CAVENDISH UNIVERSITY ZAMBIA (CUZ)

SCHOOL OF MEDICINE

MTM102 - Foundation Mathematics

Lecture Notes

1 Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with specific functions of angles and their
applications.
Geometry helps doctors to understand shape and size of body cells, organs and body parts and
how they relate to each other. They may use trigonometry to understand waves (radiation,
x-ray, ultraviolet, and water).
More uses (MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
(i) Orthopedics: to find the deviation of a vertebra in degrees and understand if nerves are
damaged
(ii) Treatment of Cancer: Get correct/accurate angles so that each beam accurately targets
the cancerous cells
(iii) Radiology: See structures inside the body
By successful completion of this topic, you should be able to
X Convert angles from degree measure to radian measure and vice versa
X Calculate values of basic trigonometric functions
X Verify trigonometric identities and use them to solve related equations
X Sketch graphs of sine, cosine,
 and tangent with their corresponding transformation such
c
as f (x) = α sin β x ± ±d
β
1.1 Trigonometric Ratios 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1.1 Trigonometric Ratios

There are six functions of an angle used in trigonometry. These are; sine(sin), cosine(cos),
tangent(tan), cotangent(tan), secant(sec) , and cosecant (csc). The right angled triangle
helps us to understand on how they related to each other.
Consider a right angled triangle in Figure 1.1

Figure 1: Right-angled Triangle

We recall on how to calculate functions of θ
Opp Opp Adj
X sin θ = X tan θ = X cot θ =
Hyp Adj Opp
Adj Hyp Hyp
X cos θ = X sec θ = X csc θ =
Hyp Adj Opp

From the ratios above, we derive basic identities that describes the relationship of tangent,
cotangent, secant, and cosecant in terms of sine and cosine as shown below. following
sin x 1
X tan x = X sec x =
cos x cos x
cos x 1
X cot x = X csc x =
sin x sin x

1.2 Radian and Degree Measure

Angles in trigonometry are measured either in degrees or radians.
One Radian: Is a measure of a central angle of a circle subtended by an arc s and radii r for
which s = r (i.e., the arc length and the radius have equal magnitude).

s
Radian Measure: Let s be an arc length of a circle with radius r, then θ = radians. For
◦
r
a complete turn (θ = 360 ), with the circumference of a circle given by C = 2πr, we have

2πr
θ= = 2π =⇒ 360◦ = 2π
r
Therefore,
180◦ = π radians

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1.3 Trigonometric Identities 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Example 1. Convert the following angles to radians

 π  π
(a) 30◦ = 30◦ radians = radians
180◦ 6
 π  π
(b) 90◦ = 90◦ ◦
radians = radians
180 2
Example 2. Given the degree measure of the following angles
π 180◦
 
π
(a) = = 45◦
4 4 π
π 180◦
 
π
(b) − = − = −60◦
3 3 π
7π 180◦
 
7π
(c) = = 210◦
6 6 π
Table 1: Special Angles in Degrees and Radians
Degrees Exact
Radians
◦ π
30
6
π
45◦
4
π
60◦
3
π
◦
90
2
180◦ π
3π
270◦
2
360◦ 2π

1.3 Trigonometric Identities

A trigonometric identity is a relationship which is true for all values of the unknown angle θ.
Consider a unit (circle with radius 1) circle and a triangle within the circle wit one edge on the
center, one edge on the circle boundary and another edge perpendicular to the diameter. Let
x and y be two adjacent sides, then

Figure 2
The Pythagoras Theorem yields

x2 + y 2 = 1 (1)

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1.3 Trigonometric Identities 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Applying trigonometric ratios on Figure 2 (with r = 1), we have

y
sin θ =
=⇒ y = sin θ
r
x
cos θ = =⇒ x = cos θ
r
y sin θ
tan θ = =⇒ tan θ =
x cos θ
Putting x = cos θ and y = sin θ in equation (1), we get

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. (2)

Dividing (2) throughout by cos2 θ, we have

tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ. (3)

Again, divide (2) by sin2 θ to get

1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ. (4)

Summary of Trigonometric Identities: We give a list of important identities (Follow the

(link) to read more)
I.
sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ
1
sec θ =
cos θ
1
csc θ =
sin θ
cos θ 1
cot θ = =
sin θ tan θ

II. The Pythagorean formula for sine and cosine

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

III. Sum and difference for sine and cosine

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

IV. Double angle identities: Let A = B = θ in III, we have

sin(θ + θ) = sin θ cos θ + cos θ sin θ

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

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1.3 Trigonometric Identities 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Similarly, the cosine sum gives us

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ

= 2 cos2 θ − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 θ

V. Even and Odd Identities

sin(−θ) = − sin θ
cos(−θ) = cos θ
tan(−θ) = − tan θ

Example 3. Verify the following trigonometric identities

(a) cos2 θ tan θ csc θ = cos θ
1 1
(b) + = 2 csc2 θ
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ
sin x
(c) = csc x + cot x
1 − cos x
Solution:
(a) Note that cos2 θ = cos θ × cos θ. Thus
  
2 sin θ 1
cos θ tan θ csc θ = cos θ × cos θ
cos θ sin θ
= cos θ.

(b) Express the right hand side as single fraction

1 1 1 + cos θ + 1 − cos θ
+ =
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ (1 − cos θ)(1 + cos θ)
2
=
1 − cos2 θ
2
=
sin2 θ
= 2 csc2 θ.

sin x
(c) Multiply both the numerator and the denominator of by the conjugate of its
1 − cos x

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1.4 Trigonometric Equations 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

denominator. That is
sin x 1 + cos x sin x(1 + cos x)
· =
1 − cos x 1 + cos x (1 − cos x)(1 + cos x)
sin x(1 + cos x)
=
1 − cos2 x
sin x(1 + cos x)
=
sin2 x
1 + cos x
=
sin x
1 cos x
= +
sin x sin x
= csc x + cot x.

sin x
Therefore = csc x + cot x.
1 − cos x

1.4 Trigonometric Equations

A trigonometric equation is an equation that involves one or more trigonometric functions. For
example
tan2 t + 1 = sec2 t.
Such equations can be solved in radians or degrees taking note of quadrants to find other angles
that solve the equation in a given interval
Table 2
Quadrant Angle Reference Positive
Angle
π
I 0<θ< θ All
π 2
II <θ<π π−θ sin
2
3π
III π<θ< π+θ tan
2
3π
IV < θ < 2π 2π − θ cos
2
Another useful tool is to understand the unit circle in Figure 3 which gives the sine and cosine
values of common angles.

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1.4 Trigonometric Equations 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Figure 3
From Figure 2, y = sin θ and x = cos θ. Therefore, (x, y) = (cos θ, sin θ).
π
For instance, if θ = then
3 √ !
 π π 1 3
cos , sin = , .
3 3 2 2

To appreciate this, consider the right angled triangles

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1.4 Trigonometric Equations 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

From Figure 4, we have

√
π 1 2
sin = √ =
4 2 2
√
π 1 2
cos = √ =
4 2 2

Figure 4 From Figure 5 we have

π 1
sin =
6 2√
π 3
cos =
6 2 √
π 1 3
Figure 5 tan = √ =
6 3 3

Example 4. Determine all angles θ that satisfy the following equations

1
(a) cos θ = where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
2
(b) tan2 θ = 3 where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
Solution:
 
1 1 π
(a) We know that cos θ = =⇒ θ = cos−1 = .
2 2 3
1
Between 0 and 2π, the line y = intersects y = cos θ on two points as shown in Figure 6
2

Figure 6
Since the cosine value is positive at θ. We only consider quadrants where cosine is positive;
π π
the first and fourth quadrants. The first point is between 0 and which is θ = . The
2 3
3π π 5π
second point is between and 2π given by 2π − = . Thus, the solution set is
2 3 3
 
π 5π
, .
3 3
1
Generally, without restricting the interval of θ, the line y = intersects the cosine function
2
at more than two points

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1.4 Trigonometric Equations 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Figure 7
The general solution is
π 5π
θ= + 2πk and θ = + 2πk where k ∈ Z.
3 3

(b) For tan2 θ = 3, we have

tan2 θ = 3
√
tan θ = ± 3
√
π 3 √ π
From Figure 5, tan = = 3. Thus θ = which is in the first quadrant.
3 1 3
√
Since θ takes both a positive and a negative value (i.e. ± 3), the equation has a solution
in all the quadrants
π
I: θ1 =
3

π 2π
II: θ2 = π − =
3 3

π 4π
III: θ3 = π + =
3 3

π 5π Figure 8
IV: θ4 = 2π − =
3 3

Since y = tan θ has a period of π, its general solution is

θ = tan−1 (y) + πk where k ∈ Z.

Example 5 (Quadratic forms). Find the solution to a trigonometric equations

2 sin2 θ = 5 sin θ − 3, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. (5)

Solution: Put y = sin θ in equation (5) to get

2y 2 = 5y − 3
2y 2 − 5y + 3 = 0 factorize
(y − 1)(2y − 3) = 0.

9
1.5 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

So that
3
y = 1 or y = .
2
Then
3
sin θ = 1 or sin θ =
2
π 3
But sin θ = 1 =⇒ θ = . However, sin θ 6= because the range of y = sin θ is [−1, 1].
2 2

1.5 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

We begin with the graph of y = sin θ and y = cos θ
Table 3
θ y = sin θ y = cos θ
0 0 1√
π 1 3
6 2√ 2
π 3 1
3
π 2 2
1 0
2
π 0 −1
3π
−1 0
2
2π 0 1
Plotting these values we have

Figure 9
From Figure 9, we observe that sine and cosine functions repeats in regular intervals of 2π
known as periods. That is

y = sin(θ) = sin(θ + 2π) and y = cos(θ) = cos(θ + 2π).

From the sine function y = sin θ has The cosine function y = cos θ
X Range [−1, 1] X Has domain (−∞, ∞), and range [−1, 1]
X Domain (−∞, ∞)
X Is symmetric with respect y−axis
X x−intercepts at nπ, n ∈ Z
(2n + 1)π
X Symmetric about (0, 0) X Has x−intercepts at , n∈Z
2

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1.6 Key Features of Sine and Cosine Functions 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1.6 Key Features of Sine and Cosine Functions

We discuss transformation of sine and cosine functions which includes; amplitude, period, phase
shift and vertical shift.
I Amplitude: This is the measure of units the function goes below or above the middle
line (x−axis). The amplitude of y = a sin x is |a|, hence
y = a sin x and y = a cos x, with a 6= 0
have range [−|a|, |a|].
Example 6. On the same graph sketch the function f (x) = 3 sin x and g(x) = −3 sin x
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
Solution: Since a = |3| = | − 3| = 3, both functions have amplitude 3 and range [−3, 3]

Figure 10
II Period: Generally, let f (x) = sin(bx) and g(x) = cos(bx), b 6= 0 the period denoted by
ρ is given by
2π
ρ= . (6)
|b|

Example 7. Determine the period of the following functions. Hence sketch the corre-
sponding graphs.
(i) y = cos(2x)
(ii) y = sin(πx)
Solution:
2π
(i) By (6), ρ = where b = 2. Thus the period is ρ = π and the corresponding graph
|b|
is

2π
(ii) Here ρ = = 2 and the corresponding graph is
π

11
1.6 Key Features of Sine and Cosine Functions 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

III Phase Shift: Is a horizontal transformation done by shifting the graph either to the left
or to the right. Generally, given a function y = cos(bx ± c) we re-write it in its standard
form
 c
y = a cos b x ± (7)
b
c
and the corresponding phase shift is to the right.
b
 π π
Example 8. The phase shift of y = cos x + is units to the left and its graph is
2 2

IV Vertical Shift: The vertical shift (by d) moves the function in question either upwards
or downwards by d−units. Add d to equation (7) to move its graph upwards and subtract
d from equation (7) to move its graph downwards. That is
 c
y = a cos b x ± ±d
b
 π  π
Example 9. On the same graph sketch f (x) = cos x + + 1 and y = cos x + −2
2 2
Solution

3  π
Example 10. Sketch the graph of f (x) = − sin x −
2 2
(i) Firstly, sketch the graph of y = sin x
π
(ii) Move the graph in (i), units to the right
2
3 3
(iii) The amplitude is given by − = . Thus, the range changes from −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 to
2 2
3 3
− ≤y≤
2 2
(iv) Reflect the graph obtained in (iii) along the x−axis to obtain (iv) in Figure 11

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1.7 The Tangent Function 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

3  π
Figure 11: Graph of f (x) = − sin x −
2 2

1.7 The Tangent Function

sin x
Recall that tan x = . Thus, the tangent function has characteristic of both trigonometric
cos x
and rational functions since tan x is undefined for all x for which cos x = 0.
Here are the key features of the tangent function
(i) Its range is (−∞, ∞)
n π o
(ii) Domain x ∈ R|x 6= nπ + where n ∈ Z
2
(iii) Its period is π and its x−intercepts takes the form nπ, n ∈ Z
(iv) Does not have an amplitude
π
(v) Period: For y = tan bx, its period is ρ =
b
π
(vi) Vertical Asymptote: To obtain vertical asymptotes solve the equation bx = − and
2
π
bx = . That is
2
π π
x = − and x = .
2b 2b
(vii) Phase Shift and Vertical Shift performed on sine and cosine functions also apply to
tangent functions.
Example 11. Sketch the graph of y = tan x

Figure 12

13
1.7 The Tangent Function 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Example 12. Sketch the graph of y = tan(2x)

Figure 13
π  π 
Figure 13 shows a function that repeats every units i.e., ρ = , b = 2 .
2 b
Generally, given y = a tan(bx), we have:
π nπ
X The general equation for vertical asymptotes is given by x = + , n = 2k + 1, k ∈ Z.
2b 2
π nπ
X The Domain is all real numbers x such that x 6= + , n ∈ Z.
2b 2
X |a| is a stretching or compressing factor.
Example 13. Sketch y = tan(2x − π) + 1

Figure 14
Generally, consider a tangent function of the form y = a tan(bx − c) + d.
π
X Determine the period ρ =
|b|
c
X Identify the phase shift given by
b
c
X Sketch the graph of y = a tan(bx) and move it by units to the right and d−units
b
upwards
c nπ
X Remember to indicate asymptotes given by x = + , n = 2k + 1, k ∈ Z
b 2b

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1.7 The Tangent Function 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Tutorial Sheet
1 (a) Convert the following degree measures into radians

(i) 300◦ (iv) −30◦ (vii) 0◦

(ii) 15◦ (v) 100◦ (viii) 510◦
(iii) 155◦ (vi) 120◦ (ix) −240◦

(b) Convert the following radian measures into degrees

3π π
(i) 0 (iv) (vii) −
4 4
(ii) 3π π 2π
(v) (viii) −
3 15
7π 5π 2π
(iii) (vi) (ix)
4 4 9

2 (a) Compute the angle θ that is coterminal to the given angle where θ ∈ [0◦ , 360◦ ]

(i) −50◦ (ii) −100◦ (iii) −760◦ (iv) 1500◦

(b) Find the angle between 0 and 2π in radians that is coterminal to the following angle
π 11π 30π
(i) − (ii) (iii) 3π (iv)
12 2 7
3
3 (a) Given that sin θ = , and θ is in the second quadrant, find cos θ, csc θ, sec θ, tan θ,
4
and cot θ
3
(b) If α and β are acute angles of a right-angled triangle. Find sin(α + β), if sin α =
5
3 12
(c) Given α an obtuse angle for which sin α = , β an acute angle and sin β = . Find
5 13
the exact value of cos(α + β)
√
1 3
(d) If sin θ = and cos θ = , where θ is in the first quadrant. Find tan θ
2 2
   
7π 7π
4 (a) Without using a calculator, calculate the values of sin and cos −
12 12
π π 
(b) Determine the exact value of cos − .
3 4
5 Find the amplitude and period of each function

(a) f (x) = cos(6x) (c) y = 4 cos x

(b) f (x) = 3 sin(−2x) (d) f (x) = 3 sin(2x)
 π
5 On the same axis, sketch the graph of y = sin x − and y = sin(x − π)
4
15
1.7 The Tangent Function 1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

6 Verify the following identities

cos2 x 1 1 + cos x
(a) sin x + =1 (g) =
1 + sin x 1 − cos x sin2 x
1 + cos 2θ sin 2θ 1 + sin x cos x
(b) = (h) − =0
sin 2θ 1 − cos 2θ cos x 1 − sin x
1 − tan4 x
(c) (sin θ−cos θ)(sin θ+cos θ) = 1−2 cos2 θ (i) = 1 − tan2 x
sec2 x
sin θ − sin 3θ (j) sec x − cos x = sin x tan x
(d) = 2 sin θ
sin2 θ − cos2 θ (k) 2 cos2 x − 1 = cos2 x − sin2 x
sin x cos x − cos3 x
(e) = csc x + cot x (l) = cos x sin x
1 − cos x sin x
sin2 (−x) − cos2 (x)
r
1 + sin x 1 + sin x
(f) = , cos x > 0 (m) = cos x − sin x
1 − sin x cos x sin(−x) − cos(−x)

8 Solve the given equation for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

√
(a) 2 cos θ − 3 = −5 3
(f) cos θ cos(2θ) + sin θ sin(2θ) =
2
(b) 2 sin θ + 1 = 0
(g) 3 cos θ + 3 = 2 sin2 θ
(c) 2 sin2 θ − 5 sin θ + 3 = 0
√
(d) sin2 θ = 2 cos θ + 2 (h) 2 sin θ = 2

(e) 2 cos2 θ + cos θ = 0 (i) 2 cos θ = −1

9 Determine the period, amplitude, and phase shift of the functions. Hence, or otherwise,
sketch their graphs for −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π
 π  π
(a) f (x) = sin x − (e) f (x) = 3 cos x +
2 4
x
(b) f (x) = − sin  π
2 (f) f (x) = 3 tan x −
4
 π
(c) f (x) = −2 + 2 sin 2x −
2 (g) f (x) = 2 cos(πx)
 
x−π
(d) f (x) = −2 cos (i) f (x) = 3 cos(−2x)
2
√
10 (a) (i) Express sin θ − 3 cos θ in the form R sin(θ + α)
√
(ii) Solve sin θ − 3 cos θ = −1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
√
(b) (i) Express 3 sin θ + cos θ in the form R sin(θ + α)
√
(ii) Solve 3 sin θ + cos θ = 1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
√
(c) (i) Express 3 cos θ + sin θ in the form R cos(θ − α) and hence solve the equation
√
(ii) 3 cos θ + sin θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360◦

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