SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: THE CELL

Sub – Topic 1: CELL AS A LIVING UNIT

The cell is defined as the simplest, the smallest and basic unit of life. It is the structural and
functional unit of a living organism. The cell can carry out all life activities such as feeding,
respiration, movement etc.

Classification of Living Things Based on The Number of Cells

All living things are classified into two major groups depending on the number of cells they
possess. These groups are:

Unicellular or Acellular organism: Organisms which consist of only one cell e.g. Amoeba,
Paramecium, Chlamydomonas and Euglena.

Multicellular Organisms: Organisms which consist of two or more cells, e.g. Hydra, Flowering
plants, Fish, Bird, Man etc.

Sub – Topic 2: FORMS IN WHICH LIVING CELLS EXIST

Living cells exist basically in four forms;

As single and free living organisms: These are organisms which possess only one cell and are
able to live freely on their own. The single cell carries out all life processes such as feeding.
Euglena, etc.

As a colony: A colony consists of many similar cells which are joined together. E.g. Volvox,
Pandorina, etc. Diagram of volvox

As a filament: This consists of many similar or identical cells joined end to end to form
unbranched filaments. e.g. spirogyra, zygnema, oscillatoria and oedogonium.

As a part of a living multicellular organism: In multicellular organism cells which perform the
same function are grouped together to form a tissue, e.g. tissues of the ileum wall, the retina,
and the blood (a tissues which perform a specific function form an organ and a group of
organism working together to perform a specific task form a system.

SUB-TOPIC 3: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

From the general point of view, cell is considered as an idea.

They are two types of cells: Plant and Animal cells. See diagram below

Plant Cell
Animal Cell

SUB-TOPIC 4:THE CELL THEORY

The man who first discovered and described cell in living things is called Robert Hooke in 1665,
he also invented the microscope, but the cell theory was proposed by another man called
Mathias Schleiden, a German Botanist 1838, and Theodor Schwann, a German Zoologist, these
two men postulated the theory known as cell theory in 1839. In 1855, another German
Biologist, Rudolf Virchow stated that all cells comes originated from cells.

The cell theory states that:

All living things are composed of one or more cells

Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things;

Cell originates from a pre-existing cell; and

Cell contains hereditary materials.

Another name for cell components are cell organelles e.g of an organelle is the nucleus of a cell
as shown below.

Mitochondria
SUB-TOPIC 5: DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTION OF CELL COMPONENTS
1. Cell wall

Description: Non-living, made of cellulose, permeable to water and substance

Functions: Provides rigidity to the cell and gives it a definite shape.

2.Cell membrane

Description: Living and differentially permeable to water and substance.

Function: Allows selective movement of materials in and out of the cell.

3.Cytoplasm:

Description: Semi-fluid mass enclosed within the cell membrane and contain many
organelles.

Functions: The largest and liquid part of the cell in which metabolic reactions occur.

4. Nucleus

Description: Enclosed by a nuclear membrane, and contains chromatin and nucleolus.

Functions: It stores and carries hereditary information from generation to generation. It also
translates genetic information into the kind of protein characteristic of the cell. It controls the
cell’s life processes

Vacuoles

Description: This is the fluid filled spaces in the cytoplasm.

Functions: Help in maintaining turgidity in the plant cell.

Mitochondria

Description: It is a double membrane system, found in all cells. It contains the enzymes for
cellular respiration.

Functions: it carries out metabolism for all life processes. Kreb’s cycle and electron transfer
system take place in the mitochondria.

Sub-TOPIC: Cell and its Environment and some properties and functions of cells
The topic ‘Cell and its Environment’ refers to the activities of the cell in a given environment
or the functions of the cell given a particular condition. Some conditions can be harmful to the
cell while others are helpful for proper functioning of the cell. This is why we discuss the cell
and its environment.

diffusion
Diffusion can take place in liquid and gases, but diffusion is faster in gases than inliquid, because
air and gases as a medium has more spaces to be filled.

Diffusion can be defined as the process by which molecules of substances, such as liquid and
gases move randomly from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration until they are evenly distributed.

It is also a process by which fine particles (molecules) flow in and out of cells of living things,
and it can occur in non-living things or membrane.

RATE OF DIFFUSION

The rate of diffusion is the time taken by molecules of a diffusing substance to be uniformly
distributed in any given area of the diffusing medium.

Some factors may affect (inhibit or facilitate) the rate of diffusion:

State of matter of diffusing molecules

Size of diffusing molecules

Differences in concentration of diffusing molecules and the medium (conc. gradient).

Temperature of diffusing medium.

IMPOTANCE OF DIFFUSION

In a Biological system, diffusion is essential in the following:

Gaseous exchange in lungs during external respiration.

The movement of carbon iv oxide and Oxygen during photosynthesis and respiration in
plants.

Movement of digestive food from the intestine into the blood circulatory system.

Movement of nutrients, and other metabolic products from the mother through the
placenta to the foetus.
 The upward movement of mineral salts and nutrients from the soil through the roots to
other parts of the plant.

Diffusion

OSMOSIS

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a dilute solution into a more concentrated
solution through a semi-permeable membrane. Living organisms has the cell as the semi-
permeable membrane. Since the water molecules are small, the cell is somewhat limited in the
amount of direct control it can impose on their passage across the membrane. In osmosis, the
stronger solution is called hypertonic solution, while the weaker solution is called hypotonic
solution. In osmosis, water molecule move from hypotonic to hypertonic solution, but when the
concentrations are equal, the solution is said to be isotonic.

APPLICATION OF OSMOSIS IN ANIMALS

They include:

Reabsorption of water in kidney tubules,

Entry of water into the cytoplasm of unicellular animals, e.g. Amoeba and Paramecium,

Movement of water in and out of living animal cells,

Absorption of water in the large intestine.

 APPLICATION OF OSMOSIS IN PLANTS

They include:

Absorption of water from the soil by the root hairs,

The movement of water in and out of living plant cell,

The movement of water from the root hairs to the cells of the cortex, and

Opening and closing of the stomata by the guard cells in the leaf.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE This is the minimum pressure that needs to be applied to a solution to
prevent the inward flow of water across a semi-permeable membrane.

IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS

Osmosis regulates the concentrations of salt and water of the blood and other body fluid in
animals.
It maintains the cell shape through turgidity and plasmolysis if need be.
It enables the absorption of water molecules from the soil solution to the plants through the
root hair.
Movement of water molecules within the plant from the root to the leaves.

SUB TOPIC 3: NUTRITION

Nutrition can be defined as the totality of the processes by which a living thing obtains, and
uses food. We have two types of nutrition; plant and animal nutrition.

PLANT NUTRITION

In plant nutrition, we have photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. The later is a process through
which non-green plants use either parasitic or saprophytic modes of nutrition to obtain their
food. It can occur in colourless autotrophic bacteria.

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make use of raw materials such as
carbon (iv) oxide and water to produce sugar and Oxygen in presence of sun light or solar
energy and chlorophyll.

EQUATION FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

SUB TOPIC 4: MICRO-NUTRIENTS

Elememts Uses/Importance to Plants Effects of Deficiency

Boron (B) Transport of Calcium and sugar Shoot goes brown

Cobalt (Co) For action of some enzymes Poor growth

Copper (Cu) For respiratory enzymes Poor growth

Manganese(Mn) Activation of some enzymes Shoots die back

Silicon (Si) Cell wall formation, particularly in grasses May affect growth

Zinc (Zn) Activation of some enzymes Poor leaf formation

Chlorine (Cl) For Oxygen release during photosynthesis Plant wilts and chlorophyll
and for growth and development necrosis and reduce growth.

MACRO-NUTRIENTS

Nitrogen (N) Formation of amino acids, protein and Poor growth,

nucleic acids. Hormone synthesis. underdeveloped

Potassium (K) Formation of amino acids, protein and cell Death of plant, yellow leaf at
membranes, crop maturation. edges.

Calcium (Ca) Development of the cell wall at the growing Poor growth, particularly of
points. Activate some enzymes the root.

Magnesium Part of the chlorophyll molecule Leaves go yellow.

(Mg)

Iron (Fe) Needed for the synthesis of chlorophyll Leaves go yellow.

molecule

Phosphorus Formation of energy storage compound Poor growth leaves go dark

(P) green.

Sulphur (S) Needed for protein formation Leaves go yellow, stunted

growth.

EVALUATION
Define the terms micro and macronutrients

List Four (4) each of micro and micro nutrients

Write two (2) importance each of macro and micro nutrients

Outline two (2) each of the effects of deficiency of micro and macro nutrients.

WEEK 6.

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: SOME PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL (continued)

Sub- Topic 1: Animal Nutrition

All living things feed in order to obtain energy for their daily activities and also to carry out their
metabolic processes. Plants can manufacture their own food (i.e. make complex chemical
compounds) from simple raw materials (CO 2 and H2O) through the process of photosynthesis.
Plants need minerals to make some of the complex compounds and these are obtained from
the soil as mineral ions. Animals however cannot manufacture their own food, they depend
directly or indirectly on plants. Nutrients that animals require are present in their diet.
Hamburger and Fries

Food Substances

All food taken in by animals can be divided into six groups of food nutrients namely
Carbohydrates, Protein, Fats, Vitamins, Minerals, and Water. Fibre/roughage is also an
important component of a diet but it is not a nutrient. All these are needed for a balanced diet,
for humans.

Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat & oil, and Water are primary food substances and are necessary for
the maintenance of life. Minerals salts and Vitamins are welfare food substances and are
essential for the well being of an individual.

Types of Food Substances

CARBOHYDRATES
These contain the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O). The ratio of hydrogen to
oxygen is 2:1.

Types of Carbohydrates

1) Monosaccharides / Simple sugars: These are made up of only one unit of simple sugar e.g.
Hexose sugars: These consist of six carbon atoms arranged into a ring e.g. glucose, fructose and
galactose. They make up the most important energy storage molecules in an organism. Their
chemical formula is C6H12O6
Pentose sugars: These consist of five carbon atoms e.g. ribose and de-oxyribose. They are used
in the formation of nucleic acids.

2) Disaccharides / Complex sugars: These are formed by the condensation (i.e. chemical
bonding of two molecules) of two simple sugar molecules. They are represented by the formula
C12H22O11 .

Examples are:

Maltose (glucose + glucose – H2O) found in malted cereals and spouting grains.
Lactose (glucose + galactose – H2O) found in milk.
Sucrose (glucose + fructose – H2O) found in sugar cane stems, ripe sweet fruits, sugar – beet
and carrot.
NB All sugars are sweet and soluble and provide energy in a ready-to-use form.

3) Polysaccharides: These are formed by the condensation of hundreds of simple sugar

molecules. They are represented by the general formula

(C6 H10O5) n where n represents a large number. Examples include starch, cellulose, glycogen
(animal starch). Starch and glycogen are insoluble and do not taste sweet.

NB Condensation is a reaction in which two or more molecules join to form a large

molecules with the removal of a molecule of water (H2O) or some other simple molecule.

Improtance of Carbohydrates

They provide us with energy.

It provides heat during its oxidation which is used in maintaining body temperature.
It is used in building the exoskeleton of arthropods.

PROTEIN
Proteins are complex molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (N) many
also have sulfur (S). They are long – chain molecules made up of smaller molecules called
amino–acid. There are 25 types of amino acids and these occur in different numbers and order
in different types of protein. Thus one protein is different from the other. Each individual amino
acid joins the chain by means of a peptide bond.

During digestion the breakdown of protein occur in the following sequence;

Protein → Proteoses → Peptones → Polypeptides → Amino Acids.

Examples of Proteins include:

Soluble proteins e.g. haemoglobin (in blood), enzymes (in water/cytoplasm), antibodies, and
some hormones (e.g. insulin).
Insoluble proteins e.g. keratin (a fibrous protein found in skin and hair), collagen (found in
bones and cartilage), myosin and actin (found in muscle cell). Sources of protein include (a)
animal sources such as fish, meat, milk, egg and cheese. (b) Plant sources such as beans,
groundnut and soya beans etc.

Cooking Meat

Protein is used for making body building substances which are necessary for building new cells
and replacing old ones.
Essential for the repair of cells and worn- out tissues.
Essential for formation of enzymes
Essential for formation of hormones
Essential for formation of antibodies
Essential for formation of heamoglobin etc.
Essential components of cell membranes
It may be required to provide energy.
FATS AND OILS
These are also called lipids and are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Each fat
molecule is made up of one molecule of glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids. There are different
types of fatty acids and these form different fats with different properties. At room
temperature fats are solid while oils are liquid. Lipids are macromolecules and have to be
broken down into fatty acids and glycerol before they can be absorbed into the body. Sources
of fats include margarine, butter, cheese, fatty meat, melon, groundnuts, palm fruits, castor oil
seeds, lard etc.

IMPORTANCE

Fats and oil are used for energy storage in the body. They provide more energy to the body
than carbohydrate when metabolized.
They are solvents for fat soluble vitamins and also for hormones.
They are important components of cell membranes.
They help in maintaining the body temperature / for thermal insulation in the body. In cold
countries, the fat layers under the skins of mammals act as insulators and prevent loss of heat
from their bodies.
Fats give buoyancy to marine animals e.g. whales have a thick layer of blubber.

MINERAL SALT
These regulate the metabolic activities within the body. They are also important components of
enzymes, pigments and structural parts.

The major source of mineral salts is the diet. Examples of minerals include sodium, potassium,
calcium, chlorine, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, copper, cobalt, fluorine and manganese.

Sodium calcium and phosphorus are needed in large quantities in the body while some others
like iron and iodine are only needed in small quantities.

A lack of minerals in the diet results to ill health and development of symptoms of deficiency
diseases.

SOURCES, FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMTOMS OF SOME MINERALS

Mineral Function Deficiency Sources / Daily need

symptom

Iron Formation of Tiredness, lack of Liver, meat, cocoa,

haemoglobin in red energy (Anaemia) eggs, green
blood cells; myoglobin vegetables (10mg)
in muscle cells and
enzymes involved in
cell respiration.
Mineral Function Deficiency Sources / Daily need
symptom

Calcium Strengthens bones and Weak, brittle bones Milk, fish, green
teeth; needed for and teeth (Rickets) vegetables (1g)
blood clotting, proper
Muscle weakness
functioning of heart
and cramps.
and nervous system,
and normal
contraction of
muscles.

Sodium Important component Dehydration Salt, natural foods

of blood plasma; muscle cramps, especially meat, milk
maintains correct kidney failure. and eggs
osmotic pressure of
(5-8g)
body fluids; needed in
transmission of
impulses in nerves,
sensory cells and
muscles and for
normal cell membrane
permeability.

Phosphorus Involved in transfer of Rickets Fish, shell-

energy, required for fish,eggs,milk and
most chemical cheese.(1.5g)
reactions in the body ;
essential component
of DNA and RNA;
major component of
bones & teeth.

VITAMINS
These are organic compounds required by man and other animals in only small quantities for
normal growth and healthy development. They are biocatalysts (they promote chemical
reactions in the body).
Examples include vitamins A, D, E and K which are water soluble. The main sources are fruits,
eggs, milk, palm oil, vegetables and animal organs. Inadequacy or lack of these vitamins leads to
nutritional deficiency diseases and ill health.

SOURCES, FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMTOMS OF SOME VITAMINS

Vitamin Function Deficiency Sources

Symptom

(1) Vitamin A (i) For normal growth of body (i) Skin becomes Fish – liver, oil, egg
cells and skin flaky. yolk, green and
(Retinol)
yellow vegetables,
(ii) For proper vision of the eye (ii) Night blindness
fruits.
in dim light.
(iii) Xerophthalmia

(2) Vitamin D (i) ricket in children

Fish, milk, egg,
liver, butter,
(Calciferol) (i) For strong bone and teeth (ii) Softening of
synthesized in the
formation and development. bones in adults
skin when exposed
(osteomalacia).
(ii) It increases the absorption of to sunlight.
calcium and phosphorus in the
intestine.

(3) Vitamin E (i) Promotion of fertility in (i) Sterility and Leafy green
animals premature vegetables, seeds,
(tocopherol)
abortion. egg, milk, liver.
(ii) Protects fatty acids and cell
membrane from oxidation.

(4) Vitamin k (i) Aids blood clotting. Slow clotting of Liver fresh green
blood leading to vegetables, made
(phylloquinone)
severe bleeding by intestinal
from cuts bacteria.

(Haemorrhages).

(5) B1 (i) Needed for formation of co- (i) Reduced growth. Yeast, rice bran,
enzymes involved in cellular beans, groundnut,
(thiamine) (ii) Beriberi (a
respiration. liver.
disease of the
(ii) For normal growth. nervous system).
Vitamin Function Deficiency Sources
Symptom

(iii) Proper functioning of heart

and nervous system.

(6) B2 (i) For formation of co-enzymes (i) Slow growth. Eggs, liver, kidney,
involved in cellular respiration yeast, leafy
(Riboflavin) (ii) Sores in skin
vegetables.
(ii) For growth, healthy skin and (dermatitis) and
proper functioning of the eye. around the mouth.

(8) B5 (i) For formation of co-enzymes Disorder of nervous Yeast, eggs, rice
in cellular respiration. system and gut. bran.
(pantothenic acid
or Folic acid) (ii) For formation of red blood Anaemia
cells.
Leafy vegetables,
liver.

(9) Vitamin C (i) For maintenance of (i) Scurvy Fresh citrus fruits,
connective tissues, bones and pawpaw, guava,
(Ascorbic acid) (ii) Wounds heal
dentine green vegetables.
slowly.
(ii) Helps to resist inflection

Apples

WATER
This is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and makes up two-thirds (70%) of the body mass of a
human being.

Water is taken in when we eat or drink. Sources include metabolic water from food, water from
rivers, rain, ponds, springs, etc.

IMPORTANCE

It is required for metabolic activities in the body. It makes up a large part of the protoplasm,
thus it is the medium in which chemicals reaction take place in the body.
It transfers digested food substances, excretory products (urine & sweat) and hormones.
It plays an important role in the regulation of body temperature (sweat cools us down)
It helps to maintain the osmotic content of the body tissues.
It is an important solvent for food substances during digestion.
It constitutes a greater part of the blood.
It is the main component of plants and animals.
Daily intake of water must equal the loss in urine, faeces, sweat and breath to keep healthy.

ROUGHAGES / FIBRE
This is indigestible fibrous materials derived mainly from vegetables, fruits and seed coats
(of carbohydrates and proteinous seed).

Fibre adds bulk to food thus stimulating the movement of the bowel. It passes down the
entire gut from mouth to anus and does not provide any energy.

Sources include bran cereals, cabbage, sweet corn, celery, etc.

IMPORTANCE

Fibre helps the movement of food in the alimentary canal by peristalsis so preventing
constipation.
Fibre absorbs poisonous waste from bacteria in the gut.
Many doctors believe a high fibre diet lowers the concentration of cholesterol in the blood.
Fibre reduces the risk of heart diseases and bowel cancer.

SUB-TOPIC 2: BALANCED DIET

The intake of a variety of food in the right quantity and proportion that provides the body with
all the nutrients and energy needed to sustain the body and ensure good health and growth is
referred to as a balanced diet.

A balanced diet must contain the seven food substances i.e Carbohydrates (60%), Proteins
(15%), Fats (15%), Vitamins (10%), Minerals,Water and Fibre.

THE IMPORTANCE OF A BALANCED DIET

It is required for normal healthy living.

It gives us resistance to diseases.
It provides energy required for normal activities.
It prevents malnutrition / deficiency diseases e.g. a lack of protein in the diet can cause
kwashiorkor and marasmus in children.

Sub- Topic 3: HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

This is the type of nutrition in which the organism feeds on complex organic molecules. There
are different forms of heterotrophic nutrition.

Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition

Holozoic Nutrition: In this type of nutrition an organism feeds on complex organic materials,
usually in solid form. These materials require ingestion, digestion and absorption before
assimilation into the body.

Animals that practice holozoic nutrition include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.

Parasitic Nutrition: In this form of nutrition, one organism (the parasite) lives in or on another
organism (the host) causing harm/death to the host. Parasites may be plants or animals.

Parasitic plants attach themselves to the host by means of suckers and send special absorbing
organs called haustoria into the tissues of the host’s stem where they absorb water, mineral
salts and food substances. Examples are the dodder plant, cassytha and mistletoe (a partial
parasite).
Mistletoe Corn smut

Tsetse fly; an ectoparasite Chigger; an ectoparasite

Plasmodium; an endoparasie Tapeworm; an endoparasite

Saprophytic Nutrition: This is a form of nutrition in which an organism feeds on dead and
decaying organic matter. Examples are Rhizopus, mushroom, mucor, toadstool and bacteria.
These organisms have rhizoids through which they secrete enzymes into the substrate
extracellularly. The digested portion is then absorbed into the body of the saprophyte.

Sub – Topic 3: Feeding Mechanisms In Holozoic Organisms

All animals obtain their food directly from plants or by feeding on other animals. Their
nutritional requirements are obtained from ingested food. Various organisms obtain and ingest
their food in different ways; this is referred to as their feeding mechanism. The feeding
mechanism of an organism depends on the organism’s mode of nutrition and the type of food
on which it feeds.

The ingested food is broken down into simple, soluble and diffusible substances through the
process of digestion. The digested food is then absorbed into the fluids of the organism and
transported to the body cells where it is assimilated (i.e. used). Undigested food is egested from
the body.

Feeding mechanism in holozoic organisms include the following;

Use of pseudopodia to engulf food e.g. in Amoeba

Beating movement of cilia to move food into the oral groove e.g. Paramecium.

Sweeping movement of flagella to move food into the mouth e.g. in Euglena.

Use of tentacles e.g. Hydra.

Filter feeding e.g. Mosquito larvae, whales, oysters, etc.

Fluid feeding e.g. Insects, hummingbirds, etc.

Saprophytic feeding e.g. mushroom, rhizopus, etc.

vii. Parasitic feeding e.g. Dodder plant, Mistletoe, liver fluke, lice, guinea worm,

tapeworm, etc.