-block signaling systems are given in below: (19)
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Traffic Control Center: is responsible for all railway traffic by providing an
interface between the interlocking system and the dispatchers. Dispatchers
(responsible officer) may send several requests to the interlocking system for
evaluation such as route reservation request, point machine position request or field
component blocking requests. Another main responsibility of the traffic control
center is to log and monitor the train movements. (19)
Interlocking system (Signaling System Control Software): The signaling system
control software, namely, the interlocking system (IS) receives the requests of the
traffic control center, and evaluates these requests of the dispatchers for a final
decision. The requests of the dispatchers can be accepted or rejected according to the
safety restrictions. Then, it sends proper commands to the railway field equipment,
if necessary. The design, development and the testing process of the interlocking
system should be carefully handled and realized with respect to the related
functional safety requirements (20).
Railway blocks (RBs): are the subsections of the railway lines with fixed-length. The
entrance and exit of a RB is equipped with signals to inform train drivers. The
location of the trains are detecting by using simple electrical circuits know as track
circuits or devices known as axle counters. (19) The occupation of a train in a railway
block is detected by the help of track circuits or axle counters (21). Depending on the
length of the block, one or more track circuits are used. Track circuits operate
according to the short-circuit principle. By the entrance of a train into a railway
block, the track circuit is short-circuited by the axles of the train. In this situation, the
interlocking system considers that the related block is occupied. TCDD uses three
different types of track circuits, namely, DC-type, AC-type, and Jointless-type track
circuits (14). On the other hand, axle counters can be used to detect the train
locations. The counter heads of the axle counters are located at the intersection
points of the railway blocks and count the train axles. The railway block is assumed
to be occupied until the total number of the incoming axles becomes equal to the
total number of the outgoing axles. (15)
Figure 2-15: General Block Diagram of a Fixed-block Signaling System
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Signals (SLs): are used to inform the train drivers about the situation of their way.
Even different colors and their combinations are in use and differ from country to
country, the red color and the green color have similar meanings. Turkish State
Railways use the red color to denote the next two RBs are occupied whereas the
green color denotes the next two RBs are free. The yellow color denotes the next RB
is unoccupied but not the RB after the next. Depending on the topology of the
railway field, an additional yellow color is also used by Turkish State Railway to
denote the line change. Generally, this additional yellow color is placed at the
bottom of the signal before entering point machine regions. (19)
Since every country has its own signaling principles and safety standards, the use of
colors of railway signals and their combinations may vary from country to country.
Railway signals inform train drivers of the occupation of the next block. The train
drivers have to pay attention to the signals on the right side with respect to their
direction of movement. For example, in the TCDD, the meaning of the red color is
that the next block is occupied, whereas the yellow color means that the next block is
free but not after the next block. The yellow color also permits a train to proceed
with reduced speed. The green color indicates that the next two blocks are free and
the train can proceed. The Japanese Railways uses red, yellow, and green signals
with their combinations and the North American Railways uses purple and amber
signals. Signals are generally located at the entrance and exit of railway blocks. (15)
Point machines (PMs (Points, Railway Switches)): are devices which enable trains
to pass from one railway line to another. They are established in certain locations
where track change is needed. They have two location indicators known as normal
and reverse. A PM can be operated either by a route reservation request or manually
via traffic control center. The position of a PM can be controlled by the TCC either
manually or automatically. PMs can also be controlled by the officers in the railway
field by using a metal bar (lever). (19)
General representation of a fixed-block signaling system is illustrated in Figure 2-16.
(19)
Figure 2-16: General Representation of a Fixed-block Signaling System
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2.4 Moving-Block Signaling Systems
Today with the power of microprocessor based systems, there is another option
called Moving-block signaling systems. It was a changing process from the
traditional view of signaling for the new concept.
Figure 2-17: Different between Fixed-block & Moving-block signaling systems in schematic view
Trains are moving according to a route reservation procedure in fixed-block

signaling systems. Trains cannot enter the same railway line in opposite directions
and must leave at least one block while moving on the same railway line in the same
direction. Briefly, for each block, at most one train is allowed to move. Since trains
need a long stopping distance that depends on different variables such as mass of
train, brake reaction time, or type of brakes etc., the length of the blocks have to be
determined carefully. As it is obvious, it is not possible to use the overall capacity of
the railway lines efficiently (14).
Moving-block signaling systems provide more efficient use of the railway lines by
enabling multiple train movements on the same block, especially on metro and
urban lines. Moreover, the moving-block signaling system increases the transport
capacity and reduces headways. A moving block is defined as the sum of the length
of the train and the safe braking distance (15).
Moving-Block System, which also operates on the distance-to-go principle, has
evolved. Moving block systems require less wayside equipment than fixed block
systems. They provide considerable cost reductions for personnel and maintenance
due to a strong reduction in way-side equipment.
A moving block system (often called CBTC = Communications Based Train Control)
does not require traditional fixed-block track circuits for determining train position.
Instead, it relies on continuous two-way digital communication between each
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controlled train and a wayside control centre. On a moving block equipped railway,
the line is usually divided into areas or regions, each area under the control of a
computer and each with its own radio transmission system. Each train transmits its
identity, location, direction and speed to the area computer which makes the
necessary calculations for safe train separation and transmits this to the following
train. The radio link between each train and the area computer is continuous so the
computer knows the location of all the trains in its area all the time. It transmits to
each train the location of the train in front and gives it a braking curve to enable it to
stop before it reaches that train. In effect, it is a dynamic distance-to-go system. As
long as each train is travelling at the same speed as the one in front and they all have
the same braking capabilities, they can, in theory, run as close together as a few
meters (e.g. about 50 meters at 50 km/h). This, of course, would contradict the
railways safety policies. Instead, one safety feature of fixed block signaling is usually
retained - the requirement for a full speed braking distance between trains. This
ensures that, if the radio link is lost, the latest data retained on board the following
train will cause it to stop before it reaches the preceding train. What distinguishes
moving block from fixed block is that it makes the block locations and lengths
consistent with train location and speed, i.e. making them movable rather than fixed.
In moving-block signaling, trains are given permission to move to a specific position
anywhere on the track, as defined by a computer system. This is in contrast to the
fixed block signaling (in which trains are granted permission to move to a pre-
defined, fixed position — i.e. the next signal) (16).
Moving block signaling effectively maintains a safe ‘envelope’ of empty track
around each train, which moves with that train. This envelope can be tailored to
match the breaking performance and speed of that specific train, optimizing line
capacity in different situations. For example, the same track could be used to run
lower-speed commuter trains (with shorter stopping distances) closer together, and
high-speed trains (with longer stopping distances) further apart (16).
Although moving block signaling can increase the capacity of railway routes
compared to fixed block signaling, in practice there are still constraints, largely due
to train braking performance and timetabling restrictions. This means that the
increase in capacity provided by moving block signaling differs between routes (16).
ERTMS application level 3 and Communication Based Train Control (CBTC) systems
are examples of moving-block signaling systems and already in use, in different
regions in worldwide. Unlike fixed-block signaling systems, track circuits and
wayside signals are removed from the railway lines. As a result of this, the total
maintenance costs of railway lines are significantly decreased (15).
ERTMS can be considered as a standard for safety signaling and communication
systems for railways across Europe and also world-wide. ERTMS increases railway
capacity, decreases energy consumption, and optimizes train speeds. Another main
purpose of ERTMS is to unify different national signaling and train control systems
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in Europe. In addition to European countries, ERTMS is also in use in Mexico, South
Korea, China, Thailand, Taiwan, Australia, and Turkey (22).
European Train Control System (ETCS) has mainly three application levels from 1 to
3. The application levels 1 and 2 can be regarded as fixed-block signaling systems
with ATS (Automatic Train Stop) and ATP (Automatic Train Protection) features,
respectively (23) whereas the application level 3 is considered as moving block
signaling systems (24).
Detailed explanations can be found in the following subchapters. (15)
2.4.1 European Train Control System
The basic of ETCS was defined by cooperation of railway people in Europe such as
UIC (International Union of Railways), UNIFE/UNISIG (European Rail Industry/
Union Industry of Signaling), and ERA (European Railway Agency) (15).
ETCS levels are defined below in detail:
2.4.1.1 Application Level 0
In this application level, train drivers should obey the national rules and
requirements. It is assumes as level 0 when an ETCS equipped vehicle is used on a
route without ETCS equipment (15).
In this application level, wayside signals and track circuits are used to inform train
drivers of the occupation of the track in front of them. The communication between
the train and the railway block (railway track) is realized over balises (Eurobalise) or
beacons [64]. The on-board train computer named Eurocab receives the movement
authority (MA) over balises, compares with the actual speed of the train, and
calculates the train braking distance, if necessary. All essential information is
displayed to the driver over Driver Machine Interface (DMI) (25).
Track circuits are used to detect the occupation in railway blocks. Trains cannot pass
the balise as long as the next signal is red. If the train passes the related balise while
the related signal is red, then it will stop automatically by the Eurocab, or if the
driver does not react in time for a signal change then the train will slow down by its
own (15).
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Figure 2-18: ETCS – Level 1
In this application level, MA is sent to the on-board train computer directly from
Radio Block Center (RBC) via GSM-R instead of balises. There is no need for wayside
signals and Eurocab is always up to date over GSM-R. Balises are used as position
markers and send fixed messages such as location and gradient (15).
In this application level, all necessary information from the control center to a train is
sent directly to on-board train computers over GSM-R and vice versa whereas CBTC
uses the bidirectional radio frequency (26). The location of a train is detected by the
help of balises placed on proper positions on the railway line. Balises provide
information to a train to check the actual train location and to calibrate its odometer.
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It is mentioned in (27) that the proper balise position also reduces train headways
and corrects speed errors (15).
For this application level, while moving on a railway line, depending on the
conditions, End of Authority (EOA) messages could be received by the train from
the control center and new MA will be uploaded to train on-board computers via
GSM-R. The control center and the interlocking system communicate with the GSMR
network by using the nearest RBC. As mentioned before, more than one train can
share the same block while moving on the same railway line in the same direction
but trains have to leave a sufficient gap between them to prevent from collision. This
gap is calculated by considering the braking distances and the safety distance which
can be chosen as the length of the train. The movement of trains is illustrated in
Figure 2-21. (15)
Figure 2-21: Movement of Trains in a Railway Line
2.5 Punctuality and Delay

One of the most important quality indicators of public transportation is punctuality.
Deviations from schedule reduce the level of service (25).
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Efficiency and level of quality can be improved by minimizing the “gaps” between
the elements of the quality loop. Provision of passenger information significantly
affects the quality perception, which helps smoothing the possible quality “gaps”
(25).
Delay is defined as the deviation from the planned departure/arrival time registered
on the railway stations. Based on the data the level of the service can be evaluated
and the different lines are to be compared. Identification of the delay events and
their causes helps the future planning of service and it can be used for traffic forecast
(25):
 on operational side: in view of delay trends, the schedule and connections are
to be modified;
 on passenger side: in view of the certain factors (weather conditions, lines,
service type, etc.) the punctuality of vehicles (departure and arrival time) are
predictable. These values can be used for passenger information on stations as
well as on personalized travel information applications (journey planners).
The most frequent reason for delay is guaranteeing connections. Delays above
average value have been caused by other railway companies and in case of
extraordinary weather conditions (25).
There are two specific situations in which a functional relation between train delays
and characteristics of the railway system would be useful for tactical planning:
 Investment planning. Managers are interested in reducing train arrival
delays at a station by investing in the infrastructure. The investments may
include track renewal to increase the speed profile along some routes,
building an overpass to avoid train conflicts, or introducing more advanced
signaling systems that resolve rights-of-way more efficiently. A functional
relation between train delays and characteristics of the infrastructure would
enable the planners to evaluate the effects that different infrastructure projects
(or their combination) would have on delays. This would assist the
management in selecting the most effective investment plan, given the
available budget (26).
 Simulation analysis. Planners are interested in examining effects of changes
in the railway system on bottlenecks, capacity utilization, or delay
propagation. Such analysis is typically conducted by simulating specific
traffic scenarios, given the information about the infrastructure and train
movements (30). Since trains often deviate from their timetables, simulation
models must account for delays to validly represent the real-world
operations. A functional relation between train delays and characteristics of
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the system can be used to estimate initial arrival delays to the observed
section or intersection. These initial delays can be used further as inputs to a
simulation model to obtain more realistic estimates of the capacity utilization,
delay propagation, or bottleneck effects at downstream locations (26).
Models for real-time prediction of train delays are used to detect potential
instabilities in the timetable and alert the dispatchers to reschedule some trains.
Train delays are predicted from data describing arrivals and departures, which are
gathered in real-time (31). Train movement data are collected from the infrastructure
track occupation records, sensors in rolling-stock, or mobile GPS devices. Flier et al.
(32) apply an algorithm that sweeps through the delay of the incoming trains and
efficiently finds systematic dependencies in large-scale railway delay data (26).
Some models are defined with several variables (i.e., influencing factors) that are
correlated with the type of delay that is analyzed. For example, the punctuality of
trains in Norwegian railways is correlated with the number of passengers,
occupancy ratio, departure punctuality and operational priority rules (32) (26).
Figure 2-22: Delay Attribution Process
Punctuality of transport services has become a major issue during the last decade
due to increased mobility of people, globalization of trade, competition with other
transport modes, saturation of infrastructure capacities, and deregulation of the
transport sector. Road congestion, and air and railway traffic delays are daily
phenomena and seem to increase continuously (27).
Punctuality of train services, in general, is expressed as the percentage of trains
passing, arriving or departing at given locations of the railway network no later than
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a certain time in minutes. Delays smaller than 5 minutes are usually not considered
as delays by the European railway companies because of limited precision of the
applied modes of measurement, tolerances of the timetable and insufficient means of
control of operations in practice. As there are no standard definitions and the mode
of measurement of delays is varying, the punctuality rates of the railways differ a lot
(27).
As the time difference with regard to the scheduled time can be determined only on
the basis of a timetable the latter’s degree of precision determines the precision of the
punctuality estimation. As the railway timetable for the public indicates only hours
and minutes, the train delays could be defined as being 1 or more minutes behind
schedule. A computerized timetable design enables, however, to determine the
planned arrivals and departures by fractions of a minute, e.g. in steps of 5 or 10 sec.
A high timetable precision of seconds is applied in Japanese Railways and even
some European railway companies use this for internal purposes. But, so far, the
punctuality levels published by most of the railway companies do not include a lot
of trains with small delays and therefore create a much too positive image compared
to reality (27).
In any case, the definition of delays should not be influenced by political or
marketing aspects in order to assure a scientifically objective measurement and
estimation. As delays may occur also during train stops, thus creating eventually
differences, both arrival and departure delays should principally be considered.
Whether it is suitable to publish arrival, as well as departure delays depends on the
railway network. In first instance, departure delays are considered as being more
important because they include dwell time delays. For reasons of practicability of
control of operations and public perception, statistics of punctuality of train services
do not need to include delays smaller than one minute. The setting of a larger
minimal limit than one minute delay for the estimation of punctuality seems to be no
longer justified for railways with state-of-the-art automatic train detection systems
(27).
Trains are considered delayed if they arrive, pass or depart later than scheduled at
the stopping position of the platform or stabling track. Early or late arrivals and
departures are treated separately. Punctuality of train services is expressed as the
percentage of trains that arrived, passed or departed no later than 60 sec compared
to all train movements in the same time period at predefined representative network
locations (27).
The presence of trains is detected automatically by means of axle counters, coils,
induction loops, or track circuits. In general, the start and the end of the occupation
of a signal block or a track The location of the devices, however, varies and depends
on the track layout and the design of the section by a passing train is recorded and
the data is saved a certain time for safety reasons. Signaling system. In most cases
the last measurement point before a station is situated some hundred meters or even
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more than a 3 kilometer upstream of the platforms, whereas the first one after a
station is located typically close to the departure signal. Moreover, the stop position
of trains at a platform may vary if the length of trains is changing over time-of-day
or day-of-week and the passenger access to the platform is not located at only one
end. Therefore, the distances between the last (first) trains detection devices before
(after) the station and the stop position of the different trains at the platform are to
be determined in order to estimate the remaining deceleration (acceleration) time of
the trains until (from) the stop (27).
Delay is often used as a metric of capacity; however, delay is a measure of level of
service, not capacity and the relationship between delay and capacity is
complicated. Delay can be defined as either the difference between the minimum, or
unopposed, travel time and the actual travel time or the difference between
the scheduled and actual travel time. Using either definition, delay increases as the
level of service offered decreases. Trains can be delayed by both scheduled
and unscheduled events. Scheduled delays are incorporated into the timetable as
buffer time to allow for conflicts with other traffic. Unscheduled delays are
stochastic and are a leading factor in unreliability and instability of a network (28).
Unscheduled delays can be caused by numerous events including:
Mechanical failures, malfunctioning infrastructure, weather conditions, excessive
boarding times of passengers, accidents at highway-railroad grade crossings and so
on (28).
Delays to one train can lead to a cascading effect of delays to other trains. As a route
nears its theoretical capacity the probability that a delay will lead to subsequent
delays increases, while the ability to recover from these delays decreases (28).
The amount of delay is related to the volume and type of traffic on a route. With
more traffic the number of meets and passes increases, and headways are reduced,
increasing the probability of a delay causing additional delays to other traffic. It is
generally agreed upon that delays increase exponentially with volume (Figure 2-23
a).
However, the specific delay volume relationship is dependent on the traffic mix on a
route. Different train types have different operating characteristics influencing the
amount of delay that a train experiences. Heterogeneity in these train characteristics
causes additional conflicts increasing delays (Figure 2-23b) (28).
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Figure 2-23: The Delay-Volume (a) & Delay-Heterogeneity relationship (b)
Delay is the extra time it takes a train to operate on a route due to conflicts with
other traffic. Reduction in delay is often used by the railroads to calculate the benefit
of a project or operational change. However, the specific factors that cause these
delays are not well understood. According to previous studies by Dingler on
intermodal (freight trains with the highest maximum speeds, power to ton ratios and
dispatching priorities) and bulk trains (freight trains with the lowest speeds, power
to ton ratios and dispatching priorities) in a typical Midwestern north American
single-track mainline, the delays can be categorized by conflict and source. Conflicts
can be considered in three categories including meets, passes and line restrictions.
Meets can be classified as any delay due to conflicts with one or more trains
traveling in the opposite direction. Passes can be classified as any delay due to
conflicts with one or more trains traveling in the same direction that result in one
train overtaking another. When a conflict involves multiple meets and passes, the
acceleration and braking delay can be attributed to the first conflict while the extra
dwell time required to accommodate the additional conflicts can be attributed to
each conflict accordingly. Line delays can be classified as any delay due to one train
being slowed down by a preceding train traveling in the same direction that does not
result in an overtake. For each conflict the specific operational source can be
identified. Sources of delay include the delays while a train is braking, accelerating,
at a constant slower speed or stopped. By splitting the delay up into conflicts and
sources, it is possible to see which type of conflict has more delay, why that delay is
occurring, and how it changes with changes in traffic composition (28).
Conflicts that Cause Delays When sorted by type of conflict most of the delay is
accumulated during meets (Figure 2-24). The delays from meets are much larger
than delays from line or pass delays. Each type of delay changes differently with
changing traffic. The delays due to passes are the greatest at the highest levels of
heterogeneity while mainline delays are the same with all levels of heterogeneity.
The delays from meets closely follow the trend of the average delays. Consequently,
the increased delays due to heterogeneity are primarily from increased meet delays
(28).
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Figure 2-24: Average Delay by conflict and Ratio of Bulk to Intermodal Trains
Each source of delay has a different trend with regard to traffic mix (Figure 2-25).
The delays while a train was traveling at a reduced speed were minor and relatively
constant over all traffic mixes. The delays while a train is braking and accelerating
increased with larger percentages of bulk trains. These delays are therefore due to
changes in traffic and not increased heterogeneity. As the percentage of bulk trains
increases the acceleration and braking delays increase accordingly (28).
The stopped delay is the only delay that increased with heterogeneity. Therefore, the
increased delays with heterogeneity are due to a greater amount of time trains are
stopped waiting in a siding. There are two possible explanations for this. First, at the
higher levels of heterogeneity there is a greater likelihood two trains of different
priorities will meet resulting in less efficient meets. These inefficient meets result in
longer dwell times because a train will enter a siding earlier than it otherwise might.
Secondly, higher heterogeneity results in more complex conflicts in which a train is
met or passed by more than one train resulting in more time stopped (28).
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Figure 2-25: Average Delay by Source and Ratio of Bulk to Intermodal Trains
Three methods were found in the literature for estimating congested related train
delay: Optimization-based, simulation-based, and parametric.
Optimization-based methods find a ‘‘best” route through the train network, and
prescribe optimal train staging. ‘‘Best” is usually defined as minimizing total train
time in the network or minimizing deviation from planned schedules, including
applied penalties based on the perceived priority of various trains (passenger,
intermodal, general merchandise). Optimization-based methods force researchers to
abstract significantly from the physical network, and require an assignment of
priority of trains which may not accurately mirror actual dispatching priorities.
Thus, reported optimization-based congestion estimates are subject to the context of
these stylized modeling environments (29).
Simulation-based methods forego seeking an optimum. They estimate likely delay
given relatively simple decision rules often employed by trained is patchers.
Simulation models can include stochastic elements of train running times. One of the
primary challenges of simulation is to model the decision-making ability and rules of
the train dispatcher. On one hand, decision rules can be simplistic, resulting in
simulation system gridlock at lower traffic levels than the physical system is able to
support. On the other hand, overstating dispatcher’s look-ahead capability can
overstate the throughput capacity of the track network or understate run times. In
either case, benchmarking can be a challenge; the estimated delay impacts from a
simulated system are subject to the modeling methodology and assumptions. As
such, simulated environments may not reflect the impacts on the actual system
accurately. Simulation and optimization systems can be costly to develop and
maintain. Each track configuration and train mix is essentially unique; simulation
and optimization models must be created or configured to match rail network
configuration and operating conditions (29).
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Railroads establish train classifications which receive varying horse power ratios
(HPT) in order to achieve expected running times. The higher HPT is correlated with
generally higher dispatching priorities for faster trains (30).
Figure 2-26 provides a schematic of the causal model. The most easily measured
train performance statistic is train running time (TRT). TRT is a function of the trains
free running time (FRT), and congestion-related delays (CRD). Total running time
(TRT) is predicted by isolating FRT and CRD determinants, where TRT= FRT+ CRD.
By definition, causal factors for FRT and CRD are orthogonal to each other (30).
Figure 2-26: Schematic of casual total running time model
FRT is the theoretical minimum run time for a train on a track segment from the
physics of the train operations with no impedance from other trains from contention
for track resources. Free running time (FRT) is governed by two determining factors:
Train factors (HPT) and rail factors (topography and speed limits). FRT factors are
estimated only to specify the base component of TRT; additional time is CRD (30).
The dependability or RAM (Reliability, Availability and Maintainability) parameters
are the most important elements that allow to estimate the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) of a
system and to forecast performances during operating conditions. In the field of
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railway transportation, conventional measures, such as the mean delay of the train,
or the Service Dependability (SD), can be profitably used to estimate the overall
system behavior taking into account the presence of failures (30).
In railway systems short and rare train delays are usually acceptable for frequent
passengers. For this reason, some conventional measures can be defined and utilized
to estimate quantitatively the quality of service, strictly related to the schedule
fulfillment. In particular, the mean delay a generic train collects to reach the
destination, and the Service Dependability, that is the probability that a passenger,
during a generic travel, collects a delay d not greater than an allowable quantity d,
can be assumed as indicators of the railway service quality Within a railway system,
signaling and automation play a key role for safety and service quality aspects.
Different signaling and Automatic Train Control (ATC) systems operate today in
Europe and this fact represents a technical and operational barrier against railway
interoperability. Until today, to allow trains crossing the borders of the European
countries, it was necessary to equip the rolling stocks with different on-board
signaling and ATC systems and to have driving personnel specifically trained to
properly use them. For this reason, in order to come to an international
standardization of the European signaling systems, with particular reference to ATC
systems, allowing the European railways to pursue technical and operational
interoperability, the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) was born
in 1995. The ERTMS system is composed of two fundamental subsystems (the on-
board system and the track-side system) and three different application levels have
been foreseen. In particular, the application level identifies both the operating
relationships between track and train and the functional/physical structure of each
subsystem. The ERTMS level 1 is a train control system based on spot transmission
by means of balises and is used as an overlay to an underlying signaling system. In
this case the train detection and integrity supervision, as well as the train separation
and protection functions, are performed by the existing signaling system
(interlocking, track circuits, etc.) and the relevant information is sent to the trains by
means of the information points displaced along the track. The ERTMS level 2 is a
train control system based on radio transmission that can be used as an overlay to an
underlying signaling system. The information needed by the on-board system to
properly drive the train in safe conditions, is generated track-side by a Radio Block
Center (RBC) and is transmitted to the train via the GSM-R media. The Radio Block
Center can perform by itself all the signaling functions, including train spacing and
protection. Spot transmissions are necessary only to send fixed information to the
trains as location references, entry/exit points marking, power supply changes and
so on. Train integrity information is safely provided to the RBC by means of track-
side systems external to ERTMS, as track circuits and axle counters. In this case the
track-side signals can be suppressed, but only fixed block signaling logic can be
implemented due to the discontinuity of the track-side train integrity detection
systems (30).
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The ERTMS level 3 is a radio based train control system. This case is fundamentally
equal to level 2 except the train integrity information, which is evaluated by the RBC
based on the continuous information directly provided by the trains thanks to
specific on-board devices. Also in this case the track-side signals can be suppressed,
and moving block signaling logic can be implemented thanks to the availability of
continuous train integrity information (30).
From the functional point of view, within the architecture taken into account, a
Traffic Management System (TMS) is interfaced with the Radio Block Center (RBC)
providing this latter with traffic control and regulation information to be translated
into orders dispatched to the trains. By means of the GSM-R system, structured in a
Base Station Controller (BSC) and several Base Transceiver Stations (BTS), each one
covering a given track length, the RBC communicates with the trains. Several Local
Control Systems (LCS), connected to the RBC and to the TMS by means of a fiber-
optics communication network, safely control, each one, a portion of the track and
operate locally performing interlocking functions and collecting, from the field, the
track occupancy information to be used by RBC in order to properly carry out the
vital signaling functions. In Figure 2-27 the block diagram of the analyzed signaling
and automation system is shown (31).
Figure 2-27: Signaling and automation system block diagram
The time for setting up and clearing the train routes might be reduced by changing
to a (more modern) signaling system that works faster. The signal realizing time
might be reduced by changing to driverless operation, as the realization and the
reaction time of the driver can then be eliminated, or at least reduced. However,
these topics represent only a small part of the block occupation time. Most of the
block occupation time is actually used for the train to approach and pass the block
section and for releasing the train route. Reducing the length of the block sections
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reduces the time it takes the trains to pass through the block sections, which will
gain capacity. Alternatively, the block sections can be passed faster by running
faster. However, by running faster the braking distance, and thereby the approach
time increases, which results in a limit of the capacity gain of increasing the speed.
Figure 2-28: Elements of the block occupation time
To have parallel movement facilities, it is necessary to create a sufficient safety

distance (SS) behind the exit signal. This can be achieved in two ways. Either by
means of a dead-end track (the left side of the crossing station in figure 2-29) or by
placing the exit signal at the necessary safety distance (SS) from the fouling point
(the right side of the crossing station in figure 2-29) (31).
Figure 2-29: Station with parallel movement facilit. (31)
If a crossing station is unable to handle parallel movement, one of the trains must
stop at the crossing station for a longer time while the other train enters the station,
figure 2-30.
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Figure 2-30: Crossing station without parallel movement facility (31)
The detailed blocking times in figure 2-31 indicate the capacity consumption of the
crossing station. Here, the dwell time of train 2 is considerably longer than that of
train 1 because the route of train 2 has to be released before train 1 may enter the
crossing station. After train 1 has entered the crossing station its route has to be
released to set up the departure route of train 2 from the station.
Figure 2-31: Detailed block occupation time for platform tracks of a crossing station (31)
Train service is highly affected by unavoidable disruptions representing the

operational difficulties, such as traffic, load, accidents, maintenance problems or
other operational difficulties. These factors are regarded as the common drivers
affecting the punctuality of the service rendered. When disruptions occur, trains
become oversaturated, bottlenecks are created, and travel times are extended
thereby causing annoyance among the passengers. (32)
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Railway service delay was done by Higgins et al. who grouped them into three types
of delay. The first category is track related delays, which involve train slowing down
or stop due to track problems. The second category is train dependent delays, which
are caused by train car malfunctions. The final category is called terminal/schedule
stop delays, which take place at the railway station or terminals. (32)
Nelson and O’Neil grouped the causes of delays as engineering and mechanical
malfunctions, programmed track work, transportation crew failures, passenger-
related issues, weather and cascades. The hierarchy of causes has recorded
engineering failures as the most common incident whereby it recorded 25% of all
reported delay minutes. It is followed by cascade delays that accounted 20% of the
entire delay minutes. (32)
A report on research in UK during the year 1999-2000 revealed that train delay
caused by rail operator contributes 50% of all delay minutes. This category of delay
includes the train faults, crews as well as operation and station delays, among
others. Poor rolling stocks are the main cause of the train faults which are mainly
due to frequent breakdowns and low train speed. The other category of delays
which comprised 35% of the delay minutes is due to the network or railway
infrastructure causes. Besides the network operations, this category also includes the
track and signaling faults. The final category of delays of 15% includes all external
causes which are beyond the control of the railway operators. (32)
The delay propagation and the total delay can be calculated for a given initial delay
provided that the timetable and the characteristics of the infrastructure are known.
However, these calculations of delays are only possible for idealized situations. This
is because only one railway line would be examined, no dispatching would be
included, and it will be assumed that the timetable will regenerate before the next
delay occurs. However, a delay on one railway line may influence other railway
lines too, and the total amount of delay may be reduced through dispatching (e.g.
changing the order of the trains). Furthermore, if two initial delays occur shortly
after each other, the second delay might not have the same influence, as the train
would have got a consecutive delay, also if the delay did not occur, Figure 2-32.
Figure 2-32: Two initial delays shortly after each other (broken lines are the planned timetable)
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There are many simulation models that can be used for different analysis but in
general, the models can be divided into three categories, Figure 2-33.
For analyzing delays and delay propagation, tactical (and/or operational) models can
be used and OpenTrack. These types of simulation models are generally built up in
several steps. First, the infrastructure must be built up before constructing the
timetable. Then, the delay distribution of the initial delays must be entered together
with the rules for dispatching. Finally, the simulation can be run and the results can
be evaluated, Figure 2-33. To ensure a stable and reproducible result, 50–200
simulations should be conducted (33).
Figure 2-33: Different types of simulation models and their main types of analysis (33)
Figure 2-34: Typical steps when simulating delays in railway networks (33)
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Knowing how to measure reliability and being able to simulate delays and
passenger delays of future timetables, it is possible to analyze the future reliability.
This is because delays can be taken into account in the planning process. Timetables
can be simulated for expected delays – for both trains and passengers – and the best
possible timetable can be chosen. This approach can also be used when planning
timetables for contingency operation so the best timetable can be used in case of
disturbed operation. (33)
Analyzing different future scenarios, it is also possible to decide whether a train
should wait for a delayed connecting train. Not waiting will result in additional
delays for the passengers in the delayed train transferring to the other train resulting
in reduced reliability for the transferring passengers. However, the passengers in the
train that does not wait will not become delayed, and hence experience improved
reliability. In case the train has sufficient time supplement – and therefore can catch
up the delay – before the next major station, most passengers in the waiting train
will not experience reduced reliability although the train waits. In such a case, it may
improve the overall reliability of the railway system that the train waits. (33)
When simulating future timetables and analyzing delays for trains and passengers, it
is possible to optimize the transfer time based on the expected delay distributions. In
this way, the transfer time can be adjusted so that the risk of missing the
corresponding train is reduced without having a too high transfer time. This
approach improves the reliability of the railway operation seen from the passengers’
perspective. In the longer term, a decision support system can be used in the traffic
control center to decide if a corresponding train should wait for a delayed train. (33)
If a timetable has a high amount of timetable supplement, it is easier to achieve high
reliability in the operation. However, in the case of no disturbances in the operation,
the passengers will spend longer time travelling than necessary: the passengers
experience extended travel time. From the passengers’ viewpoint, an extended travel
time is better than a delay as it is possible to plan in relation to a scheduled delay.
Therefore, socioeconomic calculations generally have a higher value for unplanned
delays than for the travel time (including scheduled delays).
Being able to simulate passenger delays of future timetables, and knowing the
socioeconomic values of time for scheduled and unscheduled delays, it is possible to
estimate the best level of timetable supplement in the timetable. Figure 2-35 shows
the idealized socioeconomic utility (with a given set of parameters) depending on
the timetable supplement, and thereby implicitly the running time and (expected)
delayed time.
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Figure 2-35: Socioeconomic utility of a given timetable (for an idealized situation) depending on
the amount of timetable supplement (31)
Block and signaling system: The signals help extends the train driver's visibility, so it
allows greater speeds. The role of signaling is to keep trains at a safe distance. In a
moving block signaling system, which is a modern technology, the position of each
train is known continuously, thus permitting better regulation of the relative
distances
The European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) is the initiative from the
European Commission to create a unique signaling standard as a cornerstone for the
achievement of the interoperability of the trans-European rail network and is likely
to be adopted by the rest of the world as well.
To account for the diversity of functional/operational requirements, three system
levels of reference have been identified. There are already ERTMS commercial
projects in several countries, most of which have already established ERTMS level 2.
In this level, ERTMS does not require trackside signals, and the train position is
controlled with virtual signals and radio control messages.
To ensure the safe operation of the train and to enable the optimization of the line
capacity, the specifications of ERTMS include the calculation method of the
Headway Time between consecutive trains: Formula below. This theoretical method
is the same in ERTMS level 1 and ERTMS level 2. Thus, the theoretical capacity is the
same in both levels, although, in practice, ERTMS level 2 is more efficient. ERTMS
determines the Headway Time by summing up the following four times (see Figure
2-36):
Headway Time = Travel Time + Braking Time + Release Time + OT
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Figure 2-36: Headway Time
Travel Time is the time required to cover the distance between two consecutive
virtual signals. Travel Time depends inversely on the train speed and directly on the
distance between consecutive virtual signals.
Travel Time = F(Distance/Speed)
Braking Time is the time needed to cover the braking distance, that is, the distance
required to stop a train before a virtual signal. Braking Time depends directly on the
train speed and inversely on the maximum deceleration.
Braking Time = F'(Speed/Deceleration)
Release Time is the time required for the entire length of a train to cross a virtual
signal. Release Time depends on the train speed and the train length.
Release Time = F''(Length/Speed)
Operating Time (OT) is a safety time. It is a constant, and it is set by the

infrastructure managers.
In our tool, train speed is calculated for each meter of train path by means of an
underlying dynamic model.
We assume a continuous Operating Time without interruptions (see Figure 2-37 a).
However, with discontinuous Operating Times, the time period decreases due to the
journey time of the first train (see Figure 2-37 b).
Figure 2-37: Continuous Operating Time (a) & Discontinuous Operating Time (b)
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Chapter 3
3 Methodology Approach (case study)

3.1 Introduction
Railway will facilitate and expedite train movement to the best advantage to serve
train service to the public and its industries with a reasonable expenditure. Many
factors should be considering in railway transportation such as railway signaling
systems and management. Railway signaling system is needed for ensuring the safe
operation in rail traffic (34).
In this chapter of the study, information about case study is represented. Case study
is Ghana Western Line Railway. Ghana is a country located along the Gulf of
Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in the subregion of West Africa.
3.2 Ghana Railway

The total Ghana rail network extends for 939 kilometers of routes (1,200 km of tracks,
including double-track sections), all located in the southern regions; it is made up of
the Western, Central and Eastern Lines. The country’s railway operates through
various cities, major and small towns.
The Western Line links Takoradi and Kumasi, serving Tarkwa, Huni Valley,
Dunkwa and Obuasi.
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Figure 3-1: Ghana Existing Railway Network
3.3 Western Line Railway

The Western Railway Line as a whole (total length = 340km approx., see Figure 3-1)
Consists of two lines:
Main line: from Takoradi to Kumasi, L=267km approx
Branch line: from Dunkwa to Awaso, L=73km approx.
The Line has a fundamental importance for the social and economic development of
Ghana, mainly due to the following reasons:
 it connects the metropolitan areas of Takoradi-Sekondi and Kumasi,
respectively the fourth and second most populated cities in Ghana
 it serves some important mineral deposits, like the bauxite mines near Awaso
and the manganese mines near Tarkwa and Nsuta
 Takoradi Port is the second largest port in Ghana for goods traffic
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 Kumasi is the connection point between the South and the North of Ghana, at
the vertex of the Western and Eastern Lines of the existing railway network,
and the starting point of the route for the goods traffic from or directed to
Burkina Faso, which is a landlocked country.
Moreover, the Master Plan identified on the rehabilitated Line (Takoradi-Kumasi,

226km standard gauge double track):
 For freight mobility, a weighted average of about 2.28 million tons/year (at
starting of analysis-2018); this volume will rise to 3.65million ton/year (2030)
and 5.12 million tons/year (2047); the annual growth rate adopted varies
between 2% and 4% during the whole period of analysis
 For passenger mobility, a weighted average of about 5,300 pass/day (at
starting of analysis-2018); this volume will rise to 9,000 pass/day (2030) and
12,600 pass/day (2047); the annual growth rate adopted varies between 2%
and 4.5%, highly correlated with the demographic trend of the country.
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Figure 3-2: Western Railway Line Sections
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The current transport system in Ghana depends mainly on the road network, made
up of approximately 67,000km of main and secondary roads, of which
approximately 12,800km are main arteries but of which only 3800km are paved.
Another, more limited, contribution that has grown in recent years, is water
transport that takes place along the Volta Lake between the ports of Akosombo in
the South and Buipe and Yapei in the North.
The existing railway network Built during the colonial period, they are narrow
(Cape) gauge, single track lines and were used for both freight and passenger traffic.
Over the years this railway network has deteriorated, together with the rolling stock,
due to lack of maintenance and is currently in a state of disrepair and is not able to
guarantee reliable and safe transport.
3.4 Evolution of Transport Demand

The country covers an area of approximately 238,000sq.km, with a population of
approximately 25 million inhabitants. The per capita gross income in 2010 was
approximately 1300 US$. The annual development increase in the various sectors is
between 6 and 8%.
The following table gives the global values of traffic demand in Ghana for a certain
period of time that will then be assigned to the means of transport at the various
timeframes.
Ghana Traffic Demand in Different years
Year Scenario Freight Traffic in mill.tons/year Passenger Traffic in mill. pax/day
2008 Current 28.25 0.64

2015 Start of interventions 36.25 0.73
2030 During interventions 65.98 0.99
2047 End of interventions 128.57 1.38
The import-export traffic of goods from the ports of Tema and Takoradi completes
the picture, having a total flow of respectively 14.0 and 4.0 mill.tons/year and a
container traffic of 750,000 and 53,000 TEU.
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3.5 Telecommunications
Wireless technology is the future of communication. Since 2005, throughout the
world, wireless is exceeding wire line systems and the use of wireless
communication is growing. This is due to the evolution of these technologies and
the reduced prices due to the availability of components, large scale production and
vendor competitiveness. Therefore, all over the world, any plans for the future must
be based on wireless technology.
Of course, communication cannot be only radio, but an efficient network based on
optic fibers must be used.
A railway network operation must rely on an efficient and complete range of
information: voice, data services, ISDN services, video, signaling safe data, etc.: all
the stations along the line must be connected with a central dispatcher and between
stations signal data and block information shall be exchanged in an efficient and
reliable system.
The long distance system used today and available from different vendors, is based
on SDH technologies. This system uses optical fibers to transmit digital data at
different speeds, so that there are different solutions available, based on the total
traffic requirements for any specific network.
Once the backbone, that is the SDH communication network, is installed is the right
time to choose the wireless system based on radio communication. Railways in the
past have used their own radio in the range of 457-467 MHz, according to a special
frequency plan that is exclusive for railways. For a developing country, the use of
such band and proprietary networks could, at the moment, be competitive versus a
more modern technology, such as GSM.
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3.6 Signaling and Telecommunication Systems
3.6.1 Signaling
The proposed Signaling System for the Western Railway Line is based on the
European Railway Traffic Management System Level 2 (ERTMS L2).
The ERTMS L2 signaling system is based on the continuous connection between the
European Vital Computer (EVC) on-board the Trains circulating along the Railway
Line and the Radio Block Centre (RBC), located at the Operation Control Centre
(OCC), responsible of trains circulation management.
Figure 3-3: MS L2 system concept
At regular time intervals, the trains exchange the following main types of data with
the Radio Block Centre:
 The Train calculates its position, by means of on-board odometric system, and
send the Position Report to the RBC containing the information about the
position of the train itself;
 The RBC, knowing the exact position of all the trains and the track conditions,
sends the Movement Authority (MA) to the trains. The EVC, once received
the MA, calculates the maximum allowed speed or the braking curve, and
shows it to the train driver by means of a Driver Machine Interface (DMI).
 The EVC automatically applies the braking of the train if the driver
overcomes the maximum allowed speed or the braking curve.
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The exchange of the information between train and RBC takes place through a
dedicated Telecommunication Radio Network, based on the European standard
GSM-R.
The GSM-R Radio Network is achieved by means of Base Transceiver Stations (BTS),
with antennas, located along the railway line and operating on radio frequencies
dedicated to the railway system.
Figure 3-4: CCE Functional Diagram
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For each station a dedicated CCE is foreseen, through which the Local Operator is
able to manage the movement of trains inside the station (entrance route, exit route,
shunting route, etc.).
Light signals are foreseen on the stations, even if they are an optional for ERTMS L2
Standard, in order to:
 Allow also the circulation of the trains not equipped with ERTMS L2 system
(old trains or service trains);
 Allow partial activations of the railway Line, without waiting for the
completion of its entire extension.
For the same reasons, the spacing between trains on the entire railway Line is
managed by the Electric Axle Counting system (EAC).
The EAC system shall ensure the automatic spacing between trains by means of
electric axels counters operated by the trains themselves, counting the axles of the
trains outgoing and incoming in the stations. If the number of axles counted as
outgoing from a station is equal to the number of axles counted in entrance to the
next station, the section between the two stations can be considered free.
If the distance is less than 10 km, one block section is provided between the two
stations and, therefore, it will be possible to send only one train at a time between
two stations.
If the distance is greater than 10 km, one or more Intermediate Axle Counter Block
Section (IACBS), are foreseen without light signals but with “ERTMS L2 virtual
signals”, practically identified by means of tin tables positioned in a particulars
points of the railway line with the aim to identify a radio block section.
As far as the Train Circulation monitoring on the railway Line is concerned, the
Dispatcher Centre of the Line is foreseen on the Operation Control Centre at
Takoradi station, where the Dispatcher Centre Operator, knowing in real time the
situation of the traffic circulation, in terms of position of the trains by means of
ERTMS L2, and status of wayside signaling equipment (aspect of the light signals,
state of point machines and track circuits, etc.) by means of links with each station
CCE, can operate directly in order to reduce the negative effects of eventual train
delays.
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Figure 3-5: Line Signaling functional diagram
The light signals are observed and respected only by the drivers of the not ERTMS
equipped trains. The aim of the Light Signals is to give information about the state of
the track after the signal itself. The driver, looking at the aspect of the signals, has all
the information needed to know the state of the track, and to regulate the speed of
the train.
There are 4 principle signals and, in general, the information that they provide are:
 Distant signal: it informs if the entrance route is set; if no, the train has to stop
behind the next signal (Home signal);
 Home signal: it informs if the train can enter in the station and the allowed
speed;
 Exit signal: it informs if the train can leave the station;
 Shunting signal: it informs if the shunting route is set.
3.6.2 Telecommunications Systems
The following railway Telecommunication systems are proposed for the Western
Railway Line:
 SDH Fiber Optic Network,
 GSM-R Radio System
3.6.2.1 SDH Fiber Optic Network
The backbone on which all data information will be transmitted between the
elements of railway infrastructure to each other and to the OCC will be Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy(SDH)fiber optic network.
The SDH system shall be functionally divided into:
 Access network;
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 Transmission network
The Access network shall be constituted by flexible multiplexer (MUX-F) that may be
considered a concentrator of low-speed services before they are brought into the
local exchange for distribution.
Figure 3-6: Typical Solution for Fiber Optic Network Panel in Station Technical Room
Figure 3-7: Line Fiber Optic Network Functional Diagram
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3.6.2.2 GSM-R Radio System
The Radio System network will be based on the European standard GSM-Rand will
be implemented using Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) and communication towers
with antennas which are placed along the railway in order to provide radio coverage
of the Line and Stations.
Figure 3-8: BTS and Communication Tower with Antenna
Figure 3-9: Line Radio Network Functional Diagram
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3.6.2.3 Activation Scenarios for Signaling
Finally, when the Western Line will be completed from Takoradi to Kumasi, the
Signaling and Telecommunication systems, including Operation Control Center, can
be updated in order to put in operation the ERTMS L2 signaling system.
3.7 OpenTrack Simulator

OpenTrack began in the mid-1990s as a research project at the Swiss Federal Institute
of Technology. The aim of the project Object-Oriented Modeling in Railways, was to
develop a catalyst for practical economic solutions to complex railway technology
problems.
Today, the railway simulation tool OpenTrack is a well-established railway planning
software and it is used by railways, the railway supply industry, consultancies and
universities in different countries.
OpenTrack describes a railway network in special graphs called double vertex
graphs. A user can edit the network’s topology graphically. Every element of the
graph holds various attributes. An edge, for example, holds its length, the gradient,
the maximum speed for different train categories and much more. A user can create
and manage objects for edges and vertices, and also signals, switches, stations and
routes. The following figure shows part of a topology.
The timetable database stores information for each train at each station, including
arrival and departure times, minimal stop time, and connections to other trains.
Figure 3-10: OpenTrack Simulator
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The following figure shows how the simulation tool works. Predefined trains run
according to the timetable on a railway network. During the simulation, OpenTrack
calculates train movements under the constraints of the signaling system and
timetable. After a simulation run, OpenTrack can analyze and display the resulting
data in the form of diagrams, train graphs, occupation diagrams and statistics.
OpenTrack handles single simulation runs as well as multiple simulation runs where
random generators produce different initial delays and station delays.
Figure 3-11: Input, Simulation, and Output in OpenTrack Simulator
Based on a number of input parameters, the headway calculator computes the

minimum headway between two trains and is able to identify the critical block
section. The two trains may vary in type (e.g. intercity, commuter, freight, etc.), route
and stopping pattern. The headway calculation works for fixed block (discrete
block), moving block and CBTC systems.
OpenTrack produces a number of outputs in text and/or graphic form.
In this study, OpenTrack simulation software is used for comparison delay between
Fixed-block signaling system and Moving-block signaling system in case study
Ghana Western Line.
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Chapter 4
4 Data Collection and Analysis

4.1 OpenTrack Simulation Software
The objective of the OpenTrack simulation process is for the user-defined trains to
fulfill the user-defined timetable on the user-defined layout. The motion of trains is
modeled by the solution of the differential motion equation (continuous) combined
with signal information (discrete).
OpenTrack can perform a variety of different evaluation using the simulation data.
In this thesis delay will be evaluated according to the simulation.
OpenTrack uses two different types of signals: signals with changing information
(light signals, beacons) and halt position indicators. The light signals are subdivided
into main signals (signals that can show stop), distant signals (signals without stop
aspect), combined signals (combination of main and distant signal) and shunting
signals. Main signals (including combined signals) can be further subdivided into
home, exit and block signals.
Virtual signals do not have a corresponding installation on the route, but are merely
used to show the safety technology (for example discrete block division in case of the
cab signaling).
The signal system Universal (Metric) is a general multi-aspect system, which
represents speed relevant signal information in km/h. Speeds apply from the signal's
Proceed-Indication or from the start of an optionally defined Slow Speed Zone, the
Approach-Indication allows a brake application to the displayed speed, in case a
train passes the signal with a higher speed.
Routes always begin and end at main signals (home signal, exit signal or block
signal). In OpenTrack simulation software routes belong to the vertex at which the
main signal of the route begin is located. Route attributes such as release time, signal
indications, release groups and slow speed zone can be allocated to a route using the
Route Inspector.
The top level of train operation infrastructure definition in OpenTrack is called an
itinerary. An itinerary consists of one or several successive paths. Itineraries do not
need to include paths that are all in the same direction; therefore itineraries are used
to model setting backs.
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OpenTrack manages locomotives in a database called Depot. Any number of
locomotive types can be managed in each depot. Depot databases have filenames
(name.depot), their extension name is always depot.
Figure 4-1: Z/V – Diagram Window
Figure 4-2: Document with Locomotive Image
Trains experience resistance while traveling. This resistance must be overcome by

the locomotive’s tractive strength as applied to the rails. The total resistance
experienced by the train (R) is a sum of the traction resistance and acceleration
resistance. This can be expressed in the following formula:
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In order to realistically model trains that can be operated on both ETCS Level 3 and
on conventional routes, OpenTrack enables users to define the braking
characteristics (i.e. the Deceleration Function) of a train with a menu item, under
which the properties are managed for both types of system (Function Table: non-
ETCS / ETCS).
In the case of a train that operates under ETCS control, the deceleration function
table consists of four columns rather than three for trains operating only in non-
ETCS controlled track. The third column of the table in both cases lists deceleration
values for the area outside of the ETCS control. In the case of the trains operating
under ETCS, a fourth column is displayed which lists deceleration values for the
area managed under ETCS.
Figure 4-3: Train Inspector for Trains Running Under ETCS
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The ETCS values in the fourth column are the starting point for calculating the
individual ETCS braking curves. These values are used along with the values for the
braking application delay curve (Dec. Delay [s]) and the speed above which the
delay is applied when operating under ETCS release speed (above [km/h]).
The Dec. Delay [s] and above [km/h] values are shown at the bottom of the
Deceleration Box when ETCS is indicated on the pulldown menu in the bottom left
corner of the Train Inspector's Deceleration Box.
Figure 4-4: Line with non-ETCS / ETCS Level 3
Figure 4-4 shows a track section that contains one segment of ETCS Level 3 control.
The beginning and end of the ETCS Level 3 control is shown by the cab signaling
start/end signals (CAB Start signal ETCS L3 or CAB End signal ETCS L3 in the signal
inspector). The edges within the ETCS L3 controlled area have the property that
signal information can be sent and received via radio (Loop / Radio ETCS in the
Edge Inspector). These signals are marked as virtual signals (signal box is virtual in
the Signal Inspector).
OpenTrack uses a protection system to ensure collision-free train operations during
the simulation process.
The following two conditions guarantee safe operations:
 Each track section is reserved either for no trains or at most one train.
 Each train must be able to stop within the track section reserved for it.
The protection system and safety philosophy are used to define the effective distance
ahead of and behind a train that lies in the train’s protected zone. The method
currently used by railroads is to release track sections in discrete units, or routes.
Each route is protected by a main signal, which prevents movement of trains on the
route when it is set on stop.
The flowchart illustrated in Figure 4-5 outlines the conditions for a successful route
reservation. A route can be reserved and its main signal display the appropriate
signal for proceeding only if:
 All safety elements belonging to the route are free or reserved for the
applying train.
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 The applying train must have a free continuing way at the end of the route.
 The free blocking is ensured, i.e. prevent the situation where two trains have
the same track section available for occupation (deadlock).
Figure 4-5: OpenTrack Flowchart: Track Segment Reservation
Figure 4-6 illustrates the case of a successful route reservation. In this example Train
Z1 is approaching the point (AP1) of requesting the route from HS1 to HS2. As the
figure shows, the train’s brake curve has been precalculated for the possibility that
Train Z1 will need to stop at Point HS1. In the example Train Z1 receives permission
to proceed on the route HS1 to HS2 and so the figure shows the train continuing at
speed V-Z1 until it the point where it is necessary to brake to stop at point HS2.
Figure 4-6: Successful Track Segment Reservation
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In contrast, Figure 4-7 illustrates the case of an unsuccessful route reservation. In this
example Train Z1’s request to enter the section behind Signal HS1 fails despite free
safety elements because a part (segment ‘DRW’ in the figure, overlap) of the through
route is being used to accommodate Train Z2. Thus Train Z1 must assume that it will
need to stop at the beginning of the requested route (at HS1) and can proceed past
main signal HS1 only when Train Z2 moves into the siding and can release the
section of the through route requested by Train Z1.
Figure 4-7: Unsuccessful Track Segment Reservation (Through Route Not Free)
The second major type of signaling system is a moving-block signal system. A

moving-block signal system is characterized by flexible block lengths; the block
length is calculated based on train braking characteristics, train speeds and track
layout. In contrast to fixed-block systems, in a moving block system the flexible
block (Moving block) is continuously examined to determine whether it is the
appropriate length for the optimal progressive movement of the train while
maintaining the necessary braking distance from other trains (i.e. track segments
occupied or reserved for other trains). During acceleration or travel at constant
speed the moving-block system constantly checks that the train remains within its
safe current braking distance. If the system recognizes a point of conflict, it moves
into the next more restrictive speed condition.
Figure 4-8 shows the process used by OpenTrack to reserve track sections in moving-
block signal systems.
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Figure 4-8: OpenTrack Flowchart: Route Reservation with Moving Block
Figure 4-9 illustrates the braking behavior of Train Z2 as it approaches a stopped

train (Train Z1) in a moving block signal system. In the figure Train Z2 has been
accelerating up its maximum speed, but at time (t-∆t) it receives a warning that
further acceleration is impossible given the available braking distance. At the time t
Train Z2 begins its effective brake applications, with the goal of stopping behind
Train Z1. During each brake step the system examines whether Train Z2’s speed can
be increased, which would only be true if Train Z1 moved far enough to the right to
shift Train Z2’s danger point, thus permitting a termination of braking for Train Z2.
Figure 4-9: Moving Block: Braking Behavior
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4.2 OpenTrack Simulation Results
In the case study project, there are nine stations. These stations are modeled in
OpenTrack software, in two different signaling system: Fixed-block signaling system
and Moving-block signaling system.
The following figure illustrates OpenTrack Model for this case study:
Figure 4-10: OpenTrack Model – Fixed-Block Signaling System
This case study includes two different signaling systems (Fixed-block signaling
system and Moving-block signaling system) and two different transport system
(Freight and Passenger transport). OpenTrack output is represented in different
charts and figures, such as Space-Distance Diagram, Distance-Time Diagram,
Timetable & Delay, Delay diagram and Timetable diagram in Freight Transport and
Passenger Transport.
In this case study, speed of freight trains is 80 km/h and speed of passenger trains is
120 km/h.
According to the following results, delay in Moving-block signaling system is less
than delay in Fixed-block signaling system.
The result of the simulation demonstrates in below figures:
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4.2.1. Fixed-Block Signaling System Results (Freight Transport)
[Km/h]
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 [km]
Figure 4-11: Speed-Distance Diagram - Freight Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System)
[km]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
08:20 08:30 08:40 08:50 09:00 09:10 09:20 Time
Figure 4-12: Distance-Time Diagram - Freight Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System)
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Figure 4-13: Timetable & Delay - Freight Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System)
[S]
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
ST-9 ST-8 ST-7 ST-6 ST-5 ST-4 ST-3 ST-2 ST-1
Figure 4-14: Delay - Freight Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System)
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4.2.2. Fixed-Block Signaling System Results (Passenger Transport)
[Km/h]
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 [km]
Figure 4-15: Speed-Distance Diagram - Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System)
[km]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
08:30 09:00 09:30 Time
Figure 4-16: Distance-Time Diagram - Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System)
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Figure 4-17: Timetable & Delay - Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System)
[S]
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Figure 4-18: Delay - Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System)
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08:00 08:10 08:20 08:30 08:40 08:50 09:00
ST-1
ST-2
ST-3
ST-4
ST-5
ST-6
ST-7
ST-8
ST-9
08:00 08:10 08:20 08:30 08:40 08:50 09:00
Figure 4-19: Timetable Diagram – Freight & Passenger Transport (Fixed-Block Signaling System)
4.2.3. Moving-Block Signaling System Results (Freight Transport)

[Km/h]
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 [km]
Figure 4-20: Speed-Distance Diagram - Freight Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System)
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[km]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
08:20 08:30 08:40 08:50 09:00 09:10 09:20 Time
Figure 4-21: Distance-Time Diagram - Freight Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System)
Figure 4-22: Timetable & Delay - Freight Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System)
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[S]
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Figure 4-23: Delay - Freight Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System)
4.2.4. Moving-Block Signaling System Results (Passenger Transport)

[Km/h]
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 [km]
Figure 4-24: Speed-Distance Diagram - Passenger Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System)
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[km]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
08:20 08:30 08:40 08:50 09:00 09:10 09:20 Time
Figure 4-25: Distance-Time Diagram - Passenger Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System)
Figure 4-26: Timetable & Delay - Passenger Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System)
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[S]
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Figure 4-27: Delay - Passenger Transport (Moving-Block Signaling System)
08:00 08:10 08:20 08:30 08:40 08:50 09:00

ST-1
ST-2
ST-3
ST-4
ST-5
ST-6
ST-7
ST-8
ST-9
08:00 08:10 08:20 08:30 08:40 08:50 09:00
Figure 4-28: Timetable Diagram – Freight & Passenger Transport (moving-Block Signaling System)
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4.3 Cost Analysis
According to previous studies and projects in all over the world, the cost of
installation of ETCS Level 3 is about $1.5 million per route-km.
On the other hand, the cost of installation of Fixed-block signaling system is about
$0.5 million per route-km according to survey in Team engineering.
Consequently, following results for cost of using signaling system are calculated:
 The Cost of the using Moving-block signaling system is $1.5 x 57km = $85.8
 The Cost of the using Fixed-block signaling system is $0.5 x 57km = $28.5
Furthermore, following results for annual delay reduction of using Moving-block

signaling system are calculated according to:
 Freight Traffic in 2047 is 128.57 mill.tons/year
 Passenger Traffic in 2047 is 1.38 mill.pax/day
So,
 Annual delay reduction per freight transport for Moving-block signaling
system is 128.57 x 106 x 19s = 244 x 106 (second) = 678564 (hour)
If the cost of time for every person per hour consider $2, the total cost of one
year by changing signaling system from Fixed-block signaling system to
Moving-block signaling system will be $1.35 million.
 Annual delay reduction per passenger transport for Moving-block signaling
system is 1.38 x 106 x 365 x 44s = 22163 x 106 (second) = 6156388 (hour)
If the cost of time for every person per hour consider $5, the total cost of one
year by changing signaling system from Fixed-block signaling system to
Moving-block signaling system will be $30.78 million.
As a result, by changing signaling system from Fixed-block signaling system to

Moving-block signaling system, $214.2 million will save in this project in 20 years
(equal to technical life of the project).
In the following figures, the Cost comparison in Moving-block signaling system and
Fixed-block signaling system according to following table demonstrates:
Cost ($million) per km
Parameters Fixed-block signaling System Moving-block signaling System
Design 0.3 0.3
Infrastructure 2.9 2.9
Signaling 0.3 1.5
Structure 1 1
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Figure 4-29: Moving-Block Signaling System Cost Comparison
Figure 4-30: Fixed-Block Signaling System Cost Comparison
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Chapter 5
5 Conclusion
Today, rail transportation, as the lowest CO2-emmission mode of transport, emerges
as a key alternative to road and air transport, both in terms of passenger and freight.
Train control is an important part of the railway operations management system.
The railway signaling is a complex and fascinating subject and it is the key system to
ensure the safe operation of railway traffic and it used to direct railway traffic and
keep trains clear of each other at all times. Therefore, it is important to have a safe
and reliable railway signaling system.
Fixed-block signaling system is a solution based on a technology invented in the

1860’s. In moving-block signaling system, there is an adjustable distance based on a
real time calculation of the train speed. So the immediate benefit of moving-block
signaling system is the headway between trains is reduced. Another aspect of
moving block is the safety distance moves with the train, as its name is moving
block. So instead of using static entity defined by the location of signals and trip
stops, it uses moving block for providing safety distance. Consequently, there is no
wasted space, the train is not left waiting for a block to clear (as it is in fixed block)
and the most important, and the headway is kept as short as possible.
On the other hand, according to results of case study in this thesis, delay also
decreased by using Moving-block signaling system instead of Fixed-block signaling
system.
Consequently, by changing signaling system from Fixed-block signaling system to
Moving-block signaling system, $214.2 million will save in this project in 20 years
(equal to technical life of the project).
Moreover, according to my study, using moving-block signaling system is more
reasonable when the distance between station is high, speed of the trains is equal,
and without mixed traffic. In this case study, because of the mixed traffic situation in
freight and passenger transport and distance between stations (6-9 km), using
moving-block signaling system is complicated from the safety point of view.
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Effective signaling system management

Faculty of Civil and Industrial Engineering

Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering

Master’s Degree in Transport Systems Engineering

Furthermore, this dissertation compares Moving-block signaling system with Fixed-block

1.2 Signaling Systems in Railway

1.3 Aims and Objectives

1.4 Structure of the Thesis

Figure 2-1: Functional structure for railway operations and planning

Figure 2-2: Hierarchical system structure for railway operations

The system structure is influenced by operating rules and developments in many

Figure 2-3: Control loop of the railway signaling system (6)

Figure 2-4: Different signaling systems and their interfaces

2.2.1 Interlocking Systems

Figure 2-5: Mechanical Interlocking System (9)

Relay-based interlocking system was introduced after mechanical interlocking

Consequently, automation and, in particular, the remote control of interlocking is an

2.2.2 Track Circuits

Figure 2-6: Unoccupied Block

Figure 2-7: Occupied Block

2.2.3 Balise Group

A balise is a physical equipment installed on a sleeper (e.g. wood or concrete

Figure 2-8: Balise

2.2.4 Level Crossing

2.2.5 Traffic Management System (TMS)

TMS is an autonomous system for the complete real-time management of railway

Figure 2-9: Traffic Management System (TMS)

Railway signal is a visual display device that conveys instructions or provides

Figure 2-10: Semaphore Signals (left) & Color-light Signals (right)

Originally, signals displayed simple stop or proceed indications. As traffic density

Signals are used to indicate one or more of the following:

 That the line ahead is clear (free of any obstruction) or blocked

Signals can be placed:

 At the start of a section of track

2.2.7 Signaling Boards

Figure 2-11: RBD of a Signaling System

2.3 Fixed-Block Signaling Systems

Fixed-block signaling creates an artificial separation between trains. Fixed-block

The fixed-block technology inherently imposed a service limitation because of the

Figure 2-12: Fixed-block Signaling System (16)

In fixed block signaling, movement authority is provided by signals that instruct

 Time for clearing the signal

Figure 2-13: Elements of the blocking time

Figure 2-14: Blocking time stairways

2.3.1 Components Fixed-Block Signaling Systems

The components of fixed-block signaling systems are given in below: (19)

Figure 2-15: General Block Diagram of a Fixed-block Signaling System

Figure 2-16: General Representation of a Fixed-block Signaling System

Trains are moving according to a route reservation procedure in fixed-block

2.4.1 European Train Control System

ETCS levels are defined below in detail:

2.4.1.1 Application Level 0

2.4.1.2 Application Level 1

2.4.1.3 Application Level 2

Figure 2-19: ETCS – Level 2

2.4.1.4 Application Level 3

Figure 2-20: ETCS – Level 3

Figure 2-21: Movement of Trains in a Railway Line

2.5 Punctuality and Delay