Highway

and
Railroad
Engineering
(Module 2)
 Module Outline

1. Highway Development and Planning

2. Classification of Roads
3. Road Patterns
4. Planning Surveys
5. Highway Alignment and Surveys
 Highway Development and Planning

Highway Planning involves the estimation of current and future

traffic volumes on a road network. The highway planning is a basic
need for highway development.
 Objectives of Highway Planning

1. Planning a highway network for safe, efficient and fast movement

of people and goods.
2. Keeping the overall cost of construction and maintenance of the
roads in the network to a minimum.
3. Planning for future development and anticipated traffic needs for
a specific design period.
4. Phasing road development programmes from considerations of
utility and importance as also of financial resources.
5. Evolving a financing system compatible with the cost and
benefits.
 Classification of Roads
A number of laws and orders have been passed regarding the
classification of roads in the country. The first comprehensive
reference to a Road Classification System is found in Executive Order
(E.O) No. 483, s. 1951, “Establishing the Classification of Roads”, for
the purpose of classifying and establishing the limits of public roads
and fixing the responsibility for the proper maintenance of the roads
built or to be built, and upon the recommendation of the National
Transportation Board.

The current classification system and the criteria for each road
classification are provided in Table A, per Department Order (D.O.)
No. 133, s. 2018.
 Road Patterns
Roadway patterns are essential for developing a city's settlements.
Current urban development does not analyze road designs before
construction which leads to several interconnected roadways, housing
projects, and commercial developments built far from town centers.
1. Rectangular or block pattern
2. Radial pattern
3. Hexagonal pattern
4. Minimum travel pattern
5. Grid pattern
6. Linear pattern
 Rectangular or Block Pattern
In this type of road pattern, the complete area is divided into a
rectangle or block-shaped plots to create a rectangle or block pattern.
Streets and roads in block patterns intersect at a 90° (right angle).

Other branch roads may be slightly narrow, but the main road that
goes through the center of the area should be sufficiently wide. The
rectangle or block design provides a nice view when seen from a
height.
Rectangular or Block Pattern
 Rectangular or Block Pattern
Benefits of Block or Rectangular Pattern
1. To construct back-to-back buildings with front-facing roadways,
the rectangular plots may be further divided into smaller
rectangular blocks.
2. The city roadways have adopted this pattern.
3. Construction and maintenance of highways using this design are
relatively simpler.

Drawbacks of Block or Rectangular Patterns

1. This pattern is inconvenient since the roads are perpendicular at
junctions, causing the traffic to converge towards a single point.
 Radial Pattern
In this road pattern, the network of roadways is constructed in the
shape of a circle that radiates away from the center of the area.

This pattern is divided into three types based on its layout.

a. Radial or Star & Block Pattern
b. Radial or Star & Circular Pattern
c. Radial or Star & Grid Pattern
 Radial or Star & Block Pattern
This type of road network combines radial and block road patterns.
The whole area is arranged into a block-pattern road network that
runs between the radial main streets and radiates outward from the
center.
Radial or Star & Block Pattern
 Radial or Star & Block Pattern
Benefits of Radial or Star & Block Patterns
1. Safer when compared to a rectangular pattern.
2. It reduces congestion at the main bottleneck point.
3. If one radial route is closed, another may be utilized as an
alternative.

Drawbacks of Radial or Star & Block Pattern

1. Lack of safety equipment such as post-support bases, crash
attenuators, and rail transitions.
2. It is only effective when the downstream end of a two-lane ramp
does not need a merging.
 Radial or Star & Circular Pattern
This network is a combination of radial and circular road patterns. It is
a road pattern in which the major roadways, or radial roads, radiate
outward from the center and are joined by the ring roads, or
concentric roads, which likewise radiate outward.
Radial or Star & Circular Pattern
 Radial or Star & Circular Pattern
Benefits of Radial or Star & Circle Pattern
1. Compared to the abovementioned patterns, it is safer since all the traffic moves in
the same direction.
2. This traffic plan includes roundabouts, which enhances traffic flow. Additionally,
this lowers the vehicle's fuel consumption.
3. Lowers the chances of rear-end collisions.

Drawbacks of Radial or Star & Circle Pattern

1. Its design is complex, and it isn't easy to provide a decent curve.
2. It impacts driving abilities (most drivers experiencing this issue are senior citizens).
3. The appropriate installation of traffic signals, road markings, and illumination is
required to alert the driver.
4. Splitter islands must be made long enough to include a crosswalk and a
roundabout description.
 Radial or Star & Grid Pattern
This kind of road network combines radial and grid patterns. From the
center, a radial network of roads radiates outward. The grid pattern is
then used to interconnect the main radial streets.
Radial or Star & Grid Pattern
 Radial or Star & Grid Pattern
Benefits of Grid and Star and Radial Pattern
1. It increases the effectiveness of land usage unit density.
2. It has a high percentage of 3-way intersections, offering great
vehicle traffic safety.
3. Cut-through traffic is reduced.

Drawbacks of Grid and Star and Radial Pattern

1. There should be sufficient distance between splitter islands.
2. High construction cost for additional traffic lights and road
markings.
 Hexagonal Road Pattern
A hexagonal pattern is a network of roadways that form a hexagonal
shape, similar to a circular road pattern. Three roads intersect with the
constructed region at each corner of the hexagon. A hexagonal
boundary is further split into plots of the appropriate sizes.
Hexagonal Road Pattern
 Hexagonal Road Pattern
Benefits of Hexagonal Road Pattern
1. Travel time and distance are cut down.
2. Reduced traffic congestion

Drawbacks of Hexagonal Road Pattern

1. There should be enough traffic signs, pavement markings, and
illumination to alert vehicles to lower their travel speed and
minimize the risk of accidents.
 Minimum Travel Pattern
The town is served by sector centers, suburban facilities, and
neighborhood centers in this road plan, all of which are connected to
the city center by a highway that can be reached in the shortest
amount of time. Also, the shortest roads interconnect the city center
with neighboring and suburban centers. The alignment of the road is
made straight to shorten it.
 Minimum Travel Pattern
Benefits of a Minimum Travel Pattern
1. The potentially dangerous collisions are almost eliminated.

Drawbacks of the Minimum Travel Pattern

1. The right amount of traffic signs, pavement markings, and
illumination should be in place to alert vehicles to slow down.
2. For senior drivers, intersections may be particularly difficult.
 Grid Pattern
A network of intersecting parallel lines, real or imaginary, is referred
to as a grid. When seen from above, this pattern is made up of streets
that connect at right angles to form squares. A physical network not
always constructed of straight or parallel lines may also be called a
grid.

Regular grid systems often have greater infrastructure costs than

those with disjointed street patterns.

Street width, street length, block width, and pavement width are the
four main factors that affect street costs.
Grid Pattern
 Grid Pattern
Benefits of a Grid Pattern
1. Grids benefit pedestrians since there are several routes from point A to point B.
2. Grids benefit restaurants and retail establishments since they provide several corner
lots.
3. A grid's navigation is quite simple.

Drawbacks of Grid Pattern

1. Grids are dangerous for motorists and bicycles because they contain numerous junctions
and many potential conflict places.
2. Grids may encourage individuals to take shortcuts through residential areas.
3. Grids don't work well in places with many hills since they result in unnecessarily steep
streets.
4. Traffic mayhem may readily occur on a grid that is uneven or unfinished.
 Linear Pattern
It comprises a road that expands linearly in one direction, potentially
due to certain natural resources like the sea or ocean existing on one
side of the city.
Linear Pattern
 Linear Pattern
Benefits of a Linear Pattern
1. The potentially dangerous collisions are almost eliminated.

Drawbacks of the Linear Pattern

1. The right amount of traffic signs, pavement markings, speed
breakers, and illumination should be in place to alert vehicles to
slow down.
 Planning Surveys
Engineering surveys are used to locate the highway alignment once
the area has been surveyed. Before a highway alignment is finalized
in a new highway project, engineering surveys are to be carried out.
These engineering surveys may be completed in the following four
stages:

a) Map Study
b) Reconnaissance Survey
c) Preliminary Surveys
d) Final Location and Detailed Surveys
 A. Map Study
The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available
on the map.

❖ Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds, or lakes

❖ When the road has to cross a row of hills or mountains, possibility of crossing
through a mountain pass.
❖ Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bends of the river,
if any
❖ When a road is to be connected between two stations, one at the top and the
other on the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in
view the design or ruling gradient and the maximum permissible gradient.
❖ Thus, from the map study, alternate routes can be suggested. It may also be
possible from a map study to drop a certain route in view of any unavoidable
obstructions or undesirable ground, and a map study gives rough guidance of the
routes to be further surveyed in the field.
 B. Reconnaissance Survey
The second stage of engineering surveys for highway alignment is the
reconnaissance survey. During the reconnaissance, the engineer visits
the site and examines the general characteristics of the area before
deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field survey
party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed
alternative routes of the map in the field. The reconnaissance party
uses very simple survey instruments to collect additional details
rapidly but not accurately. All relevant details which are not available
on the map are collected and noted down.
 B. Reconnaissance Survey
Some of the details to be collected during reconnaissance are given
below

❖ Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent

structures, and other obstructions along the route which are not
available on the map.
❖ Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients, and radius of
curves of alternate alignments.
❖ Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood
level, and natural groundwater level along the probable routes.
❖ Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and
observation of geological features.
 B. Reconnaissance Survey
Some of the details to be collected during reconnaissance are given
below

❖ Sources of construction materials, water, and location of quarrying

of stones.
❖ When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain,
additional data regarding the geological formation, type of rocks,
the dip of strata, seepage flow, etc., may be observed so as to
decide the stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway
alignment A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when it
is vast, and the terrain is difficult, and it may be done by aerial
survey. From the details collected during the survey, the
alignment proposed may be altered or even changes completed.
 C. Preliminary Survey
The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:

❖ To survey the various alternate alignment proposed after the

reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical
information and details of topography, drainage, etc.
❖ To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of
a good alignment.
❖ To estimate the quantity of earthwork materials and other
construction aspects and to work out the cost of alternate
proposals.
 C. Preliminary Survey
The preliminary survey may be carried out by of following methods

❖ Conventional approach, in which a survey party carries out

surveys using the required field equipment, taking measurements,
collecting topographical and other data, and carrying out a soil
survey
❖ Rapid approach, by aerial survey taking the required aerial
photographs and by photogrammetric methods and
photo-interpretation techniques for obtaining the necessary
topographic and other maps, including details of soil and geology.
❖ Modern techniques by use of Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Assignment/Seatwork
In an A4 Size Bond Paper, explain/discuss the step-by-step
procedures of conventional methods of the preliminary surveys.

Handwritten.

Deadline: September 3, Next Tuesday

 D. Final Location and Detailed Survey
The alignment finalised at the design office after the preliminary
survey is to be first located on the field by establishing the centre line.
Next detailed survey should be carried out to collect the information
necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for the
highway project.
 D. Final Location and Detailed Survey
Location

❖ The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be transferred to the
ground during the location survey. This is done using a transit theodolite and by
staking off the center line.
❖ The location of the center line should follow, as closely as practicable, the
alignment finalized after the preliminary surveys.
❖ Major and minor control points are established on the ground, and center pegs are
driven, checking the geometric design requirements.
❖ However, modifications in the final location may be made in the field if found
essential.
❖ The center line stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50-meter intervals in
plain and rolling terrains and at 20 metres in hilly terrain.
 D. Final Location and Detailed Survey
Detailed Survey

❖ Temporary benchmarks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all drainage
and underpass structures. Levels along the final centre line should be taken at all
staked points.
❖ Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earthwork
calculations, and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes.
❖ The cross-section levels are taken up to the desired width at intervals of 50 to 100
m in plain terrain, 50 to 75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up areas, and 20 m in
hilly terrain.
❖ The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and where
there is an abrupt change in cross slopes.
❖ All river crossings, valleys, etc., should be surveyed in detail up to considerable
distances on either side.
❖ All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using conventional
signs.
 D. Final Location and Detailed Survey
Detailed Survey

❖ Adequate hydrological details are also collected and recorded.

❖ A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable the drawing of the soil profile. The
depth up to which soil sampling is to be done maybe 1.5 to 3.0 m below the
ground line or finished grade line of the road, whichever is lower. However, in the
case of high embankments, the depth should be up to twice the height of the
finished embankment.
❖ The spacing of auger borings very much depends upon the soil type and its
variations.
❖ CBR value of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing the
pavement.
❖ The data during the detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for
preparing detailed plans, designs and estimates of the project.
 Highway Alignment
The alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem
measured in x, y, and z coordinates. However, in highway design
practice, three-dimensional design computations are cumbersome,
and, what is perhaps more important, the actual implementation and
construction of a design based on three-dimensional coordinates has
historically been prohibitively difficult.
Highway Alignment
Highway Alignment
 Vertical Alignment
Vertical alignment specifies the elevation of points along a roadway.
The elevation of these roadway points is usually determined by the
need to provide an acceptable level of driver safety, driver comfort,
and proper drainage (from rainfall runoff). A primary concern in
vertical alignment is establishing the transition of roadway elevations
between two grades. This transition is achieved by means of a vertical
curve.
Vertical Alignment
 Horizontal Alignment
The critical aspect of horizontal alignment is the horizontal curve, with
the focus on design of the directional transition of the roadway in a
horizontal plane. Stated differently, a horizontal curve provides a
transition between two straight (or tangent) sections of roadway. A
key concern in this directional transition is the ability of the vehicle to
negotiate a horizontal curve.
Horizontal Alignment