3 Investment Decision

CHAPTER 6
INVESTMENT DECISIONS
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
• Define “capital budgeting” and explain the purpose and process of Capital Budgeting for
any business.
• Explain the importance of cash flows in capital budgeting decisions and try to explain the
basic principles for measuring the same.
• Evaluate investment projects using various capital budgeting techniques like PB (Pay
Back), NPV (Net Present Value), PI (Profitability Index) , IRR (Internal Rate of Return),
MIRR (Modified Internal Rate of Return) and ARR (Accounting Rate of Return).
• Understand the advantages and disadvantages of the above mentioned techniques.
1. CAPITAL BUDGETING DEFINITION

Capital budgeting is the process of evaluating and selecting long-term investments that are in
line with the goal of investors’ wealth maximization.
When a business makes a capital investment (assets such as equipment, building, land etc.) it
incurs a cash outlay in the expectation of future benefits. The expected benefits generally
extend beyond one year in the future. Out of different investment proposals available to a
business, it has to choose a proposal that provides the best return and the return equals to, or
greater than, that required by the investors.
In simple Capital Budgeting involves:-
Evaluating investment project proposals that are strategic to business overall objectives
Estimating and evaluating post-tax incremental cash flows for each of the investment
proposals
Selection an investment proposal that maximizes the return to the investors
However, Capital Budgeting excludes certain investment decisions, wherein, the benefits of
investment proposals cannot be directly quantified. For example, management may be
considering a proposal to build a recreation room for employees. The decision in this case will
be based on qualitative factors, such as management − employee relations, with less
consideration on direct financial returns.
(c) Copyright The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Financial Management
However, most investment proposals considered by management will require quantitative

estimates of the benefits to be derived from accepting the project. A bad decision can be
detrimental to the value of the organisation over a long period of time.
2. PURPOSE OF CAPITAL BUDGETING
The capital budgeting decisions are important, crucial and critical business decisions due to
following reasons:
(i) Substantial expenditure: Capital budgeting decisions involves the investment of
substantial amount of funds. It is therefore necessary for a firm to make such decisions
after a thoughtful consideration so as to result in the profitable use of its scarce
resources.
The hasty and incorrect decisions would not only result into huge losses but may also
account for the failure of the firm.
(ii) Long time period: The capital budgeting decision has its effect over a long period of
time. These decisions not only affect the future benefits and costs of the firm but also
influence the rate and direction of growth of the firm.
(iii) Irreversibility: Most of the investment decisions are irreversible. Once they are taken,
the firm may not be in a position to reverse them back. This is because, as it is difficult to
find a buyer for the second-hand capital items.
(iv) Complex decision: The capital investment decision involves an assessment of future
events, which in fact is difficult to predict. Further it is quite difficult to estimate in
quantitative terms all the benefits or the costs relating to a particular investment decision.
3. CAPITAL BUDGETING PROCESS
The extent to which the capital budgeting process needs to be formalised and systematic
procedures established depends on the size of the organisation; number of projects to be
considered; direct financial benefit of each project considered by itself; the composition of the
firm's existing assets and management's desire to change that composition; timing of
expenditures associated with the projects that are finally accepted.
(i) Planning: The capital budgeting process begins with the identification of potential
investment opportunities. The opportunity then enters the planning phase when the
potential effect on the firm's fortunes is assessed and the ability of the management of
the firm to exploit the opportunity is determined. Opportunities having little merit are
rejected and promising opportunities are advanced in the form of a proposal to enter the
evaluation phase.
(ii) Evaluation: This phase involves the determination of proposal and its investments,
inflows and outflows. Investment appraisal techniques, ranging from the simple payback
6.2

Investment Decisions
method and accounting rate of return to the more sophisticated discounted cash flow
techniques, are used to appraise the proposals. The technique selected should be the
one that enables the manager to make the best decision in the light of prevailing
circumstances.
(iii) Selection: Considering the returns and risks associated with the individual projects as
well as the cost of capital to the organisation, the organisation will choose among
projects so as to maximise shareholders’ wealth.
(iv) Implementation: When the final selection has been made, the firm must acquire the
necessary funds, purchase the assets, and begin the implementation of the project.
(v) Control: The progress of the project is monitored with the aid of feedback reports.
These reports will include capital expenditure progress reports, performance reports
comparing actual performance against plans set and post completion audits.
(vi) Review: When a project terminates, or even before, the organisation should review the
entire project to explain its success or failure. This phase may have implication for firms
planning and evaluation procedures. Further, the review may produce ideas for new
proposals to be undertaken in the future.
4. TYPES OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT DECISIONS
There are many ways to classify the capital budgeting decision. Generally capital investment
decisions are classified in two ways. One way is to classify them on the basis of firm’s
existence. Another way is to classify them on the basis of decision situation.
4.1 On the basis of firm’s existence: The capital budgeting decisions are taken by both
newly incorporated firms as well as by existing firms. The new firms may be required to take
decision in respect of selection of a plant to be installed. The existing firm may be required to
take decisions to meet the requirement of new environment or to face the challenges of
competition. These decisions may be classified as follows:
(i) Replacement and Modernisation decisions: The replacement and modernisation
decisions aim at to improve operating efficiency and to reduce cost. Generally all types of
plant and machinery require replacement either because of the economic life of the plant
or machinery is over or because it has become technologically outdated. The former
decision is known as replacement decisions and later one is known as modernisation
decisions. Both replacement and modernisation decisions are called cost reduction
decisions.
(ii) Expansion decisions: Existing successful firms may experience growth in demand of
their product line. If such firms experience shortage or delay in the delivery of their
products due to inadequate production facilities, they may consider proposal to add
capacity to existing product line.
6.3

(iii) Diversification decisions: These decisions require evaluation of proposals to diversify

into new product lines, new markets etc. for reducing the risk of failure by dealing in
different products or by operating in several markets.
Both expansion and diversification decisions are called revenue expansion decisions.
4.2 On the basis of decision situation: The capital budgeting decisions on the basis of
decision situation are classified as follows:
(i) Mutually exclusive decisions: The decisions are said to be mutually exclusive if two or
more alternative proposals are such that the acceptance of one proposal will exclude the
acceptance of the other alternative proposals. For instance, a firm may be considering
proposal to install a semi-automatic or highly automatic machine. If the firm install a
semi-automatic machine it exclude the acceptance of proposal to install highly automatic
machine.
(ii) Accept-reject decisions: The accept-reject decisions occur when proposals are
independent and do not compete with each other. The firm may accept or reject a
proposal on the basis of a minimum return on the required investment. All those
proposals which give a higher return than certain desired rate of return are accepted and
the rest are rejected.
(iii) Contingent decisions: The contingent decisions are dependable proposals. The
investment in one proposal requires investment in one or more other proposals. For
example if a company accepts a proposal to set up a factory in remote area it may have
to invest in infrastructure also e.g. building of roads, houses for employees etc.
5. PROJECT CASH FLOWS
One of the most important tasks in capital budgeting is estimating future cash flows for a
project. The final decision we make at the end of the capital budgeting process is no better
than the accuracy of our cash-lfow estimates.
The estimation of costs and benefits are made with the help of inputs provided by marketing,
production, engineering, costing, purchase, taxation, and other departments.
The project cash flow stream consists of cash outflows and cash inflows. The costs are
denoted as cash outflows whereas the benefits are denoted as cash inflows.
An investment decision implies the choice of an objective, an appraisal technique and the
project’s life. The objective and technique must be related to definite period of time. The life
of the project may be determined by taking into consideration the following factors:
(i) Technological obsolescence ; (ii) Physical deterioration ; (iii) A decline in demand
for the output of the project.
6.4

No matter how good a company's maintenance policy, its technological forecasting ability or
its demand forecasting ability, uncertainty will always be present because of the difficulty in
predicting the duration of a project life.
5.1 Calculating Cash Flows
It is helpful to place project cash flows into three categories:-
a) Initial Cash Outflow:
The initial cash out flow for a project is calculated as follows:-
Cost of New Asset(s)
+ Installation/Set-Up Costs
+ (-) Increase (Decrease) in Net Working Capital Level
- Net Proceeds from sale of Old Asset (If it is a replacement situation)
+(-) Taxes (tax saving) due to sale of Old Asset (If it is a replacement situation)
= Initial Cash Outflow
b) Interim Incremental Cash Flows:
After making the initial cash outflow that is necessary to begin implementing a project, the firm
hopes to benefit from the future cash inflows generated by the project. It is calculated as
follows:-
Net increase (decrease) in Operating Revenue
- (+) Net increase (decrease) in Operating Expenses excluding depreciation
= Net change in income before taxes
- (+) Net increase (decrease) in taxes
= Net change in income after taxes
+(-) Net increase (decrease) in tax depreciation charges
= Incremental net cash flow for the period
c) Terminal-Year Incremental Net Cash Flow:
We now pay attention to the Net Cash Flow in the terminal year of the project. For the purpose
of Terminal Year we will first calculate the incremental net cash flow for the period as
calculated in point b) above and further to it we will make adjustments in order to arrive at
Terminal-Year Incremental Net Cash flow as follows:-
6.5

Incremental net cash flow for the period

+(-) Final salvage value (disposal costs) of asset
- (+) Taxes (tax saving) due to sale or disposal of asset
+ (-) Decreased (increased) level of Net Working Capital
= Terminal Year incremental net cash flow
6. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR MEASURING PROJECT CASH FLOWS
For developing the project cash flows the following principles must be kept in mind:
1. Incremental Principle: The cash flows of a project must be measured in incremental
terms. To ascertain a project’s incremental cash flows, one has to look at what happens
to the cash flows of the firm 'with the project and without the project', and not before the
project and after the project as is sometimes done. The difference between the two
reflects the incremental cash flows attributable to the project.
Project cash flows for year t = Cash flow for the firm with the project for year t
− Cash flow for the firm without the project for year t.
2. Long Term Funds Principle: A project may be evaluated from various points of view:
total funds point of view, long-term funds point of view, and equity point of view. The
measurement of cash flows as well as the determination of the discount rate for
evaluating the cash flows depends on the point of view adopted. It is generally
recommended that a project may be evaluated from the point of view of long-term funds
(which are provided by equity stockholders, preference stock holders, debenture holders,
and term lending institutions) because the principal focus of such evaluation is normally
on the profitability of long-term funds.
3. Exclusion of Financing Costs Principle: When cash flows relating to long-term funds
are being defined, financing costs of long-term funds (interest on long-term debt and
equity dividend) should be excluded from the analysis. The question arises why? The
weighted average cost of capital used for evaluating the cash flows takes into account
the cost of long-term funds. Put differently, the interest and dividend payments are
reflected in the weighted average cost of capital. Hence, if interest on long-term debt
and dividend on equity capital are deducted in defining the cash flows, the cost of long-
term funds will be counted twice.
The exclusion of financing costs principle means that:
(i) The interest on long-term debt (or interest) is ignored while computing profits and
taxes and;
6.6

(ii) The expected dividends are deemed irrelevant in cash flow analysis.
While dividends pose no difficulty as they come only from profit after taxes, interest
needs to be handled properly. Since interest is usually deducted in the process of
arriving at profit after tax, an amount equal to interest (1 − tax rate) should be
added back to the figure of profit after tax.
That is,
Profit before interest and tax (1 − tax rate)
= (Profit before tax + interest) (1 − tax rate)
= (Profit before tax) (1 − tax rate) + (interest) (1 − tax rate)
= Profit after tax + interest (1 − tax rate)
Thus, whether the tax rate is applied directly to the profit before interest and tax figure or
whether the tax − adjusted interest, which is simply interest (1 − tax rate), is added to
profit after tax, we get the same result.
4. Post−tax Principle: Tax payments like other payments must be properly deducted in
deriving the cash flows. That is, cash flows must be defined in post-tax terms.
Illustration 1 : ABC Ltd is evaluating the purchase of a new project with a depreciable base of
Rs. 1,00,000; expected economic life of 4 years and change in earnings before taxes and
depreciation of Rs. 45,000 in year 1, Rs. 30,000 in year 2, Rs. 25,000 in year 3 and Rs. 35,000 in
year 4. Assume straight-line depreciation and a 20% tax rate. You are required to compute
relevant cash flows.
Solution
Rs.
Years
1 2 3 4
Earnings before tax and 45,000 30,000 25,000 35,000
depreciation
Less: Depreciation 25,000 25,000 25,000 25,000
Earnings before tax 20,000 5,000 0 10,000
Less: Tax [@20%] 4,000 1,000 0 2,000
16,000 4,000 0 8,000
Add: Depreciation 25,000 25,000 25,000 25,000
Net Cash flow 41,000 29,000 25,000 33,000
6.7

Working Note:
Depreciation = Rs. 1, 00,000÷4
= Rs. 25,000
Illustration 2 : XYZ Ltd is considering a new investment project about which the following
information is available.
(i) The total outlay on the project will be Rs. 100 lacks. This consists of Rs.60 lacks on plant
and equipment and Rs.40 lacks on gross working capital. The entire outlay will be
incurred at the beginning of the project.
(ii) The project will be financed with Rs.40 lacks of equity capital; Rs.30 lacks of long term
debt (in the form of debentures); Rs. 20 lacks of short-term bank borrowings, and Rs. 10
lacks of trade credit. This means that Rs.70 lacks of long term finds (equity + long term
debt) will be applied towards plant and equipment (Rs. 60 lacks) and working capital
margin (Rs.10 lacks) – working capital margin is defined as the contribution of long term
funds towards working capital. The interest rate on debentures will be 15 percent and the
interest rate on short-term borrowings will be 18 percent.
(iii) The life of the project is expected to be 5 years and the plant and equipment would fetch
a salvage value of Rs. 20 lacks. The liquidation value of working capital will be equal to
Rs.10 lacks.
(iv) The project will increase the revenues of the firm by Rs. 80 lacks per year. The increase
in operating expenses on account of the project will be Rs.35.0 lacks per year. (This
includes all items of expenses other than depreciation, interest, and taxes). The effective
tax rate will be 50 percent.
(v) Plant and equipment will be depreciated at the rate of 331/3 percent per year as per the
written down value method. So, the depreciation charges will be :
Rs. (in lacs)
First year 20.0
Second year 13.3
Third year 8.9
Fourth year 5.9
Fifth year 4.0
Given the above details, you are required to work out the post-tax, incremental cash flows
relating to long-term funds.
6.8

Solution
Cash Flows for the New Project
Rs. (in lacs)
Years
0 1 2 3 4 5
(a) Plant and equipment (60.0)
(b) Working capital margin (10.0)
(c) Revenues 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0
(d) Operating Costs 35.0 35.0 35.0 35.0 35.0
(e) Depreciation 20.0 13.33 8.89 5.93 3.95
(f) Interest on short-term bank borrowings 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6
(g) Interest on debentures 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
(h) Profit before tax 16.90 23.57 28.01 30.97 32.95
(i) Tax 8.45 11.79 14.01 15.49 16.48
(j) Profit after tax 8.45 11.78 14.00 15.48 16.47
(k) Net salvage value of plant and equipment 20.0
(l) Net recovery working capital margin 10.0
(m) Initial Investment [(a) + (b)] (70.0)
(n) Operating cash inflows
[(j) +(e) + (g) (1–T)] 30.70 27.36 25.14 23.66 22.67
(o) Terminal cash flow
[(k) + (l) ] 30.00
(p) Net cash flow.
[(m) + (n) + (o) ] (70.0) 30.70 27.36 25.14 23.66 52.67
Working Notes (with explanations):
(i) The initial investment, occurring at the end of year 0, is Rs. 70 lacs. This represents the
commitment of long-term funds to the project. The operating cash inflow, relating to long-
term funds, at the end of year 1 is Rs. 30.7 lacs.
That is,
Profit after tax + Depreciation + Interest on debentures (1 – tax )
Rs. 8.45 lacs + Rs.20 lacs + Rs. 4.5 lacs (1 – 0.50)
6.9

The operating cash inflows for the subsequent years have been calculated similarly.
(ii) The terminal cash flow relating to long-term funds is equal to :
Net Salvage value of plant and equipment + Net recovery of working capital margin
When the project is terminated, its liquidation value will be equal to:
Net Salvage value of plant and equipment + Net recovery of working capital
The first component belongs to the suppliers of long-term funds. The second component
is applied to repay the current liabilities and recover the working capital margin.
7. CAPITAL BUDGETING TECHNIQUES
In order to maximise the return to the shareholders of a company, it is important that the best
or most profitable investment projects are selected. Because the results for making a bad
long-term investment decision can be both financially and strategically devastating, particular
care needs to be taken with investment project selection and evaluation.
There are a number of techniques available for appraisal of investment proposals and can be
classified as presented below:
CAPITAL BUDGETING TECHNIQUES
Traditional Time-adjusted
or or
Non-Discounting Discounted Cash Flows
Net Present Value

Payback Period
Profitability Index
Accounting Rate
of Return Internal Rate of
Return
Modified Internal
Rate of Return
Discounted
Payback
6.10

Organizations may use any or more of capital investment evaluation techniques; some
organizations use different methods for different types of projects while others may use
multiple methods for evaluating each project. These techniques have been discussed below –
net present value, profitability index, internal rate of return, modified internal rate of return,
payback period, and accounting (book) rate of return.
7.1 Payback Period: The payback period of an investment is the length of time required for the
cumulative total net cash flows from the investment to equal the total initial cash outlays. At that
point in time, the investor has recovered the money invested in the project.
Steps:-
(a) The first steps in calculating the payback period is determining the total initial capital
investment and
(b) The second step is calculating/estimating the annual expected after-tax net cash flows
over the useful life of the investment.
1. When the net cash flows are uniform over the useful life of the project, the number of
years in the payback period can be calculated using the following equation:
Total initial capital investment
Payback period =
Annual expected after - tax net cash flow
2. When the annual expected after-tax net cash flows are not uniform, the cumulative
cash inflow from operations must be calculated for each year by subtracting cash
outlays for operations and taxes from cash inflows and summing the results until the
total is equal to the initial capital investment. For the last year we need to compute
the fraction of the year that is needed to complete the total payback.
Advantages:
• It is easy to compute.
• It is easy to understand as it provides a quick estimate of the time needed for the
organization to recoup the cash invested.
• The length of the payback period can also serve as an estimate of a project’s risk; the
longer the payback period, the riskier the project as long-term predictions are less
reliable. In some industries with high obsolescence risk or in situations where an
organization is short on cash, short payback periods often become the determining
factor for investments.
Limitations:
• It ignores the time value of money. As long as the payback periods for two projects
are the same, the payback period technique considers them equal as investments,
6.11

even if one project generates most of its net cash inflows in the early years of the
project while the other project generates most of its net cash inflows in the latter
years of the payback period.
• A second limitation of this technique is its failure to consider an investment’s total
profitability; it only considers cash flows from the initiation of the project until its
payback period and ignores cash flows after the payback period.
• Lastly, use of the payback period technique may cause organizations to place too
much emphasis on short payback periods thereby ignoring the need to invest in long-
term projects that would enhance its competitive position.
Illustration 3 : Suppose a project costs Rs. 20,00,000 and yields annually a profit of Rs. 3,00,000
after depreciation @ 12½% (straight line method) but before tax 50%. The first step would be to
calculate the cash inflow from this project. The cash inflow is Rs. 4,00,000 calculated as follows :
Rs.
Profit before tax 3,00,000
Less : Tax @ 50% 1,50,000
Profit after tax 1,50,000
Add : Depreciation written off 2,50,000
Total cash inflow 4,00,000
While calculating cash inflow, depreciation is added back to profit after tax since it does not
result in cash outflow. The cash generated from a project therefore is equal to profit after tax
plus depreciation.
Rs. 20,00,000
Payback period = = 5 Years
4,00,000
Some Accountants calculate payback period after discounting the cash flows by a
predetermined rate and the payback period so calculated is called, ‘Discounted payback
period’.
7.2 Payback Reciprocal : As the name indicates it is the reciprocal of payback period. A
major drawback of the payback period method of capital budgeting is that it does not indicate
any cut off period for the purpose of investment decision. It is, however, argued that the
reciprocal of the payback would be a close approximation of the internal rate of return if the
life of the project is at least twice the payback period and the project generates equal amount
of the annual cash inflows. In practice, the payback reciprocal is a helpful tool for quickly
estimating the rate of return of a project provided its life is at least twice the payback period.
6.12

The payback reciprocal can be calculated as follows:

Average annual cash in flow
Initial investment
Illustration 4 : Suppose a project requires an initial investment of Rs. 20,000 and it would give
annual cash inflow of Rs. 4,000. The useful life of the project is estimated to be 5 years. In this
example payback reciprocal will be :
Rs 4,000 × 100
= 20%
Rs20,000
The above payback reciprocal provides a reasonable approximation of the internal rate of
return, i.e. 19% discussed later in this chapter.
7.3 Accounting (Book) Rate of Return: The accounting rate of return of an investment
measures the average annual net income of the project (incremental income) as a percentage
of the investment.
Average annual net income
Accounting rate of return =
Investment
The numerator is the average annual net income generated by the project over its useful life.
The denominator can be either the initial investment or the average investment over the useful
life of the project.
Some organizations prefer the initial investment because it is objectively determined and is not
influenced by either the choice of the depreciation method or the estimation of the salvage
value. Either of these amounts is used in practice but it is important that the same method be
used for all investments under consideration.
Advantages:
This technique uses readily available data that is routinely generated for financial reports
and does not require any special procedures to generate data.
This method may also mirror the method used to evaluate performance on the operating
results of an investment and management performance. Using the same procedure in
both decision-making and performance evaluation ensures consistency.
Lastly, the calculation of the accounting rate of return method considers all net incomes
over the entire life of the project and provides a measure of the investment’s profitability.
Limitations:
The accounting rate of return technique, like the payback period technique, ignores the
time value of money and considers the value of all cash flows to be equal.
6.13

The technique uses accounting numbers that are dependent on the organization’s choice
of accounting procedures, and different accounting procedures, e.g., depreciation
methods, can lead to substantially different amounts for an investment’s net income and
book values.
The method uses net income rather than cash flows; while net income is a useful
measure of profitability, the net cash flow is a better measure of an investment’s
performance.
Furthermore, inclusion of only the book value of the invested asset ignores the fact that a
project can require commitments of working capital and other outlays that are not
included in the book value of the project.
Illustration 5 : Suppose a project requiring an investment of Rs. 10,00,000 yields profit after tax
and depreciation as follows:
Years Profit after tax and depreciation
Rs.
1. 50,000
2. 75,000
3. 1,25,000
4. 1,30,000
5. 80,000
Total 4,60,000
Suppose further that at the end of 5 years, the plant and machinery of the project can be sold
for Rs. 80,000. In this case the rate of return can be calculated as follows:
Total Profit/No. of years
× 100
Average investment /Initial Investment
(a) If Initial Investment is considered then,

92,000
= ×100 = 9.2%
10,00,000
This rate is compared with the rate expected on other projects, had the same funds been
invested alternatively in those projects. Sometimes, the management compares this rate with
the minimum rate (called-cut off rate) they may have in mind. For example, management may
decide that they will not undertake any project which has an average annual yield after tax
less than 20%. Any capital expenditure proposal which has an average annual yield of less
than 20% will be automatically rejected.
6.14

(b) If Average investment is considered, then,

92,000 92,000
= ×100 = ×100 = 17%.
Average investment 5,40,000
Where,
Average Investment = Salvage value + ½ (Initial investment – Salvage value)
= 80,000 + ½ (10,00,000 – 80,000)
= 80,000 + 4,60,000 = 5,40,000
7.4 Net Present Value Technique: The net present value technique is a discounted cash
flow method that considers the time value of money in evaluating capital investments. An
investment has cash flows throughout its life, and it is assumed that a rupee of cash flow in
the early years of an investment is worth more than a rupee of cash flow in a later year.
The net present value method uses a specified discount rate to bring all subsequent net cash
inflows after the initial investment to their present values (the time of the initial investment or
year 0).
Determining Discount Rate
Theoretically, the discount rate or desired rate of return on an investment is the rate of return
the firm would have earned by investing the same funds in the best available alternative
investment that has the same risk. Determining the best alternative opportunity available is
difficult in practical terms so rather that using the true opportunity cost, organizations often
use an alternative measure for the desired rate of return. An organization may establish a
minimum rate of return that all capital projects must meet; this minimum could be based on an
industry average or the cost of other investment opportunities. Many organizations choose to
use the overall cost of capital as the desired rate of return; the cost of capital is the cost that
an organization has incurred in raising funds or expects to incur in raising the funds needed
for an investment.
The net present value of a project is the amount, in current rupees, the investment earns after
yielding the desired rate of return in each period.
Net present value = Present value of net cash flow - Total net initial investment
The steps to calculating net present value are:-
1. Determine the net cash inflow in each year of the investment
2. Select the desired rate of return
3. Find the discount factor for each year based on the desired rate of return selected
6.15

4. Determine the present values of the net cash flows by multiplying the cash flows by the
discount factors
5. Total the amounts for all years in the life of the project
6. Lastly subtract the total net initial investment.
Illustration 6: Compute the net present value for a project with a net investment of Rs. 1, 00,000
and the following cash flows if the company’s cost of capital is 10%? Net cash flows for year one is
Rs. 55,000; for year two is Rs. 80,000 and for year three is Rs. 15,000.
[PVIF @ 10% for three years are 0.909, 0.826 and 0.751]
Solution
Year Net Cash Flows PVIF @ 10% Discounted Cash
Flows
1 55,000 0.909 49,995
2 80,000 0.826 66,080
3 15,000 0.751 11,265
1,27,340
Total Discounted Cash Flows 1,27,340
Less: Net Investment 1,00,000
Net Present Value 27,340
Recommendation: Since the net present value of the project is positive, the company should
accept the project.
Illustration 7 : ABC Ltd is a small company that is currently analyzing capital expenditure
proposals for the purchase of equipment; the company uses the net present value technique to
evaluate projects. The capital budget is limited to 500,000 which ABC Ltd believes is the maximum
capital it can raise. The initial investment and projected net cash flows for each project are shown
below. The cost of capital of ABC Ltd is 12%. You are required to compute the NPV of the different
projects.
Project A Project B Project C Project D
Initial Investment 200,000 190,000 250,000 210,000
Project Cash Inflows
Year 1 50,000 40,000 75,000 75,000
2 50,000 50,000 75,000 75,000
3 50,000 70,000 60,000 60,000
6.16

4 50,000 75,000 80,000 40,000

5 50,000 75,000 100,000 20,000
Solution
Calculation of net present value:
Present
Period value factor Project A Project B Project C Project D
1 0.893 44,650 35,720 66,975 66,975
2 0.797 39,850 39,850 59,775 59,775
3 0.712 35,600 49,840 42,720 42,720
4 0.636 31,800 47,700 50,880 25,440
5 0.567 28,350 42,525 56,700 11,340
Present value of cash inflows 180,250 215,635 277,050 206,250
Less: Initial investment 200,000 190,000 250,000 210,000
Net present value (19,750) 25,635 27,050 (3,750)
Advantages
NPV method takes into account the time value of money.
The whole stream of cash flows is considered.
The net present value can be seen as the addition to the wealth of share holders.
The criterion of NPV is thus in conformity with basic financial objectives.
The NPV uses the discounted cash flows i.e., expresses cash flows in terms of
currentrupees. The NPVs of different projects therefore can be compared. It implies
that each project can be evaluated independent of others on its own merit.
Limitations
It involves difficult calculations.
The application of this method necessitates forecasting cash flows and the discount
rate. Thus accuracy of NPV depends on accurate estimation of these two factors
which may be quite difficult in practice.
The ranking of projects depends on the discount rate. Let us consider two projects
involving an initial outlay of Rs. 25 lakhs each with following inflow :
6.17

(Rs in lakhs)
1st year 2nd year

Project A 50.0 12.5
Project B 12.5 50.0
At discounted rate of 5% and 10% the NPV of Projects and their rankings at 5% and
10% are as follows:
NPV @ 5% Rank NPV @ 10% Rank
Project A 33.94 I 30.78 I
Project B 32.25 II 27.66 II
The project ranking is same when the discount rate is changed from 5% to 10%.
However, the impact of the discounting becomes more severe for the later cash flows.
Naturally, higher the discount rate, higher would be the impact. In the case of project B
the larger cash flows come later in the project life, thus decreasing the present value to a
larger extent.
The decision under NPV method is based on absolute measure. It ignores the
difference in initial outflows, size of different proposals etc. while evaluating
mutually exclusive projects.
Illustration 8 : Shiva Limited is planning its capital investment programme for next year. It
has five projects all of which give a positive NPV at the company cut-off rate of 15 percent, the
investment outflows and present values being as follows:
Project Investment NPV @ 15%
Rs. ‘000 Rs. ‘000
A (50) 15.4
B (40) 18.7
C (25) 10.1
D (30) 11.2
E (35) 19.3
The company is limited to a capital spending of Rs. 1,20,000.
6.18

You are required to optimise the returns from a package of projects within the capital spending
limit. The projects are independent of each other and are divisible (i.e., part-project is
possible).
Solution
Computation of NPVs per Re. 1 of Investment and Ranking of the Projects
Project Investment NPV @ 15% NPV per Rs. 1 Ranking

Rs. '000 Rs. '000 invested
A (50) 15.4 0.31 5
B (40) 18.7 0.47 2
C (25) 10.1 0.40 3
D (30) 11.2 0.37 4
E (35) 19.3 0.55 1
Building up of a Programme of Projects based on their Rankings
Project Investment NPV @ 15%

Rs. ‘000 Rs.’ 000
E (35) 19.3
B (40) 18.7
C (25) 10.1
D (20) 7.5 (2/3 of project total)
120 55.6
Thus Project A should be rejected and only two-third of Project D be undertaken. If the
projects are not divisible then other combinations can be examined as:
Investment NPV @ 15%

Rs.’ 000 Rs. ‘000
E+B+C 100 48.1
E+B+D 105 49.2
In this case E + B + D would be preferable as it provides a higher NPV despite D ranking

lower than C.
6.19

7.5 Desirability Factor/Profitability Index: In above Illustration the students may have
seen how with the help of discounted cash flow technique, the two alternative proposals for
capital expenditure can be compared. In certain cases we have to compare a number of
proposals each involving different amounts of cash inflows.
One of the methods of comparing such proposals is to workout what is known as the
‘Desirability factor’, or ‘Profitability index’. In general terms a project is acceptable if its
profitability index value is greater than 1.
Mathematically :
The desirability factor is calculated as below :
Sum of discounted cash in flows
Initial cash outlay Or Total discounted cash outflow (as the case may)
Illustration 9 : Suppose we have three projects involving discounted cash outflow of Rs.5,50,000,
Rs75,000 and Rs.1,00,20,000 respectively. Suppose further that the sum of discounted cash
inflows for these projects are Rs. 6,50,000, Rs. 95,000 and Rs 1,00,30,000 respectively. Calculate
the desirability factors for the three projects.
Solution
The desirability factors for the three projects would be as follows:
Rs. 6,50,000
1. = 1.18
Rs. 5,50,000
Rs. 95,000
2. = 1.27
Rs. 75,000
Rs.1,00,30,000
3. = 1.001
Rs.1,00,20,000
It would be seen that in absolute terms project 3 gives the highest cash inflows yet its
desirability factor is low. This is because the outflow is also very high. The Desirability/
Profitability Index factor helps us in ranking various projects.
Advantages
The method also uses the concept of time value of money and is a better project
evaluation technique than NPV.
Limitations
Profitability index fails as a guide in resolving capital rationing (discussed later in this
chapter) where projects are indivisible. Once a single large project with high NPV is
6.20

selected, possibility of accepting several small projects which together may have higher
NPV than the single project is excluded. Also situations may arise where a project with a
lower profitability index selected may generate cash flows in such a way that another
project can be taken up one or two years later, the total NPV in such case being more
than the one with a project with highest Profitability Index.
The Profitability Index approach thus cannot be used indiscriminately but all other type of
alternatives of projects will have to be worked out.
Illustration 10 : Happy Singh Taxiwala is a long established tour operator providing high
quality transport to their clients. It currently owns and runs 250 cars and has turnover of Rs.
100 lakhs p.a.
The current system for allocating jobs to drivers is very inefficient. Happy Singh is considering
the implementation of a new computerized tracking system called ‘Banta’. This will make the
allocation of jobs far more efficient.
You are as accounting technician, for an accounting firm, has been appointed to advice Happy
Singh to decide whether ‘Banta’ should be implemented. The project is being appraised over
five years.
The costs and benefits of the new system are as follows:
(i) The Central Tracking System costs Rs. 21,00,000 to implement. This amount will be
payable in three equal instalments. One immediately, the second in one year’s time, and
the third in two year’s time.
(ii) Depreciation on the new system will be provided at Rs. 4,20,000 p.a.
(iii) Staff will need to be trained how to use the new system. This will cost Happy Singh Rs.
4,25,000 in the first year.
(iv) If ‘Banta’ is implemented, revenues will rise to an estimated Rs. 110 lakhs this year,
thereafter increasing by 5% per annum (Compounded). Even if Banta is not
implemented, revenue will increase by an estimated Rs. 2,00,000 per annum, from their
current level of Rs. 100 lakhs per annum.
(v) Despite increased revenues, ‘Banta will still make overall savings in terms of vehicle
running costs. These costs are estimated at 1% of the post ‘Banta’ revenues each year
(i.e. the Rs. 110 lakhs revenue rising by 5% thereafter, as referred to in (iv) above.
(vi) Six new staff operatives will be recruited to manage the ‘Banta’ system. Their wages will
cost the company Rs. 1,20,000 per annum in the first year, Rs. 2,00,000 in the second
year, thereafter increasing by 5% per annum (i.e. compounded).
6.21

(vii) Happy Singh will have to take out an annual maintenance contract for ‘Banta’ system.
This will cost Rs. 75,000 per annum.
(viii) Interest on money borrowed to finance the project will cost Rs. 1,50,000 per annum.
(ix) Happy Singh Taxiwala’s cost of capital is 10% per annum.
Required:
(a) Calculate the net present value (NPV) of the new ‘Banta’ system nearest to Rs. ’000.
(b) Calculate the simple pay back period of the project and interpret the result.
(c) Calculate the discounted payback period for the project and interpret the result.
Solution:
Working Notes:
(Rs. ‘000)
1 year 2 years 3 years 4 year 5 year

1. Increased Revenue
Revenue (5% increase 11,000 11,550 12,128 12,734 13,371
every year
Without Banta (10,200) (10,400) (10,600) (10,800) (11,000)
800 1,150 1,528 1,934 2,371
2. Saving in Cost
Annual Revenues 11,000 11,550 12,128 12,734 13,371
Saving @ 1 % 110 116 121 127 134
3. Operative Cost
Additional Cost (with 5%
increase from 3 year) 120 200 210 221 232
4. Annual Cash inflows
Increased Revenue (1) 800 1,150 1,528 1,934 2,371
Cost Saving (2) 110 116 121 127 134
Operative Cost (3) (120) (200) (210) (221) (232)
Maintenance Cost (75) (75) (75) (75) (75)
715 991 1,364 1,765 2,198
6.22

5. Calculation Net Cash Flow

Implementation Cost (700) (700) - - -
Training Cost (425) - - - -
Annual Cash Inflows (4) 715 991 1,364 1,765 2,198
(410) 291 1,364 1,765 2,198
(a) Net Present Value
Period Present Cash Flow Present
Value Flow Value
(Rs.‘000)
at 10%
(Rs.‘000)
Implementation Cost 0 1.00 -700 -700
Cash Flows 1 0.909 -410 -373
2 0.826 291 240
3 0.751 1364 1024
4 0.683 1765 1205
5 0.621 2198 1365
Net Present Value 2761
NPV = Rs.2761000 (App.)
(b) Simple Pay Back
Time Annual Cash Flow (Rs. ‘000) Cumulative Cash Inflows (Rs.‘000)
0 -700 -700
1 -410 -1110
2 291 -819
3 1364 545
4 1765 2310
5 2198 4508
Pay back period shall

2 Year + 819/1364 Year = 2.60 years.
6.23

c. Discounted Pay back Period
Time Annual Cash Flows (Rs.’000) Cumulative Cash Flow (Rs.’000)

0 -700 -700
1 -373 -1073
2 240 -833
3 1024 191
4 1205 1396
5 1365 2761
The discounted pay back period shall be

2 years + 833/1024 years = 2.81 years.
7.7 Internal Rate of Return Method: The internal rate of return method considers the time
value of money, the initial cash investment, and all cash flows from the investment. But unlike
the net present value method, the internal rate of return method does not use the desired rate
of return but estimates the discount rate that makes the present value of subsequent net cash
flows equal to the initial investment. This discount rate is call IRR.
IRR Definition: Internal rate of return for an investment proposal is the discount rate that
equates the present value of the expected net cash flows with the initial cash outflow.
This IRR is then compared to a criterion rate of return that can be the organization’s desired
rate of return for evaluating capital investments.
Calculating IRR:
The procedures for computing the internal rate of return vary with the pattern of net cash flows
over the useful life of an investment.
Scenario 1: For an investment with uniform cash flows over its life, the following equation is
used:
Step 1: Total initial investment = Annual net cash flow x Annuity discount factor of the
discount rate for the number of periods of the investment’s useful life
If A is the annuity discount factor, then
Total initial cash disbursements and commitments for the investment
A=
Annual (equal) net cash flows from the investment
Step 2: Once A has been calculated, the discount rate is the interest rate that has the same
discount factor as A in the annuity table along the row for the number of periods of the useful
6.24

life of the investment. This computed discount rate or the internal rate of return will be
compared to the criterion rate the organization has selected to assess the investment’s
desirability.
Scenario 2: When the net cash flows are not uniform over the life of the investment, the
determination of the discount rate can involve trial and error and interpolation between interest
rates. It should be noted that there are several spreadsheet programs available for computing
both net present value and internal rate of return that facilitate the capital budgeting process.
Illustration 13 : Calculate the internal rate of return of an investment of Rs. 1, 36,000 which yields
the following cash inflows:
Year Cash Inflows (in Rs.)
1 30,000
2 40,000
3 60,000
4 30,000
5 20,000
Solution
Calculation of IRR
Since the cash inflow is not uniform, the internal rate of return will have to be calculated by the
trial and error method. In order to have an approximate idea about such rate, the ‘Factor’ must
be found out. ‘The factor reflects the same relationship of investment and cash inflows as in
case of payback calculations’:
I
F=
C
Where,
F = Factor to be located
I = Original Investment
C = Average Cash inflow per year
For the project,
1,36,000
Factor =
36,000
= 3.78
6.25

The factor thus calculated will be located in the present value of Re.1 received annually for N
year’s table corresponding to the estimated useful life of the asset. This would give the
expected rate of return to be applied for discounting the cash inflows.
In case of the project, the rate comes to 10%.
Year Cash Inflows (Rs.) Discounting factor at 10% Present Value (Rs.)
1 30,000 0.909 27,270
2 40,000 0.826 33,040
3 60,000 0.751 45,060
4 30,000 0.683 20,490
5 20,000 0.621 12,420
Total present value 1,38,280
The present value at 10% comes to Rs. 1,38,280, which is more than the initial investment.
Therefore, a higher discount rate is suggested, say, 12%.
Year Cash Inflows (Rs.) Discounting factor at 12% Present Value (Rs.)
1 30,000 0.893 26,790
2 40,000 0.797 31,880
3 60,000 0.712 42,720
4 30,000 0.636 19,080
5 20,000 0.567 11,340
Total present value 1,31,810
The internal rate of return is, thus, more than 10% but less than 12%. The exact rate can be
obtained by interpolation:
  Rs.1,38,280 − Rs.1,36,000 
10 +  
IRR =   Rs.1,38,280 − Rs.1,31,810  x 2
 2280 
 x2 
= 10 +  6470 
= 10 + 0.7
IRR = 10.7%
7.7.1 Acceptance Rule : The use of IRR, as a criterion to accept capital investment decision
involves a comparison of IRR with the required rate of return known as cut off rate . The
project should the accepted if IRR is greater than cut-off rate. If IRR is equal to cut off rate the
firm is indifferent. If IRR less than cut off rate the project is rejected.
6.26

7.7.2 Internal Rate of Return and Mutually Exclusive Projects: Projects are called
mutually exclusive, when the selection of one precludes the selection of others e.g. in case a
company owns a piece of land which can be put to use for either of the two different projects S
or L, then such projects are mutually exclusive to each other i.e. the selection of one project
necessarily means the rejection of the other. Refer to the figure below:
Net Present Value
400 (Rs.)
Project L’s Net Present Value Profile
300
200
Cross over rate = 7%
Project S5 Net Present value profile

100
IRR = 14%
0 Cost of Capital %
5 7 10 15
IRR = 12%
As long as the cost of capital is greater than the crossover rate of 7 %, then (1) NPVS is larger
than NPVL and (2) IRRS exceeds IRRL. Hence, if the cut off rate or the cost of capital is greater
than 7% , both the methods shall lead to selection of project S. However, if the cost of capital
is less than 7% , the NPV method ranks Project L higher , but the IRR method indicates that
the Project S is better.
As can be seen from the above discussion, mutually exclusive projects can create problems
with the IRR technique because IRR is expressed as a percentage and does not take into
account the scale of investment or the quantum of money earned.
Let us consider another example of two mutually exclusive projects A and B with the following
details,
Cash flows
Year 0 Year 1 IRR NPV(10%)
Project A (Rs 1,00,000) Rs 1,50,000 50% Rs 36,360
Project B (Rs 5,00,000) Rs 6,25,000 25% Rs 68,180
Project A earns a return of 50% which is more than what Project B earns; however the NPV of
Project B is greater than that of Project A . Acceptance of Project A means that Project B must
6.27

be rejected since the two Projects are mutually exclusive. Acceptance of Project A also
implies that the total investment will be Rs 4,00,000 less than if Project B had been accepted,
Rs 4,00,000 being the difference between the initial investment of the two projects. Assuming
that the funds are freely available at 10% , the total capital expenditure of the company should
be ideally equal to the sum total of all outflows provided they earn more than 10% along with
the chosen project from amongst the mutually exclusive. Hence, in case the smaller of the two
Projects i.e. Project A is selected, the implication will be of rejecting the investment of
additional funds required by the larger investment. This shall lead to a reduction in the
shareholders wealth and thus, such an action shall be against the very basic tenets of
Financial Management.
In the above mentioned example the larger of the two projects had the lower IRR , but never
the less provided for the wealth maximising choice. However, it is not safe to assume that a
choice can be made between mutually exclusive projects using IRR in cases where the larger
project also happens to have the higher IRR . Consider the following two Projects A and B with
their relevant cash flows;
Year A B
Rs Rs
0 (9,00,000) (8,00,000)
1 7,00,000 62,500
2 6,00,000 6,00,000
3 4,00,000 6,00,000
4 50,000 6,00,000
In this case Project A is the larger investment and also has t a higher IRR as shown below,
Year (Rs) r=46% PV(Rs) (Rs) R=35% PV(Rs)
0 (9,00,000) 1.0 (9,00,000) (8,00,000) 1.0 (8,00,000)
1 7,00,000 0.6849 4,79, 430 62,500 0.7407 46,294
2 6,00,000 0.4691 2,81,460 6,00,000 0.5487 3,29,220
3 4,00,000 0.3213 1,28,520 6,00,000 0.4064 2,43,840
4 50,000 0.2201 11,005 6,00,000 0.3011 1,80,660
(415) 14
IRR A = 46%
IRR B = 35%
However, in case the relevant discounting factor is taken as 5% , the NPV of the two projects
provides a different picture as follows;
6.28

Project A Project B
Year (Rs) r= 5% PV(Rs) (Rs) r= 5% PV(Rs)
0 (9,00,000) 1.0 (9,00,000) (8,00,000) 1.0 (8,00,000)
1 7,00,000 0.9524 6,66,680 62,500 0.9524 59,525
2 6,00,000 0.9070 5,44,200 6,00,000 0.9070 5,44,200
3 4,00,000 0.8638 3,45,520 6,00,000 0.8638 5,18,280
4 50,000 0.8227 41,135 6,00,000 0.8227 4,93,630
NPV 6,97,535 8,15,635
As may be seen from the above, Project B should be the one to be selected even though its
IRR is lower than that of Project A. This decision shall need to be taken in spite of the fact that
Project A has a larger investment coupled with a higher IRR as compared with Project B. This
type of an anomalous situation arises because of the reinvestment assumptions implicit in the
two evaluation methods of NPV and IRR.
7.7.3 The Reinvestment Assumption : The Net Present Value technique assumes that all
cash flows can be reinvested at the discount rate used for calculating the NPV. This is a
logical assumption since the use of the NPV technique implies that all projects which provide a
higher return than the discounting factor are accepted.
In contrast, IRR technique assumes that all cash flows are reinvested at the projects IRR.
This assumption means that projects with heavy cash flows in the early years will be favoured
by the IRR method vis-à-vis projects which have got heavy cash flows in the later years. This
implicit reinvestment assumption means that Projects like A , with cash flows concentrated in
the earlier years of life will be preferred by the method relative to Projects such as B.
7.7.4 Projects with Unequal Lives : Let us consider two mutually exclusive projects ‘A’ and ‘B’
with the following cash flows,
Year 0 1 2
Rs Rs Rs
Project A (30,000) 20,000 20,000
Project B (30,000) 37,500
The calculation of NPV and IRR could help us evaluate the two projects; however, it is also
possible to equate the life span of the two for decision making purposes. The two projects can
be equated in terms of time span by assuming that the company can reinvest in Project ‘B’ at
the end of year 1. In such a case the cash flows of Project B will appear to be as follows;
6.29

Year 0 1 2
Rs Rs Rs
Project ‘B’ (30,000) 37,500
Project B reinvested (30,000) 37,500
Total cash flows (30,000) 7,500 37,500
The NPVs and IRRs of both these projects under both the alternatives are shown below
NPV (r=10%) IRR

Rs
Cash flows (Project A 2Years) NPV A = 4,711 22%
Cash flows (Project B 1 Year) NPV B = 4,090 25%
Adjusted cash flows (Project A 2 NPV A = 4,711 22%

Years)
Adjusted cash flow (Project B 2 NPV B = 7,810 25%
years)
As may be seen from the above analysis, the ranking as per IRR makes Project B superior to
Project A, irrespective of the period over which the assumption is made. However, when we
consider NPV, the decision shall be favouring Project B; in case the re investment assumption
is taken into account. This is diametrically opposite to the decision on the basis of NPV when
re investment is not assumed. In that case the NPV of Project A makes it the preferred project.
Hence, in case it is possible to re invest as shown in the example above, it is advisable to
compare and analyse alternative projects by considering equal lives, however, this process
cannot be generalised to be the best practice, as every case shall need to be judged on its
own distinctive merits. Comparisons over differing lives are perfectly fine if there is no
presumption that the company will be required or shall decide to re invest in similar assets.
Illustration 14 : A company proposes to install machine involving a capital cost of Rs.
3,60,000. The life of the machine is 5 years and its salvage value at the end of the life is nil.
The machine will produce the net operating income after depreciation of Rs. 68,000 per
annum. The company's tax rate is 45%.
The Net Present Value factors for 5 years are as under:
Discounting rate : 14 15 16 17 18
Cumulative factor : 3.43 3.35 3.27 3.20 3.13
You are required to calculate the internal rate of return of the proposal.
6.30

Solution
Computation of Cash inflow per annum (Rs.)
Net operating income per annum 68,000

Less: Tax @ 45% 30,600
Profit after tax 37,400
Add: Depreciation 72,000
(Rs. 3,60,000 / 5 years)
Cash inflow 1,09,400
The IRR of the investment can be found as follows:

NPV = −Rs. 3,60,000 + Rs. 1,09,400 (PVAF5, r) = 0
Rs. 3,60,000
or PVA F5,r (Cumulative factor) = = 3.29
Rs. 1,09,400
Computation of Internal Rate of Return
Discounting Rate 15% 16%
Cumulative factor 3.35 3.27
Total NPV (Rs.) 3,66,490 3,57,738
(Rs. 1,09,400×3.35) (Rs. 1,09,400×3.27)
Internal outlay (Rs.) 3,60,000 3,60,000
Surplus (Deficit) (Rs.) 6,490 (2,262)
 6,490 
IRR = 15 +   = 15 + 0.74
 6,490 + 2,262 
= 15.74%.
7.7.5 Multiple Internal Rate of Return: In cases where project cash flows change signs or
reverse during the life of a project e.g. an initial cash outflow is followed by cash inflows and
subsequently followed by a major cash outflow , there may be more than one IRR. The following
graph of discount rate versus NPV may be used as an illustration;
6.31

NPV
IRR IRR2
Discount Role
In such situations if the cost of capital is less than the two IRRs , a decision can be made easily ,
however otherwise the IRR decision rule may turn out to be misleading as the project should only
be invested if the cost of capital is between IRR1 and IRR2. To understand the concept of multiple
IRRs it is necessary to understand the implicit re investment assumption in both NPV and IRR
techniques.
Advantages
(i) This method makes use of the concept of time value of money.
(ii) All the cash flows in the project are considered.
(iii) IRR is easier to use as instantaneous understanding of desirability can be determined by
comparing it with the cost of capital
(iv) IRR technique helps in achieving the objective of minimisation of shareholders wealth.
Limitations
(i) The calculation process is tedious if there are more than one cash outflows
interspersed between the cash inflows, there can be multiple IRRs, the interpretation of
which is difficult.
(ii) The IRR approach creates a peculiar situation if we compare two projects with different
inflow/outflow patterns.
6.32

(iii) It is assumed that under this method all the future cash inflows of a proposal are
reinvested at a rate equal to the IRR. It is ridiculous to imagine that the same firm has a
ability to reinvest the cash flows at a rate equal to IRR.
(iv) If mutually exclusive projects are considered as investment options which have
considerably different cash outlays. A project with a larger fund commitment but lower
IRR contributes more in terms of absolute NPV and increases the shareholders’ wealth.
In such situation decisions based only on IRR criterion may not be correct.
7.8 Modified Internal Rate of Return (MIRR): As mentioned earlier, there are several
limitations attached with the concept of the conventional Internal Rate of Return. The
MIRR addresses some of these deficiencies e.g, it eliminates multiple IRR rates; it addresses
the reinvestment rate issue and produces results which are consistent with the Net Present
Value method.
Under this method , all cash flows , apart from the initial investment , are brought to the
terminal value using an appropriate discount rate(usually the Cost of Capital). This
results in a single stream of cash inflow in the terminal year. The MIRR is obtained by
assuming a single outflow in the zeroth year and the terminal cash in flow as mentioned
above. The discount rate which equates the present value of the terminal cash in flow to the
zeroth year outflow is called the MIRR.
Illustration 15 : Using details given in illustration 11, calculate MIRR considering a 8% Cost of
Capital .
Solution
Year Cash flow
Rs
0 1,36,000
The net cash flows from the investment shall be compounded to the terminal year at 8% as
follows,
Year Cash flow @8% reinvestment rate factor Rs.
1 30,000 1.3605 40,815
2 40,000 1.2597 50,388
3 60,000 1.1664 69,984
4 30,000 1.0800 32,400
5 20,000 1.0000 20,000
MIRR of the investment based on a single cash in flow of Rs 2,13,587 and a zeroth
year cash out flow of Rs 1,36,000 is 9.4% (approximately)
6.33

7.9 Comparison of Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return Methods
Similarity
Both the net present value and the internal rate of return methods are discounted cash
flow methods which mean that they consider the time value of money.
Both these techniques consider all cash flows over the expected useful life of the
investment.
Different conclusion in the following scenarios
There are circumstances/scenarios under which the net present value method and the internal
rate of return methods will reach different conclusions. Let’s discuss these scenarios:-
Scenario 1 - Large initial investment
NPV: The net present value method will favour a project with a large initial investment
because the project is more likely to generate large net cash inflows.
IRR: Because the internal rate of return method uses percentages to evaluate the relative
profitability of an investment, the amount of the initial investment has no effect on the
outcome.
Conclusion: Therefore, the internal rate of return method is more appropriate in this scenario.
Scenario 2 – Difference in the timing and amount of net cash inflows
NPV: The net present value method assumes that all net cash inflows from an investment earn
the desired rate of return used in the calculation. The desired rate of return used by the net
present value method is usually the organization’s weighted-average cost of capital, a more
conservative and more realistic expectation in most cases.
IRR: Differences in the timing and amount of net cash inflows affect a project’s internal rate of
return. This results from the fact that the internal rate of return method assumes that all net
cash inflows from a project earn the same rate of return as the project’s internal rate of return.
Conclusion: In this scenario choosing NPV is a better choice.
Scenario 3 – Projects with long useful life
NPV: Both methods favour projects with long useful lives as long as a project earns positive
net cash inflow during the extended years. As long as the net cash inflow in a year is positive,
no matter how small, the net present value increases, and the projects desirability improves.
IRR: Likewise, the internal rate of return method considers each additional useful year of a
project another year that its cumulative net cash inflow will earn a return equal to the project’s
internal rate of return.
Conclusion: Both NPV and IRR suitable.
6.34

Scenario 4 – Varying cost of capital
As an organization’s financial condition or operating environment changes, its cost of capital

could also change. A proper capital budgeting procedure should incorporate changes in the
organization’s cost of capital or desired rate of return in evaluating capital investments.
NPV: The net present value method can accommodate different rates of return over the years
by using the appropriate discount rates for the net cash inflow of different periods.
IRR: The internal rate of return method calculates a single rate that reflects the return of the
project under consideration and cannot easily handle situations with varying desired rates of
return.
Conclusion: NPV is a better method in these circumstances.
Scenario 5 – Multiple Investments
NPV: The net present value method evaluates investment projects in cash amounts. The net
present values from multiple projects can be added to arrive at a single total net present value
for all investment.
IRR: The internal rate of return method evaluates investment projects in percentages or rates.
The percentages or rates of return on multiple projects cannot be added to determine an
overall rate of return. A combination of projects requires a recalculation of the internal rate of
return.
Conclusion: NPV is a better method in these circumstances.
Illustration 16 : CXC Company is preparing the capital budget for the next fiscal year and has
identified the following capital investment projects:
Project A: Redesign and modification of an existing product that is current scheduled to be
terminated. The enhanced model would be sold for six more years.
Project B: Expansion of a product that has been produced on an experimental basis for the
past year. The expected life of the product line is eight years.
Project C: Reorganization of the plant’s distribution centre, including the installation of

computerized equipment for tracking inventory.
Project D: Addition of a new product. In addition to new manufacturing equipment, a
significant amount of introductory advertising would be required. If this project is
implemented, Project A would not be feasible due to limited capacity.
6.35

Project E: Automation of the Packaging Department that would result in cost savings over the
next six years.
Project F: Construction of a building wing to accommodate offices presently located in an
area that could be used for manufacturing. This change would not add capacity for new lines
but would alleviate crowded conditions that currently exist, making it possible to improve the
productivity of two existing product lines that have been unable to meet market demand.
The cost of capital for CXC Company is 12%, and it is assumed that any funds not invested in
capital projects and any funds released at the end of a project can be invested at this rate. As
a benchmark for the accounting (book) rate of return, CXC has traditionally used 10%. Further
information about the projects is shown below.
Project A Project B Project C Project D Project E Project F
Capital Investment 106,000 200,000 140,000 160,000 144,000 130,000
Net Present Value @12% 69,683 23,773 (10,228) 74,374 6,027 69,513
Internal Rate of Return 35% 15% 9% 27% 14% 26%
Payback Period 2.2 years 4.5 years 3.9 years 4.3 years 2.9 years 3.3 years
Accounting Rate of Return 18% 9% 6% 21% 12% 18%
If CXC Company has no budget restrictions for capital expenditures and wishes to maximize
stakeholder value, the company would choose, based on the given information, to proceed
with Projects A or D (mutually exclusive projects), B, E, and F. All of these projects have a
positive net present value and an internal rate of return that is greater that the hurdle rate or
cost of capital. Consequently, any one of these projects will enhance stakeholder value.
Project C is omitted because it has a negative net present value and the internal rate of return
is below the 12% cost of capital.
With regard to the mutually exclusive projects, the selection of Project A or Project D is
dependent on the valuation technique used for selection. If net present value is the only
technique used, CXC Company would select Projects B, D, E, and F with a combined net
present value of 173,687, the maximum total available. If either the payback method or the
internal rate of return is used for selection, Projects A, B, E, and F would be chosen as Project
A has a considerably shorter payback period than Project D, and Project A also has a higher
internal rate of return that Project D. The accounting rate of return for these two projects is
quite similar and does not provide much additional information to inform the company’s
decision. The deciding factor for CXC Company between Projects A and D could very well be
the payback period and the size of the initial investment; with Project A, the company would
be putting fewer funds at risk for a shorter period of time.
6.36

If CXC Company were to use the accounting rate of return as the sole measurement criteria
for selecting projects, Project B would not be selected. It is clear from the other measures that
Project B will increase stakeholder value and should be implemented if CXC has no budget
restrictions; this clearly illustrates the necessity that multiple measures be used when
selecting capital investment projects.
Rather than an unrestricted budget, let us assume that the CXC capital budget is limited to
4,50,000. In cases where there are budget limitations (referred to as capital rationing), the
use of the net present value technique is generally recommended as the highest total net
present value of the group of projects that fits within the budget limitation will provide the
greatest increase in stakeholder value. The combination of Projects A, B, and F will yield the
highest net present value to CXC Company for an investment of 436,000.
7.10 Discounted Pay back period Method : Some accountants prefers to calculate payback
period after discounting the cash flow by a predetermined rate and the payback period so
calculated is called, ‘Discounted payback period’. One of the most popular economic criteria for
evaluating capital projects also is the payback period. Payback period is the time required for
cumulative cash inflows to recover the cash outflows of the project.
For example, a Rs. 30,000 cash outlay for a project with annual cash inflows of Rs. 6,000
would have a payback of 5 years ( Rs. 30,000 / Rs. 6,000).
The problem with the Payback Period is that it ignores the time value of money. In order to
correct this, we can use discounted cash flows in calculating the payback period. Referring
back to our example, if we discount the cash inflows at 15% required rate of return we have:
Year 1 - Rs. 6,000 x 0.870 = Rs. 5,220 Year 6 - Rs. 6,000 x 0.432 = Rs. 2,592
The cumulative total of discounted cash flows after ten years is Rs. 30,114. Therefore, our
discounted payback is approximately 10 years as opposed to 5 years under simple payback. It
should be noted that as the required rate of return increases, the distortion between simple
payback and discounted payback grows. Discounted Payback is more appropriate way of
measuring the payback period since it considers the time value of money.
6.37

Illustration 17 : The following table gives dividend and share price data for Bharat Limited
Year Dividend Per Share Closing Share Price

1998 2.50 12.25
1999 2.50 14.20
2000 2.50 17.50
2001 3.00 16.75
2002 3.00 18.45
2003 3.25 22.25
2004 3.50 23.50
2005 3.50 27.75
2006 3.50 25.50
2007 3.75 27.95
2008 3.75 31.30
You are required to calculate: (i) the annual rates of return, (ii) the expected (average) rate of
return, (iii) the variance, and (iv) the standard deviation of returns.
Solution
(i) Annual Rates of Return
Year Dividend Per Share Closing Share Price Annual Rates of Return (%)
1998 2.50 12.25 -
1999 2.50 14.20 2.50+(14.20 – 12.25)/12.25 = 36.33

2000 2.50 17.50 2.50+(17.50-14.20)/14.20 = 40.85
2001 3.00 16.75 3.00(16.75-17.50)/17.50 = 12.86
2002 3.00 18.45 3.00+(18.45-16.75)/16.75 = 28.06
2003 3.25 22.25 3.25+(22.25-18.45)/18.45 = 38.21
2004 3.50 23.50 3.50(23.50-22.25)/22.25 = 21.35
2005 3.50 27.75 3.50(27.75-23.50)/23.50 = 32.98
2006 3.50 25.50 3.50(25.50-27.75)/27.75 = 4.50
2007 3.75 27.95 3.75(27.95-25.50)/25.50 = 24.31
2008 3.75 31.30 3.75+(31.0-27.95)/27.95 = 25.40
6.38

(ii) Average Rate of Return: The arithmetic average of the annual rates of return can be
taken as:
(36.33+40.85+12.86+28.06+38.21+21.35+32.98+4.50+24.31+25.40)/10 = 26.48%.
(iii) Variance and (iv) Standard Deviation are calculated as shown below:
Year Annual Rates of Returns Annual minus Average Square of Annual minus
Rates of Return Average Rates of Return
1998 36.33 9.84 96.86

1999 40.85 14.36 206.22
2000 12.86 -13.63 185.71
2001 28.06 1.57 2.48
2002 38.21 11.73 137.51
2003 21.35 -5.14 26.38
2004 32.98 6.49 42.17
2005 4.50 -21.98 483.13
2006 24.31 -2.17 4.71
2007 25.40 -1.08 1.17
Sum 264.85 1186.36
Average 26.48
1 n
Variance = ∑ (R i − R ) = 1186.36/(10−1) = 131.81
n − 1 i =1
Standard deviation = 131.81 = 11.48 .
Illustration 18 : Alpha Company is considering the following investment projects:
Cash Flows (Rs)

Projects C0 C1 C2 C3
A -10,000 +10,000
B -10,000 +7,500 +7,500
6.39

C -10,000 +2,000 +4,000 +12,000

D -10,000 +10,000 +3,000 +3,000
(a) Rank the projects according to each of the following methods: (i) Payback, (ii) ARR, (iii)
IRR and (iv) NPV, assuming discount rates of 10 and 30 per cent.
(b) Assuming the projects are independent, which one should be accepted? If the projects
are mutually exclusive, which project is the best?
Solution
(a) (i) Payback Period
Project A : 10,000/10,000 = 1 year
Project B: 10,000/7,500 = 1 1/3 years.
10,000 − 6,000 1
Project C: 2 years + = 2 years
12,000 3
Project D: 1 year.
(ii) ARR
(10,000 − 10,000)1 / 2
Project A : =0
(10,000)1 / 2
(15,000 − 10,000)1 / 2 2,500
Project B : = = 50%
(10,000)1 / 2 5,000
(18,000 − 10,000)1 / 3 2,667
Project C: = = 53%
(10,000)1 / 2 5,000
(16,000 − 10,000)1 / 3 2,000
Project D: = = 40%
(10,000)1 / 2 5,000
Note: This net cash proceed includes recovery of investment also. Therefore, net cash
earnings are found by deducting initial investment.
(iii) IRR
Project A: The net cash proceeds in year 1 are just equal to investment.
Therefore, r = 0%.
6.40

Project B: This project produces an annuity of Rs. 7,500 for two years.
Therefore, the required PVAF is: 10,000/7,500 = 1.33.
This factor is found under 32% column. Therefore, r = 32%
Project C: Since cash flows are uneven, the trial and error method will be followed.
Using 20% rate of discount the NPV is + Rs. 1,389. At 30% rate of
discount, the NPV is -Rs. 633. The true rate of return should be less than
30%. At 27% rate of discount it is found that the NPV is -Rs. 86 and at
26% +Rs. 105. Through interpolation, we find r = 26.5%
Project D: In this case also by using the trial and error method, it is found that at
37.6% rate of discount NPV becomes almost zero.
Therefore, r = 37.6%.
(iv) NPV
Project A:
at 10% -10,000+10,000×0.909 = -910
at 30% -10,000+10,000×0.769 = -2,310
Project B:
at 10% -10,000+7,500(0.909+0.826) = 3,013
at 30% -10,000+7,500(0.769+0.592)= +208
Project C:
at 10% -10,000+2,000×0.909+4,000×0.826+12,000×0.751 = +4,134

at 30% -10,000+2,000×0.769+4,000×0.592+12,000×0.455 =-633
Project D:
at 10% -10,000+10,000×0.909+3,000×(0.826+0.751) =+ 3,821
at 30% -10,000+10,000×0.769+3,000×(0.592+0.4555) = + 831
The projects are ranked as follows according to the various methods:

Ranks
Projects PB ARR IRR NPV (10%) NPV (30%)
A 1 4 4 4 4
6.41

B 2 2 2 3 2
C 3 1 3 1 3
D 1 3 1 2 1
(b) Payback and ARR are theoretically unsound method for choosing between the
investment projects. Between the two time-adjusted (DCF) investment criteria, NPV
and IRR, NPV gives consistent results. If the projects are independent (and there is no
capital rationing), either IRR or NPV can be used since the same set of projects will be
accepted by any of the methods. In the present case, except Project A all the three
projects should be accepted if the discount rate is 10%. Only Projects B and D should
be undertaken if the discount rate is 30%.
If it is assumed that the projects are mutually exclusive, then under the assumption of
30% discount rate, the choice is between B and D (A and C are unprofitable). Both
criteria IRR and NPV give the same results – D is the best. Under the assumption of
10% discount rate, ranking according to IRR and NPV conflict (except for Project A). If
the IRR rule is followed, Project D should be accepted. But the NPV rule tells that
Project C is the best. The NPV rule generally gives consistent results in conformity with
the wealth maximization principle. Therefore, Project C should be accepted following
the NPV rule.
Illustration 19 : The expected cash flows of three projects are given below. The cost of
capital is 10 per cent.
(a) Calculate the payback period, net present value, internal rate of return and accounting
rate of return of each project.
(b) Show the rankings of the projects by each of the four methods.
Period Project A (Rs.) Project B (Rs.) Project C (Rs.)

0 (5,000) (5,000) (5,000)
1 900 700 2,000
2 900 800 2,000
3 900 900 2,000
4 900 1,000 1,000
5 900 1,100
6 900 1,200
7 900 1,300
6.42

8 900 1,400
9 900 1,500
10 900 1,600
Solution
(a) Payback Period Method
A = 5 + (500/900) = 5.5 years
B = 5 + (500/1200) = 5.4 years
C = 2 + (1000/2000) = 2.5 years
Net Present Value
NPVA = (− 5000) + (900×6.145) = (5000) + 5530.5 = Rs. 530.5
NPVB is calculated as follows:
Year Cash flow (Rs.) 10% discount factor Present value (Rs.)
0 (5000) 1.000 (5,000)
1 700 0.909 636
2 800 0.826 661
3 900 0.751 676
4 1000 0.683 683
5 1100 0.621 683
6 1200 0.564 677
7 1300 0.513 667
8 1400 0.467 654
9 1500 0.424 636
10 1600 0.386 618
1591
NPVC = (−5000) + (2000×2.487) + (1000×0.683) = Rs. 657
Internal Rate of Return
If NPVA = 0, present value factor of IRR over 10 years = 5000/900 = 5.556
From tables, IRRA = 12 per cent.
6.43

IRRB
Year Cash flow 10% discount Present value 20% Present

(Rs.) factor (Rs.) discount value (Rs.)
factor
0 (5,000) 1.000 (5,000) 1.000 (5,000)
1 700 0.909 636 0.833 583
2 800 0.826 661 0.694 555
3 900 0.751 676 0.579 521
4 1,000 0.683 683 0.482 482
5 1,100 0.621 683 0.402 442
6 1,200 0.564 677 0.335 402
7 1,300 0.513 667 0.279 363
8 1,400 0.467 654 0.233 326
9 1,500 0.424 636 0.194 291
10 1,600 0.386 618 0.162 259
1,591 (776)
1,591 × 10
Interpolating: IRRB = 10 + = 10 + 6.72 = 16.72 per cent
(1,591 + 776)
IRRC
Year Cash flow 15% discount Present value 18% Present

(Rs.) factor (Rs.) discount value (Rs.)
factor
0 (5,000) 1.000 (5,000) 1.000 (5,000)
1 2,000 0.870 1,740 0.847 1,694
2 2,000 0.756 1,512 0.718 1,436
3 2,000 0.658 1,316 0.609 1,218
4 1,000 0.572 572 0.516 516
140 (136)
140 × 3
Interpolating: IRRC = 15 + = 15 + 1.52 = 16.52 per cent
(140 + 136)
6.44

Accounting Rate of Return

ARRA:
5,000
Average capital employed = = Rs. 2,500
2
(9,000 − 5,000)
Average accounting profit = = Rs. 400
10
(400 × 100)
ARRA = = 16 per cent
2,500
ARRB:
(11,500 − 5,000)
10
(650 × 100)
ARRB = = 26 per cent
2,500
ARRC:
(7,000 − 5,000)
4
(500 × 100)
ARRC = = 20 per cent
2,500
(b)
Project A B C
Payback (years) 5.5 5.4 2.5
ARR (%) 16 26 20
IRR (%) 12.4 16.7 16.5
NPV (Rs.) 530.5 1,591 657
Comparison of Rankings
Method Payback ARR IRR NPV
1 C B B B
2 B C C C
3 A A A A
6.45

Illustration 20 : Lockwood Limited wants to replace its old machine with a new automatic
machine. Two models A and B are available at the same cost of Rs. 5 lakhs each. Salvage
value of the old machine is Rs. 1 lakh. The utilities of the existing machine can be used if the
company purchases A. Additional cost of utilities to be purchased in that case are Rs. 1 lakh.
If the company purchases B then all the existing utilities will have to be replaced with new
utilities costing Rs. 2 lakhs. The salvage value of the old utilities will be Rs. 0.20 lakhs. The
earnings after taxation are expected to be:
(cash in-flows of)

Year A B P.V. Factor
Rs. Rs. @ 15%
1 1,00,000 2,00,000 0.87
2 1,50,000 2,10,000 0.76
3 1,80,000 1,80,000 0.66
4 2,00,000 1,70,000 0.57
5 1,70,000 40,000 0.50
Salvage Value at the end of Year 5 50,000 60,000
The targeted return on capital is 15%. You are required to (i) Compute, for the two machines
separately, net present value, discounted pay back period and desirability factor and (ii)
Advice which of the machines is to be selected ?
Solution
(i) Expenditure at year zero (Rs. in lakhs)
Particulars A B
Cost of Machine 5.00 5.00
Cost of Utilities 1.00 2.00
Salvage of Old Machine (1.00) (1.00)
Salvage of Old Utilities – (0.20)
Total Expenditure (Net) 5.00 5.80
(ii) Discounted Value of Cash inflows

(Rs. in lakhs)
Machine A Machine B
6.46

Year NPV Factor Cash Discounted Cash Discounted

@ 15% inflows value of Flows value of
inflows inflows
0 1.00 (5.00) (5.00) (5.80) (5.80)
1 0.87 1.00 0.87 2.00 1.74
2 0.76 1.50 1.14 2.10 1.60
3 0.66 1.80 1.19 1.80 1.19
4 0.57 2.00 1.14 1.70 0.97
5 0.50 1.70 0.85 0.40 0.20
Salvage 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.60 0.30
5.44 6.00
Net Present Value (+)0.44 (+)0.20
Since the Net present Value of both the machines is positive both are acceptable.
(iii) Discounted Pay back Period
(Rs. in lakhs)
Machine A Machine B
Year Discounted Cumulative Discounted Cumulative
cash inflows discounted cash inflows discounted
cash inflows cash inflows
0 (5.00) — (5.80) —
1 0.87 0.87 1.74 1.74
2 1.14 2.01 1.60 3.34
3 1.19 3.20 1.19 4.53
4 1.14 4.34 0.97 5.50
5 1.10* 5.44 0.50 6.00
* Includes salvage value

Discounted Pay back Period (For A and B):
6.47

 (0.66)   (0.30) 
4 years +   × 1 = 4.6 years 4 years +   × 1 = 4.6 years
 1.10   0.50 
Sum of present value of net cash inflow
Profitability Index:
Initial cash outlay
Rs. 5.44 lakhs Rs. 6.00 lakhs
= 1.08 (A) = 1.034 (B)
Rs. 5.00 lakhs Rs. 5.80 lakhs
(iv) Since the absolute surplus in the case of A is more than B and also the desirability
factor, it is better to choose A.
The discounted payback period in both the cases is same, also the net present value is
positive in both the cases but the desirability factor (profitability index) is higher in the
case of Machine A, it is therefore better to choose Machine A.
Illustration 21 : Hindlever Company is considering a new product line to supplement its range
line. It is anticipated that the new product line will involve cash investments of Rs. 7,00,000 at
time 0 and Rs. 10,00,000 in year 1. After-tax cash inflows of Rs. 2,50,000 are expected in
year 2, Rs. 3,00,000 in year 3, Rs. 3,50,000 in year 4 and Rs. 4,00,000 each year thereafter
through year 10. Although the product line might be viable after year 10, the company prefers
to be conservative and end all calculations at that time.
(a) If the required rate of return is 15 per cent, what is the net present value of the project?
Is it acceptable?
(b) What would be the case if the required rate of return were 10 per cent?
(c) What is its internal rate of return?
(d) What is the project’s payback period?
Solution
(a)
Year Cash flow Discount Factor (15%) Present value

Rs. Rs.
0 (7,00,000) 1.00000 (7,00,000)
1 (10,00,000) .86957 (8,69,570)
2 2,50,000 .75614 1,89,035
3 3,00,000 .65752 1,97,256
6.48

4 3,50,000 .57175 2,00,113

5−10 4,00,000 2.1638* 8,65,520
Net Present Value = (1,17,646)
*5.0188 for 10 years – 2.8550 for 4 years.

As the net present value is negative, the project is unacceptable.
(b) Similarly, NPV at 10% discount rate can be computed following the same method as
given in part (a). Since NPV = Rs.2,51,849 i.e. positive, hence the project would be
acceptable.
2,51,849
(c) IRR = 10% + ×5
3,69,495
= 10% + 3.4080
IRR = 13.40%
(d) Payback Period = 6 years:

−Rs. 7,00,000 − Rs. 10,00,000 + Rs. 2,50,000 + Rs. 3,00,000 + Rs. 3,50,000 +
Rs.4,00,000 + Rs. 4,00,000 = 0
Illustration 22 : Elite Cooker Company is evaluating three investment situations: (1) produce
a new line of aluminum skillets, (2) expand its existing cooker line to include several new
sizes, and (3) develop a new, higher-quality line of cookers. If only the project in question is
undertaken, the expected present values and the amounts of investment required are:
Project Investment required Present value of Future Cash-Flows
Rs. Rs.
1 2,00,000 2,90,000
2 1,15,000 1,85,000
3 2,70,000 4,00,000
If projects 1 and 2 are jointly undertaken, there will be no economies; the investments required
and present values will simply be the sum of the parts. With projects 1 and 3, economies are
possible in investment because one of the machines acquired can be used in both production
processes. The total investment required for projects 1 and 3 combined is Rs. 4,40,000. If
projects 2 and 3 are undertaken, there are economies to be achieved in marketing and
6.49

producing the products but not in investment. The expected present value of future cash flows
for projects 2 and 3 is Rs. 6,20,000. If all three projects are undertaken simultaneously, the
economies noted will still hold. However, a Rs. 1,25,000 extension on the plant will be
necessary, as space is not available for all three projects. Which project or projects should be
chosen?
Solution
Project Investment Required Present value of Future Net Present value
Cash Flows
Rs. Rs. Rs.
1 2,00,000 2,90,000 90,000
2 1,15,000 1,85,000 70,000
3 2,70,000 4,00,000 1,30,000
1 and 2 3,15,000 4,75,000 1,60,000
1 and 3 4,40,000 6,90,000 2,50,000
2 and 3 3,85,000 6,20,000 2,35,000
1, 2 and 3 6,80,000 9,10,000 2,30,000
Advise: Projects 1 and 3 should be chosen, as they provide the highest net present value.
Illustration 23 : Cello Limited is considering buying a new machine which would have a useful
economic life of five years, a cost of Rs. 1,25,000 and a scrap value of Rs. 30,000, with 80 per
cent of the cost being payable at the start of the project and 20 per cent at the end of the first
year. The machine would produce 50,000 units per annum of a new project with an estimated
selling price of Rs. 3 per unit. Direct costs would be Rs. 1.75 per unit and annual fixed costs,
including depreciation calculated on a straight- line basis, would be Rs. 40,000 per annum.
In the first year and the second year, special sales promotion expenditure, not included in the
above costs, would be incurred, amounting to Rs. 10,000 and Rs. 15,000 respectively.
Evaluate the project using the NPV method of investment appraisal, assuming the company’s cost
of capital to be 10 percent.
Solution
Calculation of Net Cash flows
Contribution = (3.00 – 1.75)×50,000 = Rs. 62,500
Fixed costs = 40,000 – (1,25,000 – 30,000)/5 = Rs. 21,000
6.50

Year Capital (Rs.) Contribution (Rs.) Fixed costs Adverts (Rs.) Net cash flow
(Rs.) (Rs.)
0 (1,00,000) (1,00,000)
1 (25,000) 62,500 (21,000) (10,000) 6,500
2 62,500 (21,000) (15,000) 26,500
3 62,500 (21,000) 41,500
4 62,500 (21,000) 41,500
5 30,000 62,500 (21,000) 71,500
Calculation of Net Present Value
Year Net cash flow 10% discount Present value

(Rs.) factor (Rs.)
0 (1,00,000) 1.000 (1,00,000)
1 6,500 0.909 5,909
2 26,500 0.826 21,889
3 41,500 0.751 31,167
4 41,500 0.683 28,345
5 71,500 0.621 44,402
31,712
The net present value of the project is Rs. 31,712.
6.51

SUMMARY
Capital budgeting is the process of evaluating and selecting long-term investments that
are in line with the goal of investor’s wealth maximization.
The capital budgeting decisions are important, crucial and critical business decisions due
to substantial expenditure involved; long period for the recovery of benefits; irreversibility
of decisions and the complexity involved in capital investment decisions.
One of the most important tasks in capital budgeting is estimating future cash flows for a
project. The final decision we make at the end of the capital budgeting process is no
better than the accuracy of our cash-flow estimates.
Tax payments like other payments must be properly deducted in deriving the cash flows.
That is, cash flows must be defined in post-tax terms.
There are a number of capital budgeting techniques available for appraisal of investment
proposals and can be classified as traditional (non-discounted) and time-adjusted
(discounted).
The most common traditional capital budgeting techniques are Payback Period and
Accounting (Book) Rate of Return.
Total initial capital investment
Payback period =
Annual expected after - tax net cash flow
Average annual cash in flow

Payback Reciprocal=
Initial investment
The most common time-adjusted capital budgeting techniques are Net Present Value
Technique and Internal Rate of Return Method.
SELF EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
A. Objective Type Questions
1. A capital budgeting technique which does not require the computation of cost of capital
for decision making purposes is,
(a) Net Present Value method
(b) Internal Rate of Return method
(c) Modified Internal Rate of Return method
(d) Pay back
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2. If two alternative proposals are such that the acceptance of one shall exclude the
possibility of the acceptance of another then such decision making will lead to,
(a) Mutually exclusive decisions
(b) Accept reject decisions
(c) Contingent decisions
(d) None of the above
3. In case a company considers a discounting factor higher than the cost of capital for
arriving at present values, the present values of cash inflows will be
(a) Less than those computed on the basis of cost of capital
(b) More than those computed on the basis of cost of capital
(c) Equal to those computed on the basis of the cost of capital
4. The pay back technique is specially useful during times
(a) When the value of money is turbulent
(b) When there is no inflation
(c) When the economy is growing at a steady rate coupled with minimal inflation.
5. While evaluating capital investment proposals, time value of money is used in which of
the following techniques,
(a) Payback method
(b) Accounting rate of return
(c) Net present value
6. IRR would favour project proposals which have,
(a) Heavy cash inflows in the early stages of the project.
(b) Evenly distributed cash inflows throughout the project.
(c) Heavy cash inflows at the later stages of the project
(d) None of the above.
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7. The re investment assumption in the case of the IRR technique assumes that,
(a) Cash flows can be re invested at the projects IRR
(b) Cash flows can be re invested at the weighted cost of capital
(c) Cash flows can be re invested at the marginal cost of capital
8. Multiple IRRs are obtained when,
(a) Cash flows in the early stages of the project exceed cash flows during the later
stages.
(b) Cash flows reverse their signs during the project
(c) Cash flows are un even
9. Depreciation is included as a cost in which of the following techniques,
(a) Accounting rate of return
(b) Net present value
(c) Internal rate of return
10. Management is considering a Rs 1,00,000 investment in a project with a 5 year life and
no residual value . If the total income from the project is expected to be Rs 60,000 and
recognition is given to the effect of straight line depreciation on the investment, the
average rate of return is :
(a) 12%
(b) 24%
(c) 60%
(d) 75%
11. Assume cash outflow equals Rs 1,20,000 followed by cash inflows of Rs 25,000 per year
for 8 years and a cost of capital of 11%. What is the Net present value?
(a) (Rs 38,214)
(b) Rs 9,653
(c) Rs 8,653
(d) Rs 38,214
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12. What is the Internal rate of return for a project having cash flows of Rs 40,000 per year
for 10 years and a cost of Rs 2,26,009?
(a) 8%
(b) 9%
(c) 10%
(c) 12%
13. While evaluating investments, the release of working capital at the end of the projects life
should be considered as,
(a) Cash in flow
(b) Cash out flow
(c) Having no effect upon the capital budgeting decision
14. Capital budgeting is done for
(a) Evaluating short term investment decisions.
(b) Evaluating medium term investment decisions.
(c) Evaluating long term investment decisions.
Answers to Objective Type Questions
1. (d); 2. (a); 3. (a) ; 4. (a); 5. (c) ; 6. (a); 7. (a); 8. (b); 9. (a);
10. (b); 11. (c); 12. (d); 13. (a); 14. (c).
B. Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Capital Budgeting
(b) Regular payback period and discounted payback period
(c) Independent projects and mutually exclusive projects.
(d) Internal rate of return method and modified rate of return method.
(e) Net Present Value method.
(f) Capital rationing.
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2. Why is discounted cash flow a superior method for capital budgeting?

3. “The higher the cut off rate, the more will be the company willing to pay for cost saving
equipment”. Discuss.
4. Does the IRR model make significantly different decisions than the NPV method?
Discuss.
5. Two projects have an identical Net Present Value of Rs 50,000. Are both projects equal
in desirability.
6. What are the basic objections to the use of Average Rate of Return concept for
evaluating projects?
7. Discuss the principal limitations of the cash payback period for evaluating capital
investment proposals.
8. Your boss has suggested that a one year payback means 100 % average returns. Do you
agree?
C. Long Answer Type Questions
1. Explain why, if two mutually exclusive projects are being compared, the short term
project might have the higher ranking under NPV criteria if the cost of capital is high,
but the long term project will be deemed better if the cost of capital is low. Would
changes in the cost of capital ever cause a change in the IRR ranking of two such
projects?
2. In what sense is a reinvestment rate assumption embodied in the NPV , IRR and MIRR
methods? What is the assumed reinvestment rate of each method?
3. Discuss in detail the ‘Capital Budgeting Process’
4. What are the various types of Capital Investment decisions known to you?
5. Discuss the basic principles for measuring project cash flows.
D. Practical Problems
1. (a) You are required to calculate the total present value of inflow at rate of discount of
12% of following data.
Year end Cash inflows
Rs.
1 2,30,000
2 2,28,000
3 2,78,000
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4 2,83,000
5 2,73,000
6 80,000 (Scrap Value)
(b) Considering the data given in the above. Calculate the total present value of inflows
and outflows if the rate of discount is 10% assuming that Rs. 10,00,000 of outflows
would be spent as follows:
Beginning of year 1 Rs. 2,50,000
2. Consider the following example of cash flows from two projects.
No. of years Project A Project B

1 Nil 40,000
2 Nil 50,000
3 5,000 1,20,000
4 20,000 10,000
5 50,000 10,000
6 1,50,000 Nil
7 50,000 Nil
8 40,000 Nil
Total 3,15,000 2,30,000
Both projects cost Rs. 1,50,000 each . You are required to compute the payback period
for both projects. Which project will you prefer?
3. A company wants to replace its old machine with a new automatic machine. Two models
A and B are available at the same cost of Rs. 5 lakhs each. Salvage value of the old
machine is Rs. 1 lakh. The utilities of the existing machine can be used if the company
purchases model A. Additional cost of utilities to be purchased in that case are Rs. 1
lakh. If the company purchases model B then all the existing utilities will have to be
replaced with new utilities costing Rs. 2 lakhs. The salvage value of the old utilities will
be Rs. 0.20 lakhs. The earnings after taxation are expected to be as follows :
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(Cash inflows)
Year/Model A B P.V. Factor
Rs. Rs. @ 15%
1. 1,00,000 2,00,000 0.87
2. 1,50,000 2,10,000 0.76
3. 1,80,000 1,80,000 0.66
4. 2,00,000 1,70,000 0.57
5. 1,70,000 40,000 0.50
Salvage value at the end 50,000 60,000

of Year 5
The targeted return on capital is 15% you are required to :
(i) Compute, for the two machines separately, net present value, discounted payback
period and desirability factor and
(ii) Advice which of the machines is to be selected ?
4. Suppose the management of a concern is considering two projects both involving Rs.
10,00,000 each and having profits after tax and depreciation as follows:
Year A B
Rs. Rs.
1 50,000 Nil
2 75,000 Nil
3 1,25,000 Nil
4 1,30,000 2,30,000
5 80,000 2,30,000
Total 4,60,000 4,60,000
Suppose further that both projects can be sold for Rs. 80,000 each after 5 years. You are
required to compute the annual rate of return of both the projects. Will you consider both
projects to be equal?
5. A product is currently manufactured on a plant which is not fully depreciated for tax
purposes and has a book value of Rs., 60,000 (it was bought for Rs. 1,20,000 six years
ago). The cost of the product is as under:
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Unit cost
Rs.
Direct costs 24.00
Indirect labour 8.00
Other variable overheads 16.00
Fixed overheads 16.00
Rs. 64.00
10,000 units are normally produced. It is expected that the old machine can be
used, indefinitely into the future, after suitable repairs, estimated to cost Rs. 40,000
annually, are carried out. A manufacturer of machinery is offering a new machine with
the latest technology at Rs.3,00,000 after trading off the old plant for Rs. 30,000. The
projected cost of the product will then be:
Per unit
Rs.
Direct costs 14.00
Indirect labour 12.00
Other variable overheads 12.00
Fixed overheads 20.00
58.00
The fixed overheads are allocations from other departments pls the depreciation of plant
and machinery. The old machine can be sold for Rs. 40,000 in the open market. The
new machine is expected to last for 10 years at the end of which, its salvage value will be
Rs. 20,000. Rate of corporate taxation is 50%. For tax purposes, the cost of the new
machine and that of the old one may be depreciated in 10 years. The minimum rate of
return expected is 10%.
It is also anticipated that in future the demand for the products will stay to 10,000 units.
Advise whether the new machine can be purchased ignore capital gains taxes.
Present value of Re. 1 at 10% for years 1-10 are:
.909, .826, .751, .683, .621, .564, .513, .467, .424 and .383 respectively.
6. Modern Enterprises Ltd. is considering the purchase of a new computer system for its
Research and Development Division, which would cost Rs. 35 lakhs. The operation and
maintenance costs (excluding depreciation) are expected to be Rs. 7 lakhs per annum. It
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is estimated that the useful life of the system would be 6 years, at the end of which the
disposal value is expected to be Rs. 1 lakh.
The tangible benefits expected from the system in the form of reduction in design and
drafts-menship costs would be Rs. 12 lakhs per annum. Besides, the disposal of used
drawing, office equipment and furniture, initially, is anticipated to net Rs. 9 lakhs.
Capital expenditure in research and development would attract 100% write-off for tax
purpose. The gains arising from disposal of used assets may be considered tax-free. The
company’s effective tax rate is 50%.
The average cost of capital to the company is 12%. The present value factors at 12%
discount rate are:
Year PVF
1 0.892
2 0.797
3 0.711
4 0.635
5 0.567
6 0.506
After appropriate analysis of cash flows, please advise the company of the financial
viability of the proposal.
7. A sole trader installs plant and machinery in rented premises for the production of luxury
article, the demand for which is expected to last only 5 years. The total capital put in by
the sole trader is as under:
Plant and Machinery Rs. 2,70,500
Working Capital Rs. 40,000
Rs. 3,10,500
The working capital will be fully realised at the end of the 5th year. The scrap value of
the plant expected to be realised at the end of the 5th year is only Rs. 5,500. The
trader’s earnings are expected to be as under :
Years Cash profits after depreciation and tax Tax payable
Rs. Rs.
1 90,000 20,000
2 1,30,000 30,000
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3 1,70,000 40,000
4 1,16,000 26,000
5 19,500 5,000
Present value factors of various rates of interest are given below :
Years 11% 12% 13% 14% 15%

0.9009 0.8929 0.8850 0.8770 0.8696
2 0.8116 0.7972 0.7831 0.7695 0.7561
3 0.7312 0.7118 0.6931 0.6750 0.6575
4 0.6587 0.6355 0.6133 0.5921 0.5718
5 0.5935 0.5674 0.5428 0.5194 0.4972
You are required to compute the present value of cash flows discounted at the various
rates of interests given above and state the return from the project. (3,34,172; 3,25,996;
3,18,128; 3,10,543; 3,03,251 : Yield 14%)
8. The Alpha Co. Ltd, is considering the purchase of a new machine. Two alternative
machines (A & B) have been suggested, each costing Rs. 4,00,000. Earnings after
taxation but before depreciation are expected to be as follows :
Year Cash Flows
Machine A Machine B
Rs. Rs.
1 40,000 1,20,000
2 1,20,000 1,60,000
3 1,60,000 2,00,000
4 2,40,000 1,20,000
5 1,60,000 80,000
Total 7,20,000 6,80,000
The company has a target rate return on capital @ 10 percent and on this basis, you are
required :
(a) Compare profitability of the machines and state which alternative you consider
financially preferable,
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(b) Compute the pay back period for each project and,
(c) Compute annual rate of return for each project.
(Present value of machine B is higher than that of machine A; Payback period
machine A – 3 years 4 months, machine B 2 years 7.2 months ; Annual return
machine A – 16%, machine B – 14%)
9. Company X is forced to choose between two machines A and B. The two machines are
designed differently, but have identical capacity and do exactly the same job. Machine A
costs Rs. 1,50,000 and will last for 3 years. It costs Rs. 40,000 per year to run. Machine
B is an ‘economy’ model costing only Rs. 1,00,000, but will last only for 2 years, and
costs Rs. 60,000 per year to run. These are real cash flows. The costs are forecasted in
rupees of constant purchasing power. Ignore tax. Opportunity cost of capital is 10
percent. Which machine company X should buy ?
10. S Engineering Company is considering replacing or repairing a particular machine, which
has just broken down. Last year this machine costed Rs. 20,000 to run and maintain.
These costs have been increasing in real terms in recent years with the age of the
machine. A further useful life of 5 years is expected, if immediate repairs of Rs. 19,000
are carried out. If the machine is not repaired it can be sold immediately to realise about
Rs. 5,000 (Ignore loss/gain on such disposal)
Alternatively, the company can buy a new machine for Rs. 49,000 with an expected life of
10 years with no salvage value after providing depreciation on straight line basis. In this
case, running and maintenance costs will reduce to Rs. 14,000 each year and are not
expected to increase much in real terms for a few years at least. S Engineering Company
regard a normal return of 10% p.a. after tax as a minimum requirement on any new
investment. Considering capital budgeting techniques, which alternative will you choose?
Take corporate tax rate of 50% and assume that depreciation on straight line basis will
be accepted for tax purposes also.
Given cumulative present value of Re. 1 p.a. at 10% for 5 years Rs. 3.791 and for 10
years Rs. 6.145.
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CHAPTER 6

1. CAPITAL BUDGETING DEFINITION

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However, most investment proposals considered by management will require quantitative

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(iii) Diversification decisions: These decisions require evaluation of proposals to diversify

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Incremental net cash flow for the period

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CAPITAL BUDGETING TECHNIQUES

Net Present Value

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The payback reciprocal can be calculated as follows:

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(a) If Initial Investment is considered then,

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(b) If Average investment is considered, then,

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4 50,000 75,000 80,000 40,000

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1st year 2nd year

NPV @ 5% Rank NPV @ 10% Rank

Project A 33.94 I 30.78 I

Project B 32.25 II 27.66 II

Project Investment NPV @ 15%

Rs. ‘000 Rs. ‘000

The company is limited to a capital spending of Rs. 1,20,000.

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Project Investment NPV @ 15% NPV per Rs. 1 Ranking

Building up of a Programme of Projects based on their Rankings

Project Investment NPV @ 15%

Investment NPV @ 15%

In this case E + B + D would be preferable as it provides a higher NPV despite D ranking

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1 year 2 years 3 years 4 year 5 year

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5. Calculation Net Cash Flow

Pay back period shall

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c. Discounted Pay back Period

Time Annual Cash Flows (Rs.’000) Cumulative Cash Flow (Rs.’000)

The discounted pay back period shall be

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Project L’s Net Present Value Profile

Project S5 Net Present value profile

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