ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY

WATER TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE

FACULITY OF WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION

ENGINEERING

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING

For G3WRIE-STUDENTS

By : Melkamu Ateka And Lijalem Agegn

1. INTRODUCTION
What is drainage?
Drainage: Is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts from
the surface and subsurface of the land in order to enhance crop
growth.

 Land drainage plays an important role in maintaining and improving crop

yields

 It prevents a decrease in the productivity of arable land due to rising water

tables and the accumulation of salts in the root zone

 A large portion of the land that is currently not being cultivated has
problems of waterlogging/ponding and salinity. Drainage is the only way to
reclaim such land.
 4 22/04/2020
Con’d…
 Surface Drainage : The removal of excess water from the surface of the
land by diverting it into improved natural or constructed drains.

 Subsurface Drainage : Is the removal of excess water and dissolved salts

from soils via groundwater flow to the drains, so that the water table and
root-zone salinity are controlled.

 Ponding : The accumulation of excess water on the soil surface.

 Waterlogging : The accumulation of excess water in the root zone of the

soil.

 Salinization : The accumulation of soluble salts at the soil surface, or at

some point below the soil surface, to levels that have negative effects on
plant growth and/or on soils.
 5 22/04/2020

Figure 1.1:Schematic drainage system

Types of Soil
 7 22/04/2020

Types of Soil Water

Soil contains
 25% Water
 25% Air
 5% Organic Matter and
 45% Minerals.
Soil Pores Are of Two Types:
 Macrospores (size greater than 0.006mm)
 Microspores (size less than 0.006mm)
 22/04/2020

Con‟t…

 The water added to a soil mass during irrigation or

otherwise is held in the pores of the soil which is
termed as soil water or soil moisture.

 The soil water may exist in the soil in various forms,

it can be classified in three categories as:
 Hygroscopic water
 Capillary water, and
 Gravitational water
 Con’d…
I. Hygroscopic Water
 Is the water which is absorbed by the particles of dry soil from
the atmosphere (water sources…).

 Is held as a very thin on the surface of the soil particles due to

adhesion or attraction between surface of particles and water
molecules.

 Below the permanent wilting point the soil contains only

hygroscopic water.

 It is not available to the plant.

 Con’d…
II. Capillary Water
 The water content retained in the soil after the gravitational
water has drained off.
 It is held in micropores of the soil due to surface tension
properties of the soil (microspores are stronger than the force
of gravity).
 It is the main water that is available to plants as it is trapped in
the soil solution.
 Thus, it constitutes the principal source of water for plant
growth.
 Main factors that influence the amount of capillary water in
the soil are the:
(Structure, Texture and Organic matter content of the soil)
 Con’d…
11 22/04/2020

(Sat=100%)
 Within the adhesion of water to the soil during irrigation or otherwise, the
water content of the soil is raised to a state of saturation.
 At this point the soil pores are completely filled with water and the soil
contains the maximum possible water content, which thus constitutes the
upper limit of the gravitational water.
 It is free water moving through soil by the force of gravity.
 Largely found in macropores of soil and very little gravitational water is
available to the plants as it drains rapidly down the water table in all except
the most compact of soils.

 It is that water which is not held by the soil but drains out freely
under the influence of gravity.
 12 22/04/2020

Con’d…
Figure 1.2: Diagram representation of soil
water types
 14 22/04/2020
SOIL MOISTURE CHARACTERISTICS
 Moisture extraction curves,
also called moisture
characteristic curves, which
are plots of moisture content
Vs moisture tension.
 Soil moisture tension depends
on the texture, structure and
other characteristics of the
soil.

Figure 1.3 : Typical moisture characteristics curves of clay, silt loam and sand soils
(From USDA, SCS).
 15 22/04/2020
Table 1: Generalized influence of soil separates on other soil properties and
behavior
 16 22/04/2020
SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS
Field capacity (FC):
 Is the amount of water remaining in the soil after the large pores have
drained.

 The optimum water content for plant growth is considered to be close to

field capacity.

 Plants continuously take this up until there is no more water available for
crop growth and wilting occurs
Permanent welting point (PWP)

 Is the moisture content level at which the plants are water stressed and
irreversibly wilt.

 The soil is said to be at the permanent wilting point when plants can no

longer exert enough force to extract the remaining soil water.

 con‟d…
 The plant will wilt and may die later if water is not available.
 Water tension of soil at PWP is generally taken as 15 bars.
Saturation capacity
 When all pores of soil are filled with water, it drains out so fast that it is not
available to the crops.
 The time of draining out varies from sandy soils to clay soils.

Available Water (AW):

 The soil moisture between field capacity and permanent wilting point is
referred as available moisture.
Readily Available Water (RAW):
 This is the level to which the available water in the soil can be used up
without causing stress in the crop.
 For most crops, 50 to 60% available water is taken as readily available.
 18 22/04/2020

Con’d…

AW and RAW

Fig 1.3 Classification of soil water

 19 22/04/2020
Water Movement in the Soil
 Water movement in the soils is quite simple and easy to
understand.
 Mass of water tends to move from an area of higher potential
energy to one of lower potential energy.
SOIL WATER POTENTIAL
Soil-water potential is defined as the work expended on or by the
soil water during the transfer of an infinitesimal quantity of water
from point A to a reference pool or point B in the soil.
 The total potential energy of water is the sum of the potentials
from all sources.
𝝋𝑻 = 𝝋𝒎+ 𝝋𝒈+ 𝝋𝒑+ 𝝋𝒐
Where, 𝝋 (psi)= symbol for water potential
𝝋𝒎= matric potential, 𝝋𝒈= gravitational potential
𝝋𝒑= pressure potential, 𝝋𝒐= osmotic/solute potential
 Gravitational Potential
 It was determined by the height of water above reference level

 Water moves downward under gravity.

 It is zero at reference level and positive above RL & negative

below RL.

 According to principle of energy, water moves from points

with higher energy status to points with lower energy status.

 N.B Differences in head determine the direction and the

magnitude of soil - water flow.
 21

pressure potential(𝝋𝒑,+ve/-ve)
 The pressure potential is a measure of the positive pressure
potential and is measured in saturated soil conditions.

 The negative pressure potential has been referred to as

capillary potential, tension, suction, and matric potential.

 𝝋𝒑 is zero above and at level of water in the pizeometer.

 These forces bind the water to the soil matrix and lower the
potential.
 The matric potential is a negative pressure and is
measured in unsaturated soil.
 22/04/2020
Matric potential (𝝋𝒎,-ve)
 It was determined by the strength of the attraction of water to the soil
particle.
 It is the most important part for the unsaturated flow(dry soil)
Water flows from zone of wet soil to zone of dry soil (less negative to more
negative).
 It is zero for saturated cause ( at and below water table).
 The matric potential is a negative pressure and measured in unsaturated
soil.
Solute or osmotic pressure (𝝋𝒐,-ve)
 Presence of solutes in soil water decreases the potential energy of water in
the soil.
 The potential energy of water in the solution is lower than that of pure
water.
 It was determined by the concentration of solutes in the soil water.
 It is more negative for high solute concentration.
Water moves from zone of low solute to high solute concentration.
con’d…
 Con’t…
Components of Soil Water Potential
Factor affecting
Component name Reference State Sign
Potential Energy
Adsorption of water to soil Matric Potential Free Water neg "-"
Osmotic or Solute
Dissolved solutes Pure Water neg "-"
Potential
pos "+"
Elevation in gravitational Gravitational Reference (above ref. elev.) or
field Potential Elevation neg "-"
(below ref. elev.)
pos "+"
Atmospheric (applied pressure) or
Applied pressure Pressure Potential
Pressure neg "-"
(applied suction)
 25 22/04/2020
Darcy‟s Law and Richard‟s Equation
 Darcy‟s Law and Richard‟s Equation
A. Darcy‟s Law
 Darcy’s law can be Validated for Saturated ,unsaturated and laminar flow
conditions.

 Darcy's law says that the discharge rate q is proportional to the gradient in
hydraulic head and the hydraulic conductivity or

 It states that volume of water flowing through a unit cross-sectional area

per unit time (flow flux density) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient
i.e.

(q = Q/A =-K*⧊h/ ⧊L )

 The proportionality factor, K, is called the hydraulic conductivity.

 26
Con’t…
(1). Q was directly proportional to
the difference in water levels from
inlet to outlet, h1 - h2 = Δh:
Q ∝ Δh
(2). Q was directly proportional to
the cross sectional area of the tube:
Q∝A
(3). Q was inversely proportional to
the length of the column:

 .
 27
Con’t…
 The above equation can also be recast in terms of:

 The water volume flux per unit area, Q/A (also called
"Darcy flux" or "Darcy velocity" with units of length
per time):

The negative sign in the above equations means that

water flows in the direction of decreasing potential or
against the positive direction of z.
 Con’t…

Richard‟s Equation
 Consider a volume element of soil in the shape of cubic parallelepiped
inside a space defined by a set of the rectangular coordinates x, y, z as
shown in the figure below; profe the equation given below using the figure.
 dh    dh    dh  dh
 K (h)    K (h)    K (h)(  1)   C( h)
dx  dx  dy  dy  dz  dz  dt
This expression is known as Richard’s
equation
 Soil Water Movement Above Water Table
 The Water Table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation.

Where, the water pressure head = The atmospheric

pressure


 Con’d…
30 22/04/2020

 Sometimes the natural drainage is inadequate to

remove the extra water or salts brought in by
irrigation; in such a case, an artificial or man-made
drainage system is required.
 31 4/22/2020

CHAPTER TWO:
DRAINAGE AND CROP
PRODUCTION
THE NEED FOR DRAINAGE
 In the field, irrigation water, together with any rainfall ,will be partly stored
on the soil surface and will partly infiltrate into the soil .
 If rain or irrigation continues for long periods, pools may form on the soil
surface.
 This excess water on the soil surface is called ponded water.
and hence, It needs to be removed or drained.
 A large portion of the land that is currently not being cultivated has
problems of :
 ponding,
 waterlogging and salinity.
Drainage is the only way to reclaim such land.
 Land drainage, as a tool to manage groundwater levels, plays an important
role in maintaining and improving crop yields.
 33 22/04/2020
Con’d…
The main objectives of Land drainage includes:
 To bring soil moisture down from saturation to field capacity.
 At field capacity, air is available to the soil.
 Drainage helps to improve soil hydraulic conductivity
 Soil structure can collapse under very wet conditions and so
also engineering structures.
 In some areas with salt disposition, especially in arid regions,
drainage is used to leach excess salt.
 In irrigated areas, drainage is needed due to poor application
efficiency which means that a lot of water is applied.
 Drainage can shorten the number of occasions when
cultivation is held up waiting for soil to dry out.
 34 22/04/2020
Drainage to control water ponding
Water ponding:
 When rain or irrigation continues, pools may form on the soil
surface, and this excess water needs to be removed.
 This standing water on the soil surface is called ponding water.
 (Ponding is the accumulation of excess water on the soil surface)
 To remove excess (ponding) water from the surface of the land, we
use surface drainage system.
 This is normally accomplished by shallow open field drains.
 In order to facilitate the flow of excess water towards these open
drains, the field is usually given an artificial slope by means of land
shaping or grading
 22/04/2020
con’d…
 Surface drainage is the diversion or orderly removal of excess
water from the surface of the land by means of improved
natural or constructed drains.
 when necessary by the shaping and grading of land surfaces to
such drains.
Drainage to control waterlogging
 When the percolating water reaches that part of the soil which
is saturated with water, the water table will rise.
 If the water table reaches the root zone, the plants may suffer,
and The soil has become waterlogged.
 Waterlogging: is the accumulation of excess water in the root
zone of the soil.
 con’d…
 To remove excess water from the root zone we use subsurface
drainage.

 By subsurface drainage we control the water table, and excess

water is removed from the underground by gravity through
open or pipe drains installed at depths varying from 1 to 3 m.

 Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water and

dissolved salts from soils via groundwater flow to the drains.

so that the water table and root zone salinity are controlled.
 37 22/04/2020
Drainage to control salinization
 Drainage is needed to remove the excess water and to control
the rise of the Water table.
 Even in irrigation water of very good quality there are salts,
thus bringing irrigation water to a field means also bringing
salts to the same field.
 The irrigation water is used by the crop or evaporates directly
from the soil. The salts, however, are left behind. This process
is called salinization.
 Salinization is the accumulation of soluble salts at the
surface, or at some point below the surface of the soil profile,
to levels at which they have negative effects on plant growth
and/or soils.
 con’d…
 To remove salts from the soil, water is used as a vehicle: more

irrigation water is applied to the field than is required for crop

growth.

 This additional water infiltrates into the soil and percolates

through the root zone.

 During percolation the water takes up part of the salts from

the soil and removes these through the subsurface drains.

 This process, in which the water washes the salts out of the

root zone, is called leaching.

 con’d…
 The additional water required for leaching must be removed
from the root zone by means of drainage

 Otherwise the water table will rise and this will bring the salts
back into the root zone.

 Thus salinity control is achieved by a combination of irrigation

and drainage measures
 40
Benefits of drainage
 One of the benefits of installing a drainage system to remove excess
water is that the soil is better aerated.
This leads to a higher productivity of crop land because:
 The crops can root more deeply
 The choice of crops is greater
 There will be fewer weeds
 Fertilizers will be used more efficiently
 The land is more easily accessible
 The land has a greater bearing capacity
 The soil has a better workability and tilth
 The period in which tillage operations can take place is longer
 It prevents increases in soil salinity in the root zone
 By removing salts, it allows salt-sensitive crops, or a wider
range of crops, to be grown.
CHAPTER THREE: DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Drainage System:
 Is a system by which water is drained on or in the soil to
enhance agricultural production of crops.
 It may involve any combination of storm water control, erosion control,
and water table control.
 Drainage can be either natural or artificial.
 Many areas have some natural drainage; this means that excess
water flows from the farmers' fields to swamps or to lakes and
rivers.
 A drainage system is an artificial system of land forming,
surface and/or subsurface drains, related structures, and pumps
(if any), by which excess water is removed from an area when
 Natural drainage is often inadequate and artificial or man-
made drainage is required.
 43 22/04/2020
Types of Artificial Drainage Systems
1. Surface Drainage and
2. Subsurface Drainage
Surface drainage:
 Is a system of drainage measures, such as open drains and
land forming, to prevent ponding by diverting excess surface
water to a collector drain.
 This is normally accomplished by shallow ditches, also called
open drains.
 The shallow ditches discharge into larger and deeper collector
drains.
 In order to facilitate the flow of excess water toward the
drains, the field is given an artificial slope by means of land
grading.
 con’d…
A surface drainage system always has two components:
1. Open field drains to collect the ponding water & divert it to the collector
drain.
2. Land forming to enhance the flow of water towards the field drains.
1. Open field drains
2. Land forming
 It is the change of surface of the land to meet the requirements of
surface drainage or irrigation.
 There are three land-forming systems:
 bedding,
 land grading and
 land planning.
Bedding: is a surface drainage method achieved by ploughing land
to form a series of low beds, separated by parallel field drains.
 Land grading: Land grading for surface drainage consists of
forming the land surface by:
 cutting, filling and smoothing it to predetermined grades so that
each row or surface slopes to a field drain.
Land planning: Land planning is the process of smoothing the land
surface to eliminate minor depressions and irregularities, but
without changing the general topography
 46 22/04/2020

Surface Drainage System

surface drainage systems have two different layouts:
 The random field drainage system and
 The parallel field drainage system
 Random Field Drainage System
 This type system is adapted to drainage systems on undulating
land where only scattered wet areas require drainage.
 Applied where there are a number of large but shallow
depressions in a field.
 Connects the depressions by means of a field drain and
evacuates the water into a collector drain.
 The system is often applied on land which does not require
intensive farming operations.
 47 22/04/2020
con’d…

Random field drainage systems

 48
con’d…
22/04/2020

 Parallel field drainage system

 This type system is applicable to land where the topography is
flat and regular and where uniform drainage is needed.
 The parallel field drainage system in combination with proper
land forming, is the most effective method of surface drainage.
 The parallel field drains collect the surface runoff and discharge it
into the collector drain.
 The ditches are established parallel but not necessarily
equidistant.
 The system is suitable in flat areas with an irregular micro-
topography.
 con’d…

The parallel field drainage system

 50 22/04/2020

Subsurface Drainage
 Removal of excess water and dissolved salts from the soil

 It is accomplished by deep open drains or buried pipe drains.

Deep open drains

 The excess water from the root zone flows into the open drains.

 The disadvantage of this type of subsurface drainage is that it makes

the use of machinery difficult (not easily avail).

Buried pipe drains

 Buried pipes with openings through which the soil water can enter

 The pipes convey the water to a collector drain

 Con’d…
Deep open drains Buried pipe drains
 52 22/04/2020

con’d…
 The choice between open drains or pipe drains has to be made
at two levels:
 For field drains and
 For collector drains.
 If the field drains are to be pipes, there are still two options for
the collectors:
 open drains, so that there is a singular pipe drainage
system.
 Pipe drains, so that there is a composite pipe drainage
system.
In a singular pipe drainage system, each field pipe drain
discharges into an open collector drain
 53
con’d…
22/04/2020

A singular drainage system: A drainage system in which the

field drains are buried pipes and all field drains discharge into
open collector drains.

a singular pipe drainage system

 54 22/04/2020
con’d…
A composite drainage system: A drainage system in which
all field drains and all collector drains are buried pipes

a composite system
 55 22/04/2020
Components of a Drainage System
A drainage system has three components:
 Field drainage system

 Main drainage system

 An outlet

The field drainage system

 is a network that gathers the excess water from the land by means of
field drains, possibly supplemented by measures to promote the flow of
water to these drains.
 The field drains (or laterals) discharge their water into the collector or
main system either by gravity or by pumping.
 The field drainage system is the most important component for the
farmers.
 56 22/04/2020
Main Drainage System
 It is a water-conveyance system that receives water from the

field drainage systems; surface runoff and groundwater flow,

and transports it to the outlet point.

 A collector drain collects water from the field drains and

carries it to the main drain for disposal.

 The main drainage system consists of some collector drains

and a main drainage canal.

 Collector drains can be either open drains or pipe drains.

 The main drain is the principal drain of an area.

 outlet
 It is the terminal point of the entire drainage system, from

where the drainage water is discharged into a river, a lake, or a

sea.

 It can be one of two kinds: a gravity outlet or a pumping

station.

 A gravity outlet is a drainage structure in an area which has

outside water levels that rise and fall.

 The drainage water can flow out when the outside water levels

are low.
 con’d…
 A pumping station is needed in areas where the water levels in

the drainage system are lower than the water level of the river,
lake or sea.

Components of a Drainage System

 Con’d…

Schematic layout of drainage systems

 60 22/04/2020
Compound Drainage Systems
 Sometimes, combined surface and subsurface drainage systems are used.

Whether this is needed or not depends on a combination of factors:

 The intensity and duration of the rainfall

 Surface storage

 The infiltration rate

 The hydraulic conductivity and

 The groundwater conditions.

 Sub-surface drainage is needed to control salinity for the dry-foot crops

(e.g. maize and cotton), whereas surface drainage is needed to evacuate the
standing water from the rice fields (e.g. before harvest).
 61
Con’d…
22/04/2020

 Areas with occasional high-intensity rainfall, which causes water to pond at

the soil surface,even when a subsurface drainage system has been installed.

Rice is cultivated alongside “dry-foot” crops

 62 4/22/2020

CHAPTER FOUR:FACTORS RELATED TO

DRAINAGE
 63 4/22/2020
Factors Related to Drainage
 For the design of agricultural drainage systems we group all
these disciplines together in three types of input factors:
 The agricultural factors,
 The environmental factors (parameters) and
 The engineering factors

Agricultural Environmental
Engineering Factors
objectives parameters

Design

Feed back Feed back

Implementation

Monitoring
Evaluation
 64 4/22/2020
1. Agricultural factors of Drainage
1. Objectives And Effects
Main Objectives of Agricultural Drainage Are:
 Prevention or reduction of ponded or waterlogged condition,
 Salinity control and
 Making new land available for agriculture
Effects of Agricultural Drainage Are:
 Reduction of amount of water stored on or in the soil
 Discharge of water through the system
2. Field Drainage Systems and Crop Production
Land drainage directly increases yield of crops due to more favorable soil
profile created as a result of drainage.
 Con’d…
3. Water Table and Crop Production
 Optimum water table depth is required for best soil-water-air
relationships

 It should be controlled within close limits of the root zone

throughout the crop growing season

 If ground water is free from salts, maintain water table level

up to root zone depth (as deep as required)

 If ground water is with salts, water table level should be deep

enough to prevent capillary flow from bringing dissolved salts.
 Con’d…
Recommended Depths of Water Table by FAO (1980)

For Irrigation Season

 Field crops and vegetables --- Depth between 1.0 & 1.2 m

 For fruit crops --- Depth between 1.2 & 1.6 m

 Lower range values (1 & 1.2 m) are best to coarse textured

soils greater range depths (1.2 & 1.6 m) are best to fine
textured soils)

4. Water Table and Soil Condition

A good soil structure favours both the soil aeration & storage of
soil water.
 67 4/22/2020
2. Environmental Factors of Drainage
When we introduce drainage system into an area, we are
manipulating the environment

I. Side Effects Inside the Project Area

 Loss of wetland
 Change of habitat
 Lower water table
 Subsidence
 Erosion
 Seepage
 Leaching of nutrients, pesticides and other elements
 68 4/22/2020

2. Side effects outside the project area

 Disposal of drainage effluent (liquid wastes)

 Seepage from drainage canals

 Lower upstream water table

 69
3. Engineering Factors of Drainage
Table: examples of Engineering Factors by type of drainage system
 Con’d…
 SOIL AND HYDROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
1. Drainage surplus
drainage surplus is based on:
1. The maximum duration and frequency of surface ponding
2. Maximum height of the water table
3. The minimum rate at which water table is lowered
2. Dissolved Salts in the Ground Water
Accumulation of salts in the soils leads to:
 Unfavorable soil-water-air relationships
 Decrease in crop production
 Chief causes for salt build-up
 Poor water management practices
 Land goes out of order unless remedial measures are taken up.
 3. Hydraulic Conductivity
 It can be correlated with the soil texture or the pore size
distribution.
 72 4/22/2020

4. Drainable Porosity
 Called as effective porosity
 It is the volume of water drained (or taken up) by unit volume of
soil when water table drops ( or rises ) over a unit distance
 It is related to rate of fall of water table
 The quantity of water released by an incremental fall of water table
is equal to the volume of voids are emptied
 In general two types of pores exist
 capillary or small pores: induce greater holding capacity
(poor drainage in clay soils ) .
 No-capillary or large pores-induce drainage and
aeration.
 73 4/22/2020
Concept of Impermeable Layer
It is a layer of material (such as clay) in an aquifer through which
water does not pass or passes extremely slowly.

(Flow of water from the land surface into the subsurface)

It has great bearing on the spacing of field drains.

For fine textured soils, the layer cannot always be considered as

impervious layer, because, sometimes, its permeability differs only
little from permeable layer, hence contributes to the discharge of
drainage water. Hence the layer is semi-permeable.

Generally, riverbed deposits, show impermeable layer b/n 2 to 4

m.
74 4/22/2020
 75 4/22/2020
Drainage Coefficient
 Is the design capacity of the drainage system.

 Is typically expressed as a depth of water removed in 24 hours (one

day)

 The concept of drainage coefficient is used for the design of

drainage systems for agricultural lands.

 In agriculture lands, open ditches or drains are the most commonly

used surface drainage structures.

 The rate at which the open drains should remove water from a
drainage area depends on:
 Con’d…
 Rainfall and Size of the drainage area

 Characteristics of the drainage area and

 Nature of the crops grown and the degree of protection

required for them from waterlogging.
 77 4/22/2020
Con’d…
Drainage coefficient can be calculated:
Discharge rate; Q = Dc x A
Where,
A = Area in ha ,
Dc = Drainage coefficient
Q = Discharge from the field
Methods for Estimation Drainage coefficient
1. Empirical methods:
 1% MAR (mean annual Rainfall in mm)
 Hudson’s (1983) method
 Mazumdar’s (1983) method
2. Frequency Analysis method
3. USSCS (1972) method
4. Actual measurement of out flow from the surrounding area
 78 4/22/2020
 The empirical methods are explained with the help of the
following solved example:
Examples: Determine the Drainage coefficient and the discharge for
the following data by using the three empirical methods:
Arba Minch & Mean Annual Rainfall(MAR)=790 mm & Area =110 ha.
Determine:
a). Dc and b). Q
Solution:
(i) 1% of MAR method:
1% of MAR = 0.01 * 790 = 8 mm/day
DC = 8 mm/day …….Ans
Q = discharge of the drain = Area of the watershed * DC
 Q = 110 ha * 8 mm/day
= 110 * 100 * 100 * 8 m3/sec
24 * 60 * 60 1000
= 0.102 m3/sec or
= 102 /sec …….Ans
 79 4/22/2020
(ii) Hudson (1983)’s method:
if MAR  1000 mm , DC = 10 mm/day
if MAR  1000 mm , DC = MAR mm/day
100
In this case: MAR = 790 mm  1000 mm
Therefore; DC = 10 mm/day ……Ans
Note : If MAR =1500 mm which is greater than 1000 mm
Therefore ;DC = 1500 =15 mm/day
100
Since Area = 110 ha
Q = ( 10 * 110 * 104 ) * 1000 /sec
1000 86400
= 127/sec ….Ans.
(1m3 = 1000 Litters)
(iii) Mazumdar‟s method (Class Activity):
Determined drainage coefficient by using the following table

MAR (mm) < 750 750 - 1000 1000-1250 1250-1500 > 1500

DC(mm/day) 5-7.5 7.5-9 9-12 12-25 >25

CHAPTER FIVE: SURFACE
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
 Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the land
surface through land shaping and improved or constructed channels.

 It is needed to remove the excess rainfall as well as collection and

disposal of excess surface irrigation water wherever it occurs.

 Surface drainage systems are usually applied:

 In flat land and nearly flat lands that have soils with a low or
medium infiltration capacity, or

 In lands with high-intensity rainfalls that exceed the normal

infiltration capacity,

 In uneven land surfaces with depressions or ridges preventing

natural runoff
 Con’d…
 In areas without any outlet

 In lands where frequent water logging occurs on the soil surface

 In arid climate where the main aim of drainage is to dispose of

excess surface runoff, resulting from the high-intensity
precipitation.
 Surface drainage is normally accomplished by shallow ditches, also
called open drains or field drains.
 Then, the shallow ditches discharge into larger and deeper collector
drains.
 In order to facilitate the flow of excess water toward the drains, the
field is given an artificial slope by means of land grading.
Field Field drains Collector drains Main drain Outlet
 Criteria to design surface drainage system
It should be based on:
 Agricultural constraints (Eg. Severity of crop to ponded water & saturated
soils )

 Engineering considerations of flow through channels & structures

As surface drainage is aimed at the orderly removal of excess water from the
land surface, it has its nature and effect on environment of the area.
The design of Surface drainage system has two components
1. Shaping the surface by land forming :defines as “ Changing the micro-
topography of land to meet the requirements of surface drainage or irrigation

2. Construction of open drains to the main outlet

Under Land forming: There are three types of surface drainage system:
1. Bedding
2. Land grading & Land planning
 Con’d…
1. Bedding system
 The oldest surface drainage practice and it is essentially a land forming
process.

 The land is ploughed into beds, separated by dead furrows which run
in the direction of prevailing slope.

 The water drains from the beds into the dead furrows.

 Farming operations on beds: Ploughing, planting, and cultivating

should fit the width of a bed (10m bed width).

 The field drains discharge into field laterals and ultimately to the main
drains.

 Bedding is proved to be successful on poorly drained soils and on flat

and nearly flat lands (i.e. 1.5% or less).
Con‟d…
Bedding system
 Because of land preparation and construction of beds, the top soil of the bed
has better hydraulic properties than the „impermeable soil‟.
 A large part of the excess rainfall will therefore flow over the impermeable
layer by ‘inter flow’ & as overland flow towards the dead furrow.


Fig: Drainage by overland flow and perched groundwater flow (interflow) in

bedding system
 Con’d…

 In areas where high ground water level occurs (in rice growing
areas):
 bedding system is applied to grow vegetables, tree crops & maize
etc.
 The bed width depends upon the land use (like crop type), slope of the field,
soil permeability, and farming operations.
 The length of the bed depends on field conditions and may vary from 100 to
300m.
 The maximum bed height is 20-40cm.
 Table : Recommended bed width

Permeability (K in cm/day) Bed width (m)

0.5 (very low) 8-12

5 to 10 (low) 15-17

10 to 20 (good) 20-30
Limitation of bedding system:
 Top soil is moved from the sides of the bed to the middle

 The system restricts mechanized farming

 The dead furrows require regular maintenance to prevent weed growth

 The slope of the dead furrows, is often insufficient resulting in ponded

water.

Land crowning:
o It is an improved bedding system in which earth moving machinery is
used to make the wider beds of 20 to 30 m.

o Crowning is the process of forming the surface of land into series of broad
low beds separated by parallel field ditches.
2. Land grading:
 Land grading for surface drainage consists of forming the land surface by
cutting, filling and smoothing it to predetermined grades, so that each
row or surface slopes to a field drain.

Land grading
3. Land planning:
 It is often done after land grading, because irregular micro-topography in a flat
landscape, in combination with heavy soils, can cause severe crop losses.

 Land planning is the process of smoothing the land surface to eliminate minor
depressions and irregularities, but without changing the general topography .

In the field, surface drainage systems can have two different layouts:
The random field drainage system, and the parallel field drainage system
 Cont’d…

 The design of land grading should be consider the type of

crops that will be grown.

 Three main situations can be distinguished:

1.Crops will be planted in rows & the field surface is shaped into
small furrows.

2. Crops will be planted by broadcast sowing or in rows.

3. Crops will be planted in basins designed for controlled

inundation
 Design Of Surface Drainage Systems
 Hydraulic design is similar to the design of irrigation canals
 The design of drain dimensions should be based on a peak discharge.
Design Criteria
 Criteria for design of drainage systems are essentially the specifications for
different conditions.
Design criteria consist of two parameters:
1.The rate of water removal necessary to provide a certain degree of crop
protection.
2. The optimum depth to water table.
 Con’d…
 Several factors must be considered in selection of design criteria for
a particular project.
For example:
 Crop types (eg. Crop season drainage for aeration…)
 Soil types (eg. Heavy, light soils…)
 Climate (eg. Humid, Temperate…)
 Type of drainage (eg. Pipe drains, open ditches…)
 Economic considerations
Drainage Design Equation
Design discharge can be calculated using:
 Con’d…

 But this is not necessarily true in small irrigation schemes,

especially on sloping lands (with slopes exceeding 0.5%)
then design discharge can be calculated using:

 The rational formula

 The curve number method

The rational formula

 Itis the easier of the two and generally gives satisfactory
results and widely used method.
The time of concentration (Tc):
 It is a concept used in hydrology to measure the response of a watershed to a
rainfall event. It is defined as the time needed for water to flow from the most
remote point in a watershed to the watershed outlet.

Figure :Time of concentration

 It can be estimated by the formula: Tc = 0.0195 K0.77

Where, Tc = Time of concentration (minutes)

K = (L/ √S) and S = H/L=slope ;L = Maximum length of drain (m)

H = Difference in elevation over drain length (m)


Hydraulic Design of Surface Drains and its Related Structure
Construction
Field surface drain : Is a shallow graded channel with relatively
flat slope, collects water within a field.
Field lateral :collect water from field drains & transport it to the
main drainage system.
Field Drains : Field drains are shallow & have flat side slopes.
 Simple field drains are V-shaped.
 Dimensions of V-shaped drains, also applies to W-shaped
drains.
 Field drains (which collect runoff in both direction) could have
trapezoidal shape.
 Con’d…

Fig: Types of passable field and collector ditches (Smedema and

Rycroft, 1983)
 Field laterals and drains usually have a trapezoidal cross-section and
 Their cross-sections are designed to meet the required discharge capacity.
 The water level in the drain at design capacity should ideally allow free
drainage of water from the fields.
Recommended values for the given cross-sections

Type of drain Depth (m) Recommended side Maximum side slope

slope (x:1) (x:1)
V-shaped 0.3 to 0.6 6:1 3:1
V-shaped >0.6 4:1 3:1

Trapezoidal 0.3 to 1.0 4:1 2:1

Trapezoidal >1.0 1.5:1 1:1
 Surface Drainage Systems for Sloping Areas
 It is applied in sloping areas (slopes > 2 %).
 It comprises the creation of suitable conditions to regulate the
overland flow before it becomes hazardous as an erosion
force.
Sloping lands are terraced for the following reasons:
 Drainage
 Erosion Control
 Water conservation
Terraces applied for the above purposes are basically of two
types:
1. Cross slope drainage system
2. Standard erosion control terrace
 Water Disposal in Sloping Areas
 The water must be disposed by a drainage channel which runs
down slope.

 Slope is usually steep such that channels will have to be lined

or fitted with drop structures to prevent scouring.

Diversion or Interceptor Drains

 To protect flat areas from flooding, a diversion or interceptor

drain can be constructed at the foot of upland areas.

 To prevent diversion or interceptor drains from silting up,

a filter strip can be constructed on the upside of the ditch.

 Drainage Canals
 Drainage canals are used to prevent damage to crops by carrying
away the excess water.

Two types of drainage canals can be visualized:

A canal system (steep slope land):

 Intercept,collect,carry away water from sloping land adjacent to an

agricultural area.

 Most of the water in the system originates from surface run-off.

A Canal System (Flat slope land):

 collect & carry water from a relatively flat agricultural area.

 The main source of water is the precipitation on the area or irrigation.
 An Open Ditch Properly Designed Should Have
 sufficient capacity to carry the design flow.

 water surface elevation low enough to drain the land.

 side slopes be selected such a way that neither cave-in nor slide.

 velocity of flow is such that it is neither scouring nor silting.

 The followings are recommended values of slope and velocity.

Type soil Max.Veli (m /sec) Soil types Allow.slop

e
Sandy& sandy loam 0.75 Clay soil 1:1
Silt loam 0.90 Silt loam 1.5:1
Sandyclay loam 1.00 Sandy loam 2:1
Clay loam 1.20 Loose sandy soils 3:1

Stiff clay 1.50

 Ditch cross section
 Are usually designed with trapezoidal cross section
 Manning’s equation is used for the design
 The size of ditch vary with:
 The velocity
 Quantity of water removed
 Bottom Width
 For the most efficient cross section & for minimum volume of
excavation, the bottom width is determined by:
b = 2 d tan θ/2
Where, b = bottom width(m);
d = depth (m);
θ = side slope angle
 Maintenance of surface drains
 The benefits derived from land grading depend on good
maintenance
 Unless properly maintained, ditches will rapidly lose their effectiveness
owing to weed growth and accumulation of sediments.

In general maintenance includes:

 Weed control
 Although weeds must be controlled, a vegetative cover of the
banks is often necessary:
 to provide stability for the side slopes of the ditch.

 Removal of soil & mud

Sub-surface drain- Design considerations

Example 1:

An irrigation scheme of 100ha with sandy loam soils and a general

slope of less than 5% has a main drain of 2.5km long with a difference
in

elevation of 10m. What is the time of concentration?

Solution:

S = H/L = 10/2500 = 0.004 or 4%

K = (L/ √S) = (2500/ √0.004) = 39.528

Tc = 0.0195 K0.77= 0.0195 x (39,528)0.77 = 68 min.

Surface drains – Design considerations

Example 2: In example 1, the 68minutes rainfall with a return period of 5 years is

estimated at 8.5mm. What is the design discharge of the drain?
Solution:
 The mean hourly rainfall intensity = (60/68)x 8.5 = 7.5mm/hr
 The runoff coefficient for sandy loam arable land with a slope of less than 5% = 0.30
 Thus, design discharge for the scheme, Q = CIA/360 = (0.30x7.5x100)/360
= 0.625 m3/sec or 6.25 lit/sec/ha

Once the design discharge has been calculated, the dimensions of the
drains can be determined using the Manning’s Formula.

Note:
Higher order canal design should not only depend on the design
discharge, but also on the need to collect water from all lower order
drains. Therefore, the outlets of the minor drains should preferably be
above the design water level of the collecting channel.
CHAPTER SIX : SUBSURFACE
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
TYPES OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
 Subsurface drainage: aims to control the water table
that can be achieved or controlled by:
 Tube well drainage,
 Open drains, or
 Subsurface drains (pipe drains ….).
There are three main phases in implementation of pipe drainage
system:
 Design
 Installation
 Operation & maintenance
 Con’d…
 Subsurface drainage is used to control the level of groundwater.
As a result air remains in the root zone.
 It is accomplished by deep open drains or buried pipe drains
(Horizontal drainage) or by using tube wells (vertical drainage).
 Con’d…
Open Drains Pipe Drains
 Can receive surface runoff  Cause no loss of cultivable land

directly.  No restriction to the use of

 Restrict the use of machines. machines

 No requirement for access to

 Require a large number of
fields
bridges and culverts for road
 Maintenance requirements are
crossings and access to the
very limited.
fields.
 The installation costs, however,
 Open drains require frequent
may be higher due to the
maintenance (weed control,
materials, the equipment and the
repairs, etc.). skilled manpower involved.
 Con’d…
I. Deep open drains
 The excess water from the root zone flows into the open drains.
 Open drains can only be justified to control groundwater if the
permeability of the soil is very high and the ditches can consequently
be spaced widely enough.
 Otherwise, the loss in area is too high and proper farming is difficult.
Especially where mechanized equipment has to be used.
 ii. Pipe drains
 Instead of open drains, water table control is usually done using field pipe
drains.
 The materials used for pipe drain preparation are:
Clay pipes, concrete pipes and Plastic pipes .
 Plastic pipes are the most preferred choice nowadays, because of lower
transport costs and ease of installation,
Although this usually involves special machinery.
 In clay and concrete pipes (usually 30m long and 5-10cm in diameter),
drainage water enters the pipes through the joints.
 Flexible plastic pipes are much longer (up to 200m) and the water enters
through perforations/any openings distributed over the entire length of
pipe.
Drain tile outlet to a drainage ditch
MATERIALS

The materials used in manufacture of drain pipes are:

 clay tiles or clay pipes

 concrete pipes

 plastic pipes

The important criteria for pipe quality and for selection of the most
suitable type of pipe is:

 Resistance to mechanical & chemical damage.

 Longevity.

 Costs ( include the cost of purchase/pay for, transport, handling &

installation ).
 1.Clay tiles (pipe)
 These are comparatively cheap in cost and easy to
manufacture.
 The diameter of the tile has to be designed based on the
drainage criteria and using Manning’s equation.
 (‘n’ value for tile can be taken as 0.0108 or
0.011)
Factors to be considered in selection of tiles:
 Climatic conditions (Freezing & thawing conditions)
 Chemical characteristics of soils (acids &sulphate existence)
 Depth requirements (strength aspects)
 Installation cost (a big factor)
 2. Concrete pipes
 Used as field drains & collector drains.
 Large size diameter pipes ( up to 0.40 m ) still commonly used as collector
drains.
 Easy to manufacture.
POSSIBLE DRAWBACKS
 Susceptibility for acid & sulphates.
 Heavy to transport: hence, damage may be more.
 3. Plastic Pipes
 Plastic pipes are the most preferred choice nowadays,

Because of: Lower transport costs and ease of installation.

Although this usually involves special machinery.

Pipes are usually installed in trenches by machines

 Quality standards
 Quality standard for drain pipes have been specified on a national basis
and thus differ between countries.
Items specified under quality standard are:
 General material test as an indicator of chemical properties
 Dimensions of the pipes (with tolerances)
 Auxiliary materials (couplings & end plugs)
 Size, number & pattern of perforations
Other specifications are:
 Pipe stiffness
 Impact strength
 Possible creep (deformation with time under a give stress)
 Flexibility
Mole Drain
 Mole drains are unlined underground channels, formed by a mole plough
without trenching.

 The attraction of the method lies in its low installation costs as compared
with those of pipe drainage.

 Mole drainage may be effective in case where pipe drains are physically
not feasible.

 This type is particularly appropriate in dense, poorly pervious clay soils

which have general slope.

 Its primary aim is not to control the ground water table, which may be very
deep, but to remove excess water from the field surface or from the top soil,
where it may constitute “Perched Water Table”.
 Mole channels are susceptible to deterioration/errosion.

The rate of deterioration, consequently their effective life time, is governed

by number of factors

 Soil properties (decide their stability)

 Moisture conditions during construction

 Flow velocities in the channel (High velocities cause scouring and

Inundation may result in collapse)

 Method of construction : Soils should have a certain “Plasticity “to allow

the mole channels to be shaped and also stable enough.

 Mole drains should have continuous slope in the direction of outlet.

Flat lands with irregular topography are less suitable.

 DESIGNS OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
 Improved subsurface drainage is necessary to optimize the
crop environment and reduce production risks by controlling:
 the depth of water table
 salinity in the crop root zone.

 To assure an effective and profitable system, it's important to

couple a good design process with the thorough evaluation of
such on-site factors: such as soil type, topography, outlet
placement and existing wetlands.
 This, and a quality installation will ensure a drainage system
that will effectively perform for many years to come.
 Assumptions
 The drain discharge equals to the recharge to the ground water
either by irrigation or rainfall.
 Consequently, the ground water remains in the same position.
 Recharge is uniform over the drainage area,
 Considered as two dimensional flow i.e., flow is considered identical
in any cross-section perpendicular to the drains.
 Homogeneous & isotropic soils.
 Ignore if any spatial variation is observed in the hydraulic
conductivity.
 The drain discharge equals to the recharge to the ground water
either by irrigation or rainfall.
Most important one is Dupuit -Forchhmiemer assumption ( D-F
Assumption)
 It says: The flow pattern is steady state.
Uniform flow of recharge, steady b/n the drains
Homogeneous and isotropic soil; Darcy’s flow equation is
applicable.
Hydraulic gradient between two sections is constant.

 If impervious layer does not coincide with the bottom of the drain,
the flow in the vicinity of drain will be radial & D-F assumption can
not be applied.
 Under this condition, Hooghoudt solved the problem by
introducing an imaginary impervious layer to take into account the
extra head loss caused by the radial flow.
 Con’d…

Hooghoudt’ Equation:
 For determining the spacing of drains is based on the above
assumptions.
Hooghoudt Equation:
 Consider a steady state flow to vertically walled open drains
reaching an impervious layer.
 According to D-F theory, Darcy equation can be applied to describe the flow of
the ground water (qx):
 Through a vertical plane (y)
 At a distance (x ) from the ditch:
qx = K y dy/dx……………………….(1)
Where, qx = unit flow rate in the x – direction (m^2 / day)
K = Hydraulic conductivity of the soil (m / day)
y = height of the water table at x (m), Dy/dx = Hydraulic gradient at x
The continuity principle stats that all the water entering the soil in the surface area
midway between the drains, must pass through the vertical plane (y) at distance
( x ) on its way to the drain.
If R is the rate of recharge per unit area, then the flow per unit time through plane
( y ) is:
 qx = R(½ L–x)………………..(2)
Where, R = Rate of recharge per unit surface area, m/day
L = Drain spacing, m
Since flow in the above two cases must be equal. Equate the right side of the
equations, then:
K y dy/dx = R (½ L – x)
K y dy = R (½ L – x) dx
The limit of integration of this differential equation is
When x = 0, y = D and when x = ½ L, y = H
Where, D = Elevation of water level in the drain (m)
H = Elevation water table midway between the drains (m)
Integrating the differential equation & substituting the limits
L2 = 4 K (H2 – D2) / R OR
q = R = 4 K (H2– D2) / L2
Where, q = drain discharge (m /day)
(Assume, the Recharge per unit area is equal to drain discharge per unit area.
therefore, q is equated to R).
 The above equation is derived by Hooghoudt in 1936, is also known as Donnan
equation (Donnan 1946).
The above equation can be re-written as:
( Since from fig. H – D = h & H + D = 2d + h)
q = 4 K (H + D) (H – D) / L2 = 4 K (2 D + h) ( h ) / L2
q = ( 8 K D h + 4 K h2 ) / L2 …………………(3)

Conditions considered based on ‘D’ values

Case I: If the water level in the drain is very low i.e D ≈ 0, then the above
equation changes to q = 4 K h2 / L2……This eq. describes the flow above the
drain level.
Case II: If the impervious layer is far below the drain level, i.e D >> h, then the
second term in the equation becomes
q = 8 K D h / L2 …………..This equation describes the flow below the
drain
 The above two considerations lead to the following conclusion:

 If the soil profile consists of two layers with different hydraulic conductivities

and

 If the drain level is at interface between the soil layers, eq. (3) can be written as:

q = (8 Kb D h + 4 Kt h2) / L2 …………(4)

Where,

Kb = Hydraulic conductivity of the layer

below the drain level (m/day)

Kt = Hydraulic conductivity of the layer

above the drain level (m/day)

Case III: If pipe or open drain do not reach the impervious layer:
Hooghoudt (1940),Introduced the following points:
 He assumed an imaginary impervious layer above the real one
 He replaced the drains by imaginary ditches with their bottoms on
the imaginary impervious layer.
 Pipe or open drains do not reach impervious layer,
 Flow lines will converge towards drain and will thus no longer be
horizontal.
 Actual depth to impervious layer (D) replaced with a smaller
equivalent depth (d).
 Under these assumptions, still equation(3):
q = ( 8 K D h + 4 K h 2 ) / L2
can be used to express the flow towards the drains.
 This equivalent depth, d represents the imaginary thinner soil layer
through which the same amount of water will flow per unit time as
in the actual situation.
 The flow lines will converge towards the drain and thus, no longer be
horizontal.
 Con’d…
 On the basis of the method of "mirror images", Hooghoudt derived a
relation between
 The equivalent depth (d) and
 The spacing (L)
 The depth to the impervious layer (D)
 And the radius of the drain (r)
Therefore, Hooghoudt prepared tables for the most
common sizes of drainpipes, from which the equivalent
depth d can be read directly.
An example of such a table (for r = 0.1m) is given in the Table provided next
slide.
Table: Values for the equivalent depth d of Hooghoudt for ro=0.1 m, D and L
in m (Hooghoudt 1940)
 Con’d…
 Since the drain spacing L depends on the equivalent depth d, which in
turn is a function of L.
 The Hooghoudt Equation can only be solved by iteration.
 THE ERNST EQUATION
 So far, we have discussed solutions that can be applied for a
homogeneous soil profile or two layered soil profile provided that
the interface between the two layers coincides with the drain level.
 The Ernst equation is applicable to any type of two layered soil
profile.

 It has the advantage over the Hooghoudt equation that the interface
between the two layers can be either above or below the drain level.

 It is especially useful when top layer has a considerably lower

hydraulic conductivity than the bottom layer.

 To obtain a generally applicable solution for soil profiles consisting

of layers with different hydraulic conductivities.
 Ernst divided the flow into the following three
parts(layers):
1. A vertical (hv) component
2. A horizontal (hh) component
3. A radial (hr) component
 Total available head (h) can be divided into a head loss caused
by vertical flow (hv ), horizontal flow (hh), and radial flow
(hr,). R
i.e. total head loss = hv + hh + hr
 Vertical Flow
 It is assumed to take place in the layer between wt & the drain level.
 Therefore, we can apply Darcy’s law to get the loss of head caused by
vertical flow i.e.
d
hV  h  q v .......... ....... 5
q  kv V
dv k
Where v

dv =thickness of the layer in which the vertical flow is considered (m)

kv = Vertical hydraulic conductivity (m/day)
Note : The vertical head loss, however, is generally small compared
with the horizontal and radial head loss,
 So the error introduced by replaying kv with kh can be neglected.

 L a.Dr
hr  q In .......... .......... ...7
 Kr u
Table : the geometry factor (a) obtained by the relaxation method
(After Van Beers, 1979).

Combining eqn (5), (6) and (7) we get:

 Dv L2 L  a.Dr 
D  2
 a.Dr  hq   In  
 K v 8 KD h K r
L L
h  q  v   q q n   or  a 
 v
K 8  KD h  K r  u 
is known as Ernst Equation
Steady-state equations
 con’d…
Drainage design procedures:
 The principal design parameters for both open trenches and
pipe drains are spacing and depth.
 The most commonly used equation for the design of a
subsurface drainage system is the Hooghoudt Equation:

Where: S2 
4k z   8k
1
2
2 dh
q
S = Drain spacing (m)
k1 = Hydraulic conductivity of soil above drain level (m/day)
k2 = Hydraulic conductivity of soil below drain level (m/day)
h = Hydraulic head of maximum groundwater table elevation
above drainage level (m)
q = Discharge requirement expressed in depth of water removal
(m/day)
d = Equivalent depth of substratum below drainage level (m)
 Con’d…

S 
2 4 k1   8k 2 dh
z 2

Subsurface drainage parameters

 Con’d…
 In reality, the head losses due to horizontal and radial flow to
the pipe should be considered, which would result in complex
equations as shown below.
 The equivalent flow is essentially horizontal and can be
described using the Hooghoudt formula.
 The equivalent depth, d is found by the equation:

D
d for 0  D / S  0.3
1  D / S 8 /   lnD / ro   3.4

S
d for D / L  0.3
8 /  lnS / ro  1.15
 Since d is a function of the unknown drain spacing, S, the
calculation requires several trials to come to the solution.
 Con’d…
 Sometimes, the spacing of tile drains for homogenous soil may
be found by an approximate equation as follows.
 Con’d…
 According to Darcy’s law, Q = kiA
 Discharge per unit length of the drain passing the section at y,will be:
 qy = k(dy/dx)y ………………(x)
 But when x =S/2 , qy = 0 and when x= 0, qy = q/2

 Thus, assuming that q is inversely proportional to distance, then qy may be

expressed as
Equating (x) and (x), rearranging and integrating,

1  x  q
qy 
1 1
q q
x
 q1   S  2 x .......... ..... xx
2 2 S / 2 2  S / 2  2S

 2Sk S  2 x dx   ydy

q

q  2x2  y2
 Sx    C
2Sk  2  2
 Con’d…

q  2x2  y2
 Sx    C
2Sk  2  2
 When x= 0, y = a. Therefore, C = -a2/2
Substituting for C,

q  2x 2
 y a
2 2
 Sx   
2Sk  2  2
 Also, when x=S/2, y=b. Thus, finally,

S
4k 2 2
q
b a  
 Con’d…
 The layout of pipe drainage system is determined by the drain spacing
along with the consideration of the capacity and length of the drain pipes
for various diameters and slopes.
 The amount of water to be conveyed by a pipe drain is from a design
drainage coefficient and the area covered by the pipe. i.e.
Q = Dc.A = Dc.WB
Where, Q = pipe discharge(m3 /d) ; Dc= drainage coefficient (m /d)
A = drainage area (m2); W = width of area to be drained (or
pipe spacing) (m)
B = length of pipe line (m)
 But from Manning’s equation, Q = (1/n) R2/3S1/2
 For full flow pipe, R = (0.25d2)/(d) = d/4
 Therefore, Q = 0.312(1/n)d2.67s1/2)
 For selected diameter and slope, Q can be known from eqn.(2) and
 Then, the length of the pipe can be known, for pipe spacing obtained
from Hooghoudt equation, using equation (1).
 Con’d…
 The hydraulic design of drainpipes is based on formulae that relate to:
 The discharge of water to the pipe diameter,
 The hydraulic roughness of the pipe wall and
 The hydraulic gradient.
 Different formulae are used for smooth and corrugated pipes.
 Clay,
 concrete and pipes are considered hydraulically smooth pipes.
 smooth plastic
 Their discharge capacities can be calculated from the Darcy-Weisbach
equation.
 The discharge capacity of corrugated pipes can be calculated from the
Chézy-Manning equation.
 Con’d…
 In the Chézy-Manning equation, the hydraulic roughness (or ‘friction
resistance’) of the pipe wall is expressed as
 Manning’s coefficient, n, or
 its reciprocal parameter, kM.
 For drainpipes with diameters ranging from 50 to 200mm and small
corrugations;
roughness coefficient n = 0.0143 s m -1/3 or the reciprocal value kM =70 m1/3 s-1
 kM-value of larger diameter pipes with large corrugations can be expressed as:
 kM = 18.7d 0.21S -0.38
where; d =internal pipe diameter (m) and
S =ditch length(m)
 For most pipes with large corrugations, a roughness coefficient
n = 0.02 s m-1/3 (or km = 50 m1/3 s-1) can be accepted.
Transport Vs drainage principle in drainage pipe design
 The type of pipe and the hydraulic gradient determine the discharge
capacity of drainpipes (as shown in the next slide, table).

 The calculation of the discharge capacity of drainpipes may be based

upon two principles (Wesseling and Homma, 1967; Wesseling, 1987):

 The transport principle with uniform flow, whereby a drainpipe is

assumed to transport a fixed discharge along its length, while the pipe
itself is flowing full; and

 The drainage principle with non-uniform flow, whereby a constant

inflow of groundwater into the drain along its length results in a
discharge which increases along the length of the pipe.
 Comparison of these equations reveals that the assumption of the transport
principle for the determination of the diameter of drainpipes implies that a
safety factor is automatically incorporated in the design.
 The equations based upon the drainage principle yield larger discharge
capacities, and, as such, larger surfaces that can be drained with a given
pipe diameter.
 Adoption of some safety factor is indeed required to incorporate the risk of
possible mineral and/of chemical clogging of the pipe in its hydraulic
design.
 CHOICE OF TYPE OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

If one has decided to install a subsurface

drainage system, he/she has to make a
subsequent choice b/n:
Tube well drainage or open drainage or
 Pipe drain or mole drains
 The mole drainage is mainly aimed at rapid
removal of the excess surface water rather than
at controlling the water table.
 The usual choice is therefore, between:
open drains & pipe drains.
 Corrugated, Perforated and envelope
 A corrugated pipe is surrounded by ridges and furrows on its surface.
 Perforated Pipe is a pipe which has small slots through which water can flow
through them.
 Small particles of soil material suspended in water moving toward
a drain will actually pass through a properly selected drain envelope without
causing clogging
CHAPTER SEVEN: SALINITY CONTROL
 SALINITY CONTROL
SALINITY
 Irrigation water even of excellent quality, it is a major source
of soluble salts.
 The presence of soluble salts in the soil solution can affect
plant growth, depending on the salt concentration and
susceptibility of plant or crop.
 Soil salinity is appraised by measuring the electrical
conductivity or salt concentration in soil water extracts.
 The soluble salts present in the soils are mainly chlorides,
sulphates and sometimes nitrates of Na, Ca, Mg and K.
 In addition to readily available salts, saline soils may contain
relatively insoluble salts such as calcium sulphate (gypsum)
and calcium and magnesium carbonates.
 Cont…

 In addition to readily available salts, saline soils may contain

relatively insoluble salts such as calcium sulphate (gypsum) and
calcium and magnesium carbonates
 In order to reclaim saline soils, it is necessary to reduce
soluble salt concentration to acceptable limits and
 This can be done by leaching,provided there is adequate
drainage either natural or artificial.
Sodicity: refers to the presence of sodium (Na) ions in the soil
solution.
Soil acidity & Alkalinity :Acidity is general term that refers to the
amount of hydrogen ions in the soil solution.
 Cont…
Crop growth affected by Salinity & Sodicity
1. Effect of Salinity on Crop growth
 Osmotic effect
 As salinity of solution increases, its osmotic potential increases too
and reduces the availability of water for crop.
2. Effect of Sodicity on Crop Growth
Exchangeable sodium affects plant growth in two ways
 It causes nutritional problems
 Poor soil structure
With the breakdown of soil structure, plant growth is effected by:
 Poor aeration in the root zone
 Reduced water movement
 Water logging in the root zone or on the soil surface
 Cont..
Causes for Salt build-up in Irrigated Soils
The following factors either singly or in association with other
factors are responsible for the development of Saline and
Alkaline soils
 Use of Saline Irrigation Water
 Deposition of salts on the soil surface from high sub-soil water
table
 Seepage from canals
 Arid climate
 Poor drainage
 Back water flow / Intrusion of sea water

SALT BALANCE
 The relation b/n the quantity of soluble salts brought into an
area by the irrigation water and
 The quantity removed from the area by the drainage water has
been called “ the Salt Balance “ of the area.
 Cont…
 The salt balance in the soil is influenced by the quantity
and quality of irrigation water and the effectiveness of
leaching and drainage.
 The salt balance of soil is expressed by the following
relationship.
ViCi+Sm– VdCd +Sp- Sc=0
where;
Vi = Volume of irrigation Water
Ci =Salt content of irrigation water
Sm = amount of salt dissolved from soil minerals
Vd = Volume of drainage water
Cd = Salt content of drainage water
Sp = Amount of salt precipitated over the soil surface
Sc = The amount salt removed by the crop
 Cont…
 If Dd &Di are volumes per unit area of equivalent depths
of drainage and irrigation waters respectively, the above
equation may be written as
Dd/Di=Ci /Cd Where;
Dd=volume per unit area of equivalent depth of drainage
Di= volume per unit area of irrigation waters
Cd = Salt content of drainage water
Ci =Salt content of irrigation water
Leaching Requirement
Leaching is the process of: dissolving and
transporting soluble salts by downward movement of water
through the soil.
1.The depth of irrigation water per unit depth of soil,
required to produce any specified increase in soil salinity for
any given conductivity of irrigation water, can be calculated
using the equation
Di/Ds=ds/dw* SP/100 *Δ ECe/Eci
 Cont…

Di=Depth of irrigation water ;Dd=Depth of soil

ds=Density of soil ( bulk density ); dw = Density of irrigation water
SP=Saturation Percentage of soil ; ΔECe=Increase in EC of saturation
extract

ECi=Electrical Conductivity of irrigation water

2. Under High Water Table Conditions, the increase in salinity by the
evaporation of ground water, can be determined by:
∆ ECe=Dg/DsxECg /SP xdw/ds x 100
Where;
Dg=Depth of ground water evaporated
ECg=Electrical Conductivity of ground water
 Cont…
3. The fraction of irrigation water that must be leached through the root
zone to keep the salinity of the soil below a specific limit is termed as
Leaching Requirement (LR)
LR= Dd/Di =ECi /ECd …….X
Where;
LR=Leaching requirement as a ratio or as a percent
Eci =EC of irrigation water
Ecd = drainage water expressed in (mmhos /cm)
Di=depth of irrigation
Dc = Consumptive use
Dd =equivalent depth of drainage water
 Con’d…
 The depth of irrigation water,Di is related to
consumptive use, Dc and equivalent depth of drainage
water,Dd by the equation:
Di =Dc +Dd
Substitute Dd from eq.(X) into eq.
LR= (Di –Dc)/Di,
LR = Di / Di - Dc / Di ,
LR = 1 - ( Dc / Di )
Dc / Di = 1 – LR,
Therefore, Di = Dc / (1 – LR)
 Land reclamation techniques for salt affected soils
Reclamation measure: is a measurement to bringing
saline and alkali soils into productive condition.
 In salt affected soils, a water table is often present at
shallow depth.
 If so, first measure to be taken is to install a drainage
system to control the water table.
 The second measure is to apply irrigation water to
leach the salts from the soil.
THE END…
(OF THE COURSE)!!!
GOOD LUCK
TO ALL OF YOU!!!