Introduction to Psychology

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Bs Psychology | 1st Semester | A.Y 2024- 2025

Thinking ➔ The elements of our mental representation of the problem

➢ Paying attention to information, mentally representing it, correspond to the elements of the problem in the outer world.
reasoning about it, and making decisions about it. ➔ We have a storehouse of background knowledge that we can
➢ It is a conscious and planned attempt to make sense to the apply to the problem.
world. Algorithm
➢ Mental processes such as dreaming and daydreaming do ➢ A systematic procedure for solving a problem that works
not represent thinking because they may be unplanned and invariably when it is correctly applied.
proceed more or less on their own. ➢ It is a specific procedure in solving a problem
Cognition ➢ Example of an algorithm is “formula”. It yields correct
➢ Mental activity involved in understanding, processing, and answers to problems as long as the right formula is properly
communicating information. used.
Concept ➢ Another example is when you are meeting someone for the
➢ Mental category that is used to class together objects, first time, and you want to make a good impression on the
relations, events, abstractions ideas, or qualities that have person that you wil meet, the algorithm that may be used is
common properties. to dress properly, wear perfume, and to be professional—it’s
➢ Mental categories that are used to group together objects all part of the “formula” or the algorithm.
etc. Anagrams
➢ It is crucial in cognition. ➢ Scrambled words.
Hierarchies ➢ The task of anagrams is to try to reorganize jumbles or
➢ It is where we tend to organize concepts. groups of letters into words.
Systematic Random Search
➢ An algorithm for solving problems in which each possible
solution is tested according to a particular set of rules.
➢ In this process, you would list every possible letter
combination from all the jumbled letters, and would search
or check in a dictionary program if that word is, in fact, an
existing word.
Heuristics
➢ Rules of thumb that help us simplify and solve problems.
Prototype ➢ Shortcuts to jump to a conclusion—these shorts are often
➢ A concept of a category of objects or events that serves as a correct conclusions. However, in contrast to algorithms,
good example of the category. heuristics do not guarantee a correct conclusion.
➢ Example: There is a standard prototype of a fish, and you ➢ An example of heuristic for solving anagram problem would
were to ask what is the best that fits to the prototype of a be looking for familiar letter combinations and then check
fish, sea horse or tuna? the remaining letters for words that include these
Exemplar combinations.
➢ A specific example. ➢ In DWARG, you will look for familiar letter combinations: dr
➢ Research suggests that it is more efficient to use examples and gr. It can be visualized to have words such as draw, grad,
(examplars) to understand a concept rather than having its drag etc. However, the cons of this process is that we may
definition. miss out some words on the jumbled letters.
Understanding the Problem Means-end analysis
➢ Successful understanding of a problem generally requires ➢ A heuristic device in which we try to solve a problem by
three features: evaluating the difference between the current situation and
➔ The parts of our mental representation of the problem relate the goal.
to one another in a meaningful way.
 Introduction to Psychology
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
Bs Psychology | 1st Semester | A.Y 2024- 2025

➢ For example, if you know your destination is west of your Representativeness heuristics
current location, you might try driving towards the setting ➢ A decision-making heuristic in which people make
sun. (You could also use Waze.) judgements about samples according to the populations
Analogies they appear to represent.
➢ We use the analogy heuristic whenever we try to solve a new Availability heuristics
problem by referring to a previous problem. ➢ A decision-making heuristic in which our estimates of
➢ For example, when you begin a new term with your instructor, frequency or probability of events are based on how easy it
you probably consider who the instructor that reminds you is to find examples.
of. Then, perhaps, you recall the things that helped you get ➢ For example, you were to ask about the number of arts and
along with the analogous instructor and try them on the new sociology majors in your university. Unless you are familiar
one. with the enrollment statistics, you will probably answer on
➢ We tend to look for things—analogies—that help us in similar the basis of the number of art and sociology majors that you
situations. know.
Factors that can make it easier or harder to solve problems reside Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
within you: ➢ A decision-making heuristics in which a presumption or first
➔ Your level of expertise estimate serves as a cognitive anchor; as we receive
➔ Wheter you fall prey to a mental set additional information, we make adjustments but tend to
➔ Wheter you develop insight into the problem remain in the proximity of the anchor.
Expertise Framing Effect
➢ Novick and Cote (1992) found that the solutions to anagram ➢ The influence of wording, or the context in which information
problems seemed to pop out in under two seconds among is presented, on decision making.
experts. ➢ For example, you were to ask who’s president you would vote
➢ Experts seemes use parallel processing; that is, they dealt for in the upcoming elections. There are two
simultaneously with two or more elements of the problem. candidates—Leni Robredo and Bonbong Marcos. The
On the other hand, novices were more likely to engage in context behind Leni Robredo is that she is a good leader and
serial processing—that is, to handle one element of the always looks forward to helping all people, while in Bong
problem at a time. bong Marcos has a record of corruption. With that context, it
Mental Set would affect your decision making on who whould you vote.
➢ The tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach Overconfident
that was successfully used with similar problems. ➢ Being confident that your assumption in a certain situation is
➢ It usually makes our work easier, but they can mislead us correct.
when the similarity between problems is illusory. Motivated Reasoning
Insight ➢ Making decisions and judgements on the basis of emotion
➢ In Gestalt psychology, a sudden perception of relationships rather than careful evaluation of all the available evidence.
among elements of the mentally represented elements of a ➢ Once we have formed opinions about things, motivated
problem that permits its solution. reasoning draws all things else to support and agree with it.
➢ Experiment of psychologist N. R. F. Maier’s rat
Incubation Language
➢ In problem solving, a process that may sometimes occur ➢ The communication of information by means of symbols
when we stand back from a frustrating problem for a while arranged according to rules of grammar.
and the solution suddenly appears. ➢ It makes it possible for one person to communicate
Functional fixedness knowledge to another and for one generation to
➢ The tendency to view an object in terms of its name or communicate to another.
familiar usage. ➢ It creates a vehicle for recording experiences.
 Introduction to Psychology
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
Bs Psychology | 1st Semester | A.Y 2024- 2025

➢ It allows us to put ourselves in the shoes of other people, to Psycholinguistic theory

learn more than we could learn from direct experience. ➢ The view that language learning involves an interaction
Semanticity between environmental factors and an inborn tendency to
➢ The quality of language in which words are used as symbols acquire language
for objects, events, or ideas. Language acquisition device
Infinite creativity ➢ In psycholinguistic theory, neural “prewiring” that facilitates
➢ The capacity to combine words into original sentences. the child’s learning of grammar.
Displacement
➢ The quality of language that permits one to communicate
information about objects and events in another time and Intelligence
place. ➢ A general mental capability that involves the ability to
reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend
➢ According to Inhelder and Piaget, language reflects complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience.
knowledge of the world but that much knowledge can be G (General Intelligence)
acquired without language. For example, it is possible to ➢ Spearman’s symbol for general intelligence, which he
understand the concepts of roundness or redness even believed underlay more specific abilities
when we do not know or use the words round or red. S (Specific Intelligence)
Linguistics-relativity hypothesis ➢ Spearman’s symbol for specific factors, or s factors, which
➢ The view that language structures the way we view the he believed accounted for individual abilities.
world. Primary Mental Abilities
➢ The categories and relationships we use to understand the ➢ According to Thurstone, the basic abilities that make up
worldare derived from our language. intelligence examples include word fluency and numerical
Crying ability
➢ Highly effective form of verbal expression of newborn
children. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
➢ It does not represent language; it isa prelinguistic event. Analytical Intelligence
Prelinguistic Vocalization ➢ Abilities to solve problems, compare and contrast, judge,
➢ It is the beginning of the sequence of steps of the evaluate, and criticize
development of language. Creative Intelligence
Holophrase ➢ Abilities to invent, discover, suppose or theorize
➢ A single word used to express complex meanings. Practical Intrelligence
➢ It is the first linguistic utterance of children. ➢ Abilities to adapt to the demands of one’s environment and
Telegraphic Speech apply knowledge in practical situations
➢ It is when children speak two-word sentences.
Overregularization Creativity
➢ The application of regular grammatical rules for forming ➢ The ability to generate novel and useful solutions to
inflections (e.g., past tense and plurals) to irregular verbs problems
and nouns. Convergent Thinking
➢ It reflects knowledge of grammar, not faulty language ➢ A thought process that narrows in on the single best solution
development. to a problem
Learning Theory and Language Development Divergent Thinking
➢ Learning theorists refer to the concept of imitation and ➢ A thought process that attempts to generate multiple
reinforcement. According to a social cognitive perspective, solutions to problems
parents serve as models. In line with that, children learn Mental Age
language through observation and imitation of their parents.
 Introduction to Psychology
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
Bs Psychology | 1st Semester | A.Y 2024- 2025

➢ The accumulated months of credit that a person earns othe

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Intelligence Quotient
➢ (a) Originally, a ratio obtained by dividing a child’s score (or
mental age) on an intelligence test by chronological age. (b)
Generally, a score on an intelligence test
Formula on Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
➢ IQ = Mental Age / Chronological Age x 100

Heritability
➢ The degree to which the variations in a trait from one person
to another can be attributed to, or explained by, genetic
factors.