Applied M I Lnote-1

Ambo University
Department of Mathematics
Lecture Note
Applied Mathematics I
December 7, 2016
Contents
1 Vectors and Vector Spaces 4

1.1 Scalars and Vectors in R2 and R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Addition and scalar multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Scalar product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Angle between two vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Orthogonal projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Direction angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Cross product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Lines and planes in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Vector space; Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Linear Dependence and independence; Basis of a vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Matrices and determinants 19

2.1 Definition of matrix and basic operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Product of matrices and some algebraic properties; Transpose of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Elementary operations and its properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Inverse of a matrix and its properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Determinant of a matrix and its properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Solving system of linear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6.1 Cramer’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6.2 Gaussian method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6.3 Inverse matrix method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1
3 Limit and continuity 34
3.1 Definition of limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Basic limit theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 One sided limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Infinite limits,limit at infinity and asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4.1 Limits at infinity (negative infinity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4.2 Infinite limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4.3 Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4.4 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5 Intermediate value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4 Derivatives and application of derivatives 43

4.1 Definition of derivatives; basic rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 Derivatives of inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.1 Inverse trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.2 Hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Higher order derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4 Implicit differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.5 Application of derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.5.1 Extrema of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.5.2 Mean value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.6 First and second derivative tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.6.1 Concavity and inflection point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.6.2 Curve sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.7 Velocity, acceleration and rate of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.8 Indeterminate Form(L’Hopital’s Rule) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5 Integration 64
5.1 Antiderivatives, indefinite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2 Techniques of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2.1 Integration by substitution, by parts and by partial fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2.2 Trigonometric integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2.3 Integration by trigonometric substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 Definite integral, Fundamental theorem of calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
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DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS 2
6 Application of integrals 83
6.1 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.2 Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.2.1 Volumes by slicing; Disks and Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.3 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.4 Surface Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
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Chapter 1
Vectors and Vector Spaces
Introduction represent a point in space. The set of all n-tuples is called

n-space and is denoted by Rn .
In Engineering applications we use two kinds of quantities;
scalars and vectors. R1 = 1-space = set of all real numbers
• A scalar is a quantity that is determined by its magni- R2 = 2-space = set of all ordered pairs of real numbers
tude.
Example: length, area, temperature, mass,...etc R3 = 3-space = set of all ordered triples of real numbers
• A vector is a quantity that is determined by both its ..
magnitude and direction. .
Example: Velocity, acceleration, force,...etc Rn = n-space = set of all ordered n-tuples of real numbers.
The concept of a vector is basic for the study of functions of
An n-tuples (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) can be viewed as a point in Rn
several variables. It provides geometric motivation for every-
with the xi ’s as its coordinates or a vector.
thing that follows.
x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) vector in Rn
1.1 Scalars and Vectors in R2 and R3 with the xi ’s as its components.
Definition of points in space
Vectors in R2 and R3
We know that a number x can be used to represent point on
a line. A pair of numbers (x, y) can be used to represent a Every pair of distinct points A and B in R2 and R3 determines
point in the plane. A triple numbers (x, y, z) can be used to a directed line segment with initial point at A and terminal
4
point is at the origin.
B
Definition 1.1.2. Two vectors u and v in R2 or R3 are said
−−→ terminal point
AB to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction,
and denoted by u = v.
A
Definition 1.1.3 (Component form). If v is a two-
initial point dimensional vector in the plane with initial point P (x1 , y1 )
and terminal point Q(x2 , y2 ) then the component form of v
is →
v = P Q = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 ).
If v is a three-dimensional vector in space with initial point
P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and terminal point Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) then the com-
(v1 , v2 ) ponent form of v is
v →
v = (v1 , v2 ) v = P Q = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ).
The zero vector is the vector 0 = (0, 0) or 0 = (0, 0, 0) in

R2 and R3 respectively.
Example 1.1.1. Find the component form of a vector with
initial point P (−3, −2, −1) and terminal point Q(1, −2, 3).
→
−
u −−→
→
− Solution. The component form of P Q is
v
→
−
u =→
−
v −−→
P Q = (1 − (−3), −2 − (−2), 3 − (−1)) = (4, 0, 4)
point at B. We call such a directed line segment is a vector

−−→
1.2 Addition and scalar multiplica-
and denoted by AB. tion
The length of the line segment is the magnitude of the
vector and the arrow indicates its direction. We denote a Definition 1.2.1. Let u = (u1 , u2 ) and v = (v1 , v2 ) be vec-
vector by printing a letter in boldface (v) or by putting an tors in R2 and let c be a real number. Then the sum of u
arrow above the letter (→
−v ). and v is defined as the vector
Definition 1.1.1. A position vector is a vector whose initial u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 )

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and the the scalar multiple of u by c is defined as the
vector v
cu = (cu1 , cu2 )
Definition 1.2.2 (Parallel Vectors). Two non-zero vectors u w
u and v are said to be parallel if they are scalar multiples

of one another. In other word, the two vectors u and v are C
said to be parallel, denoted by u k v if there exists scalar c The head-to-tail rule
such that u = cv.
u w =u+v
→
−
u 2→
−
u v
Parallelogram rule
→
−
v
−→
−
v
Theorem 1.2.1 (Properties of Vector Addition and Scalar
Multiplication in the Plane). Let u, v and w be vectors in
R2 , and let c and d be scalars.
Triangle law(The head to tail rule): Given vectors u 1. u + v ∈ R2 . Closure under addition
and v in R2 , translate v so that its tail coincides with the
2. u + v=v + u. Commutative property of addition
head of u. The sum u + v of u and v is the vector from the
tail of u to the head of v. 3. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w. Associative property of
Parallelogram rule: The sum of two vectors in the plane addition
can be represented by the diagonal of a parallelogram having
u and v as its adjacent sides, as shown in Figure below. 4. u + 0 = u. Additive identity property
Example 1.2.1. Find the sum of the vectors. 5. u + (−u) = 0. Additive inverse property
a. u = (4, 3), v = (2, −1) 6. cu ∈ R2 . Closure under scalar multiplication
b. u = (3, −2), v = (2, −3) 7. c(u + v) = cu + cv.Distributive property
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8. (c + d)u = cu + du. Distributive property
9. c(du) = (cd)u. Associative property of multiplication
10. 1(u) = u. Multiplicative identity property
The zero vector 0 in R2 is called the additive identity in
R2 . Similarly, the vector −v is called the additive inverse z
of v.
j = (0, 1) k
Theorem 1.2.2 (Properties of Additive Identity and Addi-
tive Inverse). Let v be vector in R2 , and let c be a scalar.
Then the following properties are true. i = (1, 0) j y
1. The additive identity is unique. That is, if u+v=v, then i
u = 0. x
2. The additive inverse of v is unique.That is,if u + v = 0,
then u = −v.
Thus, any vector in space can be expressed in terms of i, j,
3. 0v = 0. and k.
4. c0 = 0. Example 1.2.2. If a = i + 2j − 3k and b = 4i + 7k, express

the vector 2a + 3b in terms of i, j and k
5. If cv = 0, then c = 0 or v = 0.
Solution.
6. −(−v) = v.
2a + 3b = 2(i + 2j − 3k) + 3(4i + 7k)
Standard basis vectors = 2i + 4j − 6k + 12i + 21k
Let i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1). The vectors i, j, k = 14i + 4j + 15k
are called standard basis vectors. They have length 1 and
J
points in the direction of the positive x, y, and z-axes respec-
tively. Similarly in two dimensions we define i = (1, 0) and
j = (0, 1). 1.3 Scalar product
If a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), then we can write
Definition 1.3.1. Let u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) be a vector in R3 .
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a1 , 0, 0) + (0, a2 , 0) + (0, 0, a3 )
Then the magnitude (norm) of u, denoted by kuk is de-
= a1 (1, 0, 0) + a2 (0, 1, 0) + a3 (0, 0, 1) fined by: q
= a1 i + a2 j + a3 k kuk = u21 + u22 + u23
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Similarly, for a vector v = (v1 , v2 ) ∈ R2 , its norm is given by The dot product
q Definition 1.3.3. If a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ),
kvk = v12 + v22 then the dot product of a and b is the number a · b given
by
Example 1.3.1. a. If v = (−1, 4, 3), then find kvk. a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
The dot product of two dimensional vectors is defined in a
b. If kuk = 6, find x such that u = (−1, x, 5).
similar fashion:
Remark 1.3.1. i. kuk =
6 0 if u 6= 0 (a1 , a2 ) · (b1 , b2 ) = a1 b1 + a2 b2
ii. kuk = k−uk Theorem 1.3.4. The dot product of two non-zero vectors a
and b is the number
Theorem 1.3.1. If c ∈ R, then kcvk = |c|kvk.
a · b = kakkbkcosθ
Definition 1.3.2 (Unit vector). Any vector v satisfying where θ is the angle between a and b, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. If either a
kvk = 1 is called a unit vector. or b is 0, we define a · b = 0
Example 1.3.2. The vectors Remark 1.3.2. The dot product of two vectors is a scalar
−1
(0, 1), (−1, 0), ( √12 , √ ), (1, 0, 0) are examples of unit vectors. quantity, and its value is maximum when θ = 0 and minimum
2
if θ = π.
Theorem 1.3.2. For any non-zero vector v the unit vector Example 1.3.4. If u = (1, −2, 3) and v = (0, 1, −5), then
u corresponding to v in the direction of v can be obtained as: find u · v, u · u and (u + v) · v.
v
u = kvk .
Solution. u · v = (1, −2, 3) · (0, 1, −5) = 1(0) + (−2)(1) +
Example 1.3.3. Let a = (1, 1, 1). Then find the correspond- 3(−5) = −17, u · u = u2 = |u|2 = 14 J
ing unit vector.
Properties of Dot Product
Solution. The unit vector u in the direction of a is
If u, v and w are vectors with the same dimensions and c ∈ R,
a (1, 1, 1) 1 1 1 then
u= = √ = (√ , √ .√ )
kak 3 3 3 3 1. u · u = kuk2
J 2. u · v = v · u
3. u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w
Exercise 1.3.3. Find the unit vector in the direction of
a. −3i + 7j 4. (cu) · v = c(u · v) = u · (cv)
b. 8i − j + 4k 5. 0 · u = 0
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1.3.1 Angle between two vectors 1.3.2 Orthogonal projection
→ →
If θ is the angle between two non-zero vectors u and v, then Definition 1.3.5. Let a = P Q and b = P R be two vectors.
the angle between the two vectors can be obtained by: If S is the foot of the perpendicular from R to the line con-
u·v taining P and Q, then the vector from P to S is called the
cos θ = B
C
kukkvk vector projection of b onto a and is denoted by projab .

u·v
⇒ θ = cos−1
kukkvk
Definition 1.3.4. Two non-zero vectors u and v are said to
be orthogonal (perpendicular) denoted by u ⊥ v if and only R
if u · v = 0, i.e, if θ = π2 .
b
Example 1.3.5. show that 2i + 2j − k is perpendicular to
5i − 4j + 2k θ
P P rojab S a Q
Solution. Since 2i + 2j − k · 5i − 4j + 2k = 10 − 8 − 2 = 0,
we see that the vectors are perpendicular. J
Example 1.3.6. Find the angle between a and b, where a = The scalar projection of b onto a (also called the com-
(1, 1, −1) and b = (1, 0, 0) ponent of b along a) is defined to be the length of projab ,
√ √
Solution. cos θ = a·b
= √1 = 3
⇒ θ = cos−1 ( 3 which is equal to kbk cos θ and is denoted by compb
a . Thus,
|a||b| 3 3 ) = a·b a·b
π
3(1) compba = kak and proja
b
= kak2 a
3 J
Example 1.3.7. Find the scalar projection and Vector pro-
Theorem 1.3.5 (Pythagoras theorem). If a and b are or-
jection of b = (1, 1, 2) onto a = (−2, 3, 1).
thogonal vectors, then k a + b k2 = kak2 + kbk2 . p √
Proof. Suppose a ⊥ b, then Solution. Since kak = (−2)2 + 32 + 12 = 14, the scalar
projection of b onto a is
ka + bk2 = (a + b) · (a + b)
a·b −2 + 3 + 2 3
=a·a+a·b+b·a+b·b compb
a = = √ =√
kak 14 14
= kak2 + 2a · b + kbk2
The vector projection is this scalar projection times the unit
= kak2 + kbk2 , since a · b vector in the direction of a.
3 a 3 −3 9 3
projab = √ = (−2, 3, 1) = ( , , )
Theorem 1.3.6. Given two vectors u and v in space, ku + 14 kak 14 14 14 14
vk = ku − vk if and only if u and v are orthogonal vectors. J
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B
C
Remark 1.3.3. The vector projection of b onto a is the scalar

projection times the unit vector in the direction of a
z
Exercise 1.3.7. Let a = (−1, 3, 1) and b = (2, 4, 3). Then
find projab , projba and compb
a
a
1.3.3 Direction angles γ

β y
Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k be a vector positioned at the origin in α
R3 , making an angle of α, β and γ with the positive x, y and z
axes respectively.Then the angles α, β and γ are called the di-
rectional angles of a and the quantities cos α, cos β and cos γ
are called directional cosines of a, which can be computed as x
follows:
a1
cos α = , α ∈ [0, π]
kak defined as:
a2
cos β = , β ∈ [0, π] a × b = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k
kak
a3 i j k
cos γ = , γ ∈ [0, π] a a3 a a3 a a2
kak = a1 a2 a3 = i 2 −j 1 +k 1
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
Example 1.4.1. Let a = 4i − 3j + 2k and b = 2i − 5j − k.
Remark 1.3.4. cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1 Then find
a. a × b
Exercise 1.3.8. Let a = (−1, 2, 2). Then find the directional b. b × a
cosines of a.
Solution.
i j k
1.4 Cross product a×b = 4 −3 2 = i(3+10)−j(−4−4)+k(−20+6) = 13i+8j−14k
2 −5 −1
Definition 1.4.1. Suppose that a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = a1 i + i j k
a2 j + a3 k and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k be two vectors b×a = 2 −5 −1 = i(−10−3)−j(4+4)+k(−6+20) = −13i−8j+14k
on R3 . Then the cross product a × b of the two vectors is 4 −3 2
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J Applications of cross product
Remark 1.4.1. For two non-zero vectors a and b, 1. Area: The area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides
B
C coincides with the vectors a and b is given by ka × bk =
i. a × b is a vector which is orthogonal to both a and b
kakkbk sin θ
ii. a × b is not defined for a, b ∈ R2
iii. i × j = −j × i = k
j × k = −(k × j) = i
k × i = −(i × k) = j
Theorem 1.4.1 (Properties of Cross Product). Let a, b and
c be vectors in R3 and α be any scalar. Then b
|b| sin θ = h
1. a × 0 = 0 × a = 0, where 0 = (0, 0, 0)
θ a
2. a × b = −b × a
3. a × (b × c) 6= (a × b) × c Note 1. The area of the triangle formed by a and b as
its adjacent sides is given by area= 21 ka × bk
4. (αa) × b = a × (αb) = α(a × b)
5. a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c 2. Volume: The volume V of a parallelepiped with the
three vectors a, b and c in R3 as three of its adjacent
6. a · (a × b) = b · (a × b) = 0 edges is given by:
7. If a and b are parallel, then a × b = 0  
a1 a2 a3
8. ka × bk = kakkbk sin θ, θ ∈ [0, π] V = |a · (b × c)| = det  b1 b2 b3 
c1 c2 c3
9. ka × bk2 = kak2 kbk2 − (a · b)2
π
Example 1.4.2. If kak = 2, kbk = 4 and θ = 4 for two Example 1.4.3. Find the area of a triangle whose vertices
vectors a and b then find ka × bk are A(1, −1, 0), B(2, 1, −1) and C(−1, 1, 2).
√
Solution. ka × bk = kakkbk sin θ = 2 × 4 × sin π4 = 4 2 J Solution. The vectors on the sides of the triangle ∆ABC
−−→ −→
The angle θ between a and b can be obtained by sin θ = are AB = (1, 2, −1) and AC = (−2, 2, 2) Then the area of
ka×bk the triangle ABC is
kakkbk , for two non-zero vectors a and b.
1 −−→ −→ √
Definition 1.4.2 (Scalar Triple Product). Let a, b and c A= kAB × ACk = 3 2 square units
be vectors in R3 . Their scalar triple product is given by 2
a · (b × c), which is a scalar. J
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Example 1.4.4. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with
edges u = i + k, v = 2i + j + 4k, and w = j + k. z
Solution. V = |u · (v × w)| = 1 J
r − r0
If the volume of the parallelepiped determined by a, b and c P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) P (x, y, z)
is 0, then the vectors must lie in the same plane; that is, they
are Coplanar. r0 r
Example 1.4.5. Use the scalar triple product to show that v
the vectors a = (1, 4, −7), b = (2, −1, 4) and c = (0, −9, 18) y
are coplanar.
Solution. The scalar triple product
 
1 4 −7
V = |a · (b × c)| = det 2 −1 4  =0 x
0 −9 18
∴ a, b and c are coplanar. J Thus r = r0 + tv——vector equation of L.

If v = (a, b, c), then tv = (ta, tb, tc).
1.5 Lines and planes in R3 Let r = (x, y, z) and r0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ). Then the vector equa-
tion becomes
Lines (x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + (ta, tb, tc)
2
We know that in a plane(R ) a line is determined by a point = (x0 + ta, y0 + tb, z0 + tc), t ∈ R2
on a line and slope of the line. i.e.
This leads to x = x0 + ta, y = y0 + tb, z = z0 + tc——–this is
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ) called parametric equation of a line
But in three dimensional space (R3 ) a line L is determined Example 1.5.1. a. Find the vector equation and parametric
by a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and a vector v giving the direction equation for the line that passes through the point (5, 1, 3)
of the line. and is parallel to the vector i + 4j − 2k
Let P (x, y, z) be an arbitrary point on L and let r0 and r
be the position vectors of P0 and P respectively. b. Find two other points on the line
→
If a = P0 P ,then r = r0 + a. Solution. a. Here r0 = (5, 1, 3) = 5i + j + 3k and v =
But since a and v are parallel vectors, there is a scalar t such i + 4j − 2k.
that a = tv. The vector equation is
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The symmetric equations are
r = r0 + tv = 5i + j + 3k + t(i + 4j − 2k) x−2 y−4 z+3

= =
= (5 + t)i + (1 + 4t)j + (3 − 2t)k 1 −5 4
Parametric equations are x−2 y−4 3 11 1

b. z = 0 ⇒ 1 = −5 = 4 ⇒x= 4 and y = 4
J
x = 5 + t, y = 1 + 4t, z = 3 − 2t
b. Choosing t = 1 and t = 2 gives the two points (6, 5, 1) Example 1.5.3. Show that the lines L1 and L2 with para-
and 7, 9, −1 metric equations x = 1 + t, y = −2 + 3t, z = 4 − t and
J x = 2s, y = 3 + s, z = −3 + 4s are skew lines. that is,
the do not intersect and are not parallel.
Symmetric Equation Solution. The lines are not parallel because their direction
The vector equation and parametric equations of a line are vectors are not parallel. If L1 and L2 had a point of
not unique. If we change the point or the parameter or choose intersection, then there would be values of t and s such
a different parallel vector, then the equations change. If a 1 + t = 2s

vector v = (a, b, c) is used to describe the direction of a line that −2 + 3t = 3 + s
L, then a, b and c are called direction numbers of L.

4 − t = −3 + 4s.

If none of a, b or c is 0, then we can solve each of the three
parametric equations for t, equate the results and obtain the (
1 + t = 2s 11 8
symmetric equations. ⇒t= and s = , but
−2 + 3t = 3 + s 5 5
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0 these values do not satisfy the third equation. J
= =
a b c
Example 1.5.2. a. Find parametric equations and symmet- we know that the vector equation of a line through the
ric equations of the line that passes through the points vector r0 in the direction of a vector v is r = r0 + tv. If the
A(2, 4, −3) and B(3, −1, 1). line also passes through r1 , then we can take v = r1 − r0 and
so its vector equation is
b. At what point does this line intersect the xy-plane?
−−→ r = r0 + t(r1 − r0 ) = (1 − t)r0 + tr1
Solution. a. The vector AB = (1, −5, 4) is parallel to the
line L.
The line segment from r0 to r1 is given by the vector equation
If P0 = (2, 4, −3), then the parametric equations are
x = 2 + t, y = 4 − 5t, z = −3 + 4t r(t) = (1 − t)r0 + tr1 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

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Planes This equation is called the equation of the plane through the
point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with normal vector n = (a, b, c)
A plane in space is determined by a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in the
plane and a vector n that is orthogonal (perpendicular) to the Example 1.5.4. Find an equation of the plane through the
plane. This orthogonal vector n is called normal vector. point (2, 4, −1) with normal vector n = (2, 3, 4). Find the
Let P (x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in the plane, and let intercepts and sketch the plane.
r0 and r be the position vectors of P0 and P . The normal
Solution. Put P0 = (2, 4, −1) and n = (2, 3, 4)
z Hence an equation of the plane is
2(x − 2) + 3(y − 4) + 4(z + 1) = 0 =⇒ 2x + 3y + 4z = 12

n
the x-intercept y = z = 0 ⇒ 2x = 12 ⇒ x = 6
the y-intercept is y = 4.
r − r0 the z-intercept is z = 3 J
P (x, y, z) P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )
r r0
Example 1.5.5. Find an equation of the plane that passes
y through the points P (1, 3, 2), Q(3, −1, 6) and R(5, 2, 0).
−−→ −→
Solution. Let a = P Q = (2, −4, 4) and b = P R =
(4, −1, −2). since both a and b lie in the plane, their cross
product a × b is orthogonal to the plane can be taken as the
x normal vector. Thus
i j k
n=a×b= 2 −4 4 = 12i + 20j + 14k
vector n is orthogonal to every vector in the given plane. In
4 −1 −2
particular, n is orthogonal to r − r0 .
Thus n · (r − r0 ) = 0 or n · r = n · r0 . This equation is called The equation is
a vector equation of the plane. If n = (a, b, c), r = (x, y, z),
and r0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ), then 12(x − 1) + 20(y − 3) + 14(z − 2) = 0
⇒ 12x + 20y + 14z = 100
(a, b, c) · (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = 0
⇒ 6x + 10y + 7z = 50
⇒a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0
⇒ax + by + cz + d = 0, where d = −(ax0 + by0 + cz0 ) J
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Thus if θ is the angle between the planes, then
z n1 · n2 1−2+3 2
cos θ = = √ √ =√
kn1 kkn2 k 3 14 42
2
∴ θ = cos−1 ( √ ) = 72◦
(0, 0, 3) 42
To find a point on L take z = 0. Then
(
x+y =1
⇒ y = 0 and x = 1
x − 2y = 1
y
(0, 4, 0)
So the point (1, 0, 0) lies on L. Since L lies on both planes, it
is perpendicular to both of the normal vectors. Thus a vector
v parallel to L is given by
i j k
(6, 0, 0)
v = n1 × n2 = 1 1 1 = 5i − 2j − 3k
1 −2 3
x
So the symmetric equation of L can be written
x−1 y z
= =
Angle between Planes 5 −2 −3
Two plane are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. J

If two planes are not parallel, then they intersect in a straight
line and the angle between the planes is defined as the acute Distance in Space
angle between their normal vectors.
a. Distance from a point to a line: The distance D from
Example 1.5.6. Find the angle of intersection between the a point P1 (not on L) to a line L in space is given by
planes x + y + z = 1 and x − 2y + 3z = 1. Find symmetric
→
equations for the line of intersection of the plane. kv × P0 P1 k
D= , where v is the directional vector of L and P0 is any point on L
Solution. The normal vectors are kvk
n1 = (1, 1, 1), n2 = (1, −2, 3) Proof. execise

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b. Distance from a point to a plane: The perpendicular Solution. The planes are parallel because their normal
distance D of a point P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) in space to the plane vectors (10, 2, −2) and (5, 1, −1) are parallel. The dis-
with the equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by: tance between π1 and π2 is the distance between any
point in π1 and the plane π2 .
→
|ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d| |n · OP | Let y = z = 0, then x = 12 . Hence ( 21 , 0, 0) lies in π1 .
D= √ = Now the distance between the point ( 12 , 0, 0) and the
2 2
a +b +c 2 knk
plane π2 is
where O is the foot of n within the plane. √
|5( 12 ) + 1(0) − 1(0) − 1| 3
D= p =
52 + 12 + (−1)2 6
Proof. Exercise
√
3
∴ the distance between the planes is 6 . J
Exercise 1.5.1. 1. Find the distance of the point
P1 (−1, 3, 0) from the line with parametric equation
L : x = 1, y = 1 + 3t, z = −1 + 2t 1.6 Vector space; Subspaces
2. Find the distance from the point P (1, 2, 3) to the Definition 1.6.1. Let V be a set on which two operations,
plane π : 3x + 5y − 4z + 37 = 0 called addition and scalar multiplication, have been defined.
3. Find the distance between the planes π1 : x + 2y − If u and v are in V , the sum of u and v is denoted by u + v,
2z = 3 and π2 : 2x + 4y + −4z = 7 and if c is a scalar, the scalar multiple of u by c is denoted
by cu. If the following axioms hold for all u, v and w in V
and for all scalars c and d, then V is called a vector space
c. Distance between two parallel planes: Given two
and its elements are called vectors.
parallel planes π1 : ax + by + cz = d1 and π2 : ax +
by + cz = d2 . Then the distance between π1 and π2 1. u + v is in V . Closure under addition
is the same as the distance from any arbitrary point
P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) that has been taken from π1 to the plane 2. u + v=v + u. Commutativity
π2 and is given by
3. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w. Associativity
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 − d2 | |d1 − d2 | 4. There exists an element 0 in V , called a zero vector,
D= √ =√
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 such that u + 0 = u.
Example 1.5.7. Find the distance between the parallel 5. For each u in V , there is an element −u in V such that
planes u + (−u) = 0.
π1 : 10x + 2y − 2z = 5 and 6. cu is in V . Closure under scalar multiplication
π2 : 5x + y − z = 1 7. c(u + v) = cu + cv.Distributivity
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8. (c + d)u = cu + du. Distributivity 1.7 Linear Dependence and inde-
9. c(du) = (cd)u. pendence; Basis of a vector
10. 1(u) = u. space
Example 1.6.1. For any n ≥ 1, Rn is vector space over R Definition 1.7.1. A vector u in a vector space V is called a
Example 1.6.2. The set defined by S = {(x, y, z) : x, linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn in V when
√y, z ∈
Q} is not a vector space over R because if we take c = 2 ∈ R u can be written in the form
and u = (1, 3, 0) ∈ S, then we can see that cu is not in S.
u = α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn
Subspace where, α1 , α2 , . . . , αn are scalars.
Definition 1.6.2. A non-empty subset W of a vector space
V is called a subspace of V if W is itself a vector space with Definition 1.7.2. A set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } in a
the same scalars, addition and scalar multiplication as V . vector space V is linearly dependant(LD) if there are
α1 , α3 , . . . , αn , atleast one of which is not zero, such that
Theorem 1.6.1. Let V be a vector space and let W be a
non-empty subset of V . Then W is a subspace of V if and α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn = 0
only if the following conditions hold:
a. If u and v are in W , then u + v is in W . A set of vectors that is not linearly dependant is said to be
linearly independent(LI).
b. If u is in W and c is scalar, then cu is in W .
A set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } in vector space V is lin-
Example 1.6.3. V and {0} are the trivial subspaces of any early independent if α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn = 0 implies
vector space V . α1 = 0, α2 = 0, . . . , αn = 0
1. V and {0} are the trivial subspaces of any vector space
V Example 1.7.1. Determine weather the following set of vec-
tors in Vector space V = R3 are linearly dependant or inde-
2. For the vector space V = R3 = {(x, y, z); x, y, z ∈ R3 } pendent
over R. Then the set W = {(x, y, 0); x, y ∈ R} is a
subspace of V . (verify!) i. {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 3)}
ii. {(2, 6, 0), (2, 4, 1), (1, 1, 1)}
3. The set of all lines passing through the origin, L = {ax+
by = 0, a, b ∈ R} is a subspace of the vector space V = Theorem 1.7.1. Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } be a set of vectors
R2 . in Rn . If r > n, then S is linearly dependent.
Exercise 1.6.2. Is the set W = {x − 4y = 1} a subspace of Definition 1.7.3. If f1 = f1 (x), f2 = f2 (x), . . . , fn = fn (x)
V = R2 ? Justify. are functions that are n−1 times differentiable on the interval
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(−∞, ∞) , then the determinant Definition 1.7.5. A subset B of a vector space V is a basis
for V if
f1 f2 ··· fn
f10 f20 ··· fn0 1. B spans V and
W (x) = .. .. ..
. . . 2. B is linearly independent.
f1n−1 f2n−1 ··· fnn−1
Definition 1.7.6. A vector space V is called finite dimen-
is called the Wronskian of f1 , f2 , . . . , fn . sional if it has a basis consisting of finitely many vectors.
The dimension of V , denoted by dimV , is the number of
Theorem 1.7.2. If the functions f1 , f2 , . . . , fn have n − vectors in a basis for V . The dimension of the zero vector
1 continuous derivatives on the interval (−∞, ∞) and if space {0} is defined to be zero. A vector space that has no
the Wronskian of these functions is not identically zero on finite basis is called infinite dimensional.
(−∞, ∞) , then these functions form a linearly independent
Example 1.7.3. 1. Show that the set S =
set of vectors in C (n−1) (−∞, ∞).
{(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 5)} form a basis of the vec-
Example 1.7.2. Let V be the vector space of all real valued tor space R3 .
functions of the variable t. Then which of the following set
2. Determine whether the set S = {(0, 1), (1, 0), (2, 5)} is a
of functions are LD/LI? Justify!
basis of R2 .
a. {t, t2 , sint}
b. {cos2 t, sin2 t, 1} Theorem 1.7.4. If a vector space V has one basis with n
vectors, then every basis for V has n vectors.
Theorem 1.7.3. A set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } in a vec-
tor space V is linearly dependent if and only if atleast one of Theorem 1.7.5. Let B = v1 , v2 , . . . , vn be a basis for a vector
the vectors can be expressed as a linear combination of the space V .
others. a. Any set of more than n vectors in V must be linearly
dependent.
Proof. Exercise
b. Any set of fewer than n vectors in V cannot span V .
Basis of a vector space Theorem 1.7.6. Let V be a vector space of dimension n.
Definition 1.7.4. If S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is a set of vectors
1. If S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is a linearly independent set of
in a vector space V , then the set of all linear combinations
vectors in V , then S is a basis for V .
of v1 , v2 , . . . , vn is called the span of v1 , v2 , . . . , vn and is
denoted by span(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) or span(S). If V = span(S), 2. If S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } spans V , then S is a basis for
then S is called a spanning set for V and V is said to be V.
spanned by S.
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Chapter 2
Matrices and determinants
2.1 Definition of matrix and basic The diagonal entries of A are a11 , a22 , a33 , . . . , and if m =
n (that is, if A has the same number of rows as columns),
operations then A is called a square matrix. A square matrix whose
Definition 2.1.1. An m × n matrix A is a rectangular array nondiagonal entries are all zero is called a diagonal matrix.
of numbers, real or complex, with m rows and n columns. A diagonal matrix all of whose diagonal entries are the same
is called a scalar matrix. If the scalar on the diagonal is 1,
The following are all examples of matrices: the scalar matrix is called an identity matrix.
  For example let
√ 2
2 3 5 −2 1
, , [2], 1 1 1 1 , 1
1 4
   
π 3 i 2 0 0 1 0 0
3

2 4 5 3 1
A= ,B= , C = 0 6 0 , D = 0 1 0
0 3 4 4 5
The size of a matrix is a description of the numbers of rows 0 0 4 0 0 1
and columns it has. A matrix is called m × n (pronounced "
m by n") if it has m rows and n columns. The diagonal entries of A are 2 and 3, but A is not square;
A 1 × m matrix is called a row matrix (or row vector), B is a square matrix of size 2 × 2 with diagonal entries 3 and
and an n × 1 matrix is called a column matrix (or column 5; C is a diagonal matrix; D is a 3 × 3 identity matrix. The
vector). n × n identity matrix is denoted by In (or simply I if its size
A general m × n matrix A has the form is understood).
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n Remark 2.1.1. Two matrices are equal if they have the same
 a21 a22 . . . a2n  size and if their corresponding entries are equal. Thus, if
A= .
 
.. .. ..  A = [aij ]m×n and B = [bij ]r×s , then A = B if and only if
 .. . . . 
am1 am2 ... amn m = r and n = s and aij = bij for all i and j.
19
Matrix Addition and scalar Multiplication 2.2 Product of matrices and some
If A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are m×n matrices, their sum A+B algebraic properties; Transpose
is the m × n matrix obtained of a matrix
A + B = aij + bij
Matrix Multiplication
Example 2.1.1. Let
Definition 2.2.1. If A is an m × n matrix and B is an n × r
1 4 0 3 1 −1 4 3 matrix, then the product C = AB is an m × r matrix. The
A= , B= and C =
−2 6 5 3 0 2 2 1 (i, j) entry of the product is computed as follows:
Then

−2 5 −1
A+B =
1 6 7
but neither A + C nor B + C is defined.

column j b1j
If A is an m × n matrix and c is a scalar, then the scalar b2j
multiple cA is the m×n matrix obtained by multiplying each B ..
entry of A by c. (r × m) .
brj
cA = c[aij ] = [caij ]
row i ai1 ai2 ... air cij
2.1.2. For
Example matrix A in Example 2.1.1
1

2 8 0 1 2 2 0 A C = AB
2A = , 2A = , (−1)A =

−4 12 10
−1 3 25 (n × r) (n × m)
−1 −4 0
2 −6 −5
The matrix (−1)A is written as −A and called the negative cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + ain bnj
of A. As with vectors, we can use this fact to define the
difference of two matrices: If A and B are the same size,
then
Note 2. For AB to exist, the number of columns of A must
A − B = A + (−B) equal the number of rows of B.
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Matrix multiplication implies that the columns of the product
A B = AB are AB1 , AB2 , . . . , ABr . We can write
m×n n×r m×r
AB = AB1 AB2 . . . ABr
same

2 0 4 1 3
size of AB For example, suppose A = and B = .
1 5 0 2 −1
Then

2 0 4 2 0 1 2 0 3 8 2 6
Remark 2.2.1. If A is an m × n matrix and B is an n × r AB = =
1 5 0 1 5 2 1 5 −1 4 11 −2
matrix, then AB will be an m × r matrix.
Theorem 2.2.1. Let A, B and C be matrices and r and s be
1 3 5 0 1 scalars. Assume that the sizes of the matrices are such that
Example 2.2.1. Let A = and B = .
2 0 3 −2 6 the operations can be performed.
Determine AB and BA, if the product exists.
Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplica-
Solution. A has two columns and B has two rows; thus AB tion
exists. Interpret A in terms of its rows and B in terms of its 1. A + B = B + A
columns and multiply the rows by the columns. We find that
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
1 3 5 0 1 14 −6 19
AB = = 3. A + 0 = 0 + A = A (where 0 is the appropriate zero
2 0 3 −2 6 10 0 2
matrix)
BA does not exist because B has three columns and A has
4. r(A + B) = rA + rB
two rows.
We see that the order in which two matrices are multiplied 5. (r + s)C = rC + sC
is important. Unlike multiplication of real numbers, matrix
multiplication is not commutative. In general, for two matri- 6. r(sC) = (rs)C
ces A and B, AB 6= BA. J
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
Matrix Multiplication in Terms of Columns 1. A(BC) = (AB)C
Consider the product AB where A is an m × n matrix and B 2. A(B + C) = AB + AC

is an n×r matrix(so that AB exists). Let the columns of B be 3. (A + B)C = AC + BC
the matrices B1 , B2 , . . . , Br . Write B as B1 B2 . . . Br .
Thus 4. AI = IA = A (where I is the appropriate identity ma-
AB = A B1 B2 . . . Br trix)
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5. r(AB) = (rA)B = A(rB) Exercise 2.2.2. Compute each of the following expressions
for
Note 3. AB 6= BA in general. Multiplication of matrices is
not commutative. 2 0 −1 1 3 4
A= , B= , C=
−1 5 2 4 0 2
Example 2.2.2. Compute the product ABC of the following
three matrices. 1. A − 3B 2
  2. A2 B + 2C 3
4
1 2 0 1 3
A= , B= , C = −1
3 −1 −1 0 −2 The Transpose of a Matrix
0
Definition 2.2.2. The transpose of an m × n matrix A is
Solution. Let us check to see if the product ABC exists be- the n × m matrix AT obtained by interchanging the rows and
fore we start spending time multiplying matrices. We get The columns of A. That is, the ith column of AT is the ith row of
A for all i.
Example 2.2.3. Let
A B C ABC
2×2 2×3 3×1 = 2×1
1 3 2 a b
A= , B= , C= 5 −1 2
match match 5 0 1 c d
size of product is 2 × 1
Then their transposes are
   
1 5 5
product exists and will be a 2×1 matrix. Since matrix multi- T T a c T
A =  3 0  , B = , C = −1
plication is associative, the matrices in the product ABC can b d
2 1 2
be grouped together in any manner for multiplying, as long
as the order is maintained. Let us use the grouping (AB)C. Definition 2.2.3. A square matrix A is symmetric if AT =
This is probably the most natural. We get A—that is, if A is equal to its own transpose.
Example 2.2.4. Let

1 2 0 1 3 −2 1 −1
AB = =
3 −1 −1 0 −2 1 3 11  
1 3 2
1 2
A = 3 5 0 and B =
and −1 3
  2 0 4
4

−2 1 −1   −9
(AB)C = −1 = Then A is symmetric, T
1 3 11 1 since A = A; but B is not symmetric,
0

1 −1
since B T = 6= B.
J 2 3
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2.3 Elementary operations and its The process of applying elementary row operations to bring a
matrix into row echelon form, called row reduction, is used
properties to reduce a matrix to echelon form.
Definition 2.3.1. A matrix is in row echelon form if it sat- Example 2.3.2. Reduce the following matrix to echelon
isfies the following properties: form:  
1. Any rows consisting entirely of zeros are at the bottom. 1 2 −4 −4 5
2 4 0 0 2
 
2. In each non-zero row, the first non-zero entry (called the 2 3 2 1 5
leading entry) is in a column to the left of any leading −1 1 3 6 5
entries below it.
Solution.
Example 2.3.1. The following matrices are in row echelon
form: R2 − 2R1
−4 5 R3 − 2R1 1 2 −4 −4 5
   
      1 2 −4
2 4 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 2 4 0 0 2 R4 + R1 0 0 8 8 −8
0 −1 2 , 0 1 5 , 0 0 1 3
  −→ 
0 −1 10

2 3 2 1 5 9 −5
0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 −1 1 3 6 5 0 3 −1 2 10
 
1 2 −4 −4 5
Elementary Row Operations R2 ←→R3  0 −1 10 9 −5
−→  
0 0 8 8 −8
Definition 2.3.2. The following elementary row operations
0 3 −1 2 10
can be performed on a matrix:  
1 2 −4 −4 5
1. Interchange two rows. R4 +3R2 0 −1 10 9 −5
−→  
0 0 8 8 −8
2. Multiply a row by a non-zero constant.
0 0 29 29 −5
3. Add a multiple of a row to another row.
 
1 2 −4 −4 5
1
8
0 −1 10 9 −5
We will use the following shorthand notation for the three −→  
0 0 1 1 −1
elementary row operations:
0 0 29 29 −5
1. Ri ←→ Rj means interchange rows i and j.
 
1 2 −4 −4 5
R4 −29R3 0 −1 10 9 −5
2. kRi means multiply row i by k. −→  
0 0 1 1 −1
3. Ri + kRj means add k times row j to row i (and replace 0 0 0 0 24
row i with the result).
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 
With this final step, we have reduced our matrix to echelon 1 0 1
form. J a. 0 0 3
0 1 0
Definition 2.3.3. Matrices A and B are row equivalent if

7 0 1 0
there is a sequence of elementary row operations that converts b. 0 1 −1 4
A into B. 0 0 0 0

The matrices in example 2.3.2 0 1 3 0
c.
    0 0 0 1
1 2 −4 −4 5 1 2 −4 −4 5 0 0 0
2 4 0
 0 2 
 and 
0 −1 10 9 −5 d. 0 0 0
2 3 2 1 5 0 0 1 1 −1 
0 0 0

−1 1 3 6 5 0 0 0 0 24 1 0 3 −4 0
e. 0 0 0 0 0
are row equivalent. 0 1 5 0 1
 
Definition 2.3.4. The rank of a matrix is the number of 0 0 1
non-zero rows in its row echelon form. f. 0 1 0
1 0 0
 
Definition 2.3.5. A matrix is in reduced row echelon form 1 2 3
if it satisfies the following properties: 1 0 0
g. 
0

1 1
1. It is in row echelon form. 0 0 1
2. The leading entry in each non-zero row is a 1 (called a
leading 1 ). 2.4 Inverse of a matrix and its prop-
3. Each column containing a leading 1 has zeros everywhere erties
else.
Definition 2.4.1. An n × n matrix A is invertible if there
For 2 × 2 matrices, the possible reduced row echelon forms exists an n × n matrix B such that AB = In .
are

1 2

1 0 1 ∗ 0 1 0 0 Example 2.4.1. Prove that the matrix A = has an
, , , 3 4
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
−2 1
where ∗ can be any number. inverse B = 3 −1
2 2
Exercise 2.3.1. Determine whether the given matrix is in Solution. We have that

row echelon form. If it is, state whether it is also in reduced 1 2 −2 1 1 0
row echelon form AB = 3 −1 = = I2
3 4 2 2 0 1
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and Using the column form of matrix multiplication,
−2 1 1 2 1 0
BA = 3 −1 = = I2
2 2 3 4 0 1
AX1 AX2 ... AXn = e1 e2 ... en
Thus AB = BA = I2 , proving that the matrix A has an
inverse B . J
Thus
Theorem 2.4.1. If A is an invertible matrix, then its inverse
is unique. AX1 = e1 , AX2 = e2 , . . . , AXn = en
Proof. Let B and C be inverses of A. Thus AB = BA = In

and AC = CA = In . Multiply both sides of the equation Therefore X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn are solutions to the system AX1 =
AB = In by C and use the algebraic properties of matrices. e1 , AX2 = e2 , . . . , AXn = en , all of which have the same
matrix of coefficients A. Solve these systems by using
C(AB) = CIn Gauss
Jordan elimination on the large augmented matrix
(CA)B = C A : e1 e2 . . . en . Since the solutions X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn
are unique(they are the columns of A−1 ),
In B = C
B=C
A : e1 e2 ... en ≈ · · · ≈ In : X1 X2 ... Xn
Thus an invertible matrix has only one inverse.
Definition 2.4.2. If an n × n matrix A is invertible, then Thus, when A−1 exists,
A−1 is called the inverse of A and denotes the unique n × n
matrix such that AA−1 = A−1 A = In . [A : In ] ≈ · · · ≈ [In : B] where B = A−1
Determining the Inverse of a Matrix On the other hand, if the reduced echelon form of [A : In ] is
We now derive a method for finding the inverse of a matrix. computed and the first part is not of the form In then A has
The method is based on the Gauss-Jordan algorithm. Let no inverse.
A be an invertible matrix. Then AA−1 = In Âů Let the
columns of A−1 be X1 , X2 , . . . , Xm and the columns of In be Example 2.4.2. Find the inverse of
e1 , e2 , . . . , en . Express A−1 and In in terms of their columns,
 
A−1 = X1 X2 . . . Xn and In = e1 e2 . . . en 1 2 −1

2 2 4
We shall find A−1 by finding X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn . Write the equa- 1 3 −3
tion AA−1 = In in the form
if it exists.

A X1 X2 . . . Xn = e1 e2 . . . en
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Solution. Gauss-Jordan elimination produces Exercise 2.4.2. Find the inverse of
 
1 2 −1 1 0 0
 
2 1 −4
[A|I] = 2 2 4 0 1 0 −4 −1 6 
1 3 −3 0 0 1 −2 2 −2
R2 − 2R1   if it exists.
R3 − R1 1 2 −1 1 0 0
−→ 0 −2 6 −2 1 0
0 1 −2 −1 0 1
  2.5 Determinant of a matrix and its
1 2 −1 1 0 0
−1
2 R2
−→ 0 1 −3 1 −1
0 properties
2
0 1 −2 −1 0 1
  Definition 2.5.1. The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix A is
1 2 −1 1 0 0 denoted kAk and is given by
R3 −R2 −1
−→ 0 1 −3 1 2 0
0 0 1 −2 1
1 a11 a12
2 = a11 a22 − a12 a21
a21 a22
R1 + R3  1

R2 + 3R3 1 2 0 −1 2 1 Observe that the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix is given by
−→ 0 1 0 −5 1 3 the difference of the products of the two diagonals of
1
0 0 1 −2 2 1 the matrix.
−3
 
1 0 0 9 2 −5 The notation det(A) is also used for the determinant of A.
R1 −2R2
−→ 0 1 0 −5 1 3 Example 2.5.1. Find the determinant of the matrix
1
0 0 1 −2 2 1
2 4
−3 1
Therefore,
−3
 
9 2 −5 Solution. Applying the above theorem we get
A−1 = −5 1 3
1 2 4
−2 1 = (2 × 1) − (4 × (−3)) = 2 + 12 = 14
2 −3 1
(You should always check that AA−1 = I by direct multipli-
cation.) J J
Example 2.4.3. Determine the inverse of the matrix The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix is defined in terms of
  determinants of 2 × 2 matrices.
1 −1 −2 The determinant of a 4 × 4 matrix is defined in terms of de-
 2 −3 −5
terminants of 3 × 3 matrices, and so on. For these definitions
−1 3 5 we need the following concepts of minor and cofactor.
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Definition 2.5.2. Let A be a square matrix. Example 2.5.3. Evaluate the determinant of the following
The minor of the element aij is denoted Mij and is the matrix A.  
determinant of the matrix that remains after deleting row i 1 2 −1
and column j of A. A = 3 0 1 
The cofactor of aij is denoted Cij and is given by 4 2 1
Solution. Using the elements of the first row and their cor-
Cij = (−1)i+j Mij responding cofactors we get
Note that the minor and cofactor differ in at most sign. |A| = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13
0 1 3 1 3 0
Example 2.5.2. Determine the minors and cofactors of the = 1(−1)2 + 2(−1)3 + (−1)(−1)4
2 1 4 1 4 2
elements a11 and a31 of the following matrix A.
  = [(0 × 1) − (1 × 2)] − 2[(3 × 1) − (1 × 4)] − [(3 × 2) − (0 × 4)]
1 0 3 = −2 + 2 − 6 = −6
A = 4 −1 2
0 −2 1 J
Theorem 2.5.1. The determinant of a square matrix is the
Solution. Applying the above definitions we get the follow-
sum of the products of the elements of any row or column and
ing.
their cofactors.
Minor of a11 :
ith row expansion: |A| = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + · · · + ain Cin
1 0 3 j th column expansion: |A| = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + · · · + anj Cnj
−1 2
M11 = 4 −1 2 = = (−1 × 1) − (2 × (−2)) = 3 There is a useful rule that can be used to give the sign
−2 1
0 −2 1 part, (−1)i+j , of the cofactors in these expansions. The rule
(2.5.0) is summarized in the following array
Cofactor of a11 : C11 = (−1)1+1 M11 = (−1)2 3 = 3  
J + − + − ...
− + − + . . .
 
Definition 2.5.3. The determinant of a square matrix + − + − . . .
..
 
is the sum of the products of the elements of the first row .
and their cofactors.
If A is 3 × 3, |A| = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13 Example 2.5.4. Find the determinant of the following ma-
If A is 4 × 4, |A| = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13 + a14 C14 trix using the second row.
..  
. 1 2 −1
If A is n × n, |A| = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + · · · + a1n C1n A = 3 0 1 
These equations are called cofactor expansions of |A| 4 2 1
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Solution. Expanding the determinant in terms of the second 2 × 2 matrix: |A| = a1 b2 − a2 b1
row we get 3 × 3 matrix: |A| = a1 b2 c3 + b1 c2 a3 + c1 a2 b3 −
(diagonal products from left to right)
c1 b2 a3 − a1 c2 b3 − b1 a2 c3
(diagonal products from right to left)
|A| = a21 C21 + a22 C22 + · · · + a23 C23
A
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
= −3 +0 −1 + −
2 1 4 1 4 2 For example:
2 3
= −3[(2 × 1) − (−1 × 2)] + 0[(1 × 1) − (−1 × 4)] − 1[(1 × 2) − (2 × 4)] 4 1
= −12 + 0 + 6 = −6
|A| = 2 − 12 = −10 |B| = 0 + 10 + 24 − 0 − 2 − 48
There are no such short cuts for computing determinants of
J
larger matrices.
Exercise 2.5.2. Evaluate the determinant of the following Theorem 2.5.3 (Properties of determinants). Let A be an
4 × 4 matrix. n × n matrix and c be a non-zero scalar
 
2 1 0 4 a. If a matrix B is obtained from A by multiplying the ele-
0 −1 0 2 
A=  ments of a row (column) by c then |B| = c|A|
7 −2 3 5 
0 1 0 −3 b. If a matrix B is obtained from A by interchanging two
rows (columns) then |B| = −|A|
Computing Determinants of 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 c. If a matrix B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of
Matrices one row (column) to another row (column), then |B| =
|A|
The determinants 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 matrices can be found
Example 2.5.5. Evaluate the determinant
quickly using diagonals. For a 2 × 2 matrix the actual
diagonals are used while in the case of a 3 × 3 matrix 3 4 −2
the diagonals of an array consisting of the matrix with −1 −6 3
the two first columns added to the right are used. A 2 9 −3
determinant is equal to the sum of the diagonal prod-
Solution. We examine the rows and columns of the deter-
ucts that go from left to right minus the sum of the
minant to see if we can create zeros in a row or column using
diagonal products that go from right to left, as follows.
the above operations. Note that we can create zeros in the
3×3 matrix A
second column + by adding
+ +− twice the third column to it:
 − −
2×2 matrix A
+ −

3 a1 4b1 −2c1 a1 b1 3 0 −2
a1 b1 −1a2 −6
 b2 c32  a2 = b2 −1 0 3
a2 b2 2 a3 9b3 −3c3 Ca23+2Cb33 2 3 −3
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Expand this determinant in terms of the second column to Theorem 2.5.5. Let A and B be n × n matrices and c be a
take advantage of the zeros. nonzero scalar.
3 −2 a. Determinant of a scalar multiple: |cA| = cn |A|

= (−3) = (−3)(9 − 2) = −21
−1 3
b. Determinant of a product: |AB| = |A||B|
J c. Determinant of a transpose: |At | = |A|
Definition 2.5.4. A square matrix A is said to be singular d. Determinant of an inverse: |A−1 | = 1
A−1
|A| (Assuming
if |A| = 0. A is nonsingular if |A| =
6 0. exists.)
Theorem 2.5.4. Let A be a square matrix. A is singular if Exercise 2.5.6. Prove that |A−1 At A| = |A|
a. all the elements of a row (column) are zero. Remark 2.5.1. The determinant of a triangular matrix is the
product of its diagonal elements.
b. two rows (columns) are equal.
Example 2.5.7. Evaluate the determinant
c. two rows (columns) are proportional.
2 4 1
[Note that (b) is a special case of (c), but we list it to give it −2 −5 4
special emphasis.] 4 9 10
Example 2.5.6. Show that the following matrices are sin- Solution. We create zeros below the main diagonal, column
gular. by column.
   
2 0 −7 2 −1 3 2 4 1 2 4 1 2 4 1
(a) A =  3 0 1 , (b) B = 1 2 4 −2 −5 4 = 0 −1 5 = 0 −1 5 = 2×(−1)×13 = −26
−4 0 9 2 4 8 R3 +R2
4 9 10 R2 + R1 0 1 8 0 0 13
R3 − 2R1
Solution. (a) All the elements in column 2 of A are zero.
Thus |A| = 0. J
(b) Observe that every element in row 3 of B is twice the Exercise 2.5.7. Evaluate the following 4 × 4 determinant
corresponding element in row 2. We write using elimination method
(row 3) = 2(row 2) 2 1 3 1
−2 3 −1 2
row 2 and row 3 are proportional. Thus |B| = 0. 2 1 2 3
J −4 −2 0 −1
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Definition 2.5.5. Let A be an n × n matrix and Cij be the 2.6 Solving system of linear equa-
cofactor of aij . The matrix whose (i, j)th element is Cij is
called the matrix of cofactors of A. The transpose of this
tions
matrix is called the adjoint of A and is denoted adj(A). One of the application of determinant is to find the solution
    to the linear systems Ax = b when A is an invertible square
C11 C12 . . . C1n C11 C21 . . . Cn1
 C21 C22 . . . C2n   C12 C22 . . . Cn2  matrix.
   
 .. .. ..   .. .. .. 
 . . .   . . .  2.6.1 Cramer’s rule
Cn1 Cn2 ... Cnn C1n C2n ... Cnn
matrix of cofactors adjoint matrix Before stating the theorem, we need to introduce some no-
tation. If A = [a1 a2 · · · an ] is an n × n matrix and b is in
Determinants and Matrix Inverses Rn , then let Ai denote the matrix A after replacing ai with
b. That is,
Theorem 2.5.8. Let A be a square matrix with |A| 6= o. A
is invertible with
1
A−1 = adj(A)
|A|
Theorem 2.5.9. A square matrix A is invertible if and only
if |A| =
6 0.
Example 2.5.8. Use the formula for the inverse of a matrix
to compute the inverse of the matrix
 
2 0 3
A = −1 4 −2
1 −3 5
Solution. |A| = 25. Thus the inverse of A exists.

 
14 −9 −12
adj(A) =  3 7 1 
−1 6 8
 14 −9 −12 
1 25 25 25
A−1 = 3
adj(A) =  25 7
25
1 
25
25 −1 6 8
25 25 25
J
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Theorem 2.6.1 (CRAMER’S RULE ). Let A be an invert- 2.6.2 Gaussian method
ible n×n matrix. Then the components of the unique solution
When row reduction is applied to the augmented matrix of
x to Ax = b are given by
a system of linear equations, we create an equivalent system
det(Ai ) that can be solved by back substitution. The entire process
xi = for i = 1, 2, . . . , n is known as Gaussian elimination.
det(A)
[Ai = a1 · · · ai−1 b ai+1 · · · an ] Gaussian Elimination

1. Write the augmented matrix of the system of linear equa-
Example 2.6.1. Use Cramer’s Rule to find the solution to tions.
the system
2. Use elementary row operations to reduce the augmented
3x1 + x2 = 5 matrix to row echelon form.
−x1 + 2x2 + x3 = −2 3. Using back substitution, solve the equivalent system that
−x2 + 2x3 = −1 corresponds to the row-reduced matrix.
Example 2.6.2. Solve the system
Solution. The system is equivalent to Ax = b, where
2x2 + 3x3 = 8
   
3 1 0 5 2x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 5
A = −1 2 1 and b = −2 x1 − x2 − 2x3 = −5
0 −1 2 −1
Solution. The augmented matrix is
We have
 
0 2 3 8
      2 3 1 5
5 1 0 3 5 0 3 1 5 1 −1 −2 −5
A1 = −2 2 1 , A2 = −1 −2 1 , A3 = A = −1 2 −2
−1 −1 2 0 −1 2 0 −1 reduce
−1 the matrix to rowechelon form
 
0 2 3 8 1 −1 −2 −5
R1 ↔R3
Computing determinants gives us det(A) = 17, det(A1 ) = 2 3 1 5  −→ 2 3 1 5
28, det(A2 ) = 1 and det(A3 ) = −8. Therefore, by 1 −1 −2 −5 0 2 3 8
CramerâĂŹs Rule, the solution to Ax = b is
We now create a second zero in the first column, using the
det(A1 ) 28 det(A2 ) 1 det(A3 ) −8 leading 1 :
x1 = = , x2 = = , x3 = =    
det(A) 17 det(A) 17 det(A) 17 1 −1 −2 −5 1 R 1 −1 −2 −5
R2 −2R1 5 2
−→ 0 5 5 15  −→ 0 1 1 3
J 0 2 3 8 0 2 3 8
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We now need another zero at the bottom of column 2: Solution. The reduction proceeds as it did in Example 2.6.2
  until we reach the echelon form:
1 −1 −2 −5
R3 −2R2  
−→ 0 1 1 3 1 −1 −2 −5
0 0 1 2 0 1 1 3
0 0 1 2
The augmented matrix is now in row echelon form, and we
move to step 3. The corresponding system is J
x1 − x2 − 2x3 = −5
2.6.3 Inverse matrix method
x2 + x3 = 3
x3 = 2 We now see that matrix inverse enables us to conveniently
express the solutions to certain systems of linear equations.
and back substitution gives x3 = 2, then x2 = 3 − x3 =
3 − 2 = 1, and finally x1 = −5 + x2 + 2x3 = −5 + 1 + 4 = 0. Theorem 2.6.2. Let AX = Y be a system of n linear equa-
We write the solution in vector form as tions in n variables. If A−1 exists, the solution is unique and
  is given by X = A−1 Y
0
1 Example 2.6.4. Solve the following system of equations us-
2 ing the inverse of the matrix of coefficients.
J x1 − x2 − 2x3 = 1
2x1 − 3x2 − 5x3 = 3
Gauss-Jordan Elimination −x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 = −2
1. Write the augmented matrix of the system of linear equa- Solution. This system can be written in the following ma-
tions. trix form,
    
1 −1 −2 x1 1
2. Use elementary row operations to reduce the augmented  2 −3 −5 x2  =  3 
matrix to reduced row echelon form. −1 3 5 x3 −2
3. If the resulting system is consistent, solve for the leading If the matrix of coefficients is invertible, the unique solution
variables in terms of any remaining free variables is
   −1  
x1 1 −1 −2 1
Example 2.6.3. Solve the system in Example 2.6.2 by x2  =  2 −3 −5  3 
Gauss-Jordan elimination. x3 −1 3 5 −2
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This inverse has already been found in Example 2.4.3 Using 3 3
Example 2.7.1. Find the eigenvalues for A = .
that result we get 6 −4
  
x1 0 1 1
−1  
1 Solution. Our aim is to determine the values of λ that sat-
x2  =  5 −3 −1 −2 isfy det(A − λIn ) = 0. We have
x3 −3 2 1 1
3 3 λ 0 3−λ 3
A − λIn = − = .
The unique solution is x1 = 1, x2 = −1, x3 = 1 J 6 −4 0 λ 6 −4 − λ
Next, we compute the determinant,

2.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
det(A − λIn ) = (3 − λ)(−4 − λ) − 18 = λ2 + λ − 30
The focus of this section is eigenvalues and eigenvectors,
which are characteristics of matrices and linear transforma- Setting det(A − λI) = 0, we have
tions. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors arise in a wide range of
λ2 + λ − 30 = 0 ⇒ (λ − 5)(λ + 6) = 0 ⇒ λ = 5 or λ = −6
fields, including finance, quantum mechanics, image process-
ing, and mechanical engineering. Thus the eigenvalues for A are λ = 5 and λ = −6. J
Definition 2.7.1. Let A be an n×n matrix. Then a nonzero Exercise 2.7.3. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the
vector u is an eigenvector of A if there exists a scalar λ such following matrices. 
that 4 4 −2
Au = λu (2.7.0) 3 −4
(A) L = 1 4 −1 (B) G = (C) L =
1 3
The scalar λ is called an eigenvalue of A.  3 6 −1
−1 3 −4
When λ and u are related as in equation 2.7.1, we say −2 3 −4
that λ is the eigenvalue associated with u and that u is an 1 1 3
eigenvector associated with λ.
.
The next theorem shows how to use determinants to find
eigenvalues.
Theorem 2.7.1. Let A be an n × n matrix. Then λ is an
eigenvalue of A if and only if det(A − λIn ) = 0.
Theorem 2.7.2. Let A be a square matrix, and suppose that
u is an eigenvector of A associated with eigenvalue λ. Then
for any scalar c 6= 0, cu is also an eigenvector of A associated
with λ.
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Chapter 3
Limit and continuity
3.1 Definition of limit x<1 f (x) x>1 f (x)

0.5 0.66667 1.5000 0.400000
0.9 0.526316 1.1000 0.476190
Definition 3.1.1 (Informal definition of limit). Suppose
0.99 0.502513 1.0010 0.499700
f (x) is defined when x is near the number a . (these means
0.999 0.500250 1.0001 0.499975
that f is defined on some open interval that contains a, ex-
cept possibly at a itself.) Thus, lim x−1
2 = 0.5.
x→1 x −1
Then we write
Example 3.1.1 is illustrated by the graph of f in Figure below.
Now let’s change f slightly by giving it the value 2 when x = 1
lim f (x) = L
x→a and calling the resulting function g:
(
x−1
and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L" If we 2 if x 6= 1
g(x) = x −1
can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close 2 if x = 1
to L as we like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to a (on
either side of a) but not equal to a. This new function g still has the same limit as x approaches
1.
lim g(x) = 0.5
x−1 x→1
Example 3.1.1. Guess the value of lim 2 .
x→1 x −1
Solution. Note that the function f (x) = x−1

is not defined J
x2 −1
at x = 1. Example 3.1.2. Investigate lim sin( πx )
Consider the following table: x→0
34
6. Definition 3.1.2 (The formal definition of a limit). Let f
be a function defined on some open interval that contains the
number a, except possibly at a itself .Then we say that the
5.
limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L and we write
4. lim f (x) = L
x→a
3.
if for every number > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that
,if
2. 0 < |x − a| < δ
then
1.
B
|f (x) − L| < .
−4. −3. −2. −1. 0 1. 2. 3.

→1←
−1.
−2.
Exercise 3.1.1. Describe the behavior of the the function

2
−1
f (x) = xx−1 near x = 1 and find the limit of f (x) at x = 1.
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Example 3.1.3. Show that lim (4x − 5) = 7.
x→3
3.2 Basic limit theorems
Solution. Let be a given positive number. We want to find Theorem 3.2.1 (limit laws). Suppose that c is a constant
a number δ such that ,if and the limits
lim f (x) and lim g(x)
x→a x→a
0 < |x − 3| < δ
exists. Then
then 1. Limit of a sum: lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
|4x − 5 − 7| < .
2. Limit of a difference: lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) −
But |(4x − 5) − 7| = |4x − 12| = 4|x − 3|.Therefore we want x→a x→a
δ such that if 0 < |x − 3| < δ then 4|x − 3| < . lim g(x)
x→a
that is ; if 0 < |x − 3| < δ then |x − 3| < 4 .
This suggests that we should choose δ = 4 3. Limit of a multiple: lim cf (x) = c lim f (x)
x→a x→a
Now showing that this δ works , given > 0 choose δ = 4
if 4. Limit of a product: lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
0 < |x − 3| < δ lim f (x)
f (x) x→a
5. Limit of a quotient: lim = if lim g(x) 6= 0
then x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a
x→a
Example 3.2.1. Evaluate the following limits

|(4x − 5) − 7| = |4x − 12| = 4|x − 3| < 4δ = 4( ) = .
4
a. lim (x2 + cos x)
x→0 √
Thus if b. lim 12 x
x→9
0 < |x − 3| < δ c. lim x cos x
x→0
x cos x
then d. lim 2
x→0 x +cos x
|(4x − 5) − 7| < .
Therefore by a definition of a limit
lim (4x − 5) = 7.
x→3
Example 3.1.4. Use Formal Definition of limit to prove that

2
lim x −2x−8
x−4 = 6.
x→4
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x3 +2x2 −x−2
Theorem 3.2.2. 6. Power law: lim [f (x)]n = [ lim f (x)]n Example 3.2.5. Find lim x2 −4
x→a x→a x→−2
where n is a positive integer.
Theorem 3.2.4. If f (x) ≤ g(x) when x is near a (except
7. lim c = c possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both exist as x ap-
x→a
proaches a, then
8. lim x = a
x→a
lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x)
x→a x→a
9. lim xn = an where n is a positive integer
x→a √
√ √ Example 3.2.6. Find the lim 1 − x2
10. lim n
x= n
a where n is a positive integer (If n is even, x→0
x→a
we assume that a > 0).
p q
11. Root Law: lim n f (x) = n lim f (x) where n is a posi-
x→a x→a
tive integer (If n is even, we assume that lim f (x) > 0).
x→a
3
x +3x+1
Example 3.2.2. Evaluate lim 2
√
x→−2 x −3 5x
Theorem 3.2.3 (Limits of Polynomials and Rational Functions). 1.

If P (x) is a polynomial and a is any number, then
lim P (x) = P (a).

x→a
2. If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(a) 6= 0, then
P (x) P (a)
lim = .
x→a Q(x) Q(a)
Example 3.2.3. Evaluate
lim (4x3 − 6x2 − 9x)

x→−1
Remark 3.2.1. If f (x) = g(x) when x 6= a, then lim f (x) =

x→a
lim g(x) provided the limits exist.
x→a
x−1
Example 3.2.4. Find lim 2
x→1 x −1
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Theorem 3.2.5 (The Squeeze theorem). Assume f (x) ≤ which is read as “the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from
g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some open interval about a, except the right is L" .
possibly a itself. If lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a lim f (x) = L iff lim f (x) = L = lim+ f (x).
x→a x→a− x→a
exists and lim g(x) = L.
x→a
Example 3.3.1. Show that lim |x| = 0
x→0
Example 3.2.7. Show that
|x|
sin x Example 3.3.2. Let f (x) = x . Find
a. lim = 1.
x→0 x a. lim− f (x)
cos x−1
b. lim x = 0. x→0
x→0 b. lim+ f (x)
x→0
Exercise 3.2.6. Evaluate the following c. lim f (x)
x→0
x2 +x−2 if it exists.
a lim 2
x→−2 x +5x+6
1 1
x−a
b lim
x→a x−a 3.4 Infinite limits,limit at infinity
c lim
√
x−2 and asymptotes
x 2 −16
x→4
3.4.1 Limits at infinity (negative infinity)
3.3 One sided limits Definition 3.4.1. If the function f is defined on an interval
(a, ∞) and if we can ensure that f (x) is as close as we want
Definition 3.3.1 ( Left-hand-limit). We write to the number L by taking x large enough, then we say that
f (x) approaches the limit L as x approaches infinity ,and we
lim f (x) = L
x→a− write
lim f (x) = L
and say the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a x→∞
[or the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left] is If f is defined on an interval (−∞, b) and if we can ensure
equal to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close that f (x) is close as we want to the number M by taking
to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x less than x negative and large enough in absolute value ,then we say
a. In this case we consider only for x < a. that f (x) approaches the limit M as x approaches negative
infinity ,and we write
Definition 3.3.2 (Right-hand-limit). If the values of f (x)
lim f (x) = M.
can be made as close as we like to L by making x sufficiently x→−∞
close to a (but greater than a).Then we write Example 3.4.1. Evaluate lim f (x) and lim f (x) for
x→∞ x→−∞
f (x) = √ x
lim f (x) = L x2 +1
x→a+
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3.4.2 Infinite limits Similarly , the values of f (x) become larger and larger neg-
ative numbers as x approaches 0 from the left, so f has left
Example 3.4.2 (A two sided infinite limit). Describe the
hand limit ∞ at x = 0.
behaviour of the function f (x) = x12 near x = 0.
Solution. As x approaches 0 from either side, the values of lim f (x) = −∞
x→0−
f (x) are positive and grow larger and larger.Thus lim f (x) =
x→0
1 These statements do not say that the one-sided limits exists
lim =∞ J
x→0 x
2
;they do not exists because ∞ and −∞ are not numbers. J
4. 4.
1 1
y= x2 y= x
3. 3.
2. 2.
1. 1.
−3. −2. −1. 0 1. 2. 3. −3. −2. −1. 0 1. 2. 3.
−1. −1.
1 1
Figure 3.1: Graph of y = x2 Figure 3.2: Graph of y = x
Example 3.4.3 (One sided infinite limits). Describe the be-

Example 3.4.4. polynomial behaviour at infinity
haviour of the function f (x) = x1 near x = 0.
a. lim (3x3 − x2 + 2) = ∞
Solution. As x approaches 0 from the right ,the values of x→0
f (x) become larger and larger positive number, and we say b. lim (3x3 − x2 + 2) = −∞
x→−∞
that f has right -hand limit infinity at x = 0.
The highest degree term of a polynomial dominates the
⇒ lim+ f (x) = ∞ other terms as |x| grows large , so the limit of this term at ∞
x→0
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and −∞ determine the limits of the whole polynomial. Thus and is continuous from the right at a point c if
1 2 1 2 f (x) = f (c)
3x3 − x2 + 2 = 3x3 (1 − + ) ⇒ lim (3x3 − x2 + 2) = ( lim 3x3 )( lim (1 − + lim)) = ∞
3x 3x3 x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ 3x3 +
3x x→c
Definition 3.4.4. A function f is said to be continuous at
3.4.3 Asymptotes a point c if the following conditions are satisfied
Definition 3.4.2. The line x = a is called a vertical asymp-
1. f (c) is defined
tote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of the following
statements is true. 2. lim f (x) exists
x→c
a. lim f (x) = ∞
x→a 3. lim f (x) = f (c)
b. lim f (x) = ∞ x→c
x→a−
c. lim+ f (x) = ∞ Example 3.4.5. Determine whether the following functions
x→a
d. lim f (x) = −∞ are continuous at the point x = 2.
x→a
e. lim− f (x) = −∞ x2 −4
a. f (x) = x−2
x→a
f. lim+ f (x) = −∞ (
x2 −4
x→a
x−2 if x 6= 2
b. g(x) =
For instance in examples 3.4.2 and 3.4.3 above the y-axis is 3 if x = 2
a vertical asymptote and the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote. ( 2
x −4
if x 6= 2
Exercise 3.4.1. a. Determine the infinite limit c. h(x) = x−2
lim + x+2 x+2 4 if x = 2
x→−3 x+3 and lim − x+3 .
x→−3
Theorem 3.4.2. Polynomials are continuous every where.
x2 +1
b. Find the vertical asymptotes of the function y = 3x−2x2 .
Example 3.4.6. Show that |x| is continuous every where ,
|x| |x|
c. Evaluate lim− x and lim+ x . 
x→0 x→0
x
 if x > 0
|x| = 0 if x = 0
3.4.4 Continuity 
−x if x < 0

One sided continuity
So |x| is continuous every where because lim |x| = |c|.
Continuity from the left and right x→c
Definition 3.4.3. A function f is continuous from the left Theorem 3.4.3. If the functions f and g are continuous at
at a point c if c, then
lim− f (x) = f (c) • f + g is continuous at c
x→c
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• f − g is continuous at c 2. f is continuous from the right at a.
• f × g is continuous at c 3. f is continuous from the left at b.
• f ÷g is continuous at c if g(c) 6= 0 and has a discontinuity But f is continuous on (a, b) if f is continuous at every
at c if g(c) = 0 element in (a, b).
lim f (x) = f (c)

since f and g are continuous at c, Example 3.4.9. What √ can you say about the continuity of
x→c g(x) g(c)
lim f (x) = f (c) and lim g(x) = g(c). Thus the function f (x) = 9 − x2 ?
x→c x→c √
1. If c ∈ (−3, 3), then lim f (x) = lim 9 − x2 =
f (x) lim f (x) f (c) √ x→c x→c
lim = x→c = 9 − c2 = f (c) which shows f is continuous at each
x→c g(x) lim g(x) g(c)
x→c point in (−3, 3).
√ q
Theorem 3.4.4. A rational function is continuous every 2. lim + f (x) = lim + 9 − x2 = lim + (9 − x2 ) =
x→−3 x→−3 x→−3
where except at the points where the denominator is zero. 0 = f (−3)
Example 3.4.7. For what values of x is there a hole or a √ q
2
−9
3. lim− f (x) = lim− 9 − x2 = lim (9 − x2 ) = 0 =
gap in the graph of y = x2x−5x+6 . x→3 x→3 x→3−
f (3). Thus f is continuous on the closed interval [−3, 3].
Theorem 3.4.5. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b,
x→a
then lim f (g(x)) = f (b). In other words
x→a 3.5 Intermediate value theorem
lim f (g(x)) = f ( lim g(x)) Theorem 3.5.1 (Intermediate value theorem). If f is con-
x→a x→a
tinuous on a closed interval [a, b] and k is any number between
Example 3.4.8. If g(x) = 5 − x2 and f (x) = |x| then show f (a) and f (b) inclusive then there is at least one number x
that f (g(x)) is continuous at x = 3. in the interval [a, b] such that f (x) = N .
Theorem 3.4.6. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous
at g(a), then the composite function f ◦g given by (f ◦g)(x) = Theorem 3.5.2. If f is continuous on [a, b] and if f (a) and
f (g(x)) is continuous at a. f (b) are non-zero and have positive signs, then there is at
least one solution of the equation f (x) = 0 in the interval
Continuity on a closed interval (a, b).
Definition 3.4.5. A function f is said to be continuous on

a closed interval [a, b] if the following conditions are satisfied.
1. f is continuous on (a, b).
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Chapter 4
Derivatives and application of derivatives
4.1 Definition of derivatives; basic equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, as
we saw in finding tangent lines, is
rules
f (x) − f (a)
Many real-world phenomena involve changing quantities - the f 0 (a) = lim .
speed of a rocket, the inflation of currency, the number of x→a x−a
bacteria in a culture, the shock intensity of an earthquake, the
Two interpretations of the derivative are as follows.
voltage of an electrical signal, and so forth. In this chapter
we will develop the concept of a “derivative", which is the 1. Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative: The
mathematical tool for studying the rate at which one quantity derivative f 0 of a function f is a measure of the slope of
changes relative to another. The study of rates of change is the tangent line to the graph of f at any point P (x, f (x)),
closely related to the geometric concept of a tangent line to a provided that the derivative exists.
curve, so we will also be discussing the general definition of a
tangent line and methods for finding its slope and equation. Example 4.1.1. Find an equation of the tangent line
Definition 4.1.1. The derivative of a function f at a number to the parabola y = x2 at the P (1, 1).
a , denoted by f 0 (a), is
2. Physical Interpretation of the Derivative: The
0 f (a + h) − f (a) derivative f 0 of a function f measures the instantaneous
f (a) = lim
h→0 h rate of change of f at x .
if this limit exists.
Example 4.1.2. Find the derivative of the function
If we write x = a + h , then we have h = x − a and h f (x) = x at the number a.
approaches 0 if and only if x approaches a. Therefore an
43
Exercise 4.1.4. Find the derivative of the following func-
tions with respect to x using power rule.
y = f (x) √ 1
Tangent Line A. f (x) = x100 B. g(x) = 3
x C. h(x) = D. l(x) = xπ
x2
f 0 (x) Theorem 4.1.5 (The Constant Multiple Rule). If f is a
differentiable function and c is a constant, then
d
[cf (x)] = cf 0 (x).
P (x, f (x)) dx
Exercise 4.1.6. Find the derivative of the following func-
tions with respect to x using power rule.
5 π 1
A. f (x) = B. g(x) = C.
3x5 x x2
0 Theorem 4.1.7 ( The Sum and Difference Rule). If f and
g are differentiable functions, then
d
[f (x) ± g(x)] = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)
dx
Exercise 4.1.1. Find the derivative of the the following
Theorem 4.1.8 (The Product Rule). If f and g are differ-
functions with respect to x using Definition 4.1.1.
entiable functions, then
√ 1 1−x
A. f (x) = x B. g(x) = C. h(x) = x3 −x D. h(x) = d
[f (x)g(x)] = f 0 (x)g(x) + g 0 (x)f (x).
x+1 2+x dx
Theorem 4.1.2 (Derivative of a Constant Function). If c is Example 4.1.4. a) Find dy/dx if y = (4x2 − 1)(7x3 + x).
a constant, then √
d b) Find ds/dt if s = (1 + t) t .
(c) = 0. √ √
dx
c) Find dy/dx if y = (2 x + x3 )(2 x − x2 )
Example 4.1.3. a) If f (x) = 6, then f 0 (x) = d
dx (6) = 0.
d) Let y = uv be the product of the functions u and v. Find
b) If f (x) = π 2 , then f 0 (x) = d 2
dx (π ) = 0. y 0 (2) if u(2) = 2, u0 (2) = −5, v(2) = 1 and v 0 (2) = 3.
Theorem 4.1.3 (The Power Rule). If r is any real number Theorem 4.1.9 (The Quotient Rule). If f and g are differ-
and f (x) = xr , then entiable functions and g(x) 6= 0 , then
g(x)f 0 (x) − f (x)g 0 (x)

d r d f (x)
f 0 (x) = (x ) = rxr−1 . = .
dx dx g(x) [g(x)]2
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Example 4.1.5. a) Find dy/dx if y = 1
x2 +1 . 4.2 Derivatives of inverse functions
√
t Definition 4.2.1. A function f is called a one-to-one func-
b) Find ds/dt if s = 1−5t .
tion if it never takes on the same value twice; that is,
a+bθ
c) Find df /dθ if f (θ) = m+nθ
f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 .
d) Find equations of any lines that pass through the point
(−1, 0) and any tangent to the curve y = x−1 HORIZONTAL LINE TEST: A function f is one-to-
x+1 .
one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph more
Theorem 4.1.10 (Chain Rule). If g is differentiable at x than once.
and f is differentiable at g(x), then the composite function
F (x) = f ◦ g(x) defined by F (x) = f (g(x)) is differentiable Definition 4.2.2. Let f be a one-to-one function with do-
at x and F 0 is given by the product main A and range B. Then its inverse function f −1 (x)
has domain B and range A and is defined by
F 0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x)
f −1 (y) = x ⇔ f (x) = y
In Leibniz notation, if y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both dif-
ferentiable functions,then for any y in B.
dy dy du domain of f −1 = range f
= . image of f = domain of f −1
dx du dx
√
Example 4.1.6. a) Differentiate y = cos 4x Example 4.2.1. Find the inverse of f (x) = 3x − 2.
√
b) Find F 0 (x) if F (x) = x2 + 3 Theorem 4.2.1. Suppose that f has an inverse and is con-
tinuous on an open interval I containing a. Assume also that
The Power Rule Combined with the Chain Rule: If n is f 0 (a) exists. f 0 (a) 6= 0, and f (a) = c. Then f −1 (c) exists,
any real number and u = g(x) is differentiable, then and
1
d n du (f −1 )0 (c) = 0 .
u = nun−1 f (a)
dx dx
Example 4.2.2. Let f (x) = x7 + 8x3 + 4x − 2. Find
Alternatively, (f −1 )0 (−2).
d Solution. Since f (0) = −2 and f 0 (x) = 7x6 + 24x2 + 4, it
[g(x)]n = n[g(x)]n−1 · g 0 (x)
dx follows that f 0 (0) = 4. Hence,
Example 4.1.7. Differentiate 1 1
(f −1 )0 (−2) = =
1 f 0 (0) 4
A. y = (x3 −1)100 B. g(x) = sin(cos(tan x)) C. h(x) = √
3
D. l(x) = esin x
x2 +x+1 J
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4.2.1 Inverse trigonometric functions ex + e−x 1
cosh x = sec x =
2 cosh x
Definition 4.2.3 (Inverse Trigonometric Functions).
sinh x cosh x
Domain tanh x = coth x =
cosh x sinh x
y = sin−1 x if and only if x = sin y [−1, 1] Hyperbolic Identities
y = cos−1 x if and only if x = cos y [−1, 1] sinh(−x) = − sinh(x), cosh x = cosh x
y = tan−1 x if and only if x = tan y (−∞, ∞) cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1, 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x
y = csc−1 x if and only if x = csc y (−∞, −1]∪ sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
[1, ∞) cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y
−1
y = sec x if and only if x = sec y (−∞, −1]∪
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
[1, ∞) d
• dx (sinh x) = cosh x
y = cot−1 x if and only if x = cot y (−∞, ∞)
d
• dx (cosh x) = sinh x
Theorem 4.2.2 (Derivatives of inverse trigonometric
functions ). Let u be a differentiable function of x. • d 2
u0 dx (tanh x) = sech x
d
• dx (sin−1 u) = √1−u • d
dx (csch x) = csch x coth x
2
0
• d −1
u) = √−u • d
= − sech x tanh x
dx (cos 1−u2 dx (sech x)
• d −1 u0
u) = 1+u
d
• dx (coth x) = − csch2 x
dx (tan 2
d −1 u0 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
• dx (cot u) = 1+u2
d −1 0 y = sinh−1 x ⇔ sinh y = x
• u) = √u
dx (sec |u| u2 −1
y = cosh−1 x ⇔ cosh y = x and y ≥ 0
d −1 −u0
• dx (csc u) = √
|u| u2 −1 y = tanh−1 x ⇔ tanh y = x
Since the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of expo-

4.2.2 Hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic
nential functions, it’s not surprising to learn that the inverse
functions hyperbolic functions can √ be expressed in terms of logarithms.
Definition 4.2.4 (DEFINITION OF THE HYPERBOLIC • sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1) x ∈ R
FUNCTIONS). √
• cosh−1 x = ln(x + x2 − 1) x ∈ [1, ∞)
ex − e−x 1
sinh x =
2
csc x =
sinh x • tanh−1 x = 1
2
1+x
ln 1−x x ∈ (−1, 1)
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• coth−1 x = 1
2
x+1
ln x−1 x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) or
√ Dx f, Dx2 f, Dx3 f, . . . , Dxn f
• sech−1 x = ln 1+ x1−x
2
x ∈ (0, 1]
√
Example 4.3.1. Find the derivatives of all orders of f (x) =
−1 1 1+x2
• csch x = ln x + |x| x ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) x4 − 3x3 + x2 − 2x + 8.
√
Example 4.2.3. Show that sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1). Example 4.3.2. Find the third derivative of y = x1 .
Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
d
• dx (sinh−1 x) = √1+x
1
2
4.4 Implicit differentiation
d −1 √ 1
• dx (cosh x) = x2 −1
Suppose y = f (x) is differentiable function of x, we have seen
dy
• d −1 1
x) = 1−x that dx = f 0 (x). It was a case when y is written explicitly
dx (tanh 2
d −1 1 in terms of x. On the other hand, assume y is a diffentiable
• dx (coth x) = 1−x2 function of x expressed by equation F (x, y) = 0, where y
• d −1 1
x) = − x√1−x is not expressed explicitly. For instance, x3 + y 3 = 2xy.
dx (sech 2
The process of differentiating such functions without the
• d −1
x) = − |x|√1x2 +1 need of first writing y in terms of x, is called Implicit
dx (csch
differentiation.
d −1 √ 1
Example 4.2.4. Show that dx (sinh x) = 1+x2
.
Guidelines for implicit Differentiation
4.3 Higher order derivatives 1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to
x.
The derivative f 0 of a function f is itself a function. As
such, we may consider differentiating the function f 0 . The dy
2. Collect all terms involving dx on the left side of the equa-
derivative of f 0 , if it exists, is denoted by f 00 and is called tion and move all other terms to the right side of the
the second derivative of f . Continuing in this fashion, we are equation.
led to the third, fourth, fifth, and higher-order derivatives of
f , whenever they exist. Notations for the first, second, third, dy
3. Factor dx out of the left side of the equation.
and in general, the n−th derivative of f are
f 0 , f 00 , f 000 , . . . , f (n) 4. Solve for dy
dx .
or dy
d d2 f d3 f dn f Example 4.4.1. Use implicit differentiation to find dx if
[f (x)], 2 , 3 , . . . , n 5y 2 + sin y = x2 .
dx dx dx dx
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Solution. minimum value of f on D. The absolute maximum and
absolute minimum values of f on D are called the extreme
d d 2
[5y 2 + sin y] = [x ] values, or extrema, of f on D.
dx dx
d d Definition 4.5.2 (Relative Extrema of a Function). A func-
5 [y 2 ] + [sin y] = 2x
dx dx tion f has a relative (or local) maximum at c if f (c) ≥ f (x)
dy dy for all values of x in some open interval containing c. Simi-
5[2y y] + [cos y ] = 2x
dx dx larly, f has a relative (or local) minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x)
dy dy for all values of x in some open interval containing c.
10y y + cos y = 2x
dx dx
Example 4.5.1. The function f (x) = cos x takes on its (lo-
cal and absolute) maximum value of 1 infinitely many times,
Solving for dy
we obtain: since cos 2nπ = 1 for any integer n and −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for
dx
all x. Likewise, cos(2n + 1)π = −1 is its minimum value,
dy 2x where is n any integer.
=
dx 10y + cosy Example 4.5.2. If f (x) = x2 ,then f (x) ≥ f (0) because
J x2 ≥ 0 for all x . Therefore, f (0) = 0 is the absolute (and
local) minimum value of f . This corresponds to the fact that
dy
Exercise 4.4.1. (a) Use implicit differcntiation to find dx the origin is the lowest point on the parabola y = x2 . (See Fig-
for the Folium of Descartes, x3 + y 3 = 3xy. ure 4.1.) However, there is no highest point on the parabola
and so this function has no maximum value.
(b) Find an equation for the tangent line to the Folium of
Descartes at the point ( 23 , 32 ).
y
(c) At what points is the tangent line to the Folium of
Descartes horizontal?
f (x) = x2
4.5 Application of derivatives

x
0
4.5.1 Extrema of a function
Definition 4.5.1 (Extrema of a Function). A function f Figure 4.1: Graph of f (x) = x2
has an absolute maximum at c if f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x in the
domain D of f . The number f (c) is called the maximum
value of f on D. Similarly, f has an absolute minimum at c Example 4.5.3. From the graph of the function y = x3 ,
if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in D. The number f (c) is called the shown in Figure 4.2, we see that this function has neither an
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y Example 4.5.4. The graph of the function f (x) = 3x4 −
16x3 + 18x2 − 1 ≤ x ≤ 4 is shown in Figure 4.3. You can
see that f (1) = 5 is a local maximum, whereas the absolute
maximum is f (−1) = 37. (This absolute maximum is not
a local maximum because it occurs at an endpoint.) Also,
f (0) = 0 is a local minimum and f (3) = −27 is both a local
and an absolute minimum. Note that f has neither a local
nor an absolute maximum at x = 4.
(−1, 37) y
x f (x) = 3x
0
(1, 5)
3
f (x) = x
x
0
(3, −27)
3
Figure 4.2: Graph of f (x) = x
Figure 4.3: Graph of f (x) = 3x4 − 16x3 + 18x2
absolute maximum value nor an absolute minimum value. In

fact, it has no local extreme values either. Theorem 4.5.1 (Fermat’s Theorem). If f has a relative ex-
tremum at c, then either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.
Definition 4.5.3 (Critical Number of f ). A critical number
of a function f is any number c in the domain of f at which
f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.
Example 4.5.5. Show that zero is a critical number of each
1
of the functions f (x) = x3 and f (x) = x 3 but that neither
function has a relative extremum at 0.
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1
Example 4.5.6. Find the critical numbers of f (x) = x−3x 3 Observe that f 0 is continuous on (−1, 2). Next, setting
f 0 (x) = 0 gives x = 0 or x = 1. Therefore, 0 and 1 are
Solution. The derivative of f is the only critical numbers of f in (−1, 2). Next, we compute
2 f at these critical numbers as well as at the endpoints -1 and
−2 x3 − 1
f 0 (x) = 1 − x 3 = 2 2. These values are shown in the following table.
x3
x -1 0 1 2
Observe that f 0 is not defined at 0 and also f 0 (x) = 0 if
f (x) -1 -8 -9 8
x = ±1. Therefore, the critical numbers of f are -1 , 0, and
1. J From the table we see that f attains the absolute maximum
value of 8 at 2 and the absolute minimum value of -9 at 1.
Finding the Extreme Values of a Continuous Function
The graph of shown in Figure 4.4 confirms our results. J
on a Closed Interval
Theorem 4.5.2 (The Extreme Value Theorem). If f is con-
tinuous on a closed interval [a, b], then attains an absolute
maximum value f (c) for some number c in [a, b] and an ab-
solute minimum value f (d) for some number d in [a, b].
Guidelines for Finding the Extrema of a Continuous
Function f on [a, b]
1. Find the critical numbers of f that lie in (a, b).
2. Compute the value of f at each of these critical numbers,
and also compute f (a) and f (b).
3. The absolute maximum value of f and the absolute mini-
mum value of f are precisely the largest and the smallest
numbers found in Step 2.
Example 4.5.7. Find the extreme values of the function
f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 8 on [−1, 2].
Solution. Since f is a polynomial function, it is continu-
ous everywhere; in particular, it is continuous on the closed
interval [−1, 2] . Therefore, we can use the Extreme Value
Theorem. First, we find the critical numbers of f in [−1, 2]:
f 0 (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 = 12x2 (x − 1)

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Example 4.5.8. Find the extreme values of the function
f (x) = 2 cos x − x on [0, 2π]
Solution. The function f is continuous everywhere; in par-
ticular, it is continuous on the closed interval [0, 2π]. There-
fore, the Extreme Value Theorem is applicable. First, we find
y the critical numbers of f in (0, 2π). We have
(2, 8)
f 0 (x) = −2 sin x − 1
Observe that f 0 is continuous on (0, 2π). Setting f 0 (x) = 0

gives
1
−2 sin x − 1 = 0 ⇒ sin x = −
2
Thus,x = 7π 11π
6 or 6 . (Remember x lies in (0, 2π).) So 6
7π
11π
and 6 are the only critical numbers of f in (0, 2π) . Next,
we compute the values of at these critical numbers as well as
x at the endpoints 0 and 2π. These values are shown in the
0
(−1, 0) following table.
7π 11π
f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 8 x 0 6 6 2π
f (x) 2 -5.40 -4.03 -4.28
From the table we see that f attains the absolute maximum
value of 2 at 0 and the absolute minimum value of approxi-
mately −5.40 at 7π 6 . The graph of shown in Figure 4.5 con-
firms our results. J
(0, −8)
(1, −9)
Figure 4.4: Graph of f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 8
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y
b. Find the number(s) c in (−1, 1) such that f 0 (c) = 0 as
guaranteed by Rolle’s Theorem.
Solution. a. The polynomial function f is continuous and
differentiable on (−∞, ∞). In particular, it is continuous
on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1). Furthermore,
f (−1) = (−1)3 − (−1) = 0 and f (1) = (1)3 − 1 = 0
and the hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied.

x
0
b. Rolle’s Theorem guarantees that there exists at least one
number c in (−1, 1) such that f 0 (c) = 0. But f 0 (x) =
f (x) = 2 cos x − x 3x2 − 1 , so to find c, we solve obtaining . In other
words,√there are two numbers, and 3c2 −1 = 0, obtaining√
c = ± 33 in other words there are two numbers,c1 = 33
√
and c = − 33 , in (−1, 1) for which f 0 (c) = 0
J
Theorem 4.5.4 ( THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM). Let
f be a function that satisfies the following hypotheses:
Figure 4.5: Graph of f (x) = 2 cos x − x
1. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
4.5.2 Mean value theorem 2. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b)
Theorem 4.5.3 (ROLLE’S THEOREM). Let f be a func- Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
tion that satisfies the following three hypotheses:
f (b) − f (a)
1. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. f 0 (c) = (4.5.0)
b−a
2. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
or, equivalently,
3. f (a) = f (b).
f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)[b − a]
4. Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
Example 4.5.9. Let f (x) = x3 − x for x in [−1, 1]. Example 4.5.10. Let f (x) = x3 .
a. Show that f satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem a. Show that f satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value
on [−1, 1]. Theorem on [1, −1].
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b. Find the number(s) c in (−1, 1) that satisfy Equation (1) a. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b) , then f is increasing on
as guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem. (a, b).
Solution. a. f is a polynomial function, so it is continuous b. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b) , then f is decreasing on
and differentiable on (−∞, ∞). In particular, f is continuous (a, b).
on [1, −1] and differentiable on (−1, 1). So the hypotheses of
c. If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is constant on
the Mean Value Theorem are satisfied.
(a, b).
b. f 0 (x) = 3x2 , so f 0 (c) = 3c2 . With a = −1 and b = 1,
Equation 4.5.4 gives Determining the Intervals Where a Function Is In-
creasing or Decreasing
f (1) − f (−1)
= f 0 (c) 1. Find all the values of x for which f 0 (x) = 0 or f 0 (x) does
1 − (−1)
not exist. Use these values of x to partition the domain
or of f into open intervals.
1 − (−1)
= 3c2
1 − (−1) 2. Select a test number c in each interval I found in Step
1, and determine the sign of f 0 (c) in that interval.
1 = 3c2
√ √ a. If f 0 (c) > 0 then f is increasing on that interval.
and c = ± 33 . So there are two numbers, c = 3
and
√ 3
b. If f 0 (c) < 0 then f is decreasing on that interval.
c = − 33 , in (−1, 1) that satisfy Equation 4.5.4. J
c. If f 0 (c) = 0, then f is constant on that interval.
Example 4.6.1. Determine the intervals where the function
4.6 First and second derivative tests f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2 is increasing and where it is decreasing.
Definition 4.6.1 (Increasing and Decreasing Functions). A Solution. We first compute
function f is increasing on an interval I, if for every pair of
numbers x1 and in x2 , f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2)
from which we see that f 0 is continuous everywhere and has
x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), zeros at 0 and 2. These zeros of f 0 partition the domain of f
f is decreasing on I if, for every pair of numbers x1 and x2 into the intervals (−∞, 0), (0, 2), and (2, ∞). To determine
in I, the sign of f 0 (x) on each of these intervals, we evaluate f 0 (x)
x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), at a convenient test number in each interval. These results
are summarized in the following table.
f is monotonic on I if it is either increasing or decreasing on
I. Interval test number c f 0 (c) sign of f 0 (c)
(−∞, 0) -1 9 +
Theorem 4.6.1. Suppose f is differentiable on an open in- (0, 2) 1 -3 -
terval (a, b). (2, ∞) 3 9 +
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Using these results, we obtain the sign diagram for f 0 (x) and suppose that f is differentiable at every number c in (a, b)
shown in Figure 4. We conclude that is increasing on (−∞, 0) with the possible exception of c itself.
and (2, ∞) and decreasing on (0, 2) . The graph of f is shown
in Figure 4.6. J a. If f 0 (x) > 0 on (a, c) and f 0 (x) < 0 on (c, b), then f has
a relative maximum at c.
y
b. If f 0 (x) < 0 on (a, c) and f 0 (x) > 0 on (c, b), then has a
relative minimum at c.
c. If f 0 (x) has the same sign on (a, c) and (c, b), then f
does not have a relative extremum at c.
Example 4.6.2. Find the relative extrema of f (x) = x4 −

4x3 + 12.
Solution. The derivative of f , is continuous everywhere.

Therefore, the zeros of f 0 , which are 0 and 3, are the only
x critical numbers of f . The sign diagram of f 0 is shown in
0
Figure–. Since f 0 has the same sign on (−∞, 0) and (0, 3),
the First Derivative Test tells us that f does not have a rela-
f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + 2 tive extremum at 0. Next, we note that f 0 changes sign from
negative to positive as we move across 3, so 3 does give rise
to a relative minimum of f . The relative minimum value of
f is f (3) = −15 . The graph of f is shown in Figure 4.7 and
confirms these results. J
Theorem 4.6.3 (The Second Derivative Test). Suppose that

f has a continuous second derivative on an interval (a, b)
containing a critical number c of f .
Figure 4.6: Graph of f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + 2 a. If f 00 (c) < 0 , then f has a relative maximum at c.
b. If f 00 (c) > 0, then has a relative minimum at c.

We will now see how the derivative of a function can be used
to help us find the relative extrema of f . c. If f 00 (c) = 0, then the test is inconclusive.
Theorem 4.6.2 (The First Derivative Test). Let c be a crit- Example 4.6.3. Find the relative extrema of f (x) = x3 −
ical number of a continuous function f in the interval (a, b) 3x2 − 24x + 32 using the Second Derivative Test.
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x
4 3
f (x) = x − 4x + 12
(−2, 60)
y
f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 24x + 32
(3, −15) y
Figure 4.7: Graph of f (x) = x4 − 4x3 + 12
Solution.
(4, −48)
0 2
f (x) = 3x − 6x − 24 = 3(x − 4)(x + 2)
Setting f 0 (x) = 0, we see that -2 and 4 are critical numbers

of f . Next, we compute
f 00 (x) = 6x − 6 = 6(x − 1)
Evaluating f 00 at the critical number -2, we find Figure 4.8: Graph of f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 24x + 32
f 00 (−2) = 6(−2) − 6 = −18 < 0

4.6.1 Concavity and inflection point
and the Second Derivative Test implies that −2 gives rise to Definition 4.6.2 (Concavity of the Graph of a Function).
a relative maximum of f . Also, Suppose f is differentiable on an open interval I. Then
f 00 (4) = 6(4 − 1) = 18 > 0 a. the graph of f is concave upward on I if f 0 is increasing
on I.
so 4 gives rise to a relative minimum of f . The graph of is
shown in Figure 4.8. J b. the graph of f is concave downward on I if f 0 is de-
creasing on I.
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Theorem 4.6.4. Suppose f has a second derivative on an Definition 4.6.3. A point P on a curve y = f (x) is called
open interval I. an inflection point if f is continuous there and the curve
changes from concave upward to concave downward or from
a. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x in I , then the graph of f is concave concave downward to concave upward at P .
upward on I.
Finding Inflection Points
b. If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave
downward on I. 1. Find all numbers c in the domain of f for which f 00 (c) =
0 or f 00 (c) does not exist. These numbers give rise to
Determining the Intervals of Concavity of a Function
candidates for inflection points.
1. Find all values of x for which f 00 (x) = 0 or f 00 (x) does
2. Determine the sign of f 00 (x) to the left and to the right
not exist. Use these values of x to partition the domain
of each number c found in Step 1. If the sign of f 00 (x)
of f into open intervals.
changes, then the point P (c, f (c)) is an inflection point
2. Select a test number c in each interval found in Step 1 of f , provided that the graph of f has a tangent line at
and determine the sign of f 00 (c) in that interval. P.
a. If f 00 (c) > 0 , the graph of f is concave upward Example 4.6.5. Find the points of inflection of f (x) = x4 −
on that interval. 4x3 + 12.
b. If f 00 (c) < 0, the graph of f is concave downward
Solution. We compute
on that interval.
Example 4.6.4. Determine the intervals where the graph of f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 12x2 , f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 24x = 12x(x − 2)
f (x) = x4 − 4x3 + 12 is concave upward and the intervals
We see that f 00 is continuous everywhere and has zeros at 0
where it is concave downward
and 2. These numbers give rise to candidates for the inflection
Solution. We first calculate the second derivative of f : points of f . From the sign diagram of f 00 shown in Figure
10, we see that f 00 changes sign from positive to negative as
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 12x2 , f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 24x = 12x(x − 2) we move across 0. Therefore, the point (0, 12) is an inflection
point of f . Also,f 00 changes sign from negative to positive
Next, we observe that f 00 is continuous everywhere and has as we move across 2, so (2, −4) is also an inflection point of
zeros at 0 and 2. Using this information, we draw the sign f . These inflection points are shown in Figure –, where the
diagram of (Figure —). We conclude that the graph of f graph of f is sketched. J
is concave upward on (−∞, 0) and on (2, ∞) and concave
downward on (0, 2) . The graph of f is shown in Figure —.
Observe that the concavity of the graph of f changes from 4.6.2 Curve sketching
upward to downward at the point (0, 12) and from downward We have seen on many occasions how the graph of a function
to upward at the point (2, −4). J can help us to visualize the properties of the function. From
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a practical point of view, the graph of a function also gives, i. Horizontal Asymptotes: If either lim f (x) = L or
x→∞
at one glance, a complete summary of all the information lim f (x) = L, then the line y = L is a horizontal
captured by the function. x→∞
Guidelines for Curve Sketching asymptote of the curve y = f (x). If it turns out
that lim f (x) = ∞ (or −∞), then we do not have
x→∞
1. Find the domain of f . an asymptote to the right, but this fact is still useful
information for sketching the curve.
2. Find the x− and y− intercepts of f . The y-intercept
ii. Vertical Asymptotes: The line x = a is a verti-
is f (0) and this tells us where the curve intersects the
cal asymptote if at least one of the following state-
y-axis. To find the x-intercepts, we set y = 0 and solve
ments is true: lim+ f (x) = ∞, lim− f (x) = ∞,
for x. (You can omit this step if the equation is difficult x→a x→a
to solve.) lim+ f (x) = −∞ lim− f (x) = −∞
x→a x→a
3. Determine whether the graph of f is symmetric with iii. Slant(Oblique Asymptote): Some curves have
respect to the y-axis or the origin. asymptotes that are oblique, that is, neither hor-
izontal nor vertical. If
i ) If f (x) = f (−x) for all x in D, that is, the equation
of the curve is unchanged when x is replaced by lim [f (x) − (mx − b)] = 0
x→∞
−x, then f is an even function and the curve is
symmetric about the y-axis. This means that our where m 6= 0, then the line y = mx + b is called
work is cut in half. If we know what the curve looks a slant asymptote because the vertical distance be-
like for x ≥ 0, then we need only reflect about the tween the curve y = f (x) and the line y = mx + b
y-axis to obtain the complete curve. b approaches 0.
ii) If f (x) = −f (−x) for all x in D, then f is an odd 6. Find the intervals where f is increasing and where f is
function and the curve is symmetric about the ori- decreasing. Use the I/D Test. Compute f 0 (x) and find
gin. Again we can obtain the complete curve if we the intervals on which f 0 (x) is positive ( f is increas-
know what it looks like for x ≥ 0. Rotate 180◦ ing) and the intervals on which f 0 (x) is negative ( f is
about the origin. decreasing).
iii) If f (x+p) = f (x) for all x in D, where p is a positive
constant, then f is called a periodic function and 7. Find the relative extrema of f . Find the critical numbers
the smallest such number p is called the period. of f [the numbers c where f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not
exist]. Then use the First Derivative Test. If f 0 changes
4. Determine the behavior of f for large absolute values of from positive to negative at a critical number c, then
x. f 0 (c) is a local maximum. If f 0 changes from negative
to positive at c, then f (c) is a local minimum. Although
5. Find the asymptotes of the graph of f . it is usually preferable to use the First Derivative Test,
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2 2 2
−1) −2x ·2x
you can use the Second Derivative Test if f 0 (c) = 0 and E. f 0 (x) = 4x(x (x 2 −1)2 = (x−4x
2 −1)2 . Since f 0 (x) > 0
f 00 (c) 6= 0. Then f 00 (c) > 0 implies that f (c) is a local 0
when x < 0 (x 6= −1) and f (x) < 0 when x > 0(x 6= 1)
minimum, whereas f 00 (c) < 0 implies that f (c) is a local ,f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and −1, 0 and decreasing
maximum. on (0, 1) and 1, ∞
8. Determine the concavity of the graph of f . Compute F. The only critical number is x = 0 . Since f 0 changes
f 00 (x) and use the Concavity Test. The curve is concave from positive to negative at x = 0, f (0) = 0 is a local
upward where f 00 (x) > 0 and concave downward where maximum by the First Derivative Test.
f 00 (x) < 0.
2 2 2
12x2 +4
G. f 00 (x) = −4(x −1)(x+4x·2(x
2 −1)4
−1)2x
= (x2 −1)3 . Since 12x2 +
9. Find the inflection points of f . Inflection points occur
where the direction of concavity changes. 4 > 0 for all x , we have
10. Sketch the graph of f . f 00 (x) > 0 ⇔ x2 − 1 > 0 ⇔ |x| > 1

2x2
Example 4.6.6. Sketch the graph of the function y = x2 −1 . and f ”(x) < 0 ⇔ |x| < 1. Thus, the curve is concave
upward on the intervals (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and con-
Solution. A. The domain is
cave downward on (−1, 1). It has no point of inflection
{x|x2 −1 6= 0} = {x|x 6= ±1} = (−∞, −1)∪(−1, 1)∪(1, ∞) since 1 and -1 are not in the domain of f .
H. Using the information in E-G, we finish the sketch in

B. The x and y-intercepts are both 0.
Figure 4.6.2.
C. Since f (−x) = f (x) , the function is even. The curve is J
symmetric about the y-axis.
Exercise 4.6.5. Sketch the graphs of the following functions
2x2 2 using the above guideline.
D. lim x 2 −1 = lim 2 = 2. Therefore, the line
x→±∞ x→±∞ 1−1/x
y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote. Since the denominator x2 x3
is 0 when x = ±1 , we compute the following limits: A. f (x) = 2x3 −3x2 −12x+12 B. y = √ C. y = xex D. y =
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2x2 2x2
lim+ = ∞, lim− = −∞
x→1 x2 − 1 x→1 x2 − 1 4.7 Velocity, acceleration and rate of
lim
2x 2
= −∞, lim
2x
=∞
2
change
x2 − 1
x→−1+ x→−1− x2 − 1
If a function in rectilinear motion has position function s(t),
Therefore, the lines x = 1 and x = −1 are vertical
then we define its velocity function v(t) to be
asymptotes. This information about limits and asymp-
totes enables us to draw the preliminary sketch in Figure dS
–, showing the parts of the curve near the asymptotes. V (t) = S 0 (t) = .
dt
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Since the instantaneous speed of a particle is the absolute
value of its instantaneous velocity, we define its speed func-
tion to be
dS
|V (t)| = |S 0 (t)| = | |.
dt
Example 4.7.1. Let S(t) = t3 − 6t2 be the position function
of a particle moving along an s− axis, where s is in meters
y and t is in seconds. Find the velocity and speed functions.
f (x) = 2x In rectilinear motion , the rate at which the instantaneous

x2 −1
velocity of a particle changes with time is called its instan-
taneous acceleration. Thus, if a particle in rectilinear mo-
tion has velocity function v(t), then we define its acceleration
function to be
dv
a(t) = v 0 (t) = .
dt
Alternatively, we can use the fact that v(t) = S 0 (t) to ex-
press the acceleration function in terms of the position func-
x tion as
d2 S
a(t) = S 00 (t) = 2 .
dt
Example 4.7.2. Let S(t) = t3 − 6t2 be the position function
of a particle moving along an s− axis, where s is in meters
and t is in seconds. Find a(t).
Related rates
2x
Figure 4.9: The graph of f (x) = x2 −1 The derivative dy/dx of a function y = f (x) is its instan-
taneous rate of change rate of change with respect to the
variable x. When a function describes either position or dis-
tance , then its time rate of change is interpreted as velocity.
In general a time rate of change is the answer to the question
“How fast is a quantity changing?”. For example, if V stands
for volume that is changing in time , then dV /dt is the rate,
or how fast, the volume is changing with respect to time. In
this section we are concerned with related rates. Since the
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problems will be stated in words, you must interpret these Theorem 4.8.1. Let lim stand for one of the limits
words in terms of mathematical symbols. usually it is good lim , lim− , lim+ , lim , lim and suppose that lim f (x) = ∞
x→a x→a x→a x→∞ x→−∞
idea to: 0
and lim g(x) = ∞. If lim fg0 (x)
(x)
has a finite value L, or if this
i) Draw a picture. limit is +∞ or −∞, then
ii) Label all quantities that change in time with symbols. f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 .
g(x) g (x)
iii) Analyse the words of the problem and discern which
rates are given and what rate is required. Example 4.8.1. Evaluate
iv) set up an equation that relates the variables. a) lim x
x
x→∞ e
v) differentiate the equation found in step (iv) with respect
to time t. These step requires the use of implicit differen- Solution. The numerator and denominator both have
tiation. The resulting equation, after differentiation, is a limit of +∞ so we have an indeterminate form of type
an equation that relates the rates at which the variables ∞/∞. Applying L’Hopital’s rule yields
change.
x 1
Example 4.7.3. A square is expanding with time. How is lim x
= lim x = 0
x→∞ e x→∞ e
the rate at which the area increases related to the rate at which
a side increases? J
Example 4.7.4. Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon ln x

at a rate of 20f t3 /min. At what rate is the radius changing b) lim+ csc x
x→0
when the radius is 3 ft?
Exercise 4.7.1. A water tank has the shape of an inverted Solution. The numerator has a limit of −∞ and the
right circular cone with base radius 2m and height 4m. If denominator has a limit of +∞, so we have an indeter-
water is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2m3 /min, minate form of type ∞/∞. Applying L’Hopital’s rule
find the rate at which the water level is rising when the water yields
is 3m deep. ln x 1/x
lim = lim+
x→0+ csc x x→0 − csc x cot x
This last limit is again an indeterminate form of

4.8 Indeterminate Form(L’Hopital’s type ∞/∞. Moreover, any additional applications of
Rule) L’Hopital’s rule will yield powers of 1/x in the numera-
tor and expressions involving csc x and cot x in the de-
∞
Indeterminate forms of type ∞ nominator; thus, repeated application ofL’Hopital’s rule
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simply produces new indeteminate fbrms. We must try
something else. The Last limit can be rewritten as Indeterminate forms of type ∞ − ∞:
A limit problem that leads to one of the expressions
1/x − sin x tan x sin x
lim = lim+ = − lim+ lim tan x = (−1)(0) = 0.
x→0+ − csc x cot x x→0 x x→0 x x→0+ (+∞) − (+∞, (−∞) − (−∞)
Thus,
ln x (+∞) + (−∞), (−∞) − (+∞)
lim = 0.
x→0+ csc x
J is called an indeterminate form of type ∞−∞. Such limits are
indeterminate because the two terms exert conflicting influ-
ences on the expression:one pushes it in the positive direction
Indeterminate forms of type 00 and the other pushes it in the negative direction. However,
Theorem 4.8.2. Let lim stand for one of the limits limit problems that lead to one of the expressions
lim , lim , lim+ , lim , lim and suppose that lim f (x) = 0
x→a x→a− x→a x→∞ x→−∞
0 (+∞) + (+∞), , (+∞) − (−∞)
and lim g(x) = 0. If lim fg0 (x)(x)
has a finite value L, or if this
limit is +∞ or −∞, then (−∞) + (−∞), , (−∞) − (+∞)
f (x) f 0 (x) are not indeterminate, since the two terms work together.
lim = lim 0 .
g(x) g (x)
Example 4.8.2. In each part confirm that the limit is an in-
1 1
determinate form of type 00 , and evaluate it using L0 H ôpital0 s Example 4.8.3. Evaluate lim− x − sin x .
x→0
rule. −4
2
A. lim xx−2−4
B. lim sin(2x)
x C. limπ 1−sin
cos x
x
D. lim sin x 3
(1)
Solution. Both terms have a limit of +∞, so the stated
x→2 x→0 x→ 2 x→+∞ x
problem is an indeterminate form of type ∞−∞. Combining
Solution. A) The numerator and denominator have a limit the two terms yields
0/0, so L’Hopital’s rule applies and yields
1 1 sin x − x
d 2 lim− − = lim−
x2 − 4 dx [x − 4] 2x x→0 x sin x x→0 x sin x
lim = lim d
= lim =4
x→2 x − 2 x→2 1
dx [x − 2]
x→2
which is an indeterminate form of type 0/0. Applying
B) The numerator and denominator have a limit of 0, so L’Hopital’s rule twice yields
L’HOpital’s rule applies and yields
1 1
sin(2x) 2 cos(2x) lim− − = 0.
lim = lim =2 x→0 x sin x
x→0 x x→0 1
J J
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Indeterminate forms of type 0 · ∞ b limπ (1 − tan x) sec 2x
x→ 4
Thus far we have discussed indeterminate forms of type 00 and
∞
∞ . However these are not the only possibilities; in general, Solution. The stated problem is an indeterminate form
the limit of an expression that has one of the forms
of type 0·∞. We will convert it to an indeterminate form
f (x) of type ∞/∞:
, f (x) · g(x), f (x)g(x) , f (x) − g(x), f (x) + g(x)
g(x)
1 − tan x 1 − tan x − secx −2
is called an indeterminate form if the limits of f (x) and g(x) limπ (1−tan x) sec 2x = limπ = limπ = limπ = =1
x→ 4 x→ 4 1/ sec 2x x→ 4 cos 2x x→ 4 −2 sin 2x −2
individually exert conflicting influences on the limit of the
entire expression. For example, the limit J
lim x ln x
x→0+
Indeterminate forms of type 00 , ∞0 , 1∞
is an indeterminate form of 0 · ∞ because the limit of the first Limits of the form
factor is 0, the limit of the second factor is −∞, and these lim f (x)g(x)
two limits exert conflicting influences on the product. On the
other hand, the limit give rise to indeterminate forms of the types 00 , ∞0 , 1∞ .
√ Indeterminate forms of types 00 , ∞0 , and 1∞ can sometimes
lim [ x(1 − x2 )] be evaluated by first introducing a dependent variable y =
x→+∞
f (x)g(x) and then calculating the limit of ln y by expressing
is not an indeterminate form because the first factor has a it as
limit of +∞, the second factor has a limit of −∞, and these
influences work together to produce a limit of −∞ for the lim ln y = lim[ln(f (x)g(x) )] = lim[g(x) ln f (x)]
product.
Once the limit of ln y is known, the limit of, y = f (x)g(x)
(itself can generally be obtained by a method that we will
Example 4.8.4. Evaluate illustrate in the next example.
a. lim+ x ln x 1
x→0 Example 4.8.5. Show that lim (1 + x) x = e.
x→0
Solution. The factor x has a limit of 0 and the factor Solution. We begin by introducing a dependent variable,
ln x has a limit of −∞, so the stated problem is an inde-
terminate form of type 0 · ∞. We can rewrite the limit y = (1 + x)1/x
as
1
ln x and taking the natural logarithm both sides:
lim+ 1 = lim+ x1 = lim+ (−x) = 0
x→0 x→0 − 2 x→0
x x 1 ln(1 + x)
J ln y = ln(1 + x)1/x = ln(1 + x) =
x x
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x
Thus, g. lim 1
x→∞ sin x
ln(1 + x)
lim ln y = lim 1
x→0 x
x→0 h. lim+ x ln x
x→0
which is an indeterminate form of type 0/0, so by L’Hopital’s
rule i. lim (1 − x3 )2x
1 x→∞
ln(1 + x)
lim ln y = lim = lim 1+x = 1
x→0 x→0 x x→0 x
Since we have shown that ln x → 1 as x → 0, the continuity
of the exponential function implies that eln y → ey as x → 0.
and this implies that y → e as x → 0. Thus,
1
lim (1 + x) x = e
x→0
J
Example 4.8.6. Find lim+ xx .
x→0
Solution. Notice that this limit is indeterminate since 0x =

0 for any x > 0 but x0 = 1 for any x 6= 0. We could proceed
by writing the function as an exponential:
xx = (eln x )x = ex ln x
We used l’Hospital’s Rule to show that
lim x ln x = 0
x→0+
Therefore,
lim xx = lim+ ex ln x = e0 = 1.
x→0+ x→0
J
Exercise 4.8.3. Evaluate the following limits:
2
a. lim sinx x d. lim 6x4x+5x+7
2 +2x
x→0 x→∞
sin x
b. lim lnxx e. lim x −x
x→∞ e x→0 e −e

c. lim+ √ln x 1+3x 1
x→1 x−1 f. lim sin x − x
x→0
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Chapter 5
Integration
n
d xn+1
5.1 Antiderivatives, indefinite inte- b) dx ( n+1 )= (n+1)x
(n+1) = xn n ≥ 0. Thus, the general
grals antiderivative of f (x) = xn is
xn+1
Antiderivatives F (x) = +c
n+1
Definition 5.1.1. A function F is an antiderivative of f on J
an interval I if F 0 (x) = f (x) for all x in I.
Indefinite integral
Example 5.1.1. For any constant c, the function given by
Definition 5.1.2. Let f be continuous on interval I. Any
F (x) = x5 + c is an antiderivative of f (x) = 5x4 .
antiderivative of f on I is also called an indefinite integral of
f on I is donated by
Theorem 5.1.1. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval
I, then G is an antiderivative of f on the interval I if and
Z
only if G is of the form G(x) = F (x) + c, for all x in I where f (x)dx.
c is a constant. R
i.e F is antiderivative of f , we write F (x) = f (x)dx.
Example 5.1.2. Find the most general antiderivative of each R
of the following functions Note 4. For a function f , its indefinite integral f (x)dx is
a) f (x) = sin x b) f (x) = xn , n ≥ 0 generally represented as:
Z
Solution. a) If F (x) = − cos x, then F 0 (x) = sin x, so an f (x)dx = F (x) + c,
antiderivative of sin x is − cos x, by above theorem the
general form of antiderivative is G(x) = − cos x + c. where F is any antiderivative of f and c is any constant.
64
R R
Basic Integration Rules 9. sin x dx = − cos x+c 19. sinh x dx =
The inverse nature of integration and differentiation can be cosh x + c
verified by substituting F 0 (x) for f (x) in the indefinite inte- R R
gration definition to obtain 10. cos x dx = sin x+c 20. cosh x dx =
Z sinh x + c
F 0 (x)dx = F (x) + c. Theorem 5.1.2. Let f and g be continuous on an interval
I. Then
R
Moreover, if f (x)dx = F (x) + c, then R R
a) kf (x)dx = k f (x)dx, where k is constant.
Z
d R R R
b) (f (x) ± g(x))dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx.
f (x)dx = f (x).
dx
Example 5.1.3. Find
Thus, these two equations allow us to obtain integration for-
2x2 − 1
Z Z
mulas directly from differentiation formulas.
a) (2x + 3sinx))dx dx
b)
The following are basic integration formula x2
R
11. sec2 x dx =
R R R R
1. 0 dx = c Solution. a) (2x + 3 sin x))dx = 2xdx + 3 sin xdx =
tan x + c x2 − 3 cos x + c
R
12. csc2 x dx =
R
2. k dx = kx + c b)
−cotx + c
2x2 − 1
Z Z Z Z
1 1
dx = (2 − )dx = 2dx − dx
R R R
3. kf (x)dx = k f (x) dx 13. sec x tan x dx = x2 x2 x2
sec x + c Z
R R = 2x − x−2 dx
4. R [f (x) ± Rg(x)]dx = f (x)dx ±
g(x)dx 14. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + c 1
= 2x + +c
n+1
x
5. xn dx = xn+1 + c (n 6= 1)
R R
15. tan x dx =
J
ln | sec x| + c
R 1 R
6. x dx = ln |x| + c 16. cot x dx =
ln | sin x| + c
5.2 Techniques of Integration
7. e dx = ex + c 5.2.1 Integration by substitution, by parts
R x R
17. sec dxx =
ln | sec x + tan x| + c and by partial fraction
x
8. a dx = lna x + c
R x R
18. csc x dx = Theorem 5.2.1 (Integration by Substitution). Let g be a
− ln | csc x + cot x| + c function whose range is an interval I , and let f be a function
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that is continuous on I . If g is differentiable on its domain Integration by parts
and F is an antiderivative of f on I, then
Theorem 5.2.2 (Integration by parts). Let F and G be dif-
ferentiable on [a, b], and assume that F 0 and G0 are continu-
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x)dx = F (g(x)) + c. ous on [a, b], then
Z Z
Letting u = g(x) gives du = g 0 (x)dx and F (x)G0 (x) = F (x)G(x) − G(x)F 0 (x)dx.
Z
f (u)du = F (u) + c. Remark: If we substitute u = F (x) and v = G(x), we
obtain du = F 0 (x)dx and dv = G0 (x)dx. Hence the above
Example 5.2.1. Find equation can be expressed as
a) x2 (x3 + 2)4 dx
R R
c) cos x√cosh(sin x)dx Z Z
b) sin4 x cos xdx
R
d) cos√x x dx
R udv = uv − vdu.
Solution. a) Let u = x3 + 2, we obtain du = 3x2 dx ⇒ Example 5.2.2. Find

c) R tanh−1 xdx
du
R R
dx = 3x 2 . Thus a) R x cos xdx
b) x ln xdx d) e−x cos xdx
Z Z Z 5 3 5
du 1 1u (x + 2)
x2 (x3 +2)4 dx = x2 (u)4 2 = u4 du = +c = +c.
Solution. a) Let u = x ⇒ du = 1dx, and take dv =
3x 3 3 5 15
cos xdx ⇒ v = sin x. Thus,
Z Z
b) Let u = sin x, we obtain du = cos xdx. Thus
x cos xdx = uv − vdu
u5 sin5 x
Z Z Z
sin4 x cos xdx = u4 du = +c= +c = x sin x − sin xdx
5 5
= x sin x + cos x + c
c) Let u = sin x ⇒ du = cos xdx. Thus
x2
b) Let u = ln x and dv = xdx . Then du = x1 dx and v =
Z Z
cos x cosh(sin x)dx = cosh(u)du = sinh u+c = sinh(sin x)+c. 2 .
Thus,
x2
Z Z 2
√ 1 dx
x 1
d) Let u = x, we obtain du = 2 x dx ⇒ 2du = x . Thus,
√ √ x ln xdx = ln x − dx
2 2 x
√ x2 x2
√
Z Z Z
cos x = ln x − +c
√ dx = cos u·2du = 2 cos udu = 2 sin u+c = 2 sin x+c. 2 4
x
1
= x2 (2 ln x − 1) + c
J 4
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c) Let f (x) = tanh−1 x, and g 0 (x) = 1, we obtain that Reduction formulas
f 0 (x) = 1−x
1
2 , and g(x) = x
sinn xdx , where n ≥ 2 is
R
a) Find a reduction formula for
an integer.
Z Z
x
tan−1 xdx = x tan−1 x − dx
1 − x2
Solution. We first rewrite
Let u = 1 − x2 , du = −2xdx ⇒ −du2 = xdx, thus Z Z
Z
x −1
Z
1 −1 −1 sin xdx = sinn−1 x sin xdx
n
dx = du = ln |u| = ln |1−x2 |+c.

1 − x2 2 u 2 2
and then we integrate by parts, letting u = sinn−1 x and
Therefore, dv = sin xdx so that du = (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos xdx and
Z v = −cosx. Thus,
1
tan−1 xdx = x tan−1 x + ln |1 − x2 | + c
−1 n−1
Z Z
2
sinn xdx = sinn−1 x cos x + sinn−2 xdx.
n n
d) Let f (x) = e−x , and g 0 (x) = cos x, then we obtain
J
Z Z
e−x cos xdx = e−x sin xdx + e−x sin xdx Similarly using integration by part
Let f (x) = e−x and g 0 (x) = sin x, then we obtain f 0 (x) = b)

−e−x , g(x) = − cos x.
n−1
Z Z
1
So, cosn xdx = cosn−1 x sin x + cosn−2 xdx
n n
Z Z
e sin xdx = −e cos x − e−x cos xdx
−x −x
c)
n−2
Z Z
n 1
Z Z sec xdx = secn−1 x tan x+ secn−2 xdx
e −x −x
cos xdx = e sin xdx − e −x
cos x − e −x
cos xdx n−1 n−1
Z
d)
⇒ 2 e−x cos xdx = e−x sin x − e−x cos x Z Z
(ln x)n dx = x(ln x)n−1 − n (ln x)n−1 dx
e−x
Z
⇒ e−x cos xdx = (sin x − cos x) + c
2
Example 5.2.3. Find
a)R sin4 xdx
R
J
b) (ln x)2 dx
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Integration by partial fraction
This technique is applicable for integrating rational func- Letting x = 0, we get
tion(when the denominator is a product of two or more poly-
6 = A(0 − 3)(0 + 2) =⇒ 6 = −6A =⇒ A = −1.
nomials) and it involves writing a fraction as the sum of two
or more fractions. Letting x = −2, we get
Definition 5.2.1. A rational function R(x) = Q(x)P (x)

is called 4(−2)2 −4(−2)+6 = A(−2−3)(0)+B(−2)(0)+c(−2)(−2−3) =⇒ 30 = 10c =⇒ c = 3
proper if the degree of P (x) is less than the degree of Q(x), Similarly, by letting x = 3, we get B = 2.
otherwise it is called an improper rational function. Note:Alternatively you can solve simultaneously.
The following cases may happen:
Hence,
4x2 − 4x + 6 −1 2 3
Case 1: The denominator Q(x) is a product of distinct lin- = + +
x(x − 3)(x + 2) x x−3 x+2
ear factor. i.e
4x2 − 4x + 6 −1
Z Z Z Z
2 3
Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (ak x + bk ) dx = dx + dx + dx
x(x − 3)(x + 2) x x−3 x+2
Where no factor is repeated. = − ln |x| + 2 ln |x − 3| + 3 ln |x + 2| + c.
P (x) P (x) J
= . 3
Q(x) (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (ak x + bk ) 4x +x
R
Exercise 5.2.3. Evaluate 2x2 +x+3 dx, (Hint
3
4x +x 8x−3
Then there exists constant A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak such that 2x2 +x+3 = 2x − 1 + 2x2 +x−3 )
Case 2: If Q(x) is a product of linear factor some of which

P (x) A1 A2 Ak
= + + ··· + are repeated.
Q(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 ak x + bk
That is if Q(x) contains a factor (ax + b)r , with r > 1,
P (x)
R 4x2 −4x+6 then a partial fraction decomposition of Q(x) contains a
Example 5.2.4. Evaluate x3 −x2 −6x dx
sum of r partial fraction of the form
Solution. Here the degree of numerator less than degree A1 A2 Ar
+ + ··· +
of denominator, no long division proceed. ax + b (ax + b) 2 (ax + b)r
where each Ai is a real number.
4x2 − 4x + 6 4x2 − 4x + 6 4x2 − 4x + 6 A B cFor instance,
= = = + +
x3 − x2 − 6x x(x2 − x − 6) x(x − 3)(x + 2) x x − 3 x + 24
2x − 3x2 + x − 4 A B C D E
3
= + + + 2
+
2
⇐⇒ 4x −4x+6 = A(x−3)(x+2)+B(x)(x+2)+c(x)(x−3). x(x − 1)(2x + 3) x x − 1 2x + 3 (2x + 3) (2x + 3)3
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4x
R
Example 5.2.5. Evaluate x3 −x2 −x+1 dx For instance
solution: x3 − x2 − x + 1 = (x − 1)(x − 1)(x + 1) = 3x3 + 8x2 + 7x + 5 Ax + B Cx + D

2 2
= 2 + 2
(x − 1)2 (x + 1) (x + 1)(x + 2x + 2) x +1 x + 2x + 2
R 1
4x 4x A B C Example 5.2.6. Evaluate x3 +4x dx
= = + +
(x3 x2
− − x + 1) (x + 1)(x − 1) 2 x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
Solution. (x3 + 4x) = x(x2 + 4). This implies
2
⇐⇒ 4x = A(x − 1) + B(x + 1)(x − 1) + C(x + 1)
1 1 A Bx + C
= A(x2 − 2x + 1) + B(x2 − 1) + Cx + C = = + 2
x3 + 4x x(x2 + 4) x x +4
= (A + B)x2 + (C − 2A)x + (A + C − B).
⇐⇒ 1 =A(x2 + 4) + x(Bx + C)

A + B = 0

=⇒ C − 2A = 4 = Ax2 + 4A + Bx2 + Cx

A + C − B = 0.
 
A + B = 0

This implies A = −1, B = 1, C = 2
=⇒ C = 0
−1
Z Z Z Z
4x 1 2

4A = 1.

dx = dx + dx + dx
x3 − x2 − x + 1 x+1 x−1 (x − 1)2
1 −1
2 =⇒ A = , C = 0, B =
= − ln |x + 1| + ln |x − 1| − +c 4 4
x−1
x−1 2
= ln | |− +c Z
1
Z 1 1
x+1 x−1 dx = ( 4 − 2 4 )dx
x3 + 4x x x +4
Z Z
Case 3: Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors none of 1 1 1 x
= dx − dx
which repeated. If 4 x 4 2
x +4
Z
P (x) P (x) 1 1 1 du
= = ln |x| −
Q(x) (a1 x2 + b1 x + c1 )(a2 x2 + b2 x + c2 )...(an x2 + bn x + cn ) 4 4 2 u
1 1
= ln |x| − ln |x2 + 4| + c
where all the factors (ak x2 + bk x + ck ), k = 1, ..., n 4 8
are distinct and irreducible, then their is constants
J
A1 , A2 , ..., An , B1 , B2 , ..., Bn such that
P (x) A1 x + B1 An x + B n Case 4: Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic fac-
= 2
+ ··· + . tor.
Q(x) a1 x + b1 x + c1 an x2 + bn x + cn
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x2 + x + 1
Z Z Z Z
If Q(x) contains a factor (ax2 + bx + c)r with r > 1, 1 x 1
dx = dx − dx + dx
where (ax2 + bx + c)r is irreducible (b2 − 4c < 0), then x(x2 + 1)2 x x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
P (x) Z
the partial fraction decomposition of Q(x) contains a sum 1 1
= ln |x| − ln |x2 + 1| + dx
of partial fraction of the form 2 (x2 + 1)2
A1 x + B 1 A2 x + B2 Ar x + B r Let x = tan θ, dx = sec2 θdθ

+ +· · ·+
sec2 θdθ
Z Z
2 2
(ax + bx + c) (ax + bx + c)2 (ax2 + bx + c)r 1
dx =
(x2 + 1)2 (tan2 θ + 1)2
where Ai , Bi are real numbers(i = 1, ..., r).
sec2 θdθ
Z
For instance = dθ
sec4 θ
Z
3x A1 x + B 1 A2 x + B2 A3 x + B 3 1
= + 2 + 2 = dθ
(x2 + 1)3 x2 + 1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3 sec2 θ
Z
= cos2 θdθ
1 1
Z
x2 + x + 1 = cos θ sin θ + θ + c.
dx 2 2
x(x2 + 1)2 Consider,
Solution.
x2 + x + 1 A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 + x2 + 1 1
x(x2 + 1)2 x (x + 1) (x2 + 1)2 sin θ = x cos θ =
x x2 +1 , x2 +1
θ
⇐⇒ x2 + x + 1 = A(x2 + 1)2 + x(Bx + 1)(x2 + 1) + x(Dx + E) 1
= (A + B)x4 + (2A + B + D)x2 + Cx3 + (C + E)x + A

A+B =0 sin θ = x √ 1
x2 +1 , cos θ = . Thus,


 x2 +1
2A + B + D = 1


 Z
1 1 1 x 1
⇐⇒ C = 0 dx = √ ·√ + tan−1 (x) + c.
 (x2 + 1)2 2 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 2
C +E =1





A = 1 Therefore,
Z 2
x +x+1 1 x 1
=⇒ A = 1, B = −1, C = 0, D = 0, E = 1. 2 2
dx = ln |x|− ln |x2 +1|+ 2
+ tan−1 (x)+c
x(x + 1) 2 2(x + 1) 2
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J Then integrate using substitution technique by tak-
ing u = cos x, −du = sin xdx.
5.2.2 Trigonometric integrals
c) If the power of both cosine and sine are even posi-
Trigonometric integrals is their integrands are combinations tive use identities
of trigonometric functions. Especially those in which the
integrands are composed of power of basic trigonometric 1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin2 x = and cos2 x =
functions. 2 2
Example 5.2.8. Evaluate the following
sinn x cosm xdx?
R
How to evaluate
Z Z
a) If the power of cosine is odd (m = 2k +1). Save one a) sin4 x cos5 xdx b) sin5 x cos4 xdx
cosine factor and use cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x to express
the remaining factor interims of sine i.e
Z Z
sin x cos xdx = sinn x cos2k+1 xdx
n m
Z Solution. a)
= sinn x cos2k x cos xdx Z Z
Z sin4 x cos5 xdx = sin4 x cos4 x cos xdx
= sinn x(cos2 x)k cos xdx Z
Z = sin4 x(cos2 x)2 cos xdx
= sinx (1 − sin2 x)k cos xdx, Z
= sin4 x(1 − 2 sin2 x + sin4 x) cos xdx
then integrate using substitution technique by tak-
ing u = sin x, du = cos xdx. Z
b) If the power of sine is odd (n = 2k + 1) save one = (sin4 x − 2 sin6 x + sin8 x) cos xdx
sine factor and use sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x to express
the remaining factors interims of sine, then expand Let u = sin x, du = cos xdx. Then
and evaluate by substitution. i.e
Z Z Z Z
sin x cos xdx = sin2k+1 x cosm xdx
n m
sin4 x cos5 xdx = (u4 − 2u6 + u8 )du
Z
= sin2k x cosm x sin xdx u5 2u7 u9
= − + +c
Z 5 7 9
sin5 x 2 sin7 x sin9 x
= (1 − cos2 x)k cosm x sin xdx = − + +c
5 7 9
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b) and integrate by substituting u = tan x i.e
Z Z Z Z
5 4
sin x cos xdx = sin4 x sin x cos4 xdx tanm x(sec2k x)dx = tanm x(sec2k−2 x) sec2 xdx
Z Z
= (1 − cos2 x)2 cos4 x sin xdx = tanm x(sec2 x)k−1 sec2 xdx
Z Z
= (1 − 2 cos2 x + cos4 x) cos4 x sin xdx = tanm x(1 + tan2 x)k−1 sec2 xdx
Z
= (cos4 x − 2 cos6 x + cos8 x) sin xdx Then substitute u = tan x, du = sec2 xdx. Hence
Z Z
tan x(sec x)dx = um (1 + u2 )k−1 du
m n
Let u = cos x, −du = sin xdx. Then
b) If the power of tangent is odd (m = 2k + 1)

Z
sin5 x cos4 xdx
Z Z
tan x sec xdx = tan2k+1 x secn xdx
m n
Z
=− (u4 − 2u6 + u8 )du
Z
= tan2k x tan x secn−1 x sec xdx
−u5 2u7 u9 Z
= + − +c
5 7 9 = (sec2 x − 1)k secn−1 x sec x tan xdx
1 2 −1
= − cos5 x + cos7 x − cos9 x + c
5 7 9 Let u = sec x, du = sec x tan xdx, then
Z Z
J tan 2k+1
x sec xdx = (u2 − 1)k un−1 du
n
Exercise 5.2.4. Find c) If the power of tangent is even (m = 2k) and secant
a) R sin4 x cos2 xdx
R
is odd (n = 2k + 1), then use the identity tan2 x =
b) sin3 (2x) cos2 (2x)dx sec2 x−1 to reduice the integrand to power of secant
alone, then expand and use induction formula.
tanm x secn xdx?
R
How to evaluate d) If none of the above cases, apply or try to integrate
by converting to sine and cosine.
a) If the power of secant is even (n = 2k), save the fac-
tor of sec2 x and use sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x, to express Example 5.2.9. Evaluate the following
the remaining factor interms of tan x, then expand
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tan3 x sec4 xdx
R R
a) Integrals of the form sin ax cos bx dx
b) sec5 x tan3 xdx Note

• sin(ax + bx) = sin ax cos bx + cos ax sin bx.
Solution.
Z Z • sin(ax − bx) = sin ax cos bx − cos ax sin bx.
a) tan x sec xdx = tan3 x sec2 x sec2 xdx
3 4
Z • sin(ax + bx) + sin(ax − bx) = 2 sin ax cos bx.

= tan3 x(1 + tan2 x) sec2 xdx This impies that
Z Z
Let u = tan x, du = sec2 xdx 1 1
i) sin ax cos bx = sin(ax + bx)dx + sin(ax − bx)dx
Z Z 2 2
1 1
tan x sec xdx = u3 (1 + u2 )du = u4 + u6 + c
3 4
4 6 Similiraly
1 1
= tan4 x + tan6 x + c
Z Z
1
4 6 ii) sin(ax) sin(bx)dx = [ cos(a − b)x − cos(a + b)x]dx
2
Z Z Z Z
b) sec5 x tan3 xdx = sec4 x tan2 x tan x sec xdx 1
iii) cos ax cos bxdx = [ cos(a − b)x + cos(a + b)x]dx
Z 2
= sec4 x(sec2 x − 1) tan x sec xdx Example 5.2.10. Evaluate the following
R
a) R sin(4x) cos(5x)dx
Let u = sec x , du = sec x tan xdx b) cos(3x) cos(−2x)dx
u7 u5
Z Z
sec5 x tan3 xdx = u4 (u2 − 1)du = − +c Solution.
7 5 Z Z Z
1
sec7 x sec5 x a) sin(4x) cos(5x)dx = [ sin(9x)dx + sin(−x)dx]
= − +c 2
7 5 1
Z
1
Z
J = sin(9x)dx − sin xdx
2 2
Z
1 1
Exercise 5.2.5. Find the following = sin(9x)dx + cos x + c
2 2
tan2 x sec xdx
R
a) Let u = 9x, this implies du = 9dx ⇒ du 9 = dx. Then
sec4 x tan6 xdx

R
b)
Z Z
sin u cos u cos 9x
sin(9x)dx = du = − =−
9 9 9
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√ √
Hence, Solution. 16 − x2 = 42 − x2 , we substitute x =
Z 4 sin θ, so that dx = 4 cos dθ. Thus
cos 9x 1
sin(4x) cos(5x)dx = − + cos x + c Z Z
18 2 1 1
√ dx = p · 4 cos θdθ
2
x 16 − x 2
16 sin θ 16 − 16 sin2 θ
2
Z
1
Z Z
1
b) cos(3x) cos(−2x)dx = [ cos(3 − (−2))x + cos(3 + (−2))xdx] = p · 4 cos θdθ
2
Z 16 sin θ 16(1 − sin2 θ)
2
1 Z
4 cos θ
= [ cos 5x + cos x]dx = dθ
2 16 sin2 θ(4 cos θ)
1 1 1 1
Z
1
= · sin(5x) + sin x + c = dθ
2 5 2 16 sin2 θ
1 1 Z
= sin(5x) + sin x + c 1
10 2 = csc2 θdθ
16
J −1
= cot θ + c
R
Exercise 5.2.6. Find sin(2x) sin(3x)dx 16
5.2.3 Integration by trigonometric substitu-

tion
Trigonometric substitutions are variable
√ when the √ integral 16 √
contains square roots of the form a2 − x2 , x2 + a2 , 16−x2
√ x This implies cot θ = x .
2 2
x − a , a ≥ 0.
θ
√
√ 16 − x2
a) Integrals containing a2 − x2
If we let x = a sin θ, with a > 0 and −π π
2 ≤ θ ≤ 2 , then
a cos θ ≥ 0 , so that
p p q √ Thus,
a2 − x2 = a2 − a2 sin2 θ = a2 (1 − sin2 θ) = a2 cos2 θ = a cos θ √
−1 16 − x2
Z
√ 1
2 2
Thus if an integral contains a − x , we can eliminate √ dx = cot θ + c = +c
x2 16 − x2 16 x
the square root by substituting x = a sin θ, so that dx =
a cos θdθ. J
R √
1 Exercise 5.2.7. Find 25 − 4x2 dx
R
Example 5.2.11. Find x2 √16−x 2
dx
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√
b) Integrals containing x2 + a2
If we let x = a tan θ, with a > 0 and −π π
2 < θ < 2 , then
a sec θ ≥ 0, so that √
q x2 + 1 sin θ = √ x .
x x2 +1
p p
x2 + a2 = a2 tan2 θ + a2 = a2 (tan2 θ + 1) = a sec θ
√ θ
Thus if an integral contains x2 + a2 , we can eliminate 1
the square root by substituting x = a tan θ, so that dx =
a sec2 θdθ
Example 5.2.12. Find x2 √1x2 +1 dx
R
1
R
Example 5.2.13. Evaluate √
25+4x2
dx
Solution. Let x = tan θ, dx = sec2 θdθ, Therfore,
Solution.
sec2 θ
Z Z
1
√ dx = p dθ Z
1
Z
1
x2 x2 + 1 tan2 θ tan2 θ + 1 √ dx = p dx
25 + 4x2 52 + (2x)2
sec2 θ
Z
= dθ
tan2 θ sec θ Let 2x = 5 tan θ, dx = 52 sec2 θdθ
Z
sec θ
= dθ Z
1
Z
1 5
tan2 θ √ dx = p · sec2 θdθ
25 + 4x 2
25 + 25 tan2 θ 2
Z
= sec θ cot2 θdθ
sec2 θ
Z
= dθ
cos2 θ 5 sec θ
Z
1
= · dθ Z
cos θ sin2 θ 1
= sec θdθ
2
Z
cos θ
= dθ 1
sin2 θ = ln | sec θ + tan θ| + c
2
Let u = sin θ, du = cos θ
Hence,
−1
Z
cos θ
2 dθ = sin θ + c = − csc θ + c
√
25 + 4x2 + 2x
Z
sin θ 1 1
√ dx = ln | |+c
Thus, 25 + 4x 2 2 5
√ J
x2 + 1
Z
1
√ dx = − csc θ + c = + c. √
x x2 + 1
2 x c) Integrals containing x2 − a2
π 3π
J If we let x = a sec θ, with 0 ≤ θ < 2, or π ≤ θ < 2 ,
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√ x
4x2 + 25 √ √
25+4x2 √ x2 −9
2x So, sec θ = 5 tan θ = 3
x2 −9
θ θ
5 3
then a tan θ ≥ 0, so that

p p p J
x2 − a2 = a2 sec2 θ − a2 = a2 (sec2 θ − 1) = a tan θ
√
Thus, if an integral contains x2 − a2 , we can eliminate
the square root by substituting x = a sec θ, so that dx = Exercise 5.2.8. Evaluate
R
√ x dx
a sec θ tan θdθ 3x2 −2
R √x2 −9
Example 5.2.14. Evaluate x dx
√
d) Integrals containing bx2 + cx + d
Solution. Let x = 3 sec θ, dx = 3 sec θ tan θdθ, 2
Z √ 2 Z √ By
√ completing the square in√ bx + cx √
+ d we can express
x −9 9 sec2 θ − 9 bx2 + cx + d interms of a2 − x2 , a2 + x2 , for suit-
dx = 3 sec θ tan θdθ
x 3 sec θ able a > 0. Then the trigonometric substitution elimi-
nates the square root as before.
Z
3 tan θ
= (3 sec θ tan θ)dθ
3 sec θ
Z R 1
= 3 tan2 θdθ
Example 5.2.15. Find √
9x2 +6x+2
dx
Z
= 3 (sec2 θ − 1)dθ
= 3(tan θ − θ) + c Solution. First we complete the square in the denimi-

nator
Z √ √
x2 − 9 x2 − 9 x
dx = 3 − sec−1 + c
p p p p
x 3 3 9x2 + 6x + 2 = (3x2 ) + 2(3x) + 1 + 1 = 3x2 + (2)(3x) + 1 + 1 = (3x + 1)2
p 1 −1 x
= x2 − 9 − sec ( ) + c
3 3 Then we let 3x + 1 = tan θ, so that 3dx = sec2 θdθ. This
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implies dx = 1
3 sec2 θdθ 5.3 Definite integral, Fundamental
Z Z theorem of calculus
1 1
√ dx = p dx
9x2 + 6x + 2 (3x + 1)2 + 1 Definition 5.3.1. If f is a function defined for a ≤ x ≤ b,
Z
1 1 we divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width
= sec2 θdθ ∆x = b−an , we let x0 = a, x1 , x2 , ..., xn = b be the end points
p
tan θ + 1 3
2
Z of these subintervals. Then the definite integral of f from a
1 1 to b is
= ( sec2 θ)dθ
sec θ 3 Zb X n
Z
1 f (x)dx = lim f (xi )∆x.
= sec θdθ n→∞
3 a i=1
1
= ln | sec θ + tan θ| + c Rb
3 Note:In the notation f (x)dx, f (x) is called the inte-
a
Thus, grand and a and b are called the limit of integration: a is
lower limit and b is upper limit.
Properties of definite integrals

Rb Ra
p
(3x + 1)2 +1 √ 1. f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
sec θ = 9x2 + 6x + 2, tan θ =a 3x + 1 b
3x + 1
θ Ra
2. f (x)dx = 0.
1 a
Rb
3. cdx = c(b − a), where c is any constant.
a
Z Rb Rb
1 1 p 4. cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx, where c is any constant.
√ dx = ln | 9x2 + 6x + 2 + 3x + 1| + c a a
9x2 + 6x + 2 3
Rb Rb Rb
J 5. (f (x) ± g(x)dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx
a a a
Rc Rb Rb
R 1 6. f (x)dx + f (x)dx = f (x)dx
Exercise 5.2.9. Find √
x2 +3x+1
dx a c a
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Rb Example 5.3.2. Find the derivative of the function g(x) =
7. If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b, then f (x)dx ≥ 0. Rx √
a 1 + t2 dt
0
Rb Rb
8. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then f (x)dx ≥ g(x)dx. √
a a
Solution. Since f (t) = 1 + t2 is continuous, part 1 of the
fundamental theorem of calculus gives
9. If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M , for a ≤ x ≤ b, then m(b − a) ≤ p
Rb g 0 (x) = 1 + x2
f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a).
a
J
R10 R8
Example 5.3.1. If f (x)dx = 17 and f (x)dx = 12. Find
0 0
Example 5.3.3. Find
R10 4
f (x)dx Rx
d
8 a) dx sec tdt
1
Solution. By property 6, we have
R2
b) |x|dx
Z8 Z10 Z10 −1
f (x)dx + f (x)dx = f (x)dx
0 8 0
Solution. a) Let u = x4 , then
4
So, Zx Zu
d d
Z10 Z10 Z8 sec tdt = sec tdt
dx dx
f (x)dx = f (x)dx − f (x)dx = 17 − 12 = 5 1 1
Zu
8 0 0 d du
= ( sec tdt)
J du dx
1
Theorem 5.3.1 (The fundamental theorem of calculus). du

= sec u.
Suppose f is continuous on [a, b] dx
Rx = 4x3 sec(x4 )
1) If g(x) = f (t)dt; a ≤ x ≤ b, then g 0 (x) = f (x).
a
b) Consider
Rb
2) f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a), where F is any antiderivative ( (
a x, if x ≥ 0 x, x ∈ [0, 2]
|x| = ⇒ |x| =
of f , that is F 0 = f. −x, if x < 0 −x, x ∈ [−1, 0].
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Therfore, either in every interval of the form (c, x) or on every
interval of the form (x, c). For instance , x1 and √1x are
Z2 Z0 Z2 Z0 Z2 unbounded near 0.
|x|dx = |x|dx + |x|dx = −xdx + xdx
−1 −1 0 −1 0
i) If f (x) is continuous on [a, b) and is discontinuous
at b, then
−x2 0 x 2
= | + |20
2 −1 2 Zb Zt
02 − 12 22 − 02 f (x)dx = lim− f (x)dx
= −( )+( ) t→b
2 2 a a
5
= ii) If f (x) is continuous on (a, b] and is discontinuous
2
at a, then
J
Zb Zb
Exercise 5.3.2. Evaluate the following integrals f (x)dx = lim+ f (x)dx.
t→a
R2 a t
a) |2x − 1|dx
0 iii) If f (x) is discontinuous at c ,where a < c < b and
π
4
R continuous on [a, c) and (c, b], then
b) sec2 xdx
0 Zb Zc Zb
R2 f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
c) (x2 − 3)dx
1 a a c
Note: In the first two cases, the improper integrals con-

5.4 Improper Integrals verges, if the limit exists. Otherwise, the improper inte-
grals diverges. in the third case, the improper on the left
For any Interval I, we say that f is bounded on I if there is diverges if either of the improper integrals on the right
a constant M such that diverges.
|f (x)| ≤ M, for all x inI. Example 5.4.1. Evaluate the following integrals
The integrals of unbounded functions are called improper R1

integrals. a) √1 dx
x
0
π
R2
A) Integrals with unbounded integrands b) tan xdx
we say that f is unbounded near c if f is unbounded 0
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R1 x = 1. If we let d = 12 , then we need to analyze the
c) √1−2x dx
x−x2 convergence of
0
R2 1
d) dx Z2 Z1
x3 1 − 2x 1 − 2x
−1 √ dx and √ dx
x − x2 x − x2
0 1
Solution. a) √1x is continuous at every point (0, 1] 2
and is discontinuous at 0, then For 0 < c < 12 , we have

1 1
Z1 Z2 Z2
Z
1 1 √ 1 − 2x 1 − 2x
√ dx = lim √ dx = lim [2 x]1t √ dx = lim+ √ dx
x t→0+ x t→0 + x − x2 t→0 x − x2
t 0 0
√ p 1
= lim+ 2(1 − t) = lim+ [2 x − x2 ]t2
t→0 t→0
p
=2 = lim+ [1 − 2 t − t2 ]
t→0
R1 1
=1
√1 dx
R
consequently x dx converges, and 16
=2
0 Similarly,
Z1
b) tan x is continuous on [0, π2 ) and discontinuous at 1 − 2x
π
√ dx = −1.
2. x − x2
1
2
π
Z 2 Zt Therfore the original integral converges, and
tan xdx = lim
π−
tan xdx Z1 Z2
1
Z1
t→ 2 1 − 2x 1 − 2x 1 − 2x
0 0 √ dx = √ dx+ √ dx = 1−1 = 0
= lim [− ln | cos x|]t0 x − x2 x − x2 x − x2
t→ π 0 0 1
2 2
= limπ − ln | cos t| d)
t→ 2
Z2 Z0 Z2
= −(−∞) = ∞. dx dx dx
= + .
x3 x3 x3
π −1 −1 0
R2
Hence, tan xdx is divergent. But,
0
Z0
dx −1 −1 1
c) The given integral is improper because the inte- 3
= lim− [ 2 ]b−1 = lim− [ 2 + ] = −∞.
grand has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0 and x b→0 2x b→0 2b 2
−1
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Z2 iii) If f is continuous on the interval (−∞, −∞), then
dx −1 −1 1
3
= lim+ [ 2 ]2b = lim+ [ + 2 ] = ∞.
x b→0 2x b→0 8 2b
0 Z∞ Zc Z∞
Therefore, the original improper integral also di- f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
verges. −∞ −∞ c
J
where c is any real number.
Exercise 5.4.1. Evaluate the following integrals In the first two cases , the improper integral converges
π
if the limit exists. Otherwise, the improper integrals
R2 diverges. In the third cases, the improper integral on
a) sec xdx
0 the left diverges if either of the improper integrals on
the right diverges.
R1
b) ln xdx
0
R3 1
c) x2 −x−2 dx
0 R∞
a) e−x dx
0
B) Integrals over unbounded intervals
R∞ Rb
Integrals of the form f (x)dx and f (x)dx are also R0
a −∞ b) xex dx
called improper integrals. −∞
i) If f is continuous on the interval [a, ∞), then R∞ 1

c) 1+x2 dx
−∞
Z∞ Zt
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
t→∞
a a
ii) If f is continuous on the interval (−∞, b], then Solution. a)
Zb Zb Z∞ Zt
−x
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx. e dx = lim e−x dx = lim [−e−x ]t0 = lim [−e−t +1] = 1.
t→−∞ t→∞ t→∞ t→∞
−∞ t 0 0
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b)
Z0 Z0
x
xe dx = lim xex dx
t→−∞
−∞ t
= lim [xex − ex ]0t

t→−∞
= lim [−1 − tet + et ]

t→−∞
= lim et − lim tet − lim 1

t→−∞ t→−∞ t→−∞
t
= 0 − lim te − 1
t→−∞
= −1 − lim tet
t→−∞
= −1 − 0
= −1
c) The integrand is continuous on (−∞, ∞), to eval-

uate the integral, you can break it into two parts,
choose c = 0 as a convenient value.
Z∞ Z0 Z∞
1 1 1
dx = dx + dx
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
−∞ −∞ 0
= lim [tan−1 x]0t + lim [tan−1 x]t0

t→−∞ t→∞
= lim [tan−1 0 − tan−1 t] + lim [tan−1 t − tan−1 0]

t→−∞ t→∞
= lim tan−1 t − lim tan−1 t

t→∞ t→−∞
π −π
= −( ) = π.
2 2
R∞ 1
Therfore, 1+x2 dx is convergent improper inte-
−∞
gral.
J
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Chapter 6
Application of integrals
6.1 Area
First area problem: Suppose that f and g are continuous
functions on an interval [a, b] and
f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b
[This means that the curve y = f (x) lies above the curve
y = g(x) and that the two can touch but not cross.] Find the
area A of the region bounded above by y = f (x), below by
y = g(x), and on the sides by the lines x = a and x = b.
If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a, b],

and if f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x in [a, b], then the area of the
region bounded above by y = f (x), below by y = g(x), on Example 6.1.2. Find the area of the region that is enclosed
the left by the line x = a, and on the right by the line x = b between the curves y = x2 and y = x + 6.
is
Z b
Second area problem: Suppose that w and v are contin-
A= [f (x) − g(x)]dx. uous functions of y on an interval [c, d] and that w(y) ≥ v(y)
a
for c ≤ y ≤ d [This means that the curve x = w(y) lies to the
Example 6.1.1. Find the area of the region bounded above right of the curve x = v(y) and that the two can touch but
by y = x + 6, bounded below by y = x2 , and bounded on the not cross.] Find the area A of the region bounded on the left
sides by the lines x = 0 and x = 2. by x = v(y), on the right by x = w(y), and above and below
83
by the lines y = d and y = c. area A(x) is known at each x in the interval [a, b].
Volume formula: Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel
If w and v are continuous functions and if w(y) ≥ v(y) for planes perpendicular to the x-axis at x = a and x = b. If, for
all y in [c, d], then the area of the region bounded on the left each x in [a, b], the cross-sectional area of S perpendicular to
by x = v(y), on the right by x = w(y), below by y = c, and the x-axis is A(x), then the volume of the solid is
above by y = d is Z b
Z d V = A(x)dx
A= [w(y) − v(y)]dy. a
c
provided A(x) is integrable.
Example 6.1.3. Find the area of the region enclosed by x = Volume formula: Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel
y 2 and y = x − 2, integrating with respect to y. planes perpendicular to the x-axis at y = c and y = d. If, for
each y in [c, d], the cross-sectional area of S perpendicular to
the y-axis is A(y), then the volume of the solid is
6.2 Volume Z d
V = A(y)dy
6.2.1 Volumes by slicing; Disks and Wash- c
ers provided A(y) is integrable.

Problem: Let S be a solid that extends along the x-axis and
is bounded on the left and right, respectively, by the planes Example 6.2.1. Derive the formula for the volume of a right
that are perpendicular to the x-axis at x = a and x = b . Find pyramid whose altitude is h and whose base is a square with
the volume V of the solid, assuming that its cross-sectional sides of length a.
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Definition 6.2.1. A solid of revolution is a solid that is Thus, the volume of the solid is
generated by revolving a plane region about a line that lies Z b
in the same plane as the region; the line is called the axis of V = π[f (x)]2 dx)
revolution. a
Because the cross sections are disk shaped, the application of

VOLUMES BY DISKS PERPENDICULAR TO this formula is called the method of disks.
THE x-AXIS
Let f be continuous and nonnegative on [a, b], and let R be Example 6.2.2. Find the volume of the√solid that is obtained
the region that is bounded above by y = f (x), below by the when the region under the curve y = x over the interval
x-axis, and on the sides by the lines x = a and x = b. Find [1, 4] is revolved about the x-axis.
the volume of the solid of revolution that is generated by re-
Example 6.2.3. Derive the formula for the volume of a
volving the region R about the x-axis.
sphere of radius r.
Volumes by Washers perpendicular to the x-axis

Let f and g be continuous and nonnegative on [a, b], and
suppose that f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x in the interval [a, b]. Let
R be the region that is bounded above by y = f (x), below
by y = g(x), and on the sides by the lines x = a and x = b.
Find the volume of the solid of revolution that is generated
by revolving the region R about the x-axis.
We can solve this problem by slicing. For this purpose, ob-

serve that the cross section of the solid taken perpendicular
to the x-axis at the point x is the annular or “washer-shaped"
region with inner radius g(x) and outer radius f (x) ; its area
is
A(x) = π[f (x)]2 − π[g(x)]2 = π([f (x)]2 − [g(x)]2 )
We can solve this problem by slicing. For this purpose, Thus, the volume of the solid is
observe that the cross section of the solid taken perpendicular Z b
to the x-axis at the point x is a circular disk of radius f(x). V = π([f (x)]2 − [g(x)]2 )dx
The area of this region is a
Because the cross sections are washer shaped, the application

A(x) = π[f (x)]2 of this formula is called the method of washers.
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Problem: Let f be continuous and nonnegative on [a, b]
(0 ≤ a < b), and let R be the region that is bounded above
by y = f (x), below by the x-axis, and on the sides by the
lines x = a and x = b. Find the volume V of the solid of
revolution S that is generated by revolving the region R
about the y-axis.
Theorem 6.2.1 (Volume by cylindrical shells about the

y-axis). Let f be continuous and nonnegative on [a, b] (0 ≤
a ≤ b), and let R be the region that is bounded above by
y = f (x), below by the x-axis, and on the sides by the lines
x = a and x = b. Then the volume V of the solid of revo-
lution that is generated by revolving the region R about the
y-axis is given by
Z b
V = 2πxf (x)dx.
a
Example 6.2.6. Use cylindrical shells to find the volume√of

the solid generated when the region enclosed between y = x
Example 6.2.4. Find the volume of the solid generated when , x = 1, x = 4, and the x-axis is revolved about the y-axis.
the region between the graphs of the equations f (x) = 21 + x2
and g(x) = x over the interval [0, 2] is revolved about the An informal viewpoint about cylindrical shells. The vol-
x-axis. ume V of a solid of revolution that is generated by revolving
a region R about an axis can be obtained by integrating the
Volumes by Disks and Washers perpendicular to the area of the surface generated by an arbitrary cross section of
y-axis R taken parallel to the axis of revolution.
The methods of disks and washers have analogs for regions
that are revolved about the y-axis Example 6.2.7. Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of
the solid generated when the region R in the first quadrant
Z d Z d enclosed between y = x and y = x2 is revolved about the
Disks → V = π[u(y)]2 dy, Washers → V = 2
π([w(y)] −[v(y)]2
y-axis.
)dy
c c
Example 6.2.5. Find the volume of the solid generated when Example 6.2.8. Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of
√ the solid generated when the region R under y = x2 over the
the region enclosed by y = x, y = 2, and x = 0 is revolved
about the y−axis. interval [0, 2] is revolved about the line y = −1.
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6.3 Arc Length P0 (a, f (a)) to the point Q(x, f (x)). Then s is a function,
called the arc length function,
To avoid some complications that would otherwise occur, Z xp
we will impose the requirement that f 0 be continuous s(x) = 1 + [f 0 (t)]2 dt
on [a, b], in which case we will say that y = f (x) is a a
smooth curve on [a, b] or that f is a smooth function on
[a, b]. Thus, we will be concerned with the following problem. Example 6.3.2. Find the arc length function for the curve
y = x2 − 81 ln x taking P0 (1, 1) as the starting point.
Suppose that y = f (x) is a smooth curve on the interval
[a, b]. Define and find a formula for the arc length L of the 6.4 Surface Area
curve y = f (x) over the interval [a, b].
Surface area problem: Suppose that f is a smooth, non-
negative function on [a, b] and that a surface of revolution
is generated by revolving the portion of the curve y = f (x)
between x = a and x = b about the x-axis. Define what is
meant by the area S of the surface, and find a formula for
computing it.
If f is a smooth, nonnegative function on [a, b], then the
surface area S of the surface of revolution that is generated
by revolving the portion of the curve y = f (x) between x = a
and x = b about the x-axis is defined as
Z b p
S= 2πf (x) 1 + [f 0 (x)]2 dx.
a
Example 6.4.1. Find the area of the surface that is gen-

Theorem 6.3.1 (The Arc Length Formula). If f 0 is continu- erated by revolving the portion of the curve y = x3 between
ous on [a, b], then the length of the curve y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b, x = 0 and x = 1 about the x-axis.
is Z bp Example 6.4.2. Find the area of the surface that is gen-
L= 1 + [f 0 (x)]2 dx. erated by revolving the portion of the curve y = x2 between
a
x = 1 and x = 2 about the y-axis.
Example 6.3.1. Find the length of the arc of the semicubical
parabola y 2 = x3 between the points (1, 1) and (4, 8). Work
Problem: Suppose that an object moves in the positive di-
If a smooth curve C has the equation y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ rection along a coordinate line while subjected to a variable
b, let s(x) be the distance along C from the initial point force F (x) that is applied in the direction of motion. Define
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ina with constant density δ occupies a region R in a horizontal
xy-plane bounded by the graphs of y = f (x), y = 0, x = a,
and x = b. Find the coordinates (x, y) of the center of gravity
of the lamina.
Rb Rb 1 2
δxf (x)dx 2 δ(f (x)) dx
a a
x= , y= (6.4.0)
Rb Rb
δf (x)dx δf (x)dx
a a
Example 6.4.3. Find the center of gravity of the triangular

lamina with vertices (0, 0), (0, 1), and (1, 0) and density δ =
3.
In the case of a homogeneous lamina, the center of gravity
of a lamina occupying the region R is called the centroid of
the region R. Since the lamina is homogeneous, δ is constant.
The factor δ in Equation 4.1.1 may thus be moved through
the integral signs and canceled, and Equation 6.4 can be ex-
pressed as
Rb
what is meant by the work W performed by the force on the xf (x)dx Zb
object as the object moves from x = a to x = b, and find a a 1
x= = xf (x)dx
formula for computing the work. Rb Area of R
δf (x)dx a
a
Definition 6.4.1. Suppose that an object moves in the pos-
itive direction along a coordinate line over the interval [a, b] Rb 1 2
while subjected to a variable force F (x) that is applied in the 2 (f (x)) dx Zb
a 1 1
direction of motion. Then we define the work W performed y= = (f (x))2 dx
by the force on the object to be Rb Area of R 2
f (x)dx a
Z b a
W = F (x)dx. Example 6.4.4. Find the centroid of the semicircular region

a
in the figure below.
Center of gravity: Let f be a positive continuous func-
tion on the interval [a, b]. Suppose that a homogeneous lam-
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1 Vectors and Vector Spaces 4

2 Matrices and determinants 19

4 Derivatives and application of derivatives 43

Vectors and Vector Spaces

Introduction represent a point in space. The set of all n-tuples is called

The zero vector is the vector 0 = (0, 0) or 0 = (0, 0, 0) in

point at B. We call such a directed line segment is a vector

Definition 1.1.1. A position vector is a vector whose initial u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 )

Definition 1.2.2 (Parallel Vectors). Two non-zero vectors u w

u and v are said to be parallel if they are scalar multiples

4. c0 = 0. Example 1.2.2. If a = i + 2j − 3k and b = 4i + 7k, express

Remark 1.3.3. The vector projection of b onto a is the scalar

1.3.3 Direction angles γ

∴ a, b and c are coplanar. J Thus r = r0 + tv——vector equation of L.

r = r0 + tv = 5i + j + 3k + t(i + 4j − 2k) x−2 y−4 z+3

Parametric equations are x−2 y−4 3 11 1

x = 2 + t, y = 4 − 5t, z = −3 + 4t r(t) = (1 − t)r0 + tr1 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

2(x − 2) + 3(y − 4) + 4(z + 1) = 0 =⇒ 2x + 3y + 4z = 12

Two plane are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. J

n1 = (1, 1, 1), n2 = (1, −2, 3) Proof. execise

Matrices and determinants

but neither A + C nor B + C is defined.

Matrix Multiplication in Terms of Columns 1. A(BC) = (AB)C

Consider the product AB where A is an m × n matrix and B 2. A(B + C) = AB + AC

Proof. Let B and C be inverses of A. Thus AB = BA = In

3 −2 a. Determinant of a scalar multiple: |cA| = cn |A|

Solution. |A| = 25. Thus the inverse of A exists.

[Ai = a1 · · · ai−1 b ai+1 · · · an ] Gaussian Elimination

Next, we compute the determinant,

Limit and continuity

3.1 Definition of limit x<1 f (x) x>1 f (x)

Solution. Note that the function f (x) = x−1

−4. −3. −2. −1. 0 1. 2. 3.

Exercise 3.1.1. Describe the behavior of the the function

 Example 3.2.1. Evaluate the following limits

Example 3.1.4. Use Formal Definition of limit to prove that

Theorem 3.2.3 (Limits of Polynomials and Rational Functions). 1.

lim P (x) = P (a).

2. If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(a) 6= 0, then

Example 3.2.3. Evaluate

lim (4x3 − 6x2 − 9x)

Remark 3.2.1. If f (x) = g(x) when x 6= a, then lim f (x) =

−3. −2. −1. 0 1. 2. 3. −3. −2. −1. 0 1. 2. 3.

Example 3.4.3 (One sided infinite limits). Describe the be-

lim f (x) = f (c)

Definition 3.4.5. A function f is said to be continuous on

Derivatives and application of derivatives

Since the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of expo-

4.5 Application of derivatives

absolute maximum value nor an absolute minimum value. In

f 0 (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 = 12x2 (x − 1)

Observe that f 0 is continuous on (0, 2π). Setting f 0 (x) = 0

Figure 4.4: Graph of f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 8

f (−1) = (−1)3 − (−1) = 0 and f (1) = (1)3 − 1 = 0

and the hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied.

Example 4.6.2. Find the relative extrema of f (x) = x4 −

Solution. The derivative of f , is continuous everywhere.

Theorem 4.6.3 (The Second Derivative Test). Suppose that

b. If f 00 (c) > 0, then has a relative minimum at c.

Example 3.2.1. Evaluate the following limits