Geography EM

TGPSC - Group-1 (Material)
GEOGRAPHY
PHYSIOGRAPHY
● ‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome of structure, process and the stage of development.
● The land of India is characterized by great diversity in its physical features.
● The north has a vast expanse of rugged topography consisting of a series of mountain ranges
with varied peaks, beautiful valleys and deep gorges.
● The south consists of stable table land with highly dissected plateaus, denuded rocks and
developed series of scarps.
● In between these two lies the vast north Indian plain.
Based on these macro variations, India can be divided into the following physiographic divisions:
(1) The Northern and North- eastern Mountains
(2) The Northern Plain
(3) The Peninsular Plateau
(4) The Indian Desert
(5) The Coastal Plains
(6) The Islands
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THE NORTHERN AND NORTH-EASTERN MOUNTAINS
The Northern and Northeastern Mountains of India encompass the Himalayas and the Northeastern
hills, presenting a diverse and complex geographical and cultural landscape. Here’s a detailed
breakdown of these regions:
The Himalayas
The Himalayas are one of the most significant mountain ranges in the world, characterized by a series
of parallel ranges with varying orientations and features. They act as a major geographical barrier
between the Indian subcontinent and Central and East Asia.
1. General Orientation and Structure
● Great Himalayan Range: Also known as the central axial range, it stretches approximately 2,500
km from east to west. The width of this range varies between 160-400 km from north to south.
● Orientation:
○ Northwestern India: The ranges generally run from northwest to southeast.
○ Darjeeling and Sikkim Regions: The ranges are oriented from east to west.
○ Arunachal Pradesh: The ranges are aligned from southwest to northwest.
○ Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram: The mountain ranges are oriented in a north-south
direction.
2. Major Subdivisions of the Himalayas
(i) Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas:
● Location: Extends through the Kashmir Valley and parts of northern Himachal Pradesh.
● Features: Includes famous peaks like Nanga Parbat and is known for its beautiful valleys and
lakes, such as Dal Lake and the Poonch River.
(ii) Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas:
● Location: Covers parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
● Features: Includes notable peaks such as the Nanda Devi and the Great Himalayan National
Park. The region is known for its deep valleys and river systems like the Beas and Yamuna.
(iii) Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas:
● Location: Situated in the eastern part of the Himalayas, including Darjeeling in West Bengal
and Sikkim.
● Features: Home to the Kanchenjunga, the third-highest peak in the world. The region is known
for its tea plantations and rich biodiversity.
(iv) Arunachal Himalayas:
● Location: Lies in Arunachal Pradesh.
● Features: This region includes several high peaks and is known for its unique flora and fauna,
including the Namdapha National Park and the Mishmi Hills.
(v) Eastern Hills and Mountains:
● Location: Extends through the northeastern states such as Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram.
● Features: Includes smaller hills and ranges compared to the central Himalayas, characterized
by dense forests and diverse tribal cultures.
Regional Variations
The Himalayas exhibit significant regional variations based on relief, alignment of ranges, and other
geomorphological features:
● Relief: The topography varies from broad and gentle slopes to steep and rugged terrains.
● Alignment of Ranges: The orientation of the ranges changes as one moves from the
northwestern to the northeastern regions, affecting climate, vegetation, and human activities.
● Geomorphological Features: Different regions have distinct features such as valleys, plateaus,
and high peaks, contributing to the diverse landscape of the Himalayas.
Climatic, Drainage, and Cultural Divides
● Climatic Divide: The Himalayas influence the climate of the Indian subcontinent by acting as
a barrier to the cold winds from Central Asia and affecting the monsoon patterns.
● Drainage Divide: The range acts as a watershed, with major rivers like the Ganges, Yamuna,
and Brahmaputra originating from these mountains and flowing into different directions.
● Cultural Divide: The Himalayas separate various cultural zones within India and influence the
traditional practices, languages, and lifestyles of the people living in these regions.
Northeastern Hills
The Northeastern hills include a series of mountain ranges and hills that are less prominent than the
central Himalayas but are significant for their biodiversity and unique cultural aspects.
● Key Areas: Includes the Khasi, Jaintia, and Naga Hills in Meghalaya; the Mizo Hills in
Mizoram; and parts of the Karbi Anglong region in Assam.
● Features: Known for their rich biodiversity, including numerous endemic species of plants and
animals. The region is also home to various indigenous tribes with distinct cultural practices.
A. Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas
● The Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas are a prominent and diverse region known for their
distinctive geographic features, cultural heritage, and natural beauty. This area encompasses a
series of important mountain ranges, valleys, and lakes, contributing significantly to the region's
ecological and cultural landscape.
1. Major Mountain Ranges
Karakoram Range:
● Location: Forms part of the northern boundary of the Kashmir region.
● Features: Includes some of the highest peaks in the world, such as K2 (Mount Godwin-
Austen). It is also known for its extensive glaciers, including the Baltoro Glacier.
Ladakh Range:
● Location: Lies to the north of the Indus River.
● Features: This range is characterized by its arid, high-altitude desert terrain and is known
for its stark, rugged beauty.
Zaskar Range:
● Location: Situated between the Great Himalayas and the Ladakh Range.
● Features: Known for its remote, rugged terrain and unique geological formations.
Pir Panjal Range:
● Location: Lies to the south of the Great Himalayas, forming a natural barrier between the
Kashmir Valley and the plains of India.
● Features: This range is known for its lush green slopes and is home to several important
mountain passes.
B. The Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas
● This region, lying between the Ravi River in the west and the Kali River in the east, showcases
a remarkable array of geographical features and is pivotal in understanding the Himalayan
range's diverse physiography. It is distinguished by its varied topography, significant river
systems, and important hill stations.
1. Major River Systems
● Indus River System:
○ Ravi River: Originates in the Chamba region and flows into Pakistan.
○ Beas River: Flows from the Himalayas through Himachal Pradesh and Punjab.
○ Satluj River: Originates in Tibet, flows through Himachal Pradesh, and merges with
the Indus River in Pakistan.
● Ganga River System:
○ Yamuna River: Originates from the Yamunotri Glacier in Uttarakhand and flows into
the Ganges.
○ Ghaghara River: Also known as the Karnali, it originates in Tibet and flows through
Nepal and India before joining the Ganges.
2. Major Mountain Ranges
● Great Himalayas:
○ Location: The northernmost range in this region, known for its high peaks and rugged
terrain.
○ Features: Includes notable peaks and valleys and is crucial for understanding the
topography of the higher elevations.
● Lesser Himalayas:
○ Dhaoladhar Range (Himachal Pradesh): Known for its scenic beauty and distinct flora
and fauna.
○ Nitibha Range (Uttarakhand): Characterized by its intermediate altitude and lush green
landscapes.
● Shiwalik Range:
○ Location: The southernmost range in this section, known for its foothill terrain and 'dun'
formations.
○ Features: Includes important physiographic features and contributes to the regional
biodiversity.
C. The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
● This region, situated between the Nepal Himalayas to the west and Bhutan Himalayas to the
east, is known for its distinct features and rich biodiversity.
1. Major Features
● Kanchenjunga:
○ Location: The highest peak in this region and the third highest in the world.
○ Features: A prominent peak in the Sikkim Himalayas, contributing to the region's
majestic landscape.
● Rivers:
○ Tista River: Known for its fast flow and vital role in the region’s ecology.
2. Inhabitants and Settlements
● Lepcha Tribes:
○ Location: Inhabit the higher reaches of the region.
○ Culture: Known for their distinct cultural practices and traditional lifestyles.
● Darjeeling: Known for its tea plantations, introduced during the British colonial period
due to favorable climatic conditions.
● Tea Plantations: Developed due to the region’s moderate slope, thick soil cover, and well-
distributed rainfall.
3. Physiographic Features
● Duar Formations: The duar regions are flat, low-lying areas that are significant for
agriculture, particularly tea cultivation.

● Absence of Shiwalik Formations: Unlike other parts of the Himalayas, this region lacks
the Shiwalik formations and is characterized by duar formations instead.
4. Flora and Fauna
● Rich Biodiversity:
○ Orchids: The region is renowned for its diverse orchid species and rich flora.
○ Scenic Beauty: The picturesque landscapes and varied flora contribute to the region’s
attractiveness.
D. The Arunachal Himalayas
● Extending from the Bhutan Himalayas in the west to the Diphu Pass in the east, this region is
noted for its rugged terrain and vibrant tribal cultures.
1. Major Peaks and Rivers
● Kangtu and Namcha Barwa:
○ Location: Important peaks in the Arunachal Himalayas.
○ Features: Significant for their elevation and influence on regional climate.
● Rivers:
○ Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang, Lohit: Major rivers flowing through the region,
known for their high flow rates and potential for hydroelectric power.
○ Brahmaputra River: Flows through a deep gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa,
contributing to the region’s dramatic topography.
2. Ethnic Communities
● Tribal Communities:
○ Monpa, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi, Nagas: Prominent tribes from west to east, each with
distinct cultural practices and traditional lifestyles.
○ Jhumming Cultivation: A common agricultural practice among these communities,
involving shifting or slash-and-burn techniques.
3. Biodiversity and Geography
● Rich Biodiversity:
○ Preservation: Indigenous communities play a crucial role in preserving the region’s rich
biodiversity.
○ Flora and Fauna: The region is known for its diverse wildlife and plant species.
● Transportation: Rugged terrain results in limited inter-valley transportation links. Most
interactions occur through the duar regions along the Arunachal-Assam border.
E. The Eastern Hills and Mountains
● The Eastern Hills and Mountains are an integral part of the Himalayan mountain system,
characterized by their north-south alignment and diverse physiographic features. This region is
distinguished by its varied local names, distinctive landscapes, and rich tribal cultures.
1. Major Ranges and Local Names
● Patkai Bum:
○ Location: Situated in the northeastern part of India, along the border with Myanmar.
○ Features: Characterized by its rugged terrain and elevation, it forms part of the northern
boundary of the Eastern Hills.
● Naga Hills:

○ Location: Extending across the states of Nagaland and parts of Manipur.
○ Features: Known for its hilly terrain and cultural diversity, with several Naga tribes
inhabiting this region.
● Manipur Hills:
○ Location: Located in the state of Manipur, south of the Naga Hills.
○ Features: Includes several smaller ranges and is marked by the presence of significant
rivers and lakes.
● Mizo or Lushai Hills:
○ Location: Found in the southern part of the Eastern Hills, primarily in Mizoram.
○ Features: Known for their rolling terrain and the soft, unconsolidated deposits that
characterize the landscape.
2. The Northern Plains

The Northern Plains of India are a vast and fertile
region formed by the alluvial deposits of the Indus,
Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers. Stretching
approximately 3,200 km from east to west and
varying in width between 150-300 km, these plains
are a crucial agricultural and ecological zone. Here’s
an overview of their key features:
1. Formation and Characteristics
● Alluvial Deposits:
○ Source: Deposited by the Indus, Ganga,
and Brahmaputra rivers.
○ Depth: The maximum depth of these
deposits ranges from 1,000 to 2,000
meters.
● General Elevation:
○ Elevation: Generally 50-150 meters
above mean sea level.
○ Features: Characterized by a relatively
flat terrain with some variations due to fluvial processes.
2. Major Zones of the Northern Plains
● Bhabar:
○ Location: A narrow belt, approximately 8-10 km wide, located parallel to the Shivalik
foothills.
○ Features: The region where rivers and streams deposit heavy materials such as rocks and
boulders, resulting in a porous and gravelly area. Streams often disappear or become less
visible due to rapid infiltration.
● Tarai:
○ Location: Lies south of the Bhabar zone, with a width of about 10-20 km.
○ Features: Known for its marshy and swampy conditions created by streams and rivers re-
emerging without well-defined channels. It supports lush vegetation and a diverse range of
wildlife, making it an ecologically rich area.
● Alluvial Plains:
○ Sub-divisions:
■ Khadar: Represents the newer alluvial deposits found in the floodplains. These are
areas of active sedimentation and often have fertile soil.
■ Bhangar: Comprises older alluvial deposits, characterized by more mature and
stable landforms. The soil is typically less fertile compared to Khadar due to its age
and sedimentary history.
● Fluvial Landforms:
○ Sand Bars: Formed by the deposition of sediment in river channels.
○ Meanders: Curved river paths formed due to sediment deposition and erosion processes.
○ Ox-Bow Lakes: Crescent-shaped lakes formed when a meander becomes isolated from the
main river channel.
○ Braided Channels: Formed by multiple channels splitting and rejoining due to high
sediment loads and variable flow conditions.
● Brahmaputra Plains: Noted for its riverine islands and sandbars. The region frequently
experiences flooding and shifting river courses, contributing to the formation of braided streams.
3. The Peninsular Plateau

The Peninsular Plateau is a large, irregular
triangular region in India that rises from an
elevation of about 150 meters above the river
plains to between 600 and 900 meters. This
plateau is one of the oldest and most stable
landmasses in India, marked by a variety of unique
physiographic features and diverse geological
formations. It is surrounded by significant
mountain ranges and extends into various smaller
plateaus and highlands.
1. General Characteristics
● Elevation: Ranges from 150 meters to
900 meters.
● Boundaries:
○ Northwest: Delhi Ridge, an extension
of the Aravallis.
○ East: Rajmahal Hills.
○ West: Gir Range.
○ South: Cardamom Hills.
○ Northeast: Shillong and Karbi-Anglong Plateaus.
● Features:
○ Physiographic Features: Includes tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky
structures, hummocky hills, and quartzite dykes.
○ Soil: Predominantly black soil in the western and northwestern parts.

○ Geological Activity: Experienced recurrent upliftment and submergence, crustal faulting,
and fractures (e.g., Bhima Fault).
2. Major Regions of the Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular Plateau can be broadly divided into three major regions:
(i) The Deccan Plateau
● Boundaries:
○ West: Western Ghats.
○ East: Eastern Ghats.
○ North: Satpura, Maikal, and Mahadeo Hills.
● Western Ghats:
○ Names: Sahyadri (Maharashtra), Nilgiri Hills (Karnataka and Tamil Nadu), Anaimalai
Hills and Cardamom Hills (Kerala).
○ Elevation: Average about 1,500 meters; highest peak is Anaimudi (2,695 meters),
followed by Dodabetta (2,637 meters).
○ Significance: Origin of most Peninsular rivers.
● Eastern Ghats:
○ Characteristics: Discontinuous and low hills, highly eroded by rivers such as Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.
○ Ranges: Includes Javadi Hills, Palconda Range, Nallamala Hills, and Mahendragiri
Hills.
● Intersections: The Western and Eastern Ghats converge at the Nilgiri Hills.
(ii) The Central Highlands

● Boundaries:
○ West: Aravalli Range.
○ South: Satpura Range (elevation between 600-900 meters).
○ East: Extends to Jaisalmer, covered by longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped
sand dunes.
● Features:
○ Relict Mountains: Highly denuded and discontinuous ranges.
○ Geological History: Presence of metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate, and gneiss.
○ Elevation: Ranges between 700-1,000 meters; slopes towards the north and northeast.
● Rivers:
○ Yamuna: Originates in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
○ Chambal: Banas is a significant tributary originating from the Aravallis.
● Rajmahal Hills:
○ Location: Eastern extension of the Central Highlands.
○ Resource: Rich in mineral resources.
(iii) The Northeastern Plateau

● Characteristics:
○ Extension: Detached from the main Peninsular Block due to a fault created by the
northeastward movement of the Indian plate during the Himalayan origin.
○ Depression: Filled by deposition activity of numerous rivers.
● Regions:
○ Meghalaya Plateau:
■ Subdivisions:
● Garo Hills
● Khasi Hills
● Jaintia Hills
■ Resources: Rich in coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone, and uranium.
■ Climate: Receives maximum rainfall from the southwest monsoon, resulting in
highly eroded surfaces.
■ Features: Cherrapunji exhibits a bare rocky surface with minimal vegetation.
● Karbi-Anglong Plateau:
○ Location: Assam.
○ Characteristics: Similar to the Meghalaya Plateau in terms of geological and climatic
conditions.
4. The Indian Desert

The Indian Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert or Marusthali, is a vast arid region located to
the northwest of the Aravalli Hills. It is characterized by its distinctive landforms, extreme climate, and
sparse vegetation. Here's a detailed overview:
1. General Characteristics
● Location: Northwest of the Aravalli Hills.
● Climate: Arid, with very low annual rainfall of less than 150 mm.
● Vegetation: Sparse, due to the extremely low precipitation and high evaporation rates.
● Historical Evidence: This region was once covered by the sea during the Mesozoic era, as
evidenced by fossilized wood and marine deposits.
● Topography:
○ Undulating Terrain: The desert features an undulating topography with longitudinal
dunes and barchans (crescent-shaped sand dunes).
○ Surface Features: Includes mushroom rocks, shifting dunes, and oasis areas,
particularly in the southern parts of the desert.
● Desert Divisions:
○ Northern Part: Slopes towards Sindh in Pakistan.
○ Southern Part: Slopes towards the Rann of Kachchh.

5. The Coastal Plains of India
The coastal plains of India are divided into two
main regions based on their geomorphological
characteristics and geographical location:
1. The Western Coastal Plains
General Characteristics:
● Nature: Submerged Coastal Plain
● Width: Generally narrow, with some
variation along its length.
● Geological History: The submergence of
land along the western coast has created a
narrow strip ideal for port development.
Geographical Extent:
● Northern Boundary: Gujarat Coast
● Southern Boundary: Kerala Coast
Divisions of the Western Coastal Plains:
● Kachchh and Kathiawar Coast (Gujarat):
Characterized by arid conditions and salt
flats.
● Konkan Coast (Maharashtra): Known for its scenic beauty and significant ports.
● Goan Coast (Goa): Famous for its beaches and tourism.
● Malabar Coast (Karnataka and Kerala): Known for its backwaters and verdant landscape.
Key Features:
● Ports and Harbors: The narrowness and submergence of the western coastal plain make it
suitable for natural harbors and ports. Important ports include:
○ Kandla: Major port in Gujarat.
○ Mumbai (Mazagaon and JLN Port): Major financial and shipping hub.
○ Marmagao: Significant port in Goa.
○ Mangalore: Important port in Karnataka.
○ Cochin: Major port in Kerala.
● Unique Features:
○ Kayals: Backwaters of the Malabar Coast, such as Punnamada Kayal in Kerala, are
renowned for their beauty and are used for activities like inland navigation and fishing.
○ Nehru Trophy Vallamkali: Annual boat race held in the Punnamada Kayal.
Hydrology: Rivers flowing into the western coast do not form deltas due to the narrow and steep nature
of the coastal plains.
2. The Eastern Coastal Plains

General Characteristics:
● Nature: Emergent Coastal Plain
● Width: Broader compared to the western coastal plains.
● Geological History: The eastern coast is characterized by the emergence of land from the sea.
Geographical Extent:
● Northern Boundary: West Bengal
● Southern Boundary: Tamil Nadu
Key Features:
● Deltas: The broadness of the eastern coastal plains allows for the formation of large deltas due
to the rivers flowing eastward into the Bay of Bengal. Major deltas include:
○ Mahanadi Delta
○ Godavari Delta
○ Krishna Delta
○ Kaveri Delta
● Ports and Harbors: The broadness of the continental shelf and the emergent nature of the coast
result in fewer natural harbors and ports compared to the western coast. Important ports include:
● Kolkata: Major port in West Bengal.
● Chennai: Significant port in Tamil Nadu.
Hydrology: Rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal create well-developed deltas. The continental shelf
extends up to 500 km into the sea, which affects the development of ports and harbors.
6. The Islands of India

India is home to two major groups of
islands located in different seas: the Bay
of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Each
group has distinct geographical features
and ecological significance.
Islands of the Bay of Bengal
Geographical Location:
● Latitude: 6°N to 14°N
● Longitude: 92°E to 94°E
Principal Groups:
● Andaman Islands: Located in

the northern part of the Bay of
Bengal.
● Nicobar Islands: Situated in the
southern part of the Bay of
Bengal.
● Separation: The Andaman and
Nicobar Islands are separated by
the Ten Degree Channel.
Key Features:
● Submarine Mountains: These islands are believed to be an elevated portion of submarine
mountains, although some smaller islands have volcanic origins.
● Volcanic Activity: Barren Island, located in the Nicobar Islands, is the only active volcano in
India.
● Coral Deposits: Many of these islands have coral deposits and beautiful beaches.
● Climate and Vegetation: The islands receive convectional rainfall and have an equatorial type
of vegetation.
Notable Islands:
● Andaman Islands:
○ North Sentinel Island: Known for its indigenous and isolated Sentinelese tribe.
○ Havelock Island: Famous for its pristine beaches and coral reefs.
● Nicobar Islands:
○ Car Nicobar: Known for its cultural heritage and traditional crafts.
○ Great Nicobar Island: Home to a rich biodiversity and the Great Nicobar Biosphere
Reserve.
Important Archipelagos:
● Ritchie's Archipelago: Located in the northern part of the Andaman Islands.
● Labyrinth Islands: Comprising various smaller islands and islets.
Islands of the Arabian Sea
Geographical Location:
● Latitude: 8°N to 12°N
● Longitude: 71°E to 74°E
● Distance from Kerala Coast:
Approximately 280 km to 480 km
Principal Groups:
● Lakshadweep: The main group of
islands in the Arabian Sea.
● Minicoy: The largest island in this
group.
Key Features:
● Coral Deposits: The islands are built
predominantly from coral deposits.
● Storm Beaches: Some islands have
storm beaches consisting of
unconsolidated pebbles, shingles,
cobbles, and boulders on the eastern
seaboard.
Notable Islands:
● Lakshadweep:
○ Kavaratti: The administrative capital and known for its lagoons and coral reefs.
○ Agatti: Known for its beautiful beaches and lagoons.
○ Bangaram: Famous for its scenic beauty and turquoise waters.
● Minicoy: 453 sq. km, making it the largest island in the Lakshadweep group.
Geographical Divisions:
● North of the Ten Degree Channel: Includes Amini Island.
● South of the Ten Degree Channel: Includes Cannanore Island.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as drainage and the network of such channels
is called a “drainage system”.
● The drainage system of an area is the outcome of the geological time period, nature and
structure of rocks, slope, topography, amount of water flowing and the periodicity of flow.
● The area drained by a single river system (river and its tributaries) is called its drainage basin.
● An elevated area (mountain or an upland) that separates two drainage basins is called a “water
divide”. The world’s largest drainage basin is of the Amazon river and in India, the river Ganga
has the largest river basin.
Different Drainage Patterns
1. Dendritic – The drainage system resembling the branches of a tree is known as dendritic. For
example, the rivers of the northern plains.
2. Radial – When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern
is known as radial. For example, rivers originating from the Amarkantak range.
3. Trellis – When the primary tributaries of a river flow parallel to each other and secondary
tributaries join them at right angles, the pattern is known as trellis.
4. Centripetal – When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression,
the pattern is known as centripetal.
Different Drainage Systems of India
● The Indian drainage system can be grouped into two based on the discharge of water
(orientation to the sea).
1. The Arabian Sea drainage
2. The Bay of Bengal drainage
● These two drainage systems are separated from each other through the Delhi ridge, the Aravallis
and the Sahyadris.
● About 77% of the drainage is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal while 23% discharge their
water into the Arabian Sea.
● On the basis of mode of origin, nature and characteristics, the Indian drainage may be classified
into the Himalayan drainage and the Peninsular drainage.
● The Himalayan and the Peninsular rivers originate from the two major physiographic regions
of India and are different from each other in many ways.
A. The Himalayan rivers
● Most of the Himalayan rivers are perennial and have water throughout the year. These rivers
receive water from rain as well as from melted snow from the lofty mountains.
● These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by the erosional activity carried on
simultaneously with the uplift of the Himalayas. Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form
V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in their mountainous course (upper course).
● In the middle and the lower courses (plains), these rivers form meanders, oxbow lakes and
many other depositional features in their floodplains. These rivers have the tendency to
shift their courses frequently e.g, river Kosi (“sorrow of Bihar”), is known for changing its
course frequently. The river carries a huge quantity of sediments from its upper reaches and
deposits it in the plains. The course gets blocked and consequently, the river changes its
course.
B. The Peninsular rivers
● The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one.
● Most of the Peninsular rivers are seasonal, as their flow depends largely on the rainfall of
the region.
● The Peninsular rivers have shorter and shallower courses as compared to the Himalayan
rivers.
● Most of the major Peninsular rivers, except Narmada and Tapi, flow towards the Bay of
Bengal (west to east). The Chambal, the Sindh, the Betwa, the Ken and the Son originating
in the northern part of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga river system. The other important
rivers of the Peninsular drainage are the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Kaveri.
● The Western Ghats act as a water divide between the major Peninsular rivers, discharging
their water in the Bay of Bengal and the small rivulets joining the Arabian Sea.
Himalayan Drainage System

The Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra systems are the three major river systems of the Himalayan
drainage system.
1. The Indus River System
● Area – It covers a total area of 11,65,000 sq.km. In India, it covers an area of 3,21,289 sq.km.
● Length – Its total length is 2,880 km and in India, its length is 1,114 km.
● It is also known as “Sindhu” and is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India.
● Origin and its course – It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu (31°15′ N latitude and
81°41′ E longitude) in the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the Kailash mountain
range. It moves in the north-west direction and enters India in Ladakh (Leh). It forms a
picturesque gorge in this part. Several Himalayan tributaries like the Shyok, the Gilgit, the
Zaskar, the Hunza and the Nubra join it. The Indus flows through Baltistan and Gilgit and
emerges from the mountains at Attock where it receives the Kabul river on its right bank. The
river flows southwards and reaches Panjnad near Mithankot in Pakistan. The Panjnad is the
name given to the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum. The river eventually
reaches the Arabian Sea.
● In Tibet, it is known as “Singi Khamban” or “Lion’s mouth”.
Main Tributaries of Indus River

Satluj ● Origin – “Rakas tal” near Mansarovar in Tibet.
● This is an antecedent river called Langechen Khambab in Tibet.
● Course – it runs almost parallel to the Indus river for about 400 km before
entering India. It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and
enters the Punjab plains. It meets the Beas river in Hari-ke-Patan in Amritsar,
Punjab. After the confluence, the combined river enters Pakistan.
● It feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.
Beas ● Origin – Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass (Himachal Pradesh).

● Course – It flows through the Kullu valley (Himachal Pradesh) and forms gorges
at Kati and Largi in the Dhauladhar range. It enters the Punjab plains where it
meets the Satluj near Harike (Punjab).
● The Beas river flows entirely within India.
Ravi ● Origin – West of Rohtang Pass, Killu Hills (Himachal Pradesh).

● Course – It flows through the Chamba valley (Himachal Pradesh) of the state. It
drains the area lying between the south-eastern part of Pir Panjal and the

Dhauladhar ranges. It enters the plains of Punjab and runs along the Indo-
Pakistan border for some distance. It then enters Pakistan and joins the Chenab
river near Sarai Sidhu.
Chenab ● Origin – Baralacha Pass (Himachal Pradesh).

● It is formed by two streams – the Chandra and the Bhaga which meet at Tandi
near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. It is also known as Chandrabhaga.
● It is the largest tributary of the Indus and flows for about 1180 km before
entering into Pakistan.
Jhelum ● Origin – Spring at Verinag, in the south-eastern part of Kashmir valley, at the
foothills of Pir Panjal.
● Course – It flows through Srinagar and enters Wular Lake before entering
Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. At Jhang (Pakistan) it joins Chenab.
Right and Left bank tributaries of the Indus River

● Right bank tributaries – Nubra river (main tributary of Shyok river), Shyok river, Gilgit river,
Hunza river, Kabul river, Khurram river, Gomal river, Viboa river, Tochi river and Sangar river.
● Left bank tributaries – Zanskar river, Suru river, Kishanganga (Neelam) river, Jhelum river,
Chenab river, Ravi river, Beas river, Satluj river, Panjnad river.
Indus Water Treaty (IWT)
● This treaty was signed between India and Pakistan on 19th September 1960, regarding the
sharing of water of the Indus and its tributaries.
● It was essentially a confidence-building measure between the two countries. The treaty divides
the Indus river system into two segments, eastern rivers – Satluj, Beas and Ravi and western
rivers – Chenab, Jhelum and Indus. According to this treaty, India has been given rights to use
the waters of the eastern rivers while Pakistan is entitled to use western rivers.
● The treaty gives India 20% of the water from the Indus river system and the rest 80% to
Pakistan.
2. The Ganga River System
● The Ganga is the national river and also the largest river system in India. The Ganga river
system consists of both perennial as well as non-perennial rivers which originate in the
Himalayas (north) and the Peninsula (south) respectively.
● It is a transboundary river that flows through India and Bangladesh.
● Length – approx. 2525 km.
● The Ganga river basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq.km in India. It runs through Uttarakhand (110
km), Uttar Pradesh (1450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal (520 km).
● It originates in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh of Uttarakhand (Uttarkashi district), here it
is known as Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda and thereafter, it is known
as the Ganga.
● Alaknanda originates in the Santopanth glacier above Badrinath. The five confluences known
as the Panch Prayag are along the Alaknanda.
● Vishnuprayag, the place of the confluence of the Dhauliganga river and the Alaknanda
river.

● Nandaprayag, the place of the confluence of the Nandakini river and the Alaknanda
river.
● Karnaprayag, the place of the confluence of the Pindar river with the Alaknanda river.
● Rudraprayag, the place of confluence of the Mandakini river/Kali Ganga with the
Alaknanda river.
● Devprayag, the place of confluence of the Bhagirathi river with the Alaknanda river.
● At Haridwar, the Ganga emerges from the mountains onto the plains.
● The Ganga initially flows in the southern direction, then in the south-east direction up
to Mirzapur and then in the east direction in the Bihar plains.
● The Ganga flows eastwards to Farakka in West Bengal. At Farakka, its distributary,
Bhagirathi-Hooghly flows southwards through deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal near
Sagar Island.
● After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganga is known as the Padma which
meets Jamuna river (largest distributary of the Brahmaputra river). Padma river meets
Meghna (second largest distributary of Brahmaputra) and hereafter, it is known as
Meghna river and enters into the Bay of Bengal.
● The delta formed with waters from the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers is known as
the Sundarban Delta. It is the world’s largest and fastest-growing delta. It is also the
home of the Royal Bengal tiger.
● Right bank tributaries of Ganga – the Yamuna (which is joined by the Tons, the Chambal, the
Sindh, the Betwa and the Ken on its right bank which originate from the Peninsular Plateau. On
its left bank it is joined by the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc), the Tamas, the
Son and the Punpun.
● Left bank tributaries of Ganga – the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the Gandak, the
Kosi and the Mahanadi.

Right Bank Tributaries
Yamuna River ● This is the longest and the westernmost tributary of Ganga. Its source lies
in the Yamunotri Glacier on the western slopes of the Bandarpunch range
(Uttarakhand). It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad).
● Tributaries of the Yamuna river – The important tributaries of the Yamuna
are mostly the right bank tributaries, originating from the Aravallis
(Rajasthan), the Vindhyan Range and the Malwa Plateau of Madhya
Pradesh. The Tons, Chambal, Sindh, Betwa and Ken are the main right-
hand tributaries of the Yamuna river. The Chambal is famous for its
badland topography called the Chambal ravines.
Tamas River ● Its source is Tamakund in the Kaimur Range (Madhya Pradesh). It joins
Ganga at Sirsa (Uttar Pradesh).
Son/Sone River ● It is the second-largest southern tributary of the Ganga (first being the
Yamuna river).
● It originates near Amarkantak Hill, (Madhya Pradesh) near the Narmada
river and joins the Ganga near Patna in Bihar.
Punpun River ● It originates from the Chotanagpur Plateau region of Palamu district in
Jharkhand.
● It joins the Ganga at Fatwah (Patna).
Left Bank Tributaries

Ramganga River ● It originates in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain (Uttarakhand). It changes
its course to the south-west direction after crossing the Shiwaliks and
enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad. It joins the Ganga
near Kannauj (Uttar Pradesh).
● It flows through the Jim Corbett National Park.
Gomti River ● The Gomti is a monsoon and groundwater-fed river which originates from
Gomat Taal (Fulhaar Jheel) near Pilibhit district (Uttar Pradesh).
● Kaithi, Ghazipur (Uttar Pradesh) is the place where the river Gomti and
the Ganga meet.
● The Markandey Mahadev temple is at the confluence of the Gomti and
the Ganga.
Ghaghara River ● It is a perennial transboundary river. The Ghaghara originates in the

glaciers of Mapchachungo, near Mansarovar Lake, Tibet. After collecting
the waters from its tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri it comes out of the
mountain, cutting a deep gorge at Shishapani. The river Sharda joins it at
Brahmaghat in India. The Sharda or Saryu river originates in the Milam
glacier in the Nepal Himalayas. The Ghaghara joins the Ganga at Chhapra
(Bihar).
● It is the second-longest tributary by length after the Yamuna.

● The Ghaghara or Karnali in Nepal is the longest river in Nepal.
Gandhak River ● It originates at the Nhubine Himal Glacier in the Mustang region of the
Nepal border.
● It is one of the major rivers of Nepal and is known as Kali Gandaki. In
Nepal, the river is also known as Narayani and Sapt-Gandhaki.
● The Gandhaki river merges with the Ganga at Patna (Bihar).
Kosi River ● The Kosi is an antecedent river.

● It is often referred to as the “Sorrow of Bihar”.
● Arun is its main stream which originates from the northern slopes of Mt.
Everest in Tibet (China). After crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal,
it is joined by Son Kosi from the west and Tamur Kosi from the east. It
forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the River Arun.
● The Kosi river branches into distributaries before joining the river Ganga
near Kursela in Katihar district (Bihar).
Mahananda River ● The river rises in the Darjeeling hills of West Bengal. It flows southwards
through the fertile agricultural area of Bihar and enters into West Bengal.
It then flows in the southeast direction into Bangladesh. The river joins
the Ganga at Godagari Ghat (Bangladesh).
● It is the easternmost tributary of the Ganga river.
3. The Brahmaputra River System

● It is a transboundary river and flows through China, India and Bangladesh.
● The Brahmaputra river has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near
the Mansarovar Lake. It flows eastwards longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km in a
dry and flat region of southern Tibet, where it is known as the “Tsangpo”, which means “the
purifier”. The Rango Tsangpo is the major right-bank tributary of this river in Tibet. It emerges
as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas near
Namcha Barwa, 7,755 m (eastern part of the Himalayas).
● It enters India (with the name of Siang or Dihang) west of the Sadiya town in Arunachal
Pradesh. Flowing southwest, it receives its main left-bank tributaries, Dibang or Sikang and
Lohit and thereafter, it is known as the Brahmaputra.
● Dihang + Lohit + Dibang = Brahmaputra (Assam)
● The Brahmaputra river has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms many
riverine islands.
● Majuli (Assam) is the largest river island in the world which lies in this river.
● The Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southwards. In Bangladesh, the
river Tista/Teesta (from Sikkim) joins it on its right bank and thereafter, the river is known as
Jamuna. Now, the river splits into two distributaries.
● The western branch, which contains the majority of the river’s flow, continues as
Jamuna to merge with the Padma river (Ganga river).
● The eastern branch (now much smaller) is called the lower or old Brahmaputra. It
curves southeast to join the Meghna River near Dhaka. The Padma and Meghna
converge near Chandpur and flow out as Meghna into the Bay of Bengal.
● Major left-bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra river – Burhi-Dihing and Dhansiri.

● Major right bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra river – Subansiri (Gold river), Kameng, Manas
and Sankosh.
● The Brahmaputra river is known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion. This is due to
the fact that most of its tributaries are large and bring large quantities of sediments owing to
heavy rainfall in its catchment area.
Peninsular Drainage System

● The Peninsular rivers are characterized by fixed course, absence of meanders and non-perennial
flow of water.
● The Narmada and Tapi which flow through the rift valley are, however, exceptions.
A. Major West Flowing Peninsular Rivers

Narmada
● The Narmada originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau (Madhya Pradesh) at
a height of about 1,057 m.
● It flows in a rift valley towards the west between the Vindhyan range in the north and the
Satpura range in the south. On its way to the sea, the Narmada river creates many picturesque
locations. ‘The Marble rocks’ near Jabalpur where the Narmada flows through a deep gorge
and the ‘Dhuandhar Falls’, Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) where the river plunges over steep rocks
are some of the notable ones.
● The Narmada river flows through Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
● The river drains into the Arabian sea near the Gulf of Khambhat, south of Bharuch city of
Gujarat and forms a broad 27 km estuary (unlike east-flowing rivers which form deltas). It is

the longest west-flowing river in India and the largest flowing river of the state of Madhya
Pradesh.
● The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river.
● Length of the river is ~1,312 km.
● Kanha National Park is located in the upper reaches of the Narmada river. The park has been
described by Rudyard Kipling in his famous book “The Jungle Book”.
Tapi/Tapti
● Like Narmada, it is also an important westward flowing river. It originates from Multai in the
Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. It also flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but is
much shorter in length. The river drains into the Arabian Sea near the Gulf of Khambhat.
● The river has a length of around 724 km and flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Gujarat. Nearly 79 % of its basin lies in Maharashtra, 15% in Madhya Pradesh
and the remaining 6% in Gujarat.
● The Ukai Dam has been constructed on this river.
Mahi
● The Mahi river originates in the Vindhyan Range (Madhya Pradesh). Turning north-west it
enters Rajasthan (Vagad) and then turns southwest to flow through Gujarat. It drains into the
Arabian Sea near the Gulf of Khambhat.
● Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam and Kandana Dam have been built on this river.
Sabarmati
● It originates in the Aravalli Range of the Udaipur District of Rajasthan. It meets the Gulf of
Khambhat of the Arabian Sea after traveling in a south-west direction across Rajasthan and
Gujarat.
Luni
● The Luni is the largest river in the Thar Desert of north-west India.
● It originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer. At its origin, it is known
as Sagarmati which meets Sarasvati (which originates from Pushkar Lake) and thereafter, it is
called Luni.
● The Luni turns brackish below Balotra and loses itself south-westwards into the Rann of Kutch.
● The Luni is also known as the Lavanavari or Lavanavati, which means “Salt water” in Sanskrit.
West Flowing Small Rivers
The rivers and their origins are mentioned below.
● Shetrunji – near Dalkahwa in Amreli district (Gujarat).
● Bhadra – Aniali village in Rajkot district (Gujarat).
● Dhadhar – near Ghantar village in PanchMahal district (Gujarat).
● Vaitarna – Trimbak Hills in Nasik District (Maharashtra).
● Kalinadi – Belgaum district and falls in Karwar Bay.
● Bedti – Hubli Dharwar (Karnataka).
● Sharavati – Shimoga district of Karnataka.
● Mandovi and Juari are the two important rivers of Goa.
● Bharathapuzha – near Anamalai hills. The river is also known as Ponnani.
● Periyar – Sivagiri Hills of Western Ghats. It is an important river of Kerala.

● Pamba – It flows in Kerala and falls in the Vembanad lake.
B. Major East Flowing Peninsular Rivers

● East flowing rivers flow from west to east due to the gradient of the land and finally drain into
the Bay of Bengal.
● These rivers carry huge amounts of sediments and therefore, form delta on the east coast (west-
flowing rivers form estuaries).
Mahanadi
● The Mahanadi originates near Sihawa in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh. It runs through
Odisha and discharges into the Bay of Bengal.
● Its length is 851 km and the drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
and Odisha.
● Initially, the river flows in a northerly direction and drains the Raipur district. It then flows in
an easterly direction and is joined by the Jonk and Hasdeo rivers before entering Odisha. Near
the city of Sambalpur, it is dammed by the largest earthen dam in the world, the Hirakud Dam.
The Mahanadi enters the Bay of Bengal via several channels near Paradeep at False Point,
Jagatsinghpur (Odisha).
● The Mahanadi was called “the sorrow of Orissa”, however, the construction of the Hirakud
Dam has helped to keep the river well in control.
Godavari

● The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river system and is also called the Dakshin Ganga (Ganga
of the south).
● The river originates in the Western Ghats of Central India near Nashik in Maharashtra. It flows
eastwards and enters Telangana State (in Nizamabad district). The river then flows south-east,
flowing through a gap in the Eastern Ghats ranges and then crosses Andhra Pradesh. The river
after Rajahmundry splits into several branches forming a large delta along the coast of the Bay
of Bengal. This delta along with the delta of the Krishna river is called the Rice Granary of
South India.
● Its length is 1,465 km and the drainage system is shared by the states of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
● Below the city of Rajahmundry in Andhra Pradesh, a dam was constructed on the river in the
mid 19th century by the British engineer Sir Arthur Thomas Cotton, the first major irrigation
project on the Godavari.
● The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita and the Manjra are the principal tributaries of the
Godavari river.
Krishna

● The Krishna is the second-largest east-flowing Peninsular river which originates near
Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. It empties into the Bay of Bengal at Hamsaladeevi, near Koduru
in Andhra Pradesh.
● Its length is 1,401 km and the drainage basin is shared by the States of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
● The Tungabhadra, Dhudhganga, Koyana, Ghatprabha, Musi and Bhima are some of its
important tributaries.
Kaveri/Cauvery
● The river originates in the Brahmagiri range of the Western Ghats, Kogadu district in Karnataka.
● The river flows through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
● The length of the river is about 800 km and the river basin is shared by three states and a Union
Territory – Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Puducherry.
● The river Kaveri makes the second biggest waterfall in India known as Shivasamudram Falls.
The power generated from the falls is supplied to Mysore, Bengaluru and the Kolar Gold Field.
● The drainage basin of the river receives rainfall during the summer monsoon as well as during
the retreating and winter monsoon and therefore, the river carries water throughout the year
with comparatively less fluctuation than the other Peninsular rivers.
● Its important tributaries are the Kabini, Bhavani, Amravati and Hemavati.
East Flowing Small rivers
● The Subarnrekha, Baitarani, Brahmani, Vamsadhara, Penner, Palar and Vaigai are small east-
flowing rivers.

Climate and factors influencing India
Climate of India
● The Climate of India is “monsoon” type which is found mainly in South-Asia and South-East
Asia.
● The word “monsoon” is derived from the Arabic word “mausim” which means seasons.
● Originally, the word “monsoon” was used by Arab navigators several centuries ago, to describe
a system of seasonal reversals of winds along the shores of the Indian Oceans, especially over
the Arabian Sea, in which the winds blow from south-west to north-east during the summer
season and from north-east to south-west during the winter season.
● In other words, monsoons are periodic (seasonal) winds in which there is a complete reversal
of the wind direction after every six months.
Weather and Climate
● Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point in time while Climate
refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period
of time (more than 30 years).
● Weather is the momentary state of the atmosphere and it changes quickly (within a day or week)
but climate changes imperceptively and may be noted after 50 years or even more.
● The elements of weather and climate are the same i.e, atmospheric pressure, temperature,
humidity, wind and precipitation.
● On the basis of the generalized monthly atmospheric conditions, the year is divided into seasons
e.g, winter, summer or rainy.
● Though the climate of India is monsoon type, there are regional variations in climatic conditions
within the country. These regional variations may be described as sub-types of monsoon
climate.
● Regional variations in Temperature – Churu (Rajasthan) may record a temperature
of 50℃ or more on a June day while the mercury hardly touches 19℃ in Tawang
(Arunachal Pradesh) on the same day. The temperature may drop down to -45℃ in
Drass (Ladakh) while Thiruvananthapuram or Chennai may record 20℃ or 22℃ on
the same day.
● Regional variations in Precipitation and its Amount – It snows in the Himalayan
regions while the rest of the country gets rains. Cherrapunji and Mawsynram in the
Khasi Hills (Meghalaya) receive rainfall over 1080 cm in a year while Jaisalmer
(Rajasthan) rarely gets more than 9 cm of rainfall during the same period.
● Despite these differences and variations, the climate of India is monsoonal in rhythm and
character.
Factors determining the Climate of India
● The factors which determine the climate of a place can be broadly classified into two:
1. Factors related to location and relief
2. Factors related to air pressure and winds
Factors related to location and relief
A. Latitude
● The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the Rann of Kachchh in
the west to Mizoram in the east.

● Almost half of the country lying south of the Tropic of Cancer lies in the Tropical zone and the
northern part of India lies in the sub-tropical and temperate zone.
● The tropical zone is nearer to the equator and therefore experiences high temperatures
throughout the year with a small daily and annual range.
● The area north of the tropic of cancer being away from the equator experiences an extreme
climate with a high daily and annual range of temperature.
B. The Himalayan Mountains
● The lofty Himalayan mountains in the north act as an effective climate divide.
● These mountains provide a shield against the cold northern winds which originate near the
Arctic Circle and blow across central and eastern Asia.
● It is because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences comparatively milder
winters as compared to Central Asia.
● These mountains also trap the monsoon winds forcing them to shed their moisture within the
subcontinent.
C. Distribution of land and water
● India is surrounded by water bodies on three sides in the south and is girdled by a high and
continuous mountain wall in the north.
● Water heats up and cools down quickly as compared to land.
● This differential heating creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in and around
the subcontinent.
● This difference in air pressure causes a reversal in the direction of monsoon winds.
D. Distance from the sea
● The sea exerts a moderate influence on climate.
● As the distance from the sea increases, its moderating influence decreases and such regions
have extreme weather conditions.
● This condition is known as continentality i.e, very hot summers and very cold winters.
E. Altitude
● The places in the mountains are cooler than the places on the plains because with the increase
in height temperature decreases.
● Though Agra and Darjeeling are located at the same latitude, the temperature in January in Agra
is 16℃ whereas it is only 4℃ in Darjeeling.
F. Relief
● The physiography or relief of India also affects the temperature, air pressure, direction and
speed of the wind, and the amount and distribution of rainfall.
● The windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall during June and
September whereas the southern plateau remains dry due to its leeward situation along the
Western Ghats.
Factors related to air pressure and wind
● The climate and associated weather conditions in India are governed by the following
atmospheric conditions:
1. Distribution of air pressure and winds on the surface of the earth.
2. Upper air circulation caused by factors controlling global weather and the inflow of
different air masses and jet streams.
3. The inflow of western cyclones generally known as disturbances during the winter season
and tropical depression during the southwest monsoon period into India, creating weather
conditions favorable to rainfall.
Mechanism of weather in the winter season

A. Surface pressure and winds
● In winter, the weather conditions over India are greatly influenced by the distribution
of pressure in Central and Western Asia.
● During winter, a high-pressure center develops in the region lying to the north of the
Himalayas. This high-pressure area gives rise to the flow of air at the low level from
the north towards the Indian subcontinent (south of the Himalayan mountain range).
● These high-pressure surface winds blow over Central Asia and reach India in the form
of a dry continental air mass. These continental winds come in contact with trade winds
over north-western India.
● Occasionally, the contact zone may shift its position as far east as the middle Ganga
valley.
● Thus, the entire region of northwestern and northern India up to the middle Ganga
valley comes under the influence of dry northwestern winds.
B. Jet stream and upper air circulation
● The upper air circulation is dominated by a westerly flow.
● Western and Central Asia remain under the influence of westerly winds along the
altitude 9-13 km (Troposphere) from west to east.
● These winds blow across the Asian continent at latitudes north of the Himalayas
roughly parallel to the Tibetan Highlands.
● These are known as Jet streams and are located approximately over 27°-30° North
latitude, therefore also known as subtropical westerly jet streams.
● In the winter season, the upper air westerly jet streams are bifurcated into two branches
due to physical obstruction of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau.
● One branch blows to the north of the Tibetan highlands while the southern branch blows
in an eastward direction, south of the Himalayas. This southern branch of the jet stream
exercises a great influence on the winter weather in India. (Jet Stream – narrow belts
of high altitude westerly winds in the troposphere. Their speed varies from about 110
km/hr in summer to about 184 km/hr in winter).
C. Western cyclonic disturbance and tropical cyclones
● The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter months
brought in by the westerly flow from the Mediterranean region.
● They usually influence the weather of the north and north-western regions.
● Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean.
● These disturbances are part of the easterly flow and hit the coastal regions of the
country (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha coast).
● Most of these cyclones are very destructive due to high wind velocity and torrential
rains accompanying them.

Mechanism of weather in summer season
1. Surface pressure and winds
○ During the summer season, the sun shifts northwards and the wind circulation over the
subcontinent undergoes a complete reversal at the lower as well as upper levels.
○ The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which is the low-pressure belt near the
surface, shifts to the north (roughly parallel to the Himalayas between 20°N and 25°N)
by the middle of July.
○ The westerly jet streams also withdraw from the Indian region at about the same time.
○ Meteorologists have found an inter-relationship between the northward shift of the
equatorial trough (ITCZ) and the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from over the
North Indian plain.
○ It is believed that there is a cause and effect relationship between the two. The ITCZ
being a zone of low pressure, attracts an inflow of winds from different directions.
○ The maritime Tropical air mass (mT) from the southern hemisphere, after crossing the
equator, reaches the low-pressure area in the general south-westerly direction. It is this
moist air current that is popularly known as the southwest monsoon.
2. Jet streams and upper air circulation
○ An easterly jet stream flows over the southern part of the peninsula in June and has a
maximum speed of 90 km/hr. In August it is confined to 15°N latitude and in September
up to 22°N. These easterly jet streams do not extend to the north of 30°N latitude in the
upper atmosphere.
3. Easterly jet streams and tropical cyclones

○ The Easterly jet streams steer the tropical depressions into India.
○ These depressions play a significant role in the distribution of monsoon rainfall over
the Indian subcontinent.
○ The tracks of these depressions are the areas with the highest rainfall in India.
○ The frequency at which these depressions visit India, their direction and their intensity
determine the rainfall pattern during the southwest monsoon period.

Intertropical Convergence Zone
● The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a broad trough of low pressure in equatorial
latitudes. Here the north-east and south-east trade winds converge and air tends to ascend.
● This convergence zone lies almost parallel to the equator but moves north or south with the
apparent movement of the sun.
● In July, ITCZ is located around 20°N – 25° N latitude, over the Gangetic plain and is also called
the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough enhances the development of thermal low over north
and north-west India.
● Due to this shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the Southern Hemisphere cross the equator between
40°E and 60°E longitude and start blowing from south-west to north-east due to the Coriolis
force and give rise to the south-west monsoon.
● The ITCZ moves to the Southern Hemisphere in winter which causes reversal of winds from
north-east to south and south-west.
● These are called north-east monsoons.
INDIAN MONSOON
● The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20°N and 20°S.
● The following facts help in understanding the mechanism of the monsoons in India
● The differential heating and cooling of land and water (land heats up and cools down faster than
water) creates a pressure difference. The movement is from high pressure to low pressure.
● The ITCZ positions itself over the Ganga plain in summer (normally 5°N of the equator) and is
called the monsoon trough.
● There is a high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S over the Indian Ocean.
The position and intensity of this high-pressure area affect the Indian monsoon.
● During summer, the Tibetan plateau heats up intensely, develops low pressure over it at about
9 km above sea level and results in strong vertical air currents.
● The movement of westerly jet streams and tropical easterly jet streams also influence the
monsoon of India.
Southern Oscillations and El-Nino
● The change in the pressure conditions over the southern oceans also affect the monsoon.
● Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical
eastern Indian Ocean has low pressure over it.
● But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions and the eastern Indian Ocean
has high pressure in comparison to the eastern Pacific ocean.
● This periodic change in pressure conditions is called Southern Oscillations (SO).
● The pressure difference over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean, 18°S/149°W) and Darwin in northern
Australia (Indian Ocean, 12°30´S/131°E) predict the intensity of monsoons.
● If the pressure difference is negative, it indicates below average and late monsoons.
● South Oscillations is the precursor to the occurrence of an El-Nino phenomenon which is the
development of a warm ocean current along the coast of Peru (in the eastern Pacific) as a
temporary replacement of the cold Peruvian current.
● El-Nino is a Spanish word meaning “the child” and refers to the baby Christ as this current
starts flowing during Christmas. This El Nino phenomenon leads to an increase in sea surface
temperature and therefore, weakened trade winds in the region.
● El-Nino is used in India for forecasting long-range monsoon rainfall. In 1990-91, there was a
wild El-Nino event and the onset of southwest monsoon was delayed over most parts of the
country ranging from 5-12 days.
Monsoons [Onset and Withdrawal]

● The differential heating of land and sea during the summer months is responsible for the
monsoon winds to drift towards the subcontinent.
● The sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer during April and May and the large
landmass in the north of the Indian ocean gets intensely heated which results in the
formation of intense low pressure in the north-western part of the subcontinent.
● As the pressure in the Indian ocean in the south of the landmass is high (water gets
heated slowly), the low-pressure region attracts the south-east trade winds across the
equator.
● These factors help in the northward shift in the position of ITCZ. The south-west
monsoon is thus the continuation of the south-east trades deflected towards the Indian
subcontinent after crossing the equator.
● These winds cross the equator between 40°E and 60°E longitude.
● The shift in the position of ITCZ is also related to the phenomenon of the withdrawal
of the westerly jet stream from its position over the north Indian plain, south of the
Himalayas.
● The easterly jet stream sets in along 15°N latitude once the western jet stream has
withdrawn itself from the region.
● This easterly jet stream is considered to be responsible for the burst of monsoon in
India.
● The south-west monsoon sets in over the Kerala coast by 1st June and subsequently it proceeds
into two – the Arabian branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.
● The Arabian branch reaches Mumbai about ten days later (approximately 10th June).
● The Bay of Bengal branch also advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the first week
of June.
● The lofty mountains cause the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west over the
Ganga plains. By mid-June, the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over
Saurashtra-Kachchh and the central part of the country.
● Both branches of the monsoon merge over the north western part of the Ganga plains.
● Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal branch by the
end of June (approx. 29th June).
● By the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and eastern Rajasthan
experience the monsoons. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and
the rest of the country.

Breaks in the monsoon
● During the monsoon when it rains for a few days and then, if the rains fail to occur for
one or more weeks, it is known as a break in the monsoon. These dry spells in different
regions are due to different reasons:
● In northern India, rains are likely to fail if the rain-bearing winds are not very frequent
along the monsoon trough (ITCZ).
● Over the west coast, the dry spell is associated with days when winds blow parallel to
the coast.
Retreating Monsoon
● By early September, monsoon begins to withdraw from the north-western states of India. From
the northern half of India, it withdraws completely by mid-october.
● The withdrawal from the southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid.
● By early December, the monsoon withdraws from the rest of the country.

SEASONS IN INDIA
● The subcontinent of India has great latitudinal dimensions.
● There are different seasons from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. The meteorologists, however,
recognise, the following four seasons
1. The cold weather season, Winter season
2. The hot weather season, Summer season
3. The south-west monsoon season/Rainy season
4. The retreating monsoon season

1. The Cold Weather Season (Winter)
● The cold weather season begins from mid-November in northern India and stays till February.
December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India. During the winter
season, there is a general decrease in temperature from south to north. Days are warm and nights
are cold. Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience
snowfall.
● Due to the moderating influence of the sea and proximity to the equator, the peninsular region
of India does not have any well defined cold weather season. There is hardly any seasonal
change in the distribution pattern of the temperature in coastal areas.
● During the winter season, north-east trade winds prevail over the country. As they blow from
land to sea, therefore for most parts of the country, it is a dry season. However, rainfall occurs
on the Tamil Nadu coast from these winds, as they blow from sea to land.
● By the end of December (22nd December), the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of
Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere. In the northern part of the country, a feeble high-
pressure region develops, with light winds moving outwards from this area. Influenced by the
relief, these winds blow through the Ganga valley from the west and the north-west. The
weather is normally marked by clear skies, low temperatures, low humidity and feeble, variable
winds.
● A characteristic feature of the cold weather season over the northern plains is the inflow of
cyclonic disturbances from the west and the northwest. These disturbances originate from over
the east Mediterranean sea and travel eastwards across West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and
Pakistan before they reach north-western parts of India. They cause much-needed rains over
the plains and snowfall in the mountains. Although the amount of rainfall is small, they are of
immense importance for the cultivation of Rabi crops.
2. The Hot Weather Season(Summer)

● The apparent northward movement of the sun towards the Tropic of Cancer in March results in
the rise of temperature in north India. April, May and June are the summer months in north
India. In March, the highest temperature is about 38°C, recorded on the Deccan plateau. In
April, temperatures in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are around 42°C. In May, a temperature of
45°C is common in the north-western part of the country.
● In Peninsular India, the moderating influence of the oceans keeps the temperatures lower than
that prevailing in north India and remain between 20°C and 32°C. Due to altitude, the
temperature in the hills of Western Ghats remains below 25°C.
● The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves northwards due to increased temperature.
This elongated low-pressure monsoon trough extends over the Thar desert in the north-west to
Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the east and south-east. The ITCZ attracts a surface
circulation of the winds which are southwesterly on the west coast as well as along the coast of
West Bengal and Bangladesh. They are easterly or south-easterly over north Bengal and Bihar.
These currents of south-westerly monsoon are actually displaced equatorial westerlies. The
influx of these winds by mid-June brings about a change in the weather towards the rainy
season.
● A striking feature of the hot weather season is the “loo”. These are strong, gusty, hot, dry winds
blowing during the day over the north and north-west India and sometimes they even continue
until late in the evening. Dust storms in the evening are very common during May in Punjab,
Haryana, eastern Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. These temporary storms bring some respite from
the oppressing heat since they bring along light rains and a pleasant cool breeze. This is also

the season for localised thunderstorms, associated with violent winds, torrential downpours,
often accompanied by hail. In West Bengal, these storms are known as the “Kaal Baisakhi”.
These showers are helpful for tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these storms are called
“Bardoli Chheerha”.
● Towards the end of summer, there are pre-monsoon showers which are common phenomena in
Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka. They are known as “Mango showers” as they help in the
ripening of mangoes.
3. South-West Monsoon Season(Rainy Season)

● The low-pressure conditions over the north-western plains get intensified due to increasing
temperature. By early June, the low pressure attracts the trade winds of the Southern
Hemisphere coming from the Indian ocean. The south-east trade winds cross the equator and
follow a south-westerly direction (that is why they are known as south-west monsoons). These
winds enter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea and while passing over the equatorial warm
currents they pick up moisture in abundance.
● The sudden onset of moisture-laden winds together with violent thunder and lightning is often
termed as the “break” or “burst” of monsoons. In the coastal areas of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa
and Maharashtra the monsoon burst occurs in the first week of June while in the interior regions
of the country it may be delayed to the first week of July.
● The monsoon approaches the landmass in two branches
1. Arabian sea branch
2. Bay of Bengal branch.
1. The Arabian sea branch

● The Arabian sea branch splits into three parts:
● One branch of the Arabian sea strikes the Western Ghats and these winds climb the
slopes of Western Ghats from 900 – 1200m. Soon, these winds become cool and the
windward side of the Sahyadris and western coastal plain experiences very heavy
rainfall (between 250 cm and 400 cm). After crossing the Western Ghats, these winds

descend and heat up which reduces the humidity in the winds. This leads to scanty
rainfall east of the Western Ghats and this region is called the rain shadow area.
● A second branch of the Arabian sea strikes the coast north of Mumbai. Moving along
the Narmada and Tapi river valleys, these winds cause rainfall in central India. The
Chotanagpur plateau gets about 15 cm of rainfall from this branch. Thereafter, they
enter the Ganga plains and merge with the Bay of Bengal branch.
● A third branch strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the Kachchh. It then crosses over
west Rajasthan and along the Aravallis, causing only a little rainfall. In Punjab and
Haryana, it mingles with the Bay of Bengal branch. These two branches together bring
rains in the western Himalayas.
2. The Bay of Bengal branch
● The Bay of Bengal branch hits the coast of Myanmar and parts of southeast Bangladesh.
The Arakan hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect a large part of this branch towards
the Indian subcontinent. The monsoon thus enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from
south and south-east and not from a south-westerly direction.
● This branch of monsoon splits into two – one branch moves in a west direction along
the Ganga plains reaching as far as the Punjab plains. The second branch moves up the
Brahmaputra valley in the north and north-east, causing heavy rains. The maximum
rainfall is received in the north-eastern part of the country. Mawsynram in the southern
ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the highest average rainfall in the world. Rainfall in
the Ganga plains decreases from east to west.
● The Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season because it is situated parallel to
the Bay of Bengal branch of the south-west monsoon. Also, it lies in the rain shadow
area of the Arabian sea branch of the south-west monsoon.
● Breaks in the monsoon
● The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time and are interrupted with rainless
intervals.
● These breaks are related to the movement of the monsoon trough. When the axis of the monsoon
trough lies over the plains, rainfall is good in these parts and when the axis shifts closer to the
Himalayas, there are large dry spells in the plains and heavy rainfall in the mountainous
catchment areas of the Himalayan rivers.
● The frequency and intensity of tropical depressions too, determine the amount and duration of
monsoon rains.
● These depressions are formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal and cross over to the mainland.
● The depression follows the axis of the monsoon trough of low pressure.
● Monsoons play an important role in the agrarian economy of India because over three-fourths
of the total rain in the country is received during the south-west monsoon season.
4. Retreating Monsoon Season

● During the months of October and November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards
the south, the monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains become
weakened.
● This gets gradually replaced by the high-pressure system. The south-west monsoon winds
weaken and start withdrawing gradually.

● The monsoon withdraws from the northern plains by the beginning of October. October and
November months form a period of transition from hot rainy season to dry winter season.
● The withdrawal of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and increasing temperatures. However,
the land is still moist.
● Due to high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive during the day.
This is commonly known as “October heat”.
● In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly in north India. The low-pressure
trough over north-western India gets transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early November.
● This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over the
Andaman sea.
● These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India and bring heavy and widespread
rainfall. These tropical cyclones are highly destructive.
● The densely populated deltas of the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are often hit by cyclones
which cause great damage to life and property.
● These cyclones may also reach the coasts of Bangladesh, West Bengal and Odisha. The bulk of
the rainfall of the Coromandel coast is derived from depressions and cyclones. Such cyclonic
storms are less frequent in the Arabian sea.
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

● India is often referred to as a country with a Tropical monsoon type of climate. The large size
of India, its latitudinal extent, the Himalayas in the north and the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea
and Bay of Bengal in the south have resulted in great variations in the distribution of
temperature and precipitation in the subcontinent of India.
● A number of attempts have been made by climatologists, geographers and agricultural experts
to divide India into climatic regions.
● Temperature and precipitation are two important factors that are considered to be decisive in all
the schemes of climatic classification.
● The classification of climate, however, is a complex exercise. There are different schemes of
classification of Climate.
Koppen’s classification of the Indian climate

● Koppen’s classification is empirical in nature based on climatic data. He based his classification
on the mean monthly temperature, the mean monthly rainfall and the mean annual rainfall. He
identified five major climatic types
1. Tropical climates (A), where the mean monthly temperature throughout the year is over
18°C.
2. Dry climates (B), where rainfall/precipitation is very low as compared to temperature,
hence dry. If the dryness is less, the climate is semi-arid designated as “S” and if it is more,
the climate is arid designated as “W”.
3. Warm temperate climates (C), where the mean temperature of the coldest month is between
18°C and minus 3°C.
4. Cool temperate climates (D), where the mean temperature of the warmest month is over
10°C and the mean temperature of the coldest month is under minus 3°C.
5. Ice climates (E), where the mean temperature of the warmest month is under 10°C.

● Each climatic type is subdivided into subtypes on the basis of seasonal variations in the
distribution pattern of precipitation and temperature. The Climatic types are designated in
capital letters and subtypes in small letters. The following small letters are used to define
subtypes; f – sufficient precipitation, w – winter dry season, h – hot and dry, g – Gangetic plain,
c – less than four months with mean temperature over 10°C.
Based on Koppen’s climatic scheme, India can be divided into eight climatic regions
Code Climate type Regions of India
Aw Tropical Savanna Most of the peninsular plateaus, south of

the Tropic of Cancer.
Amw Tropical monsoon with short dry West coast of India, south of Goa.
season
As Tropical moist Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu

BShw Semi Arid steppe North-western Gujarat, parts of Rajasthan
and Punjab.
Bwhw Hot desert Extreme western Rajasthan
Cwg Monsoon with dry winters Ganga plain, eastern Rajasthan, northern
Madhya Pradesh, most of north-east India.
Dfc Cold humid winter with short summer Arunachal Pradesh.
E Polar type Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and

Uttarakhand.
Soils in India and Natural vegetation

What is Soil?
● The loose material or the upper layer of the mantle rock (regolith – a layer of loose,
heterogeneous material covering solid rock) consisting mainly of very small particles and
humus which can support the growth of plants is known as “soil”.
● Soil mainly consists of mineral/rock particles, portions of decayed organic matter, soil water,
soil air and living organisms.
● The major factors that influence the formation of soil are parent material, relief, climate,
vegetation, life forms and time.
In general, soil is composed of four elements:

1. Inorganic or mineral fractions derived from the parent material
2. Organic matter (decayed and decomposed plants and animals)
3. Air
4. Water
● Soil is formed under specific natural conditions and each of the elements of the natural
environment contributes to this complex process of soil formation known as “pedogenesis”.
Different Types of Soil in India
● In the ancient period, soils were mainly classified into two – Urvara (fertile) and Usara (sterile).
● The first scientific classification of soil was done by Vasily Dokuchaev.
● In India, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified soils into 8
categories. They are:
1. Alluvial Soil
2. Black Cotton Soil
3. Red & Yellow Soil
4. Laterite Soil
5. Mountainous or Forest Soil
6. Arid or Desert Soil

7. Saline and Alkaline Soil
8. Peaty and Marshy Soil
● As mentioned before, there are eight types of soils categorized by ICAR but some Indian Soils
like – Karewa soil, Sub-Montane Soil, Snowfield, Grey/Brown Soil are all subtypes of main
Indian Soil.
1. Alluvial Soil
● Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and river valleys.
● It covers about 40% of the total land area of the country.
● These soils are mainly derived from the debris brought down from the Himalayas.
● In the Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys.
● The color of the alluvial soil varies from light grey to ash grey.
● The alluvial soil varies in nature from sandy loam to clay.

● They are rich in potash but poor in phosphorus.
● Two different types of alluvial soils have developed in the Upper and Middle Ganga plains –
Khadar and Bhangar.
● Khadar is the new alluvium and occupies the flood plains of the rivers. Khadar is enriched
with fresh silt deposits every year.
● Bhangar is the old alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains.
● Both Khadar and Bhangar soils contain concretion (kankars) of impure calcium carbonate.
● These soils are more loamy and clayey in the lower and middle Ganga plains and the
Brahmaputra valley.
● Alluvial soils are intensely cultivated – wheat, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed, etc. are mainly
cultivated.
2. Red & Yellow Soil
● Also known as the “omnibus group”.

● It covers about 18.5 % of the total land area of the country.
● It is found in regions of low rainfall (eastern and southern parts of the Deccan Plateau). Along
the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats, a long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil.
This soil is also present in parts of Odisha and Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of the
Middle Ganga Plain.
● The red color is due to the presence of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. The soil
appears yellow when it is in hydrated form.
● The fine-grained red and yellow soil is usually fertile while the coarse-grained soil is less fertile.
● This type of soil is generally deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.
● Wheat, cotton, oilseeds, millets, tobacco, and pulses are mainly cultivated in red and yellow
soil.
3. Black or Regur Soil
● Black soil is also known as “Regur Soil” or the “Black Cotton Soil”.
● It covers about 15% of the total land area of the country.
● It covers most of the Deccan Plateau – parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and Krishna, and
the north-western part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
● The colour of these soils varies from deep black to grey.
● The black soils are generally clayey, deep and impermeable. They swell greatly and become
sticky when wet in the rainy season. In the dry season, the moisture evaporates, the soil shrinks
and develops wide cracks.
● Black soils are rich in iron, lime, aluminium, magnesium and also contain potassium. However,
these soils are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter.
● Cotton, pulses, millets, castor, tobacco, sugarcane, citrus fruits, linseed, etc. are mainly
cultivated in black soil.
4. Desert Soil
● Also known as arid soil, it accounts for over 4.42 % of the total land area of the country.
● The colour ranges from red to brown.
● Desert soils are sandy to gravelly in texture, have low moisture content and low water-retaining
capacity.
● These soils are saline in nature and in certain regions, the salt content is so high that common
salt is obtained by evaporating water.
● These soils have normal phosphate content but are deficient in nitrogen.
● Due to increased calcium content in the lower horizons of the soil, there is the formation of
‘kankar’ layers. These kankar layers restrict the penetration of water and as such when water is
made available through irrigation, the soil moisture is readily available for sustainable plant
growth.
● Desert soils are profoundly found in western Rajasthan and contain little humus and organic
matter.
5. Laterite Soil

● The name has been derived from the Latin word “later” which means brick.
● It accounts for about 3.7% of the total area of the country.
● These are typical soils of the monsoon climate which is characterised by seasonal rainfall. With
rain, lime and silica are leached away, and soil rich in iron oxide and aluminium are left leading
to the formation of laterite soil.
● Laterite soil is deficient in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, however, iron oxide
and potash are in abundance.
● Although low in fertility, they respond well to manures and fertilisers.
● Laterite soils are found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and hilly regions
of Assam and Odisha.
● Red laterite soil in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are well suited for tree crop
cultivation like cashew nuts.
● Laterite soil hardens rapidly and irreversibly on exposure to the air, a property that leads to its
use as building bricks in southern India.
6. Mountain Soil
● This type of soil is found in forest regions where rainfall is sufficient.

● The texture of the soil depends on the mountain environment where they are found.
● These soils are coarse-grained in the upper slopes and loamy and silty on valley sides.
● In the snowbound areas of the Himalayas, these soils undergo denudation and are acidic with
low humus content. The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile.
● Also called forest soil.
7. Peaty and Marshy Soils

● These soils are found in regions of heavy rainfall and high humidity, and it supports the good
growth of vegetation.
● Peaty soils are rich in humus and organic matter.
● These soils are generally heavy and black in colour. In many places, these soils are alkaline.
● These are found in southern Uttarakhand, the northern part of Bihar, and the coastal areas of
West Bengal, Odisha and Tamil Nadu.
8. Saline and Alkaline Soils

● These soils have high percentages of sodium, magnesium and potassium, and hence are
infertile. The high salt content is mainly because of the dry climate and poor drainage.
● The texture ranges from sandy to loamy.
● These soils are found in arid and semi-arid areas, and in waterlogged and swampy regions.
● These soils are deficient in calcium and nitrogen.
● These soils are mostly found in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sundarban
areas of West Bengal. In the Rann of Kutch, the south-western monsoon brings salt particles
and deposits there as a crust. Seawater near deltas also increases the salinity of the soil.
● These soils can be reclaimed by improving drainage, by applying gypsum or lime and by
cultivating salt-resistant crops like berseem, dhaincha, etc.
● These are also called Reh, Usar, Kallar, Rakar, Thur, and Chopan. These are mainly found in
Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra. Sodium chloride and
sodium sulphate are present in this soil. It is suitable for leguminous crops.
Land Degradation
● The process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of
humankind and natural hazards is called land degradation.
● Land degradation is a serious issue that affects the environment and has an indirect impact on
food production. The continued degradation of land leads to a decline in the productivity of the
land capacity of vegetation.
Causes Of Land Degradation
A. Deforestation:
● Forest is very important for maintaining the fertility of the soil.
● Roots of trees hold on to soil thus preventing washing away of soil by rain, flood, or
wind.
B. Overgrazing:
● Farmers take their cattle and livestock for grazing, but they mostly don’t do rotation.
● Due to this the grass and another type of vegetation do not get a chance to grow thus
causing land degradation.
C. Water-logging:
● In the agriculture field when proper irrigation is not done or maintenance the drainage
system lacks, then excessive waterlogging can happen.
● If this happens then the surface water and the groundwater gets mixed which will bring
salt from the groundwater level, thus ruining the fertility of the land.
D. Desertification:
● In arid, dry sub-humid, and semi-arid regions due to natural and human activities
desertification happens. Desertification is when land becomes desert-like.
E. Soil erosion:
● When the wind and water cause the displacement or washes away the top layer of soil
it is called soil erosion.
● The loss of the top layer of soil causes degradation of the quality of land, then it will
not be able to provide minerals to plants.
● It will reduce the crop yielding potential of land, the groundwater level will go down,
and can cause sinkholes.
Water Resources
● Definition: Natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, such as sources
of drinking water or irrigation water.
● Composition:
○ Salt Water: 97% of Earth's water.
○ Freshwater: 3% of Earth's water; over two-thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar
ice caps.
○ Remaining Freshwater: Mainly groundwater; a small fraction is found above ground or
in the air.
● Sources:
○ Natural: Includes surface water, under river flow, groundwater, and frozen water.
○ Artificial: Includes treated wastewater (wastewater reuse) and desalinated seawater.
● Human Uses: Agricultural, industrial, household, recreational, and environmental activities.
● Threats: Water scarcity, water pollution, water conflict, and climate change.
● Renewability: Freshwater is renewable, but groundwater depletion is a concern, particularly in
Asia, South America, and North America.
Natural Vegetation of India

● The natural vegetation is the endowments of nature.
● They grow naturally by following the climatic variables.
● The types of natural vegetation differ according to precipitation, soil, climate, and topography.
The cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation, but not natural vegetation.
Natural Vegetation of India

● India is bestowed with a wide range of flora and fauna.
● Due to diverse geographical and climatic conditions, an extensive range of natural vegetation
grows in India.
Types of Natural Vegetation in India
1. Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests
2. Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests
3. Dry Deciduous Forests
4. Mountain Forests

5. Tidal or Mangrove Forests
6. Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetations
1. Tropical Evergreen Rain forests
● The Tropical Evergreen rain forests are found in the areas where precipitation is more than 200
cm.
● They are largely found in the Northeastern regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam,
Nagaland, the Western Ghats, the Terai areas of the Himalayas, and the Andaman groups of
Islands.
● They are also found in the hills of Khasi and Jaintia.
● The trees in this area have intense growth. The major trees found in this area are SandalWood,
Rosewood, Garjan, Mahogany, and bamboo.
● It has copious vegetation of all kinds – trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a multilayered
structure.
● The elephants, monkey, lemur are the common animals found in these areas.
2. Deciduous or Monsoon type of forests
● The Deciduous forests are found on the lower slope of the Himalayas, West Bengal,
Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra Jharkhand, and the adjoining areas.
● The precipitation in this area is between 100 cm and 200 cm. Teak is the dominant species seen
in the area.
● Along with that Deodar, Blue Gum, Pal Ash, Sal, Sandalwood, Ebony, Arjun, Khair, and
Bamboo are also seen.
● The trees in this forest shed their leaves during dry winter and dry summer.
● Based on the availability of water, these forests are again divided into moist and dry deciduous.
3. Dry deciduous forests
● These forests grow in areas where the precipitation is between 50 cm and 100 cm.
● These are mainly seen in the areas of the Central Deccan plateau, Punjab, Haryana, parts of
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and South-east of Rajasthan.
4. Mountain Forests/Montane Forests
● Montane forests are those found in mountains. Mountain forests differ significantly along the
slopes of the mountain.
● On the foothills of the Himalayas until a height of 1500 meters, evergreen trees like Sal, teak,
and bamboo grow copiously.
● On the higher slope, temperate conifer trees like pine, fir, and oak grow.
● At the higher elevation of the Himalayas, rhododendrons and junipers are found.
● Further, then these vegetation zones, alpine grasslands appear up to the snowfield.
5. Tidal or Mangrove forests
● The tidal or mangrove forests grow by the side of the coast and on the edges of the deltas e.g.,
the deltas of the Cauvery, Krishna, Mahanadi, Godavari, and Ganga.
● In West Bengal, these forests are known as ‘Sundarbans’.
● The ‘Sundari’ is the most major tree in these forests.
● The important trees of the tidal forests are Hogla, Garan, Pasur, etc.
● This forest is an important factor in the timber industry as they provide timber and firewood.

● Palm and coconut trees beautify the coastal strip.
6. Semi-deserts and Deserts vegetations
● This area receives rainfall of less than 50 cm.
● Thorny bushes, acacia, and Babul are found in this vegetation region.
● The Indian wild date is generally found here.
● They have long roots and thick flesh.
● The plants found in this region store water in their stem to endure during the drought.
● These vegetation are found in parts of Gujarat’s, Punjab, and Rajasthan.
Resources – land, mineral and energy

● India is endowed with a rich variety of minerals and energy resources due to its varied
geological structure.
● The vast alluvial plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals of economic use.
● The mineral resources provide the country with the necessary base for industrial development.
Mineral resources
● A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and
physical properties.
Types of Mineral Resources
● On the basis of Chemical and Physical Properties:
● Minerals may be grouped under metallics and non-metallics:
Metallic Minerals:
● They are the sources of metals. It includes Iron ore, copper, gold produce metal. Metallic
minerals are further divided into:
A. Ferrous: All those minerals which have iron content are ferrous such as iron ore itself.
B. Non-Ferrous: Those which do not have iron content such as copper, bauxite, etc.
Non-metallic minerals:
● They are either organic in origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels which are
derived from the buried animal and plant life such as coal and petroleum.
● Other types of non-metallic minerals are inorganic in origin such as mica, limestone and
graphite, etc.
● These are unevenly distributed over space.
● There is an inverse relationship in quality and quantity of minerals i.e., good quality minerals
are less in quantity as compared to low quality minerals.
● All minerals are exhaustible over time as these take long to develop geologically, and they
cannot be replenished immediately at the time of need.
Distribution of Minerals Resources in India

● Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the Peninsular Plateau region in the old
crystalline rocks.
● Over 97 percent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, and
Godavari.

● Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High
i.e., offshore region in the Arabian Sea. New reserves have been located in the Krishna-
Godavari and Kaveri basins.
● Most of the major mineral resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore and Kanpur.
Concentration of Minerals in three Broad Belts in India
The North- Eastern Plateau Region
● It covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal, and parts of Chhattisgarh.
● It has a variety of minerals viz. iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.
The Southern-Western Plateau Region
● This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.
● This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite and also contains high grade iron ore, manganese,
and limestone.
● This belt lacks coal deposits except Neyveli lignite.
● This belt does not have as diversified mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.
● Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium, bauxite clay and Goa has iron ore deposits.
The North-Western Region
● This belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and part of Gujarat and minerals are associated
with the Dharwar system of rocks.
● Major Minerals: Copper, zinc.
● Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e., sandstone, granite, marble.
● Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are also extensive.
● Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for the cement industry.
● Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits.
● Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich sources of salt.
The Himalayan belt
● It is another mineral belt where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, and tungsten are known to occur.
● They occur in both the eastern and western parts. Assam valley has mineral oil deposits.
● Oil resources are also found in off-shore-areas near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).
A. Ferrous Minerals
● Ferrous minerals such as iron ore, manganese, chromite, etc., provide a strong base for the
development of metallurgical industries.
Iron Ore
● India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia.
● The two main types of ore found in India are haematite and magnetite which have great demand
in the international market due to its superior quality.
● The iron ore mines occur in close proximity to the coal fields in the North-Eastern plateau
region of India which adds to their advantage.
● About 95 per cent of total reserves of iron ore is located in the States of Odisha, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
● In Odisha:

○ Iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar.
○ Important Mines: Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj), Kiruburu
(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh).
● In Jharkhand:
○ It has some of the oldest iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel plants are located
around them.
○ Important Mines: Noamundi and Gua are located in Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum
districts. This belt further extends to Durg, Dantewada and Bailadila.
○ Dalli, and Rajhara in Durg are the important mines of iron ore in India.
● In Karnataka:
○ The iron ore deposits occur in Sandur -Hospet area of Ballari district, Baba Budan hills
and Kudremukh in Chikmagalur district and parts of Shivamogga, Chitradurga and
Tumkur districts.
● In Maharashtra:
○ Iron Mining Regions: The districts of Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri.
● In Telangana:
○ Iron Mining Region: Karimnagar and Warangal district of Telangana,
● In Andhra Pradesh:
○ Iron Mining Region: Kurnool, Cuddapah and Anantapur districts.
● In Tamil Nadu:
○ Iron Mining Region: Salem and Nilgiris districts.
Manganese
● Manganese is an important raw material for smelting of iron ore and also used for
manufacturing ferro alloys.
● Manganese deposits are found in almost all geological formations and it is mainly associated
with the Dharwar system.
● Odisha is the leading producer of Manganese.
○ Major mines are located in the central part of the iron ore belt of India, particularly in
Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.
● Karnataka is another major producer.
○ The mines are located in Dharwad, Ballari, Belagavi, North Canara, Chikkmagaluru,
Shivamogga, Chitradurg and Tumkur.
● Maharashtra is also an important producer of manganese.
○ They are mined in Nagpur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts.
○ The disadvantage to these mines is that they are located far from steel plants.
● The manganese belt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt in Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-
Mandla and Jhabua districts.
● Telangana, Goa, and Jharkhand are other minor producers of manganese.
B. Non- Ferrous Minerals

● India is poorly endowed with non-ferrous metallic minerals except bauxite.
Bauxite
● Uses: Bauxite is the ore used in manufacturing of aluminium.
● It is found mainly in tertiary deposits and is associated with laterite rocks occurring extensively
either on the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India and also in the coastal tracts of India.
● Odisha happens to be the largest producer of Bauxite.
○ Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the leading producers. The other two areas which have
been increasing their production are Bolangir and Koraput.
● The patlands of Lohardaga in Jharkhand have rich deposits.
● Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh (M.P.) and Maharashtra are other major producers.
○ Bhavanagar, and Jamnagar in Gujarat have the major deposits.
○ Chhattisgarh has bauxite deposits in Amarkantak plateau.
○ Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat in M.P. have important deposits of bauxite.
○ Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune and Kolhapur in Maharashtra are important
producers.
● Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are minor producers of bauxite.
Copper
● Copper is an indispensable metal in the electrical industry for making wires, electric motors,
transformers, and generators.
● Properties:
○ It is allowable, malleable and ductile.
○ It is also mixed with gold to provide strength to jewellery.
● Copper Deposits: It occurs in Singhbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghat district in Madhya
Pradesh and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan.
● Minor Producers of Copper: Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurga and
Hassan districts (Karnataka) and South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu).
Non-Metallic Minerals
● Mica is the important non-metallic minerals produced in India. The other minerals extracted for
local consumption are limestone, dolomite and phosphate.
Mica
● It is mainly used in the electrical and electronic industries.
● Properties: It can be split into very thin sheets which are tough and flexible.
● Producing Areas: Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan followed by Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh.
○ In Jharkhand, high quality mica is obtained in a belt extending over a distance of about
150 km, in length and about 22 km, in width in lower Hazaribagh plateau.
○ In Andhra Pradesh, Nellore district produces the best quality mica.
○ In Rajasthan, the mica belt extends for about 320 kms from Jaipur to Bhilwara and
around Udaipur.
● Mica deposits also occur in Mysore and Hasan districts of Karnataka, Coimbatore,
Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu, Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri in
Maharashtra, Purulia and Bankura in West Bengal.

Energy Resources in India
● Mineral fuels are essential for generation of power, required by agriculture, industry, transport,
and other sectors of the economy.
Conventional Resources
● Mineral fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas (known as fossil fuels), nuclear energy
minerals, are the conventional sources of energy.
● These conventional sources are exhaustible resources.
Coal
● Uses: Coal is a one of the important minerals which is mainly used in the generation of thermal
power and smelting of iron ore.
● Coal occurs in rock sequences mainly of two geological ages, namely Gondwana and tertiary
deposits.
● About 80 per cent of the coal deposits in India is of bituminous type and is of non-coking grade.
● The most important Gondwana coal fields of India are located in Damodar Valley.
● They lie in the Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt and the important coal fields in this region are
Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura.
○ Jharia is the largest coal field followed by Raniganj.
● The other river valleys associated with coal are Godavari, Mahanadi, and Sone.
● Important Coal Mining Centres: Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part of Singrauli coal field lies
in Uttar Pradesh), Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur in Odisha, Chanda–Wardha,
Kamptee and Bander in Maharashtra and Singareni in Telangana and Pandur in Andhra Pradesh.
● Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Nagaland.
○ It is extracted from Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewling and Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum,
Jaipur and Nazira in upper Assam, Namchik – Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh) and Kalakot
(Jammu and Kashmir).
● The brown coal or lignite occurs in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat and
Jammu and Kashmir.
Petroleum
● Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states varying in chemical
composition, color, and specific gravity.
● It is an essential source of energy for all internal combustion engines in automobiles, railways,
and aircraft.
● Its numerous by-products are processed in petrochemical industries, such as fertilizer, synthetic
rubber, synthetic fiber, medicines, Vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap, and cosmetics.
● Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary rocks of the tertiary period.
● Oil exploration and production was systematically taken up after the Oil and Natural Gas
Commission was set up in 1956.
○ Till then, Digboi in Assam was the only oil producing region.
● In recent years, new oil deposits have been found at the extreme western and eastern parts of
India.
○ In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran are important oil producing areas.
○ The major oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and
Lunej.
○ Mumbai High which lies 160 km off Mumbai was discovered in 1973 and production
commenced in 1976.
○ Oil and natural gas have been found in exploratory wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri
basin on the east coast.
● Oil extracted from the wells is crude oil and contains many impurities. It cannot be used directly.
It needs to be refined. There are two types of refineries in India:
○ Field-based: For example – Digboi.
○ Market-based: For example – Barauni.
Naturals Gas
● The Gas Authority of India Limited was set up in 1984 to transport and market natural gas.
● It is obtained along-with oil in all the oilfields, but exclusive reserves have been located along
the eastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan and
off-shore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Non-Conventional Energy Sources
● Fossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear energy use exhaustible raw
materials.
● Sustainable energy resources are only the renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydro-
geothermal and biomass.
● These energy sources are more equitably distributed and environment friendly.
● These will provide more sustained, eco-friendly cheaper energy after the initial cost is taken
care of.
Nuclear Energy Resources
● Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable source in recent times.
● Important minerals used for the generation of nuclear energy are uranium and thorium.
● Uranium Deposits:
○ They occur in the Dharwar rocks.
○ Geographically, uranium ores are known to occur in several locations along the Singbhum
Copper belt.
○ It is also found in Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durg district of
Chhattisgarh, Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.
● ThoriumDeposits:
○ These are mainly obtained from monazite and ilmenite in the beach sands along the
coast of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
○ World’s richest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad and Kollam districts of Kerala,
near Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river delta in Odisha.
● Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1948 but the progress could be made only after
the establishment of the Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967.
● Important Nuclear Power Projects: Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan),
Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara
(Gujarat).
Solar Energy
● Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be converted into energy, known as solar energy.
● The two effective processes considered to be very effective to tap solar energy are photovoltaics
and solar thermal technology.
● Advantages of Solar thermal technology: It is cost competitive, environment friendly and easy
to construct.
● Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective than coal or oil-based plants and 10 per cent more
effective than nuclear plants.
● Uses: It is generally used more in appliances like heaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc.
● The western part of India has greater potential for the development of solar energy in Gujarat
and Rajasthan.
Wind Energy
● Wind energy is an absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source of energy.
● Mechanism of Energy Conversion from blowing Wind:
○ The kinetic energy of wind, through turbines is converted into electrical energy.
● The permanent wind systems such the trade winds, westerlies and seasonal wind like monsoon
have been used as a source of energy.
○ The local winds, land, and sea breezes can also be used to produce electricity.
● In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka, favorable conditions for wind energy exist.
Tidal and Wave Energy
● Ocean currents are the storehouse of infinite energy. The ceaseless tidal waves and ocean
current can be used to generate energy.
● Large tidal waves are known to occur along the west coast of India. Hence, India has great
potential for the development of tidal energy along the coasts.
Geothermal Energy
● When the magma from the interior of earth, comes out on the surface, tremendous heat is
released. This heat energy can successfully be tapped and converted to electrical energy.
● The hot water that gushes out through the geyser wells is also used in the generation of thermal
energy.
● It is popularly known as Geothermal energy.
● In India, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.
Bio-energy
● Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products which includes agricultural
residues, municipal, industrial, and other wastes.
● Bioenergy is a potential source of energy conversion.
○ It can be converted into electrical energy, heat energy or gas for cooking.
○ It will also process the waste and garbage and produce energy.
● Advantages: This will improve economic life of rural areas in developing countries, reduce
environmental pollution, enhance self-reliance, and reduce pressure on fuel wood.
● One such project converting municipal waste into energy is Okhla in Delhi.
Conservation of Mineral Resource
● The challenge of sustainable development requires integration of the quest for economic
development with environmental concerns.

● Traditional methods of resource use result in generating enormous quantities of waste as well
as creating other environmental problems.
● There is an urgent need to conserve the resources.
● The inexhaustible resources should be developed to replace the exhaustible resources.
● In case of metallic minerals, use of scrap metals will enable recycling of metals.
● Use of scrap is especially significant in metals like copper, lead and zinc in which India’s
reserves are meager.
● Use of substitutes for scarce metals may also reduce their consumption.
● Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced, so that the existing reserve may be
used for a longer period.
Natural Sources of Freshwater

Surface Water
● Definition: Water found in rivers, lakes, or freshwater wetlands.
● Replenishment: Naturally replenished by precipitation.
● Loss: Naturally lost through discharge to oceans, evaporation, evapotranspiration, and
groundwater recharge.
● Factors Affecting Quantity:
○ Storage Capacity: In lakes, wetlands, and artificial reservoirs.
○ Soil Permeability: Affects how much water is absorbed and stored.
○ Runoff Characteristics: How quickly water flows over the land.
○ Timing of Precipitation: When rain falls during the year.
○ Local Evaporation Rates: How quickly water evaporates from the surface.
● Human Impact:
○ Increased Storage: Through constructing reservoirs.
○ Decreased Storage: By draining wetlands.
○ Increased Runoff: By paving areas and channelizing stream flow.
● Augmentation: Importing surface water from another watershed via canals or pipelines.
● Top Freshwater Suppliers: Brazil, Russia, and Canada.
Glacier Runoff
● Definition: Water that flows from melting glaciers, considered surface water.
● Key Areas: The Himalayas, known as "The Roof of the World," containing extensive high-
altitude areas and significant glacier and permafrost coverage.
● Significance: Source of ten of Asia’s largest rivers, supporting over a billion people.
● Climate Impact: Temperatures in the Himalayas are rising faster than the global average,
affecting glacier melt rates.
Groundwater
● Definition: Water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the
fractures of rock formations.
● Availability: About 30% of all readily available freshwater in the world.
● Aquifers: Units of rock or unconsolidated deposits that yield usable quantities of water.
● Water Table: The depth at which soil pore spaces or rock fractures are saturated with water.
● Replenishment: From surface recharge.
● Extraction: Through springs, seeps, and extraction wells for agricultural, municipal, and
industrial use.
● Hydrogeology: The study of groundwater distribution and movement.
● Forms: Includes shallow aquifers, soil moisture, permafrost, immobile water in low
permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water.
● Hypothesis: Groundwater may provide lubrication influencing fault movements.
Under River Flow
● Definition: The combination of visible free water flow and water flowing through rocks and
sediments beneath a river (hyporheic zone).
● Significance: For many rivers in large valleys, subsurface flow may greatly exceed visible flow.
● Interaction: The hyporheic zone acts as a dynamic interface between surface water and
groundwater, exchanging flow between rivers and aquifers.
● Special Areas: Particularly significant in karst regions with pot-holes and underground rivers.
Artificial Sources of Freshwater
● Types: Treated wastewater (reclaimed water), atmospheric water generators, and desalinated
seawater.
● Considerations: Economic and environmental side effects of these technologies.
Wastewater Reuse
● Definition: Converting municipal or industrial wastewater into reusable water.
● Types of Reuse:
○ Urban Reuse: Reusing water in urban areas for non-potable purposes.
○ Agricultural Reuse: Irrigation of gardens and agricultural fields.
○ Environmental Reuse: Replenishing surface water and groundwater (groundwater
recharge).
○ Industrial Reuse: Using treated water in industrial processes.
○ Planned Potable Reuse: Treating water to drinking standards for planned direct or
indirect use.
○ De Facto Wastewater Reuse: Unplanned potable reuse.
● Applications: Irrigation, replenishing water bodies, residential uses (toilet flushing), industrial
uses, and potentially drinking water.
● Sustainable Water Management: Reduces scarcity and alleviates pressure on groundwater and
natural water bodies.
● Technologies Used:
○ Ozonation: Using ozone to disinfect water.
○ Ultrafiltration: Filtering water through a semipermeable membrane.
○ Aerobic Treatment: Using microorganisms to break down organic matter (membrane
bioreactor).
○ Forward Osmosis: Using a semipermeable membrane to separate water from dissolved
solutes.

○ Reverse Osmosis: Forcing water through a semipermeable membrane to remove
impurities.
○ Advanced Oxidation: Using oxidizing agents to treat water.
● Non-High Grade Water Uses: Some activities do not require high-grade water, allowing for
reuse with minimal treatment.
Desalination
● Definition: Removing mineral components from saline water.
● Applications:
○ Human Consumption: Producing drinking water from seawater.
○ Irrigation: Providing water suitable for agriculture.
○ Maritime Use: Used on seagoing ships and submarines.
● By-product: Brine, a concentrated salt solution.
● Cost-Effectiveness: Generally more costly than other sources due to high energy consumption.
● Importance: One of the few rainfall-independent water resources.
● Energy Consumption: A significant factor in the cost of desalination.
● Methods:
○ Thermal Methods: Distillation, where water is evaporated and condensed to remove
salts.
○ Membrane-Based Methods: Reverse osmosis, where water is forced through a
semipermeable membrane to separate out salts.
Marine Resources – Economic Significance, EEZ

Marine Resources
India boasts vast marine fishery resources, encompassing a variety of species including fish,
crustaceans, molluscs, and seaweeds. The country's extensive 8,118 km coastline, along with the
biodiverse Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Laccadive Archipelago, provides rich marine
biodiversity. This sector is crucial for employment and income, engaging millions directly and indirectly
in fishing and allied activities. Marine fish production from capture fisheries in India has increased six-
fold over the past seven decades.
Economic Significance
● Marine resources are vital for food security, employment, and foreign exchange. India’s marine
fish production has significantly increased over the decades but has recently plateaued,
indicating a need to explore alternative resources like myctophids and deep-water species.
Sustainable fishing practices and effective resource management are essential to maintain and
enhance marine resource yields. The fisheries sector not only provides livelihoods to millions
but also contributes to the nation’s GDP and export earnings.
Issues Affecting Marine Resources
1. Overcapacity: Excessive fishing efforts, particularly in coastal areas, lead to fish stock
depletion, decreased catch rates, and economic losses.
2. Indiscriminate Exploitation: The use of small-mesh fishing gear causes significant yield and
biodiversity losses, affecting the long-term sustainability of marine resources.
3. Post-Harvest Losses: High discard rates and spoilage due to inadequate storage and selective
fishing practices result in substantial resource wastage.

4. Habitat Degradation: Pollution from various sources, habitat destruction, and obstructed
water flows degrade marine biodiversity and fish stocks. Agricultural runoff, industrial
discharges, and oil spills are particularly harmful.
5. Climate Change: Rising temperatures, salinity changes, sea-level rise, and ocean acidification
due to greenhouse gas emissions impact marine ecosystems and species distribution, leading to
altered biological processes and potential declines in marine biodiversity.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
● India's EEZ extends up to 200 nautical miles from the coast, covering 2.02 million square
kilometers, providing significant potential for marine resource exploration and exploitation.
The EEZ is crucial for economic activities such as fishing, oil and gas exploration, and
renewable energy generation. Effective management and conservation within the EEZ are
critical for sustainable development and maximizing economic benefits from marine resources.
This includes enforcing regulations to prevent overfishing, pollution control measures, and
promoting responsible exploitation practices. The EEZ also offers opportunities for scientific
research and marine biodiversity conservation, which are essential for maintaining the health
of marine ecosystems.
Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 (GBO-5) Findings
● The Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 (GBO-5) report revealed that none of the Aichi Biodiversity
Targets, which aimed at reducing biodiversity loss by managing pollution, sustainably handling
fish stocks, and eliminating harmful subsidies, were fully achieved. Only six targets were
partially met.
Measures by India
India is progressing well towards meeting its biodiversity targets, as outlined in the Sixth National
Report (NR6) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and has even surpassed some goals.
Key measures include:
 Gender and Community Integration: Strengthened involvement of women, Indigenous
peoples, and local communities in conservation.
o Example: India’s Wetland Conservation Rules 2017 promotes the ‘wise use’ concept,
encouraging community participation.
 Biodiversity in National Accounting: Biodiversity considerations are integrated into national
accounting systems.
 Microplastic Ban: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has banned microplastics smaller
than 5mm in personal care products.
 Coral Reef Protection: Under the Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System
(COMAPS) and the Coral Bleaching Alert System (CBAS), India has implemented measures
to protect coral reefs.
o Coral Reef Recovery Project: A collaboration between the Wildlife Trust of India, the
Gujarat Forest Department, and Tata Chemicals Limited (TCL).
 Plastic Recovery Initiatives: Kerala’s Suchitwa Mission involves fishermen in collecting
plastic waste from the sea, recovering 25 tonnes in 10 months.
 Mangrove Conservation: Andhra Pradesh has established eco-development committees and
Van Samrakshan Samithis for joint projects in mangrove areas. Maharashtra declared a state
mangrove tree species as a symbol to enhance conservation efforts.
International Alliances
 International Blue Carbon Initiative: Focuses on mitigating climate change through the
conservation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems.
o Magical Mangroves Campaign: Highlights the importance of mangrove
conservation.
 Blue Nature Alliance: A global partnership aimed at advancing Ocean Conservation Areas.
o Efforts include large-scale conservation in Fiji’s Lau Seascape, Antarctica’s Southern
Ocean, and the Tristan da Cunha island group, aiming to protect over 4.8 million square
kilometers of the ocean.
 GloLitter Partnerships Project: Aims to reduce plastics in the maritime transport and fishing
sectors.
 London Convention (1972): Prevents marine pollution by dumping wastes.
 Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-
based Activities (GPA).
 International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI): Works to preserve coral reefs and related
ecosystems worldwide.
Problems of Inter-State Water Sharing

Definition
Interstate River Water Disputes refer to conflicts between states over the use, distribution, and control
of rivers flowing through them. These disputes arise when states seek to harness water from inter-state
rivers, often leading to objections from downstream states, necessitating intervention by the union
government to ensure equitable distribution.
Reasons for Water Disputes
1. Increase in Population: Rising population increases demand for potable water, straining
existing resources.
2. Agricultural Expansion: Expansion of agricultural areas and cultivation of water-intensive
crops like sugarcane elevate water demand.
3. Industrial Demand: Industries require substantial water for manufacturing and power
generation.
4. Shortage of Rainfall: Climate change has altered rainfall patterns, reducing water availability.
5. Regionalism Sentiments: Political compulsions and rising regionalism can exacerbate water
disputes.
6. Historical Reasons: Long-standing historical conflicts between states, such as the Karnataka-
Tamil Nadu dispute.
Effects of Interstate River Water Disputes
1. Vote Bank Politics: Water disputes can be exploited for political gain by regional parties.
2. Affects Nationalism: These disputes undermine federalism and national unity.
3. Attack on Migrants: Disputes can lead to violence against migrants in states involved in the
conflict.
4. Impasse on Development: Projects related to river water harnessing are often stalled due to
prolonged disputes.
Mechanisms for Handling Disputes
1. Negotiation and Mutual Understanding: Temporary solutions through mutual agreements,
though susceptible to changes in political leadership.
2. Interstate River Water Disputes Tribunal:

o Article 262: Provides for adjudication of disputes.
o River Boards Act (1956): Establishes a river board for regulation and development.
o Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (1956): Empowers the union government to set
up tribunals for adjudication.
Interstate River Water Disputes Tribunals
1. Quasi-Judicial Body: Decides on the sharing of inter-state river waters.
2. Final Decision: Tribunal’s decisions are binding, with no jurisdiction for the Supreme Court or
other courts.
Inter-State River Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2019
1. Data Bank: Union Government to set up a data bank for each river basin.
2. Permanent Tribunal: Establishes a permanent tribunal with multiple benches.
3. Composition: Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, judicial members, and expert members
appointed by the Union Government.
4. Decision Time: Tribunal must decide within two years, extendable by one year.
5. State’s Reference: Reports to be submitted within one year, extendable by six months.
6. Final Decision: Tribunal’s decision is final and binding, without requiring publication in the
official gazette.
States' Role in Disputes
While water is a state subject under the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution, the centre acts as
a neutral entity to mediate between states.

QUESTION & ANSWERS
Q.1) "Evaluate the diverse natural resource potential of the Deccan Trap region and
discuss the challenges in harnessing these resources effectively."
Introduction Originating from extensive volcanic activity, the Deccan Trap region
in peninsular India is endowed with abundant natural resources,
significantly influencing the area's economic and developmental
prospects.
Body Natural Resource Potential of the Deccan Trap:

Mineral Resources:
 The region is rich in various minerals including Manganese
(Kajlidongri mine), Copper (Malanjkhand mine), Bauxite
(notably in Kolhapur and Satara), along with Dolomite,
Limestone, Quartz, and Silica, pivotal for the mining industry.
Energy Resources:
 Oil and Gas: Estimates suggest about 30 billion tonnes of
reserves in the Saurashtra-central India belt, indicating
substantial energy potential.
 Geothermal Energy: The Konkan geothermal province, with
hot springs in Unhavare, Tural, and Aravali, offers
opportunities for geothermal energy exploitation.
 Hydropower: The Narmada, Godavari, and Krishna rivers
exhibit significant hydropower potential, essential for
regional energy needs.
Soil and Water Resources:

 Soil: The region's black soil is highly retentive of water,
making it suitable for cultivating cotton, sugarcane, and
groundnut.
 Water: Despite the hard rock terrain and seasonal rivers like
the Narmada and Tapi, the region has potential for sustainable
water management.
Forest and Wildlife Resources:
 Forests: Tropical dry deciduous forests dominate, with

Hardwickia-dominated woodlands providing valuable timber.
 Wildlife: Home to a vast biodiversity, including species like
tigers, wild buffaloes, and blackbucks, contributing to the
region’s ecological richness.
Challenges in Resource Utilization:
 The region faces several hurdles in fully exploiting its
resources, including eco-sensitive zones that limit mining,
frequent landslides, and water scarcity affecting agriculture
and human settlements. Soil degradation also poses a
significant challenge to sustainable land use.
Conclusion The Deccan Trap region's rich tapestry of natural resources presents
immense opportunities for economic development. However,
realizing this potential requires overcoming significant
environmental and logistical challenges. Sustainable and innovative
approaches are essential for harnessing these resources, ensuring both
economic growth and ecological balance.
Q.2) Compare the causes of landslides in the Himalayan region with those in the
Western Ghats
Introduction Landslides, representing a significant form of mass wasting, pose
notable challenges in regions like the Himalayas and the Western
Ghats due to their distinct topographical and geological settings.
Understanding the specific causes in each region is essential for
effective management and mitigation strategies.
Body Causes of Landslides:

Himalayan Region:
 Geology: The youthful and geologically active nature of the
Himalayas, coupled with continuous tectonic activities like
the movement of the Indian plate, contributes to frequent
landslides. These geological processes result in instability and
increased susceptibility to landslides.
 Morphology: Characterized by steep and rugged slopes, the
Himalayan terrain is highly prone to erosion and slope
failures. This morphological aspect, compounded by heavy
rainfall and seismic activities, escalates the landslide risk.
 Anthropogenic Factors: Extensive deforestation for
agriculture and construction, along with unplanned
infrastructure development, significantly impacts slope
stability. These human activities disturb natural drainage
patterns and remove critical vegetation cover, enhancing
landslide vulnerability.
Western Ghats:
 Geology: Although the Western Ghats are relatively more
stable than the Himalayas, localized geological conditions,
such as the presence of weak rock formations, can still trigger
landslides.
 Anthropogenic Factors: In the Western Ghats, human-
induced factors like intensive mining operations and
deforestation for urbanization and road construction weaken
land structures and destabilize slopes, leading to landslides.
Conclusion The analysis shows that landslides in the Himalayas and Western
Ghats are influenced by geology, terrain, and human actions, but
differ in intensity and causes. Sustainable development, compliance
with Kasturirangan, Madhav Gadgil reports, and NDMA guidelines
are crucial for reducing landslide risks in these regions.
Q.3) Examine the significance of mangrove ecosystems in sustaining ecological balance

and discuss the implications of their degradation.
Introduction Mangroves, thriving in intertidal zones of rivers and estuaries, are
crucial for ecological balance, serving as a dynamic ecotone between
terrestrial and marine environments. These salt-tolerant vegetations
adapt to harsh coastal conditions, playing a pivotal role in biodiversity
conservation and coastal protection.
Body Characteristics of Mangrove Ecosystem:

 Diverse Flora: Mangroves encompass a variety of tree and
shrub species, each adapted to saline conditions, tidal
variations, and high temperatures.
 Adaptations: These ecosystems are notable for their unique
adaptations such as halophytic properties and
pneumatophores, enhancing their survival and ecological
function.
Roles in Maintaining Ecological Balance:
 Marine Food Web Support: Mangroves are fundamental to

marine food chains, supporting a multitude of aquatic species

essential for commercial fisheries and livelihoods.
 Water Quality Enhancement: These forests filter pollutants
and sediments, improving water quality and safeguarding
coral reefs and seagrass meadows from degradation.
 Natural Coastal Defense: Mangrove roots mitigate storm
surges and floods, protecting shorelines from erosion and
natural disasters like cyclones and tsunamis.
 Carbon Sequestration: Acting as efficient carbon sinks,
mangroves significantly contribute to mitigating climate
change by storing carbon dioxide, both in living biomass and
submerged soils.
 Biodiversity Hotspots: These ecosystems harbor rich
biodiversity, providing habitat for numerous faunal and floral
species, underlining their role as productive and crucial
ecosystems.
Implications of Mangrove Degradation:
The loss of mangrove habitats poses severe threats, including:
 Biodiversity Loss: Degradation leads to reduced habitat
availability, impacting species diversity and contributing to
extinction risks.
 Increased Coastal Vulnerability: The erosion of natural
coastal defenses elevates the risk of flooding and damage
from storm surges.
 Climate Impact: Diminished carbon sequestration
capabilities exacerbate global warming effects, undermining
efforts to combat climate change.
 Economic Consequences: The decline in mangrove areas
affects fisheries and livelihoods dependent on marine
resources, impacting food security and economic stability.
Conclusion The preservation of mangrove ecosystems is imperative for

maintaining ecological balance, safeguarding biodiversity, and
protecting coastal communities. Sustainable management involving
community and governmental cooperation is crucial for conserving
these vital natural assets for future generations.
Q.4) Evaluate the geothermal energy resource potential across India's geothermal
provinces and analyze the obstacles to harnessing this renewable energy source
fully.
Introduction As the world grapples with an energy crisis, India's geothermal
energy resources offer a beacon of hope for sustainable energy
solutions. Despite the significant potential of these resources, various
challenges have thwarted their complete utilization.

Body
Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Figure1-Map-showing-the-
geothermal-provinces-of-India_fig3_264879083
Geothermal Energy Resources in India:
Himalayan Geothermal Province:
 Northwest Sub-province: Includes Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, showcasing high-
altitude geothermal resources.
 Northeast Sub-province: Features Sikkim's thermal springs,
highlighting localized geothermal energy potential.
Non-orogenic Geothermal Provinces:
 Cambay Graben: This Gujarat province reveals geothermal
energy prospects within its structural confines.
 Son-Narmada-Tapi Graben: Spanning Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Gujarat, it offers potential for direct heat
applications.
 West Coast: Encompasses Maharashtra and Kerala,
indicating geothermal potential linked to geological faults and
volcanic activities.
 Damodar Valley: In Jharkhand and West Bengal, showcases
potential within the graben structure.
 Mahanadi Valley: Located in Odisha, with fault zones
indicating geothermal energy opportunities.
 Godavari Valley: Covers Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh,
presenting geothermal prospects in faulted zones.
 North Indian Peninsular & East Indian: Regions including
Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West
Bengal exhibit thermal springs and potential for direct heat
applications.
 South Indian: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra

Pradesh, highlighting thermal springs and direct heat
application prospects.
Challenges to Full Potential Realization:
 Limited Exploration: Despite identifying over 300 thermally
anomalous areas, exploration has been restricted, limiting the
understanding of geothermal resources.
 Underdeveloped Projects: Most geothermal projects have
been small-scale, with large-scale power plants and utilization
projects lagging behind, affecting energy capacity expansion.
 Technical and Investment Hurdles: Accessing high-
temperature resources for efficient electricity generation
demands deep drilling, posing significant technical and
financial challenges.
 Policy and Regulatory Gaps: The lack of a robust
geothermal policy and regulatory framework has stifled
project development and private sector involvement in India's
geothermal energy sector.
Conclusion India's rich geothermal provinces harbor immense potential for
renewable energy generation. Overcoming the identified challenges
through comprehensive exploration, technological innovation, and
the establishment of supportive policies will be key to unlocking this
potential. Embracing geothermal energy could play a pivotal role in
India's sustainable energy future, contributing to a cleaner, more
resilient energy system.
Q.5) "Analyze the impacts of El Niño and its role within the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) system on global agricultural and economic activities. Discuss
the influence of other climatic phenomena in conjunction with El Niño."
Introduction El Niño, a significant climate phenomenon characterized by the
periodic warming of ocean currents along the coast of Peru, plays a
crucial role within the larger El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
system. This system, comprising the warm phase (El Niño), cool
phase (La Niña), and their atmospheric component (Southern
Oscillation), significantly impacts global weather patterns,
agriculture, and economies.
Body Impacts of El Niño:

Agricultural Disruption:
 Drought and Crop Failure: El Niño-induced drought
conditions, particularly in Australia, Southeast Asia, and
rainfed regions of India, lead to reduced agricultural output
affecting crops like rice, soybean, cotton, and maize.
 Fishing Industry: The warm waters reduce plankton
populations, crucial for the fishery industry, causing
ecological and economic disruptions along the Peru coast and

affecting global fish supplies.
Economic Consequences:
 Food Inflation: Reduced agricultural yield contributes to
food scarcity, driving up prices and leading to inflation.
 Industry Impact: The scarcity of key agricultural inputs due
to poor monsoon rains impacts sectors such as textiles, edible
oil, and food processing.
Global Effects:
 Extreme Weather: El Niño is associated with diverse
weather anomalies, including floods in South America and the
US Midwest, affecting coffee, cocoa, and cereal production.
 Forest Fires: Drought conditions in Indonesia heighten the
risk of forest fires, exacerbating environmental and air quality
issues.
Role of Other Climatic Phenomena:
 ENSO's Larger System: El Niño, as part of ENSO, interacts
with other climatic phenomena such as the Indian Ocean
Dipole, Rossby waves, jet streams, and polar vortices,
collectively influencing global climate and extreme weather
events.
 Climate Change: The increasing frequency of El Niño
events, likely exacerbated by global warming, suggests a shift
in weather dynamics, underscoring the need for
comprehensive climate models to predict and mitigate
impacts effectively.
Conclusion El Niño significantly impacts global agriculture, economies, and

weather, emphasizing its critical role in the ENSO system and climate
dynamics. Its interaction with other climatic events and climate
change highlights the need for strategies to mitigate its effects,
underscoring the importance of global cooperation in tackling its
widespread consequences.
Q.6) Discuss the significance of the Chota Nagpur plateau as a storehouse of minerals
in India, highlighting the major minerals found in the region and their
distribution.
Introduction The Chota Nagpur plateau in India is renowned for its
abundant mineral resources, making it a crucial industrial
region in the country.
The plateau is divided into three physical divisions:
Ranchi Plateau, Hazaribagh Plateau, and Kodarma Plateau. It
is known as the "storehouse of minerals" due to its vast mineral
deposits.
Body Mineral Resources in Chota Nagpur Plateau:

1. Coal:
 Key coalfields: Jharia, Bokaro, Karanpura, Giridi,
Ramgarh, Daltangunge, and Damodar Valley.
 Contributes to approximately 74% of India's coal
production.
 Damodar Valley is considered the prime center for
coking coal in the country.
Major iron ore producing areas: Noamundi, Gua,

Kolhan, Dharwar, Budabaru, etc.
 Chota Nagpur Plateau accounts for nearly 40% of India's
total iron ore production.
2. Mica:
 Largest producer of mica in India.
 Major mica-producing centers: Kodarma, Domchanchi,
Jhumri-Tilaiya, Giridhi.
 Renowned for Kodarma's world-famous Ruby Mica.
3. Bauxite:
 Mined at Jojohati, Roroburu, and the Kolhan estate of
Singbhum district.
 Lohardaga is notable for bauxite deposits.
4. Copper:
 Copper mining locations: Rakha, Masabni in
Singbhum districts.
Other Minerals:
 Dolomite: Found mainly in the Palamou district.
 Limestone: Occurs in various regions such as Chaibasa,
Jagnnathpur, Singbhum, and Hazaribagh.
 Asbestos: Mined in Singhbhum district at Narda, Kalimati,
Jojohati, and Roroburu.

 Feldspar: Mined near Chrichaki, Bagardih, Bengro, Kubadih,
and Hundru.
 Kyanite: Mined in Singhbhum district.
 Fire-clay: Mined in Rajhara and Latihar in the Palamou
districts.
 China-clay: Mined in Hat Gamaria and its neighboring region.
 Manganese: Mined in Singhbhum district.
 Gold: Extracted from the sands of the Subarnarekha River.
Conclusion The plateau's rich deposits of coal, iron ore, mica,
bauxite, copper, and other minerals have provided the
foundation for various industries, fostering economic growth
and employment opportunities. These valuable resources
continue to drive the industrial sector in the region, contributing
to its overall development and prosperity.
Q.7) Analyze the factors contributing to the degradation of the Aravalli Range and its
implications for the surrounding regions.
Introduction The Aravalli Range is a prominent mountain range in
western India, spanning across the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Haryana, and Delhi. Over the years, the Aravalli Range has
faced significant degradation due to a variety of factors.
Body I. Factors Contributing to Degradation:

1. Mining Activities: Unregulated mining of minerals,
particularly limestone and marble, has taken a toll on the
Aravalli Range. The extraction of these minerals has led to
deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and land degradation.
2. Urbanization and Construction: Rapid urbanization and
construction activities have encroached upon the Aravalli
Range, leading to deforestation, habitat destruction, and soil
erosion. Unauthorized construction and infrastructure
development have further exacerbated the degradation.

3. Agricultural Practices: Unsustainable agricultural
practices, including improper irrigation techniques,
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, and encroachment
of agricultural land into the Aravalli Range, have resulted in
soil erosion, loss of vegetation, and water pollution.
4. Deforestation: Illegal felling of trees for timber, firewood,
and land clearance has significantly reduced the forest cover
in the Aravalli Range. Deforestation has disrupted the
ecological balance, leading to soil erosion, reduced
groundwater recharge, and loss of wildlife habitat.
II. Implications for Surrounding Regions:
1. Water Scarcity: The Aravalli Range acts as a crucial water
catchment area, supplying water to rivers, lakes, and
groundwater reserves. Degradation of the range has led to
decreased water retention capacity, resulting in reduced
water availability in surrounding regions.
2. Soil Erosion and Land Degradation: Deforestation and
unsustainable land use practices have contributed to soil
erosion, reducing soil fertility and agricultural productivity.
The loss of vegetation cover has also increased the
vulnerability of the region to landslides.
3. Biodiversity Loss: The Aravalli Range is known for its rich
biodiversity, with several endemic and endangered species.
Habitat destruction and fragmentation have led to the loss of
flora and fauna, affecting the ecological balance and
biodiversity conservation efforts.
4. Climate Change: The degradation of the Aravalli Range has
implications for climate change, as the loss of forest cover
and reduced water bodies contribute to increased

temperature, reduced rainfall, and altered weather patterns in
the surrounding regions.
Conclusion It is crucial to implement sustainable land use practices,

enforce regulations on mining and construction activities,
promote reforestation and conservation efforts, and raise
awareness about the importance of preserving the Aravalli
Range to ensure the long-term ecological and socio-economic
well-being of the region.
Q.8) Compare the origin and weather condition associated with the tropical and
temperate cyclones.
Introduction Tropical cyclones and temperate cyclones are two
distinct types of cyclonic systems that occur in different regions
of the Earth. While both cyclones involve low-pressure systems
and intense weather conditions, they have different origins and
associated weather patterns.
Body I. Origin of Tropical Cyclones:

 Tropical cyclones develop in the tropical regions over warm
ocean waters, typically between 5° and 30° latitude.
 They form over warm oceanic areas with sea surface
temperatures of at least 27°C.
 Tropical cyclones are driven by latent heat release from
condensation of water vapor in the atmosphere, which
provides the energy for their development.
II. Origin of Temperate Cyclones:
 Temperate cyclones, also known as extratropical cyclones,
form in the middle and high latitudes, typically between 30°
and 60° latitude.
 They occur in regions where warm and cold air masses meet
and interact.
 The formation of temperate cyclones is influenced by the
temperature contrasts between these air masses, leading to
the development of low-pressure systems.
III. Weather Conditions of Tropical Cyclones:
 Tropical cyclones are characterized by strong winds, heavy
rainfall, and thunderstorms.
 They have a well-defined eye at the center, surrounded by a
wall of intense convective clouds.
 Tropical cyclones often bring torrential rainfall, leading to
flooding and significant damage from storm surge and high
waves.

IV. Weather Conditions of Temperate Cyclones:
 Temperate cyclones are associated with a wide range of
weather conditions, including strong winds, rain, snow, and
thunderstorms.
 They have a more extensive cloud cover compared to
tropical cyclones.
 Temperate cyclones are often associated with frontal
systems, where warm and cold air masses interact, leading
to the formation of weather fronts and precipitation.
Conclusion Tropical and temperate cyclones differ in their origin and

associated weather conditions. Tropical cyclones form over
warm ocean waters in tropical regions and are driven by the
release of latent heat, resulting in intense winds, heavy rainfall,
and storm surge. On the other hand, temperate cyclones form in
middle and high latitudes where warm and cold air masses meet,
leading to a variety of weather conditions including strong
winds, rain, snow, and thunderstorms.
Q.9) Marine resources are economically very significant. Discuss citing suitable
examples.
Introduction Marine resources, both physical and biological, play a
significant role in the economy. These resources, found in seas
and oceans, offer various economic opportunities and benefits.
Body Marine Mineral Resources:

 Construction materials, such as sand and gravel, are
extracted from the marine environment for the construction
industry.
 Industrial materials, including silica sand, phosphates, and
sulphur, are mined from marine deposits.
 Metallic minerals like gold, platinum, and rare earth metals
have economic value and can be found in marine deposits.
 Metalliferous oxides and sulfides, containing copper, nickel,
and cobalt, are other valuable mineral resources in the
marine environment.
II. Petroleum Resources:
 Petroleum, a naturally occurring oil found beneath the
Earth's surface, is a vital resource with significant economic
importance.
 Marine locations, such as offshore drilling sites, are crucial
for the extraction of petroleum.
 Petrochemical industries rely on petroleum refining for the
production of various products.

III. Renewable Energy Sources:
 Marine waters provide renewable energy sources such as
tidal energy, wave energy, and wind energy.
 Tidal power plants harness the energy from tides to generate
electricity. Examples include the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power
Station in South Korea and the La Rance Tidal Power Plant
in France.
 Wave power captures energy from ocean waves to generate
electricity.
 Wind power, utilizing air flow through wind turbines, is a
clean and renewable energy source.
IV. Fisheries and Aquaculture:
 Oceans contain abundant fishery resources, providing a
valuable source of food and supporting the fishing industry.
 Mollusks, crustaceans, and other marine organisms
contribute to seafood production and trade.
 Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms, including
fish, mollusks, and crustaceans, has become an important
economic activity.
Conclusion The sustainable management and utilization of these

resources are essential to ensure their long-term economic
benefits while preserving the marine ecosystem.
Q.10) What are the primary factors influencing the formation and movement of
monsoon systems in the Indian subcontinent?
Introduction The Indian subcontinent experiences a unique and
significant weather phenomenon known as the monsoon. The
monsoon plays a crucial role in shaping the climate and
influencing various aspects of life in the region.
Body I. Influence of Geography:

1. Orographic Effect: The presence of the Western Ghats and
the Himalayas acts as physical barriers, forcing the moisture-
laden winds to rise, cool, and condense, leading to the
formation of rainfall along the windward slopes.
2. Thermal Contrast: The contrasting heating and cooling of
land and water masses create temperature gradients, leading
to the development of low-pressure systems over land and
high-pressure systems over the Indian Ocean. This contrast
drives the movement of the monsoon winds.
II. Influence of Pressure Systems:

1. Tibetan High: The presence of the Tibetan Plateau and its
thermal heating during summer results in the formation of
the Tibetan High. This high-pressure system drives the flow
of the monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean towards the
subcontinent.
2. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): The ITCZ,
characterized by the meeting of the northeast and southeast
trade winds, shifts northward during summer, bringing the
moisture-laden winds from the southern hemisphere towards
the Indian subcontinent.
III. Influence of Oceanic Conditions:
1. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): The IOD, characterized by the
difference in sea surface temperatures between the western
and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean, influences the strength
and direction of the monsoon winds. Positive IOD enhances
the monsoon, while negative IOD weakens it.
2. El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): The ENSO
phenomenon, characterized by the warming (El Niño) or
cooling (La Niña) of the Pacific Ocean, can influence
monsoon patterns.
3. Sea Surface Temperature (SST) Gradients: The
temperature difference between the Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal influences the monsoon rainfall distribution. The
warmer SST in the Bay of Bengal leads to enhanced
convection and increased rainfall in that region.
4. Monsoon Trough: The monsoon trough, a low-pressure
belt, develops over the northern plains of India during the
peak monsoon season. It acts as a convergence zone for
moisture-laden winds, resulting in widespread rainfall.
IV. Influence of Atmospheric Circulation:
1. Walker Circulation: The Walker circulation, a large-scale
atmospheric circulation pattern, plays a role in modulating
the monsoon. During the summer monsoon, the weakening
of the Walker circulation over the Pacific Ocean enhances
the monsoon flow over the Indian subcontinent.
2. Rossby Waves: Large-scale atmospheric waves, known as
Rossby waves, propagate from the west to the east in the
mid-latitude westerlies. These waves influence the
movement and intensity of the monsoon system, bringing
variations in rainfall patterns.
V. Local Factors:
1. Land-Sea Breeze: The differential heating and cooling of
land and sea create local circulations known as land-sea
breeze. These breezes affect coastal regions, bringing
moisture and localized rainfall.

2. Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats: These mountain
ranges influence the distribution of rainfall by acting as
barriers and causing orographic uplift, leading to increased
precipitation on windward slopes and rain shadow regions
on the leeward side.
Conclusion The monsoon is not only a meteorological phenomenon

but also a vital aspect of the region's socio-economic fabric.

Agriculture and Cropping Pattern In
India
AGRICULTURAL LAND USES IN INDIA
Land resource is more crucial to the livelihood of the people depending on agriculture:
● Agriculture is purely land based activity. The contribution of land in agricultural output
is more compared to its contribution in the outputs in the other sectors. Thus, lack of
access to land is directly correlated with incidence of poverty in rural areas.
● Quality of land has a direct bearing on the productivity of agriculture, which is not true
for other activities.
● In rural areas, aside from its value as a productive factor, land ownership has a social
value and serves as a security for credit, or life contingencies, and also adds to the social
status.
● An estimation of the total stock of agricultural land resources (i.e. total cultivable land)
can be arrived at by adding up net sown area, all fallow lands and culturable wasteland.
● It may be observed that over the years, there has been a marginal decline in the available
total stock of cultivable land as a percentage to total reporting area.
● There has been a greater decline of cultivated land, in spite of a corresponding decline
of cultivable wasteland.
Composition of Total Cultivable Land

Agricultural As a percentage of Reporting As a percentage of total
Land – use Area cultivable land
Categories
1950-51 2014-15 1950-51 2014-15
Culturable 8.0 4.0 13.4 6.8

Waste land
Fallow other 6.1 3.6 10.2 6.2

than Current
Fallow
Current Fallow 3.7 4.9 6.2 8.4
Net Area Sown 41.7 45.5 70.0 78.4
Total 59.5 58.0 100.00 100.00

Cultivable
Land

● The scope for bringing in additional land under net sown area in India is limited. There
is, thus, an urgent need to evolve and adopt land-saving technologies. Such technologies
can be classified under two heads:
○ Those which raise the yield of any particular crop per unit area of land.
○ Those which increase the total output per unit area of land from all crops grown
over one agricultural year by increasing land-use intensity.
Cropping Seasons in India

There are three distinct crop seasons in the northern and interior parts of the country.
A. Kharif Season: It largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon under which the
cultivation of tropical crops, such as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is possible.
B. Rabi Season: It begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends in
March-April. The low temperature conditions facilitate the cultivation of temperate and
subtropical crops such as wheat, gram, and mustard.
C. Zaid Season: It is a short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting
of rabi crops. The cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables, and fodder crops
during this season is done on irrigated lands.
Cropping Season Major Crops Cultivated
Northern States Southern States
Kharif Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Rice, maize, Ragi, Jowar,

June - September Jowar, Tur Groundnut
Rabi Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds and Rice, Maize, Ragi,

October-March Mustard, Barley Groundnut, Jowar
Zaid Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder Rice, Vegetables, Fodder

April - June
● This type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in southern parts of India.
The temperature is high enough to grow tropical crops during any period in the year
provided the soil moisture is available. Therefore, in this region the same crops can be
grown thrice in an agricultural year.
TYPES OF FARMING
On the basis of the main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be classified as irrigated
and rainfed (barani).
There is difference in the nature of irrigated farming, as well as based on the objective of
irrigation, i.e., protective, or productive.

A. Protective Irrigation: It protects the crops from adverse effects of soil moisture deficiency.
The strategy of this kind of irrigation is to provide soil moisture to the maximum possible
area.
B. Productive Irrigation: It is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture in the cropping
season to achieve high productivity. The water input per unit area of cultivated land is
higher than protective irrigation.
● Classification of Rainfed Farming based on adequacy of soil moisture during cropping
season:
A. Dryland Farming:
● It is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm.
● These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong,
gram and guar (fodder crops) and practice various measures of soil moisture
conservation and rainwater harvesting.
B. Wetland Farming:
● The rainfall is in excess of the soil moisture requirement of plants during the rainy
season. Such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards.
● These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugarcane and
practice aquaculture in the freshwater bodies.
FOOD GRAINS
● These crops occupy about two-third of total cropped area in the country.
● Food grains are dominant crops in all parts of India whether they have subsistence or
commercial agricultural economy.
● On the basis of the structure of grain the food grains are classified as cereals and pulses.
Cereals:
● They occupy about 54 per cent of total cropped area in India.
● India produces about 11 per cent cereals of the world and ranks third in production after
China and U.S.A.
● India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and
coarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc.
Rice
● Rice is a staple food for the overwhelming majority of population in India.
● Though, it is considered to be a crop of tropical humid areas, it has about 3,000 varieties
which are grown in different Agro-climatic regions.
● These are successfully grown from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and from humid
areas in eastern India to dry but irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, western U.P. and
northern Rajasthan.
● In southern states and West Bengal, the climatic conditions allow the cultivation of two
or three crops of rice in an agricultural year.
● In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’.

● In Himalayas and North-Western parts of India, it is grown as a kharif crop during
southwest Monsoon season.
● India contributes 21.6 per cent of rice production in the world and ranked second after
China in 2016. About one-fourth of the total cropped area in the country is under rice
cultivation. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab are the leading rice producing
states in the country.
● The yield level of rice is high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, West Bengal, and Kerala.
● In the first four of these states almost the entire land under rice cultivation is irrigated.
Punjab and Haryana are not traditional rice growing areas.
● Rice cultivation in the irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana was introduced in 1970s
following the Green Revolution. Genetically improved varieties of seed, relatively high
usage of fertilizers and pesticides and lower levels of susceptibility of the crop to pests
due to dry climatic conditions are responsible for higher yield of rice in this region. The
yield of this crop is very low in rainfed areas of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and
Odisha.
Wheat
● Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in India after rice.
● India has maximum area under wheat cultivation in world.
● It is primarily a crop of temperate zone. Hence, its cultivation in India is done during
winter i.e., rabi season.
● Concentration of Crop: About 85 per cent of total area is concentrated in north and
central regions of India i.e., Indo Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas up to
2,700 m altitude.
● It is mostly grown under irrigated conditions as it is a rabi crop. But it is a rainfed crop
in Himalayan highlands and parts of Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh.
● About 14 per cent of the total cropped area in India is under wheat cultivation.
● Leading Wheat Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan.
● The yield level of wheat is very high (above 4,000 k.g. per ha) in Punjab and Haryana
whereas, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar have moderate yields.
● The states like Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir growing
wheat under rainfed conditions have low yield.
Jowar
● The coarse cereals together occupy about 16.50 per cent of total cropped area in India.
Among these, jowar or sorghum alone accounts for about 5.3 per cent of total cropped
area.
● It is main food crop in semi-arid areas of central and southern India.
● Maharashtra alone produces more than half of the total jowar production of India. Other
leading producer states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and
Telangana.

● It is sown in both kharif and rabi seasons in southern states.
● It is a kharif crop in northern India where it is mostly grown as a fodder crop. South of
Vindhyachal it is a rainfed crop and its yield level is very low in this region.
Bajra
● Bajra is sown in hot and dry climatic conditions in northwestern and western parts of
India.
● It is a hardy crop which resists frequent dry spells and drought in this region.
● It is cultivated alone as well as part of mixed cropping.
● This coarse cereal occupies about 5.2 per cent of total cropped area in the country.
● Leading Producers of Bajra: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and
Haryana.
● Being a rainfed crop, the yield level of this crop is low in Rajasthan and fluctuates a lot
from year to year.
● Yield of this crop has increased during recent years in Haryana and Gujarat due to
introduction of drought resistant varieties and expansion of irrigation under it.
Maize
● Maize is a food as well as fodder crop grown under semi-arid climatic conditions and
over inferior soils. This crop occupies only about 3.6 per cent of total cropped area.
● Maize cultivation is not concentrated in any specific region. It is sown all over India
except Punjab and eastern and North-Eastern regions.
● Leading Producers of Maize: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
● Yield level of maize is higher than other coarse cereals. It is high in southern states and
declines towards central parts.
Pulses
● Pulses are a very important ingredient of vegetarian food as these are rich sources of
proteins.
● These are legume crops which increase the natural fertility of soils through nitrogen
fixation.
● India is a leading producer of pulses in the world.
● The cultivation of pulses in India is largely concentrated in the drylands of Deccan and
central plateaus and northwestern parts of the country.
● Pulses occupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped area in the country.
● Being the rainfed crops of drylands, the yields of pulses are low and fluctuate from year
to year.
● Gram and tur are the main pulses cultivated in India.
Gram
● Gram is cultivated in subtropical areas.
● It is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated during rabi season in central, western and
NorthWestern parts of India.
● Just one or two light showers or irrigations are required to grow this crop successfully.
● It has been displaced from the cropping pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjab and
northern Rajasthan following the green revolution.
● Gram covers only about 2.8 per cent of the total cropped area in the country.
● Main Producers: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, and Rajasthan.
● The yield of this crop continues to be low and fluctuates from year to year even in
irrigated areas.
Tur (Arhar)
● Tur is the second important pulse crop in India and is also known as red gram or pigeon
pea.
● It is cultivated over marginal lands and under rainfed conditions in the dry areas of
central and southern states of India.
● It occupies only about 2 per cent of total cropped area of India.
● Maharashtra alone contributes about one-third of the total production of tur.
● Other Leading Producers: Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.
● Per hectare output of this crop is very low and its performance is inconsistent.
Oilseeds
● The oilseeds are produced for extracting edible oils.
● Oilseeds Growing Regions: Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Telangana, Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau.
● These crops together occupy about 14 per cent of total cropped area in India.
● Main oilseeds crops grown in India: Groundnut, rapeseed, and mustard, soybean and
sunflower.
Groundnut
● India produces about 16.6 per cent of the total groundnut production in the world
(2016).
● It is largely a rainfed kharif crop of drylands. But in southern India, it is also cultivated
during rabi season.
● It covers about 3.6 per cent of total cropped area in the country.
● Leading Producers: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
● The yield of groundnut is comparatively high in Tamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated.
But its yield is low in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.
Rapeseed and Mustard
● Rapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseeds as rai, sarson, toria and taramira.
● These are subtropical crops cultivated during rabi season in north-western and central
parts of India.

● These are frost sensitive crops and their yields fluctuate from year to year. But with the
expansion of irrigation and improvement in seed technology, their yields have improved
and stabilised to some extent.
● About two-third of the cultivated area under these crops is irrigated.
● These oilseeds together occupy only about 2.5 per cent of total cropped area in the
country.
● Leading Producers: Rajasthan contributes about one-third production while other
leading producers are Haryana and Madhya Pradesh.
● Yields of these crops are comparatively high in Haryana and Rajasthan.
Other Oilseeds
● Soybean and sunflower are other important oilseeds grown in India.
● Soyabean:
○ It is mostly grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. These two states together
produce about 90 per cent of total output of soyabean in the country.
● Sunflower:
○ Its cultivation is concentrated in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and
adjoining areas of Maharashtra.
○ It is a minor crop in Northern parts of India where its yield is high due to irrigation.
FIBER CROPS
● These crops provide us fiber for preparing cloth, bags, sacks and a number of other
items. Cotton and jute are two main fiber crops grown in India.
Cotton
● Cotton is a tropical crop grown in kharif season in semi-arid areas of the country.
● India grows short staple (Indian) cotton and long staple (American) cotton called
‘narma’ in north-western parts of India.
● Cotton requires clear sky during flowering stage.
● India ranks second in the world in the production of cotton after China.
● Cotton Growing areas in India:
○ Parts of Punjab, Haryana and northern Rajasthan in north-west.
○ Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west.
○ Plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in south.
● Leading Producers: Gujarat, Maharashtra and Telangana .
● Per hectare output of cotton is high under irrigated conditions in north-western region
of India.
● Its yield is very low in Maharashtra where it is grown under rainfed conditions.
Jute
● Jute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacks, and decorative items.
● It is a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining eastern parts of India.
● At present, India produces about three-fifth of jute production of the world.
● West Bengal accounts for about three-fourth of the production in the country.
● Bihar and Assam are other jute growing areas.
● This crop accounts for only about 0.5 per cent of total cropped area in India.
● Other Crops: Sugarcane, tea and coffee are other important crops grown in India.
Sugarcane
● Sugarcane is a crop of tropical areas. Under rainfed conditions, it is cultivated in sub-
humid and humid climates. But it is largely an irrigated crop in India.
● In Indo-Gangetic plain, its cultivation is largely concentrated in Uttar Pradesh.
● Sugarcane growing area in western India is spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat.
● In southern India, it is cultivated in irrigated tracts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
● It accounts for about 19 per cent of the world production of sugarcane. But it occupies
only 2.4 per cent of total cropped area in the country.
● Uttar Pradesh produces about two-fifth of sugarcane of the country.
● Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh are other leading producers
of this crop where yield level of sugarcane is high.
● Its yield is low in northern India.
Tea
● Tea is a plantation crop used as beverage.
● Black tea leaves are fermented whereas green tea leaves are unfermented.
● Tea leaves have rich content of caffeine and tannin.
● It is an indigenous crop of hills in northern China.
● Conditions: It is grown over undulating topography of hilly areas and well drained soils
in humid and sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics.
● In India:
○ Tea plantation started in 1840s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam which still is a
major tea growing area in the country.
○ Later on, its plantation was introduced in the sub-Himalayan region of West Bengal
(Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts).
○ Tea is also cultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri and Cardamom hills in Western
Ghats.
● India is a leading producer of tea and accounts for about 21.1 per cent of total
production in the world 2016.
● India’s share in the international market of tea has declined substantially. It ranks
second among tea exporting countries in the world after China (2016).
● Assam accounts for about 53.2 per cent of the total cropped area and contributes more
than half of total production of tea in the country. West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are the
other leading producers of tea.

Coffee
● Coffee is a tropical plantation crop.
● Its seeds are roasted, ground and are used for preparing a beverage.
● There are three varieties of coffee i.e. arabica, robusta and liberica.
● India mostly grows superior quality coffee, arabica, which is in great demand in
International market.
● India produces only about 3.7 per cent coffee of the world and ranks seventh after
Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia, and Honduras in 2016.
● Cultivated Areas: Coffee is cultivated in the highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka,
Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone accounts for more than two-third of total
production of coffee in India.
PROBLEMS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE

● It varies according to agro-ecological and historical experiences of its different regions.
● There are some problems which are common and range from physical constraints to
institutional hindrances.
Dependence of Erratic Monsoon
● Irrigation covers only about 33 per cent of the cultivated area in India. The crop
production in rest of the cultivated land directly depends on rain.
○ Poor performance of south-west monsoon also adversely affects the supply of
canal water for irrigation.
○ Even the areas receiving high annual rainfall experience considerable
fluctuations.
● Drought is a common phenomenon in the low rainfall areas, which may also experience
occasional floods. Droughts and floods continue to be the twin menace in Indian
agriculture.
Low Productivity
● The yield of the crops in the country is low in comparison to the international level.
○ Per hectare output of most of the crops such as rice, wheat, cotton, and oilseeds
in India is much lowerthan that of the U.S.A., Russia, and Japan.
○ The vast rainfed areas of the country, particularly drylands which mostly grow
coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds have low yields.
● The labour productivity in Indian agriculture is very low because of the very high
pressure on the land resources.
Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness
● The modern agriculture inputs are very expensive. This resource intensive approach has
become unmanageable for marginal and small farmers as they have very meagre or no
saving to invest in agriculture.
● To tide over these difficulties, most of such farmers have resorted to availing credit
from various institutions and moneylenders.

● Crop failures and low returns from agriculture have forced them to fall in the trap of
indebtedness.
Lack of Land Reforms
● Indian peasantry had been exploited as there had been unequal distribution of land.
● Among the three revenue systems operational during British period, i.e., Mahalwari,
Ryotwari and Zamindari, the Zamindari was most exploitative for the peasants.
● After Independence, land reforms were accorded priority, but these reforms were not
implemented effectively due to lack of strong political will.
Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings
● There are a large number of marginal and small farmers and the average size of land
holding is shrinkingunder increasing population pressure.
● There are some states where consolidation of holding has not been carried out even
once.
● The small size of fragmented landholdings are uneconomic.
Lack of Commercialisation
● A large number of farmers produce crops for self-consumption and these farmers do
not have enough land resources to produce more than their requirement.
● Modernisation and commercialisation of agriculture have taken place in the irrigated
areas.
Vast Underemployment
● There is a massive underemployment in the agricultural sector in India, particularly in
the unirrigated tracts.
○ In these areas, there is a seasonal unemployment ranging from 4 to 8 months.
○ Even in the cropping season, work is not available throughout as agricultural
operations are not labor intensive.
Degradation of Cultivable Land
● The problem of degradation of land resources arises out of faulty strategy of irrigation
and agricultural development. This may lead to depletion of soil fertility.
● The situation is particularly alarming in irrigated areas. A large tract of agricultural land
has lost its fertility due to alkalisation and salinisation of soils and waterlogging.
● Excessive use of chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides has led to their
concentration in toxic amountsin the soil profile.
● Leguminous crops have been displaced from the cropping pattern in the irrigated areas
and duration of fallow has substantially reduced owing to multiple cropping.
● Rainfed areas in humid and semi-arid tropics also experience degradation of several
types like soil erosion by water and wind erosion which are often induced by human
activities.

Agro-Climatic Zones of India
Definition
An Agro-climatic zone is a land unit defined by major climates suitable for a range of crops
and cultivars. It focuses on the scientific management of regional resources to meet the needs
for food, fiber, fodder, and fuel wood without harming natural resources and the environment.
Key factors include soil types, rainfall, temperature, and water availability.
Planning of Agro-Climatic Zones
● India, with its vast 329 million hectares, presents complex agro-climatic situations.
Various efforts have been made to delineate these zones based on soils, climate,
physiographic features, and natural vegetation for macro-level planning.
Major Classifications
1. Agro-climatic Regions by the Planning Commission:
o Divided the country into 15 broad agro-climatic zones based on physiography, soils,
climate, cropping patterns, irrigation, and mineral resources.
o Further divided into 72 sub-zones for detailed planning.
o Integrated with state and national plans for policy development.
2. Agro-Climatic Zones under National Agricultural Research Project (NARP):
o Initiated by ICAR to set up zonal research stations for location-specific research.
o Focused on analyzing conditions and cropping patterns to address major
agricultural constraints.
o Divided the country into 127 agro-climatic zones.
3. Agro-Ecological Regions by the National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning
(NBSS & LUP):
o Created 20 agro-ecological zones based on growing periods, effective rainfall, and
soil groups.
o Further divided into 60 sub-zones.
Agro-Ecological Zones of India
1. Western Himalayas
2. Western Plain, Kachchh, and Kathiawar Peninsula
3. Deccan Plateau
4. Northern Plain and Central Highlands including Aravallis
5. Central Malwa Highlands, Gujarat Plains, and Kathiawar Peninsula
6. Deccan Plateau (hot semi-arid ecoregion)
7. Deccan (Telangana) Plateau and Eastern Ghats
8. Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu Plateau and Deccan (Karnataka)
9. Northern Plain (hot sub-humid ecoregion)
10. Central Highlands (Malwas, Bundelkhand, and Eastern Satpura)
11. Eastern Plateau (Chhattisgarh), hot sub-humid ecoregion
12. Eastern (Chotanagpur) Plateau and Eastern Ghats
13. Eastern Plain
14. Western Himalayas
15. Bengal and Assam plains
16. Eastern Himalayas
17. North Eastern Hills (Purvanchal)
18. Eastern Coastal Plain
19. Western Ghats and Coastal Plain
20. Islands of Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep
GREEN REVOLUTION
What is the Green Revolution?
● The Green Revolution refers to a period when agriculture in many developing countries
was transformed by the introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds,
especially for staple crops like wheat and rice. It involved the adoption of modern
agricultural practices, including the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and advanced
irrigation methods, leading to a significant increase in food production.
Aim of the Green Revolution
● The primary aim of the Green Revolution was to address food scarcity and hunger by
increasing agricultural productivity. Launched in the 1960s, the initiative aimed to make
countries like India self-sufficient in food production, thereby reducing dependency on
imports and preventing famines. The long-term goals included modernization of
agriculture, enhancement of rural development, and stimulation of industrial growth
linked to agriculture.
Initiation and Implementation
● The Green Revolution was spearheaded by agronomists like Norman Borlaug, known
as the "Father of the Green Revolution," and in India by M.S. Swaminathan. It was
funded by the Indian government, international agencies, and foundations such as the
Ford and Rockefeller Foundations. The revolution began with the introduction of HYV
seeds, coupled with improved irrigation techniques and increased use of fertilizers and
pesticides.
Positive Impacts
1. Increase in Crop Production: The Green Revolution led to a dramatic increase in crop
yields, particularly for wheat and rice. This made India one of the world's leading
agricultural producers.
2. Self-Sufficiency: India transitioned from a food-deficient nation to a self-sufficient one,
with reduced grain imports and the ability to export surplus food grains during favorable
years.
3. Economic Benefits for Farmers: Farmers saw significant increases in income due to
higher productivity. Large landowners particularly benefited from the ability to invest
in advanced agricultural inputs and machinery.
4. Industrial Growth: The need for agricultural machinery, fertilizers, pesticides, and
other inputs stimulated industrial growth. The demand for tractors, harvesters, and
irrigation equipment surged, contributing to the industrialization of rural areas.
5. Employment Opportunities: The Green Revolution generated employment both in the
agricultural sector and related industries. Increased farm activities and the need for
maintenance of agricultural machinery provided more job opportunities.
Government Support and Ongoing Programs
● The Indian government has continued to support the principles of the Green Revolution
through various schemes and programs. Key initiatives include the Krishonnati Yojana
and Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna, which promote aspects of the Green Revolution such
as plant breeding, irrigation development, and the use of agrochemicals. Programs like
the National Food Security Mission and the National Mission for Sustainable
Agriculture aim to sustain and enhance the gains achieved during the Green Revolution.
Issues with Chemical Fertilizers
● While the Green Revolution greatly increased food production, it also led to the overuse
of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which caused soil degradation and environmental
damage. To address these issues, the Indian government promotes balanced and
integrated nutrient management, encouraging the use of organic fertilizers alongside
chemical ones. Programs like the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana and the Mission
Organic Value Chain for the North East Region aim to promote sustainable farming
practices.
Negative Impacts
1. Environmental Degradation: Intensive use of chemical inputs led to soil degradation,
water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. The excessive use of water-intensive crops
also depleted groundwater levels.
2. Health Hazards: The widespread use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers has been
linked to health problems among farmers and rural communities, including cancer and
other chronic illnesses.
3. Regional Disparities: The benefits of the Green Revolution were not evenly
distributed. States like Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh saw significant
gains, while regions such as Eastern India and arid areas received fewer benefits,
exacerbating regional inequalities.
4. Exclusion of Non-Food Crops: The focus on staple crops like wheat and rice meant
that other crops, including pulses, oilseeds, and commercial crops, were largely
neglected. This limited the overall agricultural diversity and resilience.
The Evergreen Revolution
In response to the environmental and social challenges posed by the Green Revolution, Dr.
M.S. Swaminathan proposed the concept of the Evergreen Revolution. This approach aims to
increase agricultural productivity in ways that are environmentally safe, economically viable,
and socially sustainable. It integrates ecological principles with technological advancements to
promote sustainable agricultural development.

EMERGING TRENDS IN AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
India's agricultural sector is experiencing a major transformation driven by technological
advancements, government initiatives, and a shift towards sustainability. This transformation
is crucial for addressing current challenges and preparing for future demands. Here, we explore
the key trends shaping the future of agriculture in India.
Technological Advancements
 Precision Farming and IoT: The adoption of precision farming technologies is
revolutionizing agricultural practices. By utilizing IoT devices, farmers can monitor
soil health, weather conditions, and crop growth in real-time. These technologies enable
precise application of inputs like water, fertilizers, and pesticides, leading to improved
yields and reduced costs.
 Drones and UAVs: Drones are increasingly being used for crop monitoring, spraying
fertilizers, and assessing crop health. These unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) provide
detailed aerial images, allowing farmers to make informed decisions about their crops.
The government's push to make drone technology affordable has further accelerated its
adoption.
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): AI and ML are being
leveraged to analyze vast amounts of agricultural data. These technologies help in
predictive analytics for crop management, pest control, and weather forecasting. By
predicting potential issues, farmers can take preventive measures to protect their crops
and optimize production.
 Blockchain Technology: Blockchain is enhancing transparency in the agricultural
supply chain. It ensures that farmers receive fair compensation and provides consumers
with detailed information about the origin and quality of their food. This technology is
particularly useful in tracking the journey of produce from farm to table, ensuring
accountability at every stage.
 Mobile Applications: Mobile apps are empowering farmers by providing critical

information such as weather forecasts, market prices, and farming techniques. These
apps facilitate direct connections between farmers and buyers, reducing the reliance on
middlemen and improving profitability for farmers.
Sustainable Agriculture
 Regenerative Agriculture: There is a growing emphasis on sustainable farming
practices, particularly regenerative agriculture. This approach focuses on improving
soil health through practices that build organic matter, enhance biodiversity, and
sequester carbon. Regenerative agriculture not only increases productivity but also
contributes to long-term environmental sustainability.
 Organic Farming: The shift towards organic farming is gaining momentum. Organic
practices reduce the reliance on chemical inputs, improve soil fertility, and produce
healthier food. The government is promoting organic farming through various schemes
and incentives, aiming to make agriculture more eco-friendly and sustainable.
 Water Management: Efficient water management is critical for sustainable
agriculture. Techniques like drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting are being promoted
to optimize water usage. The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayi Yojana (PMKSY) aims
to provide every farm with access to irrigation, ensuring 'Per Drop More Crop'.
Government Initiatives
 Financial Support and Insurance: The government has introduced several schemes
to provide financial support to farmers. The Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
(PMFBY) is the largest crop insurance scheme globally, covering millions of farmers
against crop loss due to natural calamities. The Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi
(PM-KISAN) provides direct financial assistance to farmers, enhancing their economic
security.
 Agricultural Infrastructure Fund (AIF): The AIF has been instrumental in
developing infrastructure near farms. It has funded projects such as warehouses,
primary processing units, and cold storage facilities, which are essential for reducing
post-harvest losses and improving the value chain.
 Market Linkages: The e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) platform integrates
Agriculture Produce Marketing Committees (APMC) mandis across the country,
facilitating better market access for farmers. This digital platform promotes transparent
price discovery and ensures farmers receive fair prices for their produce.
 Promotion of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs): The government is
encouraging the formation of FPOs to enable small farmers to pool their resources and
gain better access to markets, credit, and technology. As of early 2024, nearly 8,000
FPOs have been registered, benefiting a significant number of farmers.
 Sustainable Farming Initiatives: The government is promoting sustainable farming
practices through schemes like Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and the
promotion of natural farming. These initiatives aim to reduce the environmental impact
of agriculture while maintaining productivity.
Diversification and Allied Sectors
 Crop Diversification: Farmers are diversifying their crops to reduce risks and improve
income stability. By growing a variety of crops, including high-value horticultural
products, farmers can better withstand market fluctuations and environmental
challenges.
 Allied Activities: Engaging in allied activities such as dairy, poultry, and aquaculture
provides additional income sources for farmers. The government supports these
activities through various schemes and infrastructure development initiatives.
 Fisheries and Aquaculture: The fisheries sector has seen substantial growth due to
government schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY),
which aims to double fish production and exports, creating significant employment
opportunities.
 Livestock Management: Improving livestock productivity is another focus area.
Schemes like the Rashtriya Gokul Mission aim to enhance the genetic quality of
livestock and improve milk production, benefiting dairy farmers.

IMPORTANT IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN INDIA
Indira Gandhi Canal
 Location: Rajasthan
 Description: One of India’s largest irrigation projects, diverting water from the Sutlej
River through a canal over 600 km long into the Thar desert.
 Impact: Created irrigated land covering more than 1.8 million hectares, significantly
boosting agricultural production in the desert region.
 Command Area: 528,000 hectares
Narmada Valley Project
 Location: Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
 Description: Utilizes water from the Narmada River to irrigate over 1.7 million
hectares. The project includes multiple dams, canals, and reservoirs providing irrigation
and drinking water.
 Impact: Supports millions with irrigation and drinking water, enhancing agricultural
productivity in the region.
Krishna Godavari Project
 Location: Andhra Pradesh
 Description: One of India's major river basin projects, involving numerous dams,
canals, and reservoirs to irrigate more than 5 million hectares and generate hydroelectric
power.
 Impact: Provides drinking water to various cities and supports extensive agricultural
and power needs.
 Command Area: 345,000 - 504,000 hectares
Tungabhadra Project
 Location: Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
 Description: A collaborative irrigation project diverting water from the Tungabhadra
River to irrigate over 1.2 million hectares.
 Impact: Supplies water for agricultural purposes and hydroelectric power, benefiting
the local cities and enhancing the region's productivity.
Sardar Sarovar Project
 Location: Gujarat (Narmada River)
 Description: A multi-purpose project that includes several dams, canals, and reservoirs
to irrigate over 1.8 million hectares and generate hydroelectric power.
 Impact: Provides irrigation, power, and drinking water to numerous cities, significantly
impacting the region's agricultural and urban sectors.
 Command Area: 1,845,000 hectares
Hirakud Dam

 Location: Odisha (Mahanadi River)
 Description: A multipurpose dam standing 60 meters tall, capable of holding 4.7 billion
cubic meters of water. It includes several canals irrigating over 2 million hectares.
 Impact: Controls regional flooding, generates hydroelectric power, and boosts
agricultural productivity in Odisha and surrounding states.
Bhakra Nangal Dam
 Location: Himachal Pradesh (Sutlej River)
 Description: One of India’s largest dams, constructed in 1963, with a reservoir capacity
of 9.34 billion cubic meters.
 Impact: Provides irrigation to over 10 million hectares and generates more than 1,300
megawatts of electricity, transforming the region's agricultural landscape.
Beas Project
 Location: Punjab and Haryana
 Description: Initiated in 1956 and completed in 1974, this project diverts water from
the Beas River, including several dams, canals, and reservoirs.
 Impact: Irrigates over 3 million hectares, significantly enhancing agricultural
productivity and improving the economic conditions of the region.
Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM) Programme

Overview
The Command Area Development & Water Management (CADWM) Programme was initiated
in 1974-75 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with the primary objective of bridging the gap
between the irrigation potential created and its actual utilization. The programme is designed
to enhance the efficiency and sustainability of irrigation systems and to improve agricultural
productivity through participatory approaches.
Objectives
 Enhance Utilization of Irrigation Potential: Increase the effective use of irrigation
infrastructure to improve agricultural productivity.
 Sustainable Agricultural Production: Ensure long-term sustainability of agriculture
through efficient water management practices.
 Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM): Promote community involvement in
irrigation management to ensure better maintenance and operation of irrigation
systems.
Key Components
The CADWM Programme includes both structural and non-structural interventions:
1. Structural Interventions:

o Hydraulic Connectivity: Enhance connectivity to tail-end farms through lined
field channels.
o Micro-Irrigation Infrastructure: Develop micro-irrigation systems such as
sprinklers, drip irrigation, and pivot systems for at least 10% of the Culturable
Command Area (CCA).
o Underground Pipeline Network (UGPN): Promote UGPN for its benefits such as
land savings, long durability, ease of control, adaptability for undulating land, and
prevention of pilferage.
2. Non-Structural Interventions:
o Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM): Strengthen PIM by creating and
building the capacity of Water User Associations (WUAs).
o Training and Field Demonstrations: Provide training and demonstrations to
WUAs to enhance their effectiveness..
Benefits
 Increased Irrigation Efficiency: Improved water distribution and usage efficiency in
agricultural fields.
 Enhanced Agricultural Productivity: Higher crop yields and better use of available
water resources.
 Community Involvement: Active participation of local communities in managing and
maintaining irrigation systems.
 Sustainable Water Management: Long-term sustainability through the adoption of
advanced irrigation techniques and infrastructure.
Industries
Classification of Industries
● Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials, size and ownership.
1. Based on Raw Material – Industries classified based on the type of raw material they
use. For example – Agro based industries use plant and animal based products as their
raw materials. Marine based industries use products from the sea and oceans as raw
materials, etc.
2. Based on Size – Industries classified based on the amount of capital invested, number
of people employed and the volume of production. Based on size, industries can be
classified into small scale and large scale industries. For example – Production of
automobiles and heavy machinery are large scale industries. They produce large
volumes of products, Investment of capital is higher and the technology used is superior
while Cottage and household industries are small scale industries where the products
are manufactured by hand and use a lesser amount of capital and technology.
3. Based on Ownership – based on the ownership industries can be divided into
● Private sector – owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals

● Public sector or state-owned– owned and operated by the government, such as
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Steel Authority of India (SAIL).
● Joint sector- owned and operated both by the state and individuals or a group of
individuals, example, Maruti Udyog limited
● Cooperative sector – owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw
materials, workers or both. Example – Amul India and IFFCO Indian Farmers
Fertiliser Cooperatives.
INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONS: INFLUENCING FACTORS

1. Access to Market
● The market consists of people who demand manufactured goods and have the
purchasing power to buy them.
● Developed regions like Europe, North America, Australia, and Japan have high
purchasing power.
● Densely populated regions
in South and Southeast Asia
also provide substantial
markets.
2. Access to Raw Materials
● Industries based on cheap,
bulky, weight-loss materials
(e.g., sugar, steel, cement)
are located near raw material
sources.
● Industries processing
perishable goods (e.g., agro-
processing, dairy) are
situated close to sources of farm produce or milk supply to ensure freshness and
reduce transportation costs.
3. Access to Labor Supply
● A sufficient supply of labor is crucial for industrial locations.
● However, the rise of mechanization and automation has decreased the reliance on
human labor, allowing industries to operate efficiently with fewer workers.
4. Access to Sources of Energy
● Power-intensive industries, such as aluminum production, are situated near energy
sources.
● Common energy sources include coal, hydroelectricity, and petroleum, which
provide the necessary power for industrial operations.
5. Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities
● Efficient transportation and communication are essential for industrial
development.

● Regions like Western Europe and Eastern North America have highly developed
transportation systems, contributing to the growth and development of industries in
these areas.
6. Government Policies
● Governments adopt regional policies to promote balanced economic development.
● These policies often involve setting up industries in particular areas to ensure
equitable growth and development across regions.
7. Access to Agglomeration Economies/Link between Industries
● Agglomeration economies refer to the benefits derived from the linkages between
different industries.
These linkages can lead to reduced costs, shared services, and enhanced innovation through
collaboration
Distribution of Major Industries in India

● While information technology is an emerging industry the iron and steel and textile
industry are the older industries and have played an important role in Indian
Industrialization.
● The main reason for the development and growth of towns and cities is
Industrialization.
● Countries like Germany, the USA, China, Japan and Russia have a firm hold on the iron
and steel industry.
● The textile industry is concentrated in India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and
Taiwan.
● The major hubs of the Information technology industry are the Silicon Valley of Central
California and the Bangalore region of India.
INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA

Iron and Steel Industry
● These are feeder industries whose products are used as raw materials for other
industries.
● The product obtained by this industry is used as raw material by other industries
● The inputs for the industry include raw materials such as iron ore, coal and limestone,
along with labor, capital, site and other infrastructure. The process of converting iron
ore into steel involves smelting and refining. The output obtained is steel (often called
the backbone of modern industry.) which is a basic material needed in every other
industry.
● In a developing country like India, the Iron and Steel industry has taken the advantage
of cheap labor, raw material, and the ready market.

● All the important steel-producing centers such as Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur,
Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are situated in a region that spreads over four states that
are West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
● Bhadravati and Vijay Nagar in Karnataka, Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Salem in
Tamil Nadu are other important steel centers utilizing local resources.
● The development of the iron and steel industry opened the doors to rapid industrial
development in India.
Jamshedpur Steel Plant
● Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) was started in 1907 at Sakchi (renamed
as Jamshedpur).
● It is the most conveniently situated iron and steel center in the country.
● It was close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits as well as to Kolkata, which
provided a large market.
● TISCO, gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, limestone, dolomite and
manganese from Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
● The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers ensured a sufficient water supply.
Cotton & Textile Industry
● Weaving cloth from yarn is an ancient art. Cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax have been used
for making cloth.
● Fibers are the raw material of the textile industry and textile industries can be divided
on the basis of raw materials used in them.
● Fibers can be natural or man-made. Natural fibers are obtained from wool, silk, cotton,
linen and jute. Man made fibers include nylon, polyester, acrylic and rayon.
● The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world.
● Until the Industrial Revolution [1760-1840] in the 18th century, cotton cloth was made
using hand spinning techniques (wheels) and looms. In the 18th century power looms
facilitated the development of the cotton textile industry, first in Britain and later in
other parts of the world.
● Today India, China, Japan and the USA are important producers of cotton textiles.
● The Muslin of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought
cotton of Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara are some of the well known and highly
demanded fibers worldwide for their quality and design.
● After the industrial revolution, the first successful mechanized textile mill was
established in Mumbai in 1854. The warm, moist climate, a port for importing
machinery, availability of raw material and skilled labor resulted in rapid expansion of
the industry in the region.
● In Gujarat on the banks of the Sabarmati river the first cotton textile mill was
established in 1859. It soon became the second-largest textile city of India, after
Mumbai. Ahmedabad was therefore often referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’.

Ahmedabad Textile Industry
● The textile industry in Ahmedabad is situated very close to the cotton growing area
ensuring easy availability of raw material.
● The climate is ideal for spinning and weaving.
● The flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for the establishment of the
mills.
● The densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra provide both skilled and semi-
skilled labor.
● Well-developed road and railway networks permit easy transportation of textiles to
different parts of the country, thus providing easy access to the market.
● Mumbai port nearby facilitates the import of machinery and the export of cotton
textiles.
● Initially, this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat because of the
favorable humid climate. But today, Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmedabad,
Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat are some of the other important
centers.
Petrochemical industry
● India has a fast-growing Pharmaceutical Industry with well-developed drug
intermediates manufacturing facilities. Petrochemicals cover basic chemicals like
Ethylene, Propylene, Benzene and Xylene. The other major components are the
intermediates like MEG, PAN and LAB etc. Synthetic fibres like Nylon, PSF and PFY,
Polymers like LDPE/HDPE, PVC, Polyester and PET etc. and Synthetic rubbers like
SBR, PBR. The sector has significant growth potential. Although the current per capita
consumption of petrochemicals products is low, the demand for the same is growing.
● India has a petroleum-refining capacity of over 194 Million Tonnes per Annum
(MTPA). The world’s largest grass root refinery with 32 MTPA capacities is located in
India.
● It has a number of gas cracker complexes with downstream facilities producing 8 MTPA
plastics and polymers.
● India produces 21 MTPA of Urea; and has the widest range of chemicals like Caustic
(2.4 MTPA), Soda Ash (2.7 MTPA), and sulphuric acid; Dyes & Dye Intermediates and
Fine Chemicals.
Automobile Industry
● Before Independence, India did not have an automobile industry in the typical sense.
Only the imported parts were used for assembly.
● In 1928, General Motors (India) Ltd. opened a factory in Mumbai to assemble trucks
and cars.
● In 1930, Ford Motor Co. (India) Ltd. began assembling cars and trucks in Chennai, and
in 1931, in Mumbai.
● With the establishment of Premier Automobiles Ltd. in Kurla (Mumbai) in 1947 and
Hindustan Motors Ltd. in Uttarpara (Kolkata) in 1948, the industry began to take off.

● India's automobile industry has advanced significantly over the last three decades. It is
now one of the most thriving economic sectors.
● Since 1991, when the automobile industry was gradually liberalized, more and more
players have established manufacturing facilities in India.
● There are currently 15 manufacturers of passenger cars and multiutility vehicles, 9
manufacturers of commercial vehicles, 14 manufacturers of two/three-wheelers, and 14
manufacturers of tractors, as well as 5 engine manufacturers. More than Rs. 50,000
crore has been invested in the industry.
● The automobile industry had a revenue of over Rs. 1,00,000 crores in the fiscal year
2003-04.
● In addition, the industry has a lot of job openings.
● It currently employs 4.5 lakh people directly and about one crore people indirectly. The
auto industry's contribution to GDP increased from 2.77 percent in 1992-93 to 4.7
percent in 2002-03.
Location and distribution
● The major automobile manufacturing centers are Mumbai, Chennai, Jamshedpur,
Jabalpur, and Kolkata.
● These facilities manufacture a wide range of vehicles, including trucks, buses,
passenger cars, three-wheelers, and two-wheelers.
● Faridabad and Mysore are also known for producing motorcycles.
● Lucknow, Satara, Akurdi (near Pune), Panki (near Kanpur), and Odhav also produce
scooters (Ahmedabad dist.).
● In 1983, Maruti Udyog Ltd. (MUL) in Gurgaon, Haryana, began producing passenger
cars.
● There are currently 38 automobile manufacturing units producing four-wheelers, three-
wheelers, and two-wheelers.
● Three distinct clusters have emerged in the automobile industry.
○ In South India; around Chennai
○ In West India; Ahmedabad to Pune
○ In North India; Haryana, Delhi-NCR
● The Chennai region is the largest automobile industry hub accounting for 40% of
revenue and 60% of exports.
● Ford, Hyundai, Renault, Nissan, and MBW are some of the major companies that
operate.
● Chennai is also known as "India's Detroit."
Sugar industry
● The sugar industry in India is the second most significant agro-based industry. India is
the largest producer of both cane sugar and sugarcane, India is the largest producer in
the world contributing approximately 8% of the total production of Sugar in the world.

● This industry employs over 4 lakh persons directly while indirectly contributing to the
income of a large number of farmers. The nature of the Sugar industry in India is
seasonal due to a multitude of factors.
Location of the Sugar Industry
● The majority of the Sugar factories are located in cane-producing regions.
● Maharashtra has emerged as one of the top states in sugar production in the country. It
produces approximately one-third of the total sugar production in the country. There
are 119 sugar mills in Maharashtra out of which 87 mills operate in the cooperative
sector.
● Uttar Pradesh has emerged as the second-largest sugar-producing state in India. The
majority of the sugar factories are concentrated in two belts. Out of them, one is the
taria region and another is the Ganga-Yamuna doab. The majority of the sugar factories
in UP are located in Saharanpur, Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, Baghpat, Ghaziabad, and
Bulandshahr districts.
● Districts like Basti, Gorakhpur, Kheri Lakhimpur, Bahraich, and Gonda are significant
sugar-producing districts located in the Terai region.
● When it comes to the production of sugar, South India does not lag.
● There are numerous districts in Tamil Nadu that contribute significantly when it comes
to sugar production. They include Coimbatore, Villupuram and Vellore Tiruvannamalai.
● As far as Karnataka’s contribution is concerned in the context of Sugar production,
districts like Tiruchchirappalli, Belgaum, Mandya, Bellary, Shimoga, Chitradurga, and
Bijapur, districts dominate.
● The sugar industry in the South is distributed in various coastal regions including East
Godavari, Visakhapatnam districts, West, Godavari, Medak, and Nizamabad districts
(Telangana), and Chittoor district (Rayalaseema)
● The other top Sugar producing States in India include Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat,
and Madhya Pradesh.
Knowledge-Based Industries
● Knowledge industries are comparatively new types of industries based on the intensive
utilization of human capital and technology.
● The majority of the industries are dependent on knowledge as an input in some or
another way.
● Such industries include science, education, consulting, finance, information
technology, insurance, communications, and health service.
● India is one of the top countries in the world in the context of a youthful population.
● It has an immense potential to become a top ICT (information and communication
technology) industry provided barriers related to infrastructure, education, and
regulatory measures are overcome.
● The entire world is all set to embrace AI unimaginably and hence it is the best time for
India to make a rapid shift towards a Knowledge-based economy to gain a competitive
edge in the world’s market.

Information & Technology Industries
● The information technology industry deals in the storage, processing and distribution
of information.
● Due to a series of technological, political, and socio-economic events the industry has
become global in a decade.
● The main factors guiding the location of these industries are resource availability, cost
and infrastructure.
● Apart from Bengaluru in India, there are other emerging information technology hubs
in metropolitan centers of the nation such as Mumbai, New Delhi, Hyderabad and
Chennai. Other cities such as Gurgaon, Pune, Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and
Chandigarh are also important centers of the IT industry.
● Silicon Valley, California and Bangalore both share many similar aspects in the
development of Information technology such as pleasant climate, skilled workforce,
presence of high quality educational, technological and scientific centers and access to
markets.
Industrial System
● An industrial system consists of inputs, processes and outputs.
● The inputs are the raw materials, labor and costs of land, transport, power and other
infrastructure.
● The processes include a wide range of activities that convert the raw material into
finished products.
● The outputs are the end product and the income earned from it.
Industrial Region or Industrial Cluster
● Industrial regions emerge when a number of industries locate close to each other and
share the benefits of their closeness. Major industrial Cluster or region in India are –
● Mumbai-Pune cluster,
● Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region,
● Hugli region,
● Ahmedabad-Baroda region,
● Chota Nagpur industrial belt,
● Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt,
● Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region
● The Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram industrial cluster
● Maharashtra Industrial Region
The Mumbai-Pune industrial region
● It is the country’s most significant industrial region, with roots dating back to colonial
administration in India.
● The expansion of the cotton textile industry is linked to the expansion of this area.
Ratnagiri’s coastline district provides both qualified and unqualified labor.

● Even though the city-states, Mumbai and Pune, are separated by a large distance, they
nonetheless form a viable economic zone.
● A quick electrified train route connects the two cities.
● Greater Maharashtra has about 6000 registered manufacturers, whereas Pune has over
1150 licensed manufacturers and is the continent’s second most powerful center.
Hooghly Industrial Region
● Hooghly Industrial Region stretches for around 100 kilometers along the Hugli
Riverbed, from Bansberia in the northwest to Birlanagar in the southeast. In the west,
Midnapur has built an industrial base.
● The foundation of this commercial hub is Kolkata-Hawra.
● The region’s economic growth has been highly influenced by tea plantations in
Guwahati, jute manufacturing, Damodar Valley coal reserves, and iron ore reserves on
the Chotanagpur mountain range.
● Its development was aided by the cheap labor available in heavily populated regions of
Bihar, northeastern Uttar Pradesh, and Odisha.
● The Indian textile industry, as well as the jute sector, flourished the most in this region.
Besides, the paper, construction, sewing machines, electrical, chemical,
pharmacological, fertilizer, and chemical sectors also prospered in this economic
region.
● Kolkata and Hanoi are significant manufacturing hubs in this region.
Bengaluru-Chennai Industrial Region
● In the post-independence decades, this sector had the most significant rapid production.
Businesses were restricted to the provinces of Mysore, Salem, and Chennai until 1960,
but they have since extended to all of Tamil Nadu’s divisions except Villupuram.
● Because Bengaluru-Chennai industrial region is far from the coal reserves, it is reliant
on the Pykara hydropower project, which was erected in 1932.
● Owing to the inclusion of cotton agricultural regions, the Indian textile industry would
be the one to gain a foothold.
● Together with textile factories, the loom business grew quickly. Bangalore brought
together several heavy manufacturing businesses.
● Aircraft (HAL) and telephones (HTL) are two of the most well-known industrial
milestones of the twentieth century.
Gujarat Industrial Region
● The center of this territory is located between Gujarat and Baroda, although it extends
southeast to Valsad and Gujarat and west to Maharashtra.
● Ever since the 1860s, the prosperity of this region has been linked to the establishment
of the production of textiles.
● With the demise of the handloom industry in Maharashtra, this area became a major
textile country.
● The infrastructure has now become more diverse.

● Other businesses include heavy and fundamental pharmaceuticals, automobiles,
vehicles, and petrochemicals.
● Jamnagar just became home to the world’s biggest petrochemical plant. In addition,
Ahmedabad, Baroda, Valsad, and Jodhpur are industrially important hubs in this
province.
Chotanagpur Region
● Chotanagpur region is renowned for its heavy minerals industry and spans Jharkhand,
northern Odisha, and contemporary West Bengal.
● The discoveries of uranium in the Damodar Valley, as well as precious and non-metallic
commodities in Jharkhand and northeastern Orissa, fueled the growth of this sector.
● The vicinity of coal, iron ore, and other minerals aided in establishing heavy enterprises
in this country.
● Heating and hydropower projects have been built in the Damodar Valley to supply the
electricity demand.
● The neighboring dense population regions supply cheaper labor, and the Hugli region
provides a large market for its companies.
● Heavy manufacturing, industrial equipment, agricultural inputs, cement, papers,
boilers, and heavy electrical are only a few large industries in this area.
Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region
● This industrial zone stretches from Visakhapatnam to Kurnool and Prakasam in the
southeast.
● This region’s corporate growth depends on the docks of Visakhapatnam and
Machilipatnam, as well as the established agricultural and mineral deposits in their rural
areas.
● In addition, the Godavari basin mining communities supply energy. Visakhapatnam’s
manufacturing industry began in 1941.
● This region’s main sectors include sugar, silk, jute, journal, fertilizer, cement, metal,
and building and construction. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur region is a significant industrial
region.
Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region
● Because this location is remote from mineral and electricity resources, the businesses
are light and economic.
● This region’s principal businesses are telecommunications, building and construction,
and electrical items.
● Cotton, linen, polymeric textiles, hosiery, sugar, concrete, machine tools, tractors,
bikes, agricultural machinery, and petrochemicals, have also grown significantly.
● The software sector is a relatively new addition.
● The Agra-Mathura economic growth, located to the south, concentrates on crystal and
leather items.
● Mathura is a region for a pharmaceutical complex including an oil refinery while
Gurgaon is mentioned as an industrial hub.
Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region
● This commercial region encompasses the districts of Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,
Alwaye, Cochin, and Alappuzha.
● Agricultural products and hydroelectric support this region’s industrial foundation.
● Agrarian goods processors and commodity light manufacturing prevail in this region,
which is located distant from the country’s natural belt.
● Fabric textile, sweetener, foam, matchbox, glass, soil amendments, and fish-based
factories are among the most significant.
● The agriculture sector, paper, coir fiber industries, metal, and stone are among important
businesses.
● Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, and Punalur are the main industrial locations.
Industrial Policy in India

The various industrial policy introduced by the Indian government are as follows:
Industrial Policy Resolution, 1948
● It declared the Indian economy as Mixed Economy
● Small scale and cottage industries were given the importance
● The government restricted foreign investments
● Industries were divided into 4 categories
● Exclusive monopoly of central government(arms and ammunitions, production of
atomic energy and management of railways)
● New undertaking undertaken only by state(coal, iron and steel, aircraft
manufacturing, ship building, telegraph, telephone etc.)
● Industries to be regulated by the government(Industries of basic importance)
● Open to private enterprise, individuals and cooperatives(remaining)
Industrial Policy Resolution, 1956 (IPR 1956)
● This policy laid down the basic framework of Industrial Policy
● This policy is also known as the Economic Constitution of India
● It is classified into three sectors
● Schedule A – which covers Public Sector (17 Industries)
● Schedule B – covering Mixed Sector (i.e. Public & Private) (12 Industries)
● Schedule C – only Private Industries
● This has provisions for Public Sector, Small Scale Industry, Foreign Investment. To
meet new challenges, from time to time, it was modified through statements in 1973,
1977, and 1980.

Industrial Policy Statement, 1977
● This policy was an extension of the 1956 policy.
● The main was employment to the poor and reduction in the concentration of wealth.
● This policy majorly focused on Decentralisation
● It gave priority to small scale Industries
● It created a new unit called “Tiny Unit”
● This policy imposed restrictions on Multinational Companies (MNC).
Industrial Policy Statement, 1980
● The Industrial Policy Statement of 1980 addressed the need for promoting competition
in the domestic market, modernization, selective Liberalization, and technological up-
gradation.
● It liberalized licensing and provided for the automatic expansion of capacity.
● Due to this policy, the MRTP Act (Monopolies Restrictive Trade Practices) and FERA
Act (Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1973) were introduced.
● The objective was to liberalize the industrial sector to increase industrial productivity
and competitiveness of the industrial sector.
● The policy laid the foundation for an increasingly competitive export-based economy
and for encouraging foreign investment in high-technology areas.
New Industrial Policy, 1991
● The New Industrial Policy, 1991 had the main objective of providing facilities to market
forces and to increase efficiency.
● Larger roles were provided by
● L – Liberalization (Reduction of government control)
● P – Privatization (Increasing the role & scope of the private sector)
● G – Globalization (Integration of the Indian economy with the world economy)
● Because of LPG, old domestic firms have to compete with New Domestic firms, MNC’s
and imported items
● The government allowed Domestic firms to import better technology to improve
efficiency and to have access to better technology. The Foreign Direct Investment
ceiling was increased from 40% to 51% in selected sectors.
● The maximum FDI limit is 100% in selected sectors like infrastructure sectors. Foreign
Investment promotion board was established. It is a single-window FDI clearance
agency. The technology transfer agreement was allowed under the automatic route.
● The Phased Manufacturing Programme was a condition on foreign firms to reduce
imported inputs and use domestic inputs, it was abolished in 1991.
● Under the Mandatory convertibility clause, while giving loans to firms, part of the loan
will/can be converted to equity of the company if the banks want the loan in a specified
time. This was also abolished.
● Industrial licensing was abolished except for 18 industries.

● Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act – Under his MRTP commission was
established. The MRTP Act was introduced to check monopolies. The MRTP Act was
relaxed in 1991.
● On the recommendation of the SVS Raghavan committee, Competition Act 2000 was
passed. Its objectives were to promote competition by creating an enabling
environment.
Review of the Public sector under this New Industrial Policy, 1991 are:
● Public sector investments (Disinvestment of Public sector)
● De-reservations –Industries reserved exclusively for the public sector were reduced
● Professionalization of Management of PSUs
● Sick PSUs to be referred to the Board for Industrial and financial restructuring (BIFR).
● The scope of MoUs was strengthened (MoU is an agreement between a PSU and
concerned ministry).
Challenges Associated with the Industrial Sector in India

● Lack of Efficient Infrastructure and Manpower: High technology based
Infrastructureespecially for transportation and skilled manpower are crucial for
enhancing manufacturing competitiveness in the globalized economy.
○ Telecom communication facilities are mainly confined to big cities. Most of the
State Electricity Boards are running in loss and are in deplorable condition.
○ Rail transport is overburdened while road transport suffers from a variety of
problems.
● Maintaining a Level Playing Field: The MSME sector seems to be relatively less
favorably placed in terms of credit availability and credit cost of working capital as
compared to the medium and large scale industrial and services sectors. This persistent
bias needs to be corrected.
● Reliance on Foreign Imports: India is still dependent on foreign imports for transport
equipment, machinery (electrical and non-electrical), iron and steel, paper, chemicals
and fertilizers, plastic material etc.
○ In India, the total industrial production of consumer goods contributes 38%. In
newly industrialized countries like Singapore, South Korea and Malaysia this
percentage is 52, 29 and 28 respectively.
○ This shows that import substi-tution is still a distant goal for the country.
● Improper Location Base: Industrial locations, in several instances, were established
without reference to cost-effective points. Each state clamors for the establishment of
major industries in the public sector within its boundaries, and the location decisions
are often politically motivated.
● Loss in Public Sector Industries: Owing to focus on the socialistic pattern of
de-velopment, investment under public sector industries increased phenomenally
during early five year plans.

○ But due to ineffective policy implementation characterized by red-tape and strained
labor-management relations most of these public sector enterprises are running in
loss.
○ Every year the government has to incur huge expenditure to cover up this loss and
meet obligations of paying wages to the employees.
Recent Government Initiatives for Growth of the Industrial Sector in India
● Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) - To scale up domestic manufacturing capability.
● PM Gati Shakti- National Master Plan - Multimodal connectivity infrastructure project.
● Bharatmala Project - To Improve connectivity in North East India
● Start-up India - To catalyze Startup culture in India
● Make in India 2.0 - To transform India into a global design and manufacturing hub.
● Atmanirbhar Bharat Campaign - To cut down import dependence
● Disinvestment Plans - To support India’s economic recovery
● Special Economic Zones- To create additional economic activity and boost the export
of goods and services.
● MSME Innovative Scheme- To promote the complete value chain from developing
ideas into innovation through incubation and design interventions
Way Forward
● Public-Private Partnership Projects: There is a strong case for enhancing public
investment and building PPP projects that will increase efficiency and transparency.
○ The first line of Mumbai Metro between Ghatkopar and Versova was built on PPP
model.
● Removal of Infrastructural Bottleneck: Slow rate of capacity addition in physical
infrastructure sectors is constricting industrial sector growth. Capacity addition in core
sectors and removal of infrastructure bottlenecks would spur industrial sector output in
the medium to long term.
● Optimum Use of India’s Demographic Dividend: With increasing share of young
working population in the total population, India can achieve its full manufacturing
potential as it looks to benefit from its demographic dividend and a large workforce
over the next two to three decades.
● Improving Research and Development: Industrial research and development needs
to be strengthened in general and industrial sector-specific in particular, so that the
industrial sector can become more demand-driven.
● Potential to become a Global Hub: India’s manufacturing industry is already moving
in the direction of Industry 4.0 where every datapoint will be connected and analyzed.
○ With a large pool of engineers, a young labor force, wages that are half that of
China's, strengthens India to be a global powerhouse.
● Reforms in Industrial Policy: Over the medium to long term, to sustain double-digit
output growth and reduce the vulnerabilities of the core sector, there is a need to put in
place an effective industrial policy framework for embarking on another round of
multifaceted reforms.
Transport and Recent Developments in
India
ROAD TRANSPORT
Overview: India has the world's second-largest road network, spanning 6.4 million kilometers.
Roads are the backbone of India's transport system, carrying 85% of passenger traffic and 70%
of freight traffic.
Classification of Roads:
1. National Highways (NH): Key routes built and maintained by the central government,
facilitating inter-state transportation and defense logistics. India had 142,126 kilometers
of National Highways as of April 2019.
o Golden Quadrilateral: Connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata.
o North-South and East-West Corridors: Links Srinagar to Kanyakumari and
Silchar to Porbandar, respectively.
2. State Highways (SH): Managed by state governments, these roads connect state
capitals with district headquarters.
3. District Roads: Connect district headquarters with other significant areas within the
district.
4. Rural Roads: Essential for connecting rural areas, accounting for approximately 80%
of India’s road network.
Factors Influencing Roadways:
 Terrain: Flat terrains favor easier and cheaper road construction, while hilly areas pose
challenges.
 Climate: Roads in plains generally have better quality compared to high altitude or
forested areas.
 Economic Development: Regions with higher economic activities have better road
density.
 Industrial Presence: Higher industrial concentration correlates with better road
infrastructure.
 Urbanization: Cities and towns have denser road networks than rural areas.
Importance of Roads:
 Connectivity to Ports: Vital for domestic and international trade.
 Rural Development: Enhances the rural economy by connecting remote areas.
 Tribal Areas: Special packages for road development in tribal regions to improve
connectivity.
 Strategic Projects: Development in sensitive regions like J&K and North-East for
strategic and economic reasons.
Recent Initiatives:
 Electronic Toll Collection (ETC): Implemented to modernize toll collection on
National Highways.
 NATRIP: National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project to enhance
vehicle testing and R&D.
 SARDP-NE: Special road development program for the North-Eastern region.
 Bharat Mala Project: Spans 13 states to improve connectivity along the Indo-
Myanmar border.
 Sagarmala Project: Focuses on port-led development to enhance logistics and
industrial infrastructure.
RAIL TRANSPORT
Overview: Indian Railways is a critical component of India’s transport infrastructure, operating
the world’s fourth-largest rail network. It spans 1,23,236 kilometers, with over 21,000 trains
running daily, serving 23 million passengers and transporting 3 million tonnes of freight.
Significance:
 Economic Integration: Facilitates national growth and connects various economic
regions.
 Industrial Support: Supports industries by transporting raw materials and finished
goods.
 Agricultural Impact: Enables commercialization of agriculture by transporting goods
to distant markets.
 Defense and Disaster Response: Crucial for the movement of defense personnel and
supplies during emergencies.
Factors Affecting Railways:
 Geographical: Plains offer better conditions for railways compared to hilly or forested
regions.
 Economic: Higher demand in economically developed areas.
 Political and Administrative: Historical and strategic considerations influence railway
development.
Recent Developments:
 Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs): Improve freight traffic efficiency; funded by
the World Bank and Japan International Cooperation Agency.
 PM Gati Shakti: A multi-modal connectivity initiative to spur economic growth.
 Atma Nirbhar Bharat: Domestic production of electric locomotives and smart
coaches.
 Kisan Rail: Special trains to transport agricultural produce, enhancing farmers’ market
reach.
 Green Fuel Initiatives: Aim for 100% electrification of railway lines.
 Station Infrastructure Redevelopment: Upgrade of 400 stations to modern standards
under a public-private partnership model.
 Digitization: Wi-Fi at 6,045 stations and other digital initiatives for enhanced passenger
experience.

 Connecting North-East and Mining Districts: Improved connectivity to enhance
regional development.
 Vande Bharat Express: Indigenous semi-high-speed trains improving travel
efficiency.
AIR TRANSPORT
Overview: Air transport is vital for rapid connectivity and economic growth. India is the
world’s ninth-largest civil aviation market, predicted to become the third-largest by 2024.
 Historical Background: The first airmail service was launched in 1911, with
significant development post-independence. Air India began international services in
1948.
 Market Size: India is the third-largest domestic aviation market, with growing
passenger and cargo traffic. The number of operational airports is expected to reach
190-200 by FY40.
Role in Regional Development:
 Economic Growth: Airports act as growth poles, boosting local economies.
 Tourism: Enhances infrastructure and boosts local industries.
 Disaster Response: Critical for delivering relief during emergencies.
Challenges:
 High Costs: Air travel and infrastructure are expensive.
 Last-Mile Connectivity: Issues with integrating air travel with other transport modes.
 Safety Concerns: Weather and geographical challenges impact operations.
 Financial Sustainability: Airlines face financial losses despite growing demand.
Prospects:
 Rising Middle Class: Increased air travel due to growing income levels.
 Government Initiatives: Schemes like UDAN to enhance regional connectivity.
 Modernization: PPP model for airport development and increased fleet size.
Recent Initiatives:
 UDAN: Regional connectivity scheme to make air travel affordable.
 GAGAN: Satellite-based augmentation system for navigation accuracy.
 DigiSky and e-Sahaj: Digital platforms for drone regulation and security clearances.
WATER TRANSPORT
Overview: Water transport is the cheapest and oldest mode of transport, essential for foreign
trade and regional connectivity.
Advantages:
 Cost-Effective: Low construction and maintenance costs.
 Energy Efficient: Fuel-efficient and environmentally friendly.
 Suitable for Heavy Goods: Ideal for transporting bulky items.
Types:

 Inland Waterways: Network of rivers, canals, and lakes used for transportation.
 Ocean Transport: Includes coastal and overseas shipping, essential for international
trade.
National Waterways:
 NW-1: Allahabad to Haldia on the Ganges.
 NW-2: Sadiya to Dhubri on the Brahmaputra.
 NW-3: Kollam to Kottapuram in Kerala.
 NW-4: Kakinada to Pondicherry.
 NW-5: Orissa to West Bengal.
 NW-6: Lakhipur to Bhanga in Assam.
Ports:
 Major Ports: Include Kolkata, Paradip, New Mangalore, Cochin, Jawaharlal Nehru,
and others.
 Minor Ports: About 200 non-major ports handling various types of cargo.
Changing Trends and Direction of India’s Trade & Role of WTO

 Post-Liberalization Era: Since the 1990s, India has undergone significant economic
reforms, transitioning from a protectionist trade policy to a liberalized and open
economy. These reforms included reducing import tariffs, deregulating markets, and
liberalizing foreign investment policies. As a result, India integrated more deeply into
the global economy, which led to increased trade volumes and diversification of export
and import markets.
 Diversification of Trade Partners: Historically, India's trade was primarily with
developed countries like the United States and European nations. However, over the
past few decades, India has diversified its trade partnerships. There has been a notable
increase in trade with developing countries, especially within Asia and Africa. This shift
is driven by the rapid economic growth in these regions, which has opened new markets
for Indian goods and services. Countries such as China, UAE, and ASEAN members
have become significant trading partners.
 Rise of the Services Sector: The services sector, particularly Information Technology
(IT) and Information Technology Enabled Services (ITES), has emerged as a major
driver of India’s exports. Companies like Infosys, TCS, and Wipro have become global
leaders in IT services, contributing significantly to export revenues. Alongside
traditional exports like textiles, jewelry, and agricultural products, the services sector
has propelled India's export growth, creating millions of jobs and fostering
technological advancements.
 Trade Agreements: To enhance trade relations and market access, India has signed
multiple Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and Comprehensive Economic Partnership
Agreements (CEPAs). These agreements facilitate easier access to foreign markets,
reduce trade barriers, and promote economic cooperation. Notable agreements include
the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), the India-ASEAN FTA, and the India-Japan

CEPA. These trade deals have helped India integrate more closely with regional and
global economies, boosting trade volumes and economic growth.
 Export Composition: There has been a notable shift in the composition of India's
exports. Earlier dominated by low-value commodities, Indian exports now increasingly
include high-value and technology-intensive products. Pharmaceuticals, automotive
components, machinery, and electronic goods have gained prominence in India's export
basket. This transition reflects the growing sophistication and competitiveness of Indian
industries in the global market.
 Import Composition: India’s import composition has also evolved. While crude oil
and gold remain significant imports, there is an increasing share of capital goods,
electronics, and technology inputs. These imports are crucial for supporting domestic
manufacturing and infrastructure development. The rise in imports of intermediate and
capital goods highlights the integration of Indian industries into global supply chains
and the focus on industrial modernization.
 Trade Volume: Both export and import volumes have seen substantial growth, driven
by economic liberalization, rising domestic demand, and increasing global integration.
India’s trade volume has expanded, reflecting its active participation in global trade.
The country has become one of the world's largest trading nations, contributing
significantly to global trade flows.
Role of WTO in India's Trade

 Leadership in Developing Nations: India has taken a prominent leadership role within
the World Trade Organization (WTO), advocating for the interests of developing
countries. India emphasizes issues like agricultural subsidies, access to affordable
medicines, and special and differential treatment for developing nations. By
championing these causes, India aims to create a more equitable global trading system.
 Trade Policy Review: The WTO provides a platform for the regular review of India’s
trade policies. These reviews ensure transparency, adherence to global trade norms, and
alignment with international best practices. The Trade Policy Review Mechanism
(TPRM) assesses India’s trade policies, identifies areas for improvement, and provides
recommendations for policy enhancements. This process helps India maintain a
credible and predictable trade regime.
 Dispute Settlement: India has effectively utilized the WTO’s dispute resolution
mechanism to address trade conflicts and ensure fair play in international trade. By
participating in the Dispute Settlement System (DSS), India can challenge unfair trade
practices and defend its trade interests. Successful cases, such as those related to
agricultural subsidies and import restrictions, have helped India safeguard its economic
interests and uphold the principles of free and fair trade.
 Support for Multilateral Trading System: India supports a rules-based multilateral
trading system under the WTO, which promotes free and fair trade globally. This system
ensures that trade is conducted transparently, predictably, and equitably. India’s
commitment to multilateralism is reflected in its active participation in WTO
negotiations, where it advocates for balanced outcomes that benefit all member
countries, especially the developing and least-developed nations.
 Special and Differential Treatment: India benefits from special provisions under the
WTO, which allow developing countries flexibility in implementing trade
commitments. These provisions, known as Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT),
provide India with policy space to address its development needs. They include longer
implementation periods, technical assistance, and exemptions from certain obligations,
helping India protect its domestic industries and achieve sustainable development
goals.
 Negotiations and Agreements: India actively participates in WTO negotiations to
shape global trade rules and secure favorable terms for its trade interests. These
negotiations cover a wide range of issues, including market access, trade facilitation,
intellectual property rights, and agricultural subsidies. India’s engagement in
multilateral trade negotiations aims to create a level playing field for its exporters,
enhance market access, and promote inclusive economic growth.
Strategic Location of India in the Indian Ocean

 Third Largest Water Body: The Indian Ocean is the third largest water body globally
and is often referred to as the ‘sea of stability’.
 Trade and Transport Lifeline: It carries one-third of the world’s bulk cargo traffic and
two-thirds of oil shipments, making it vital for international trade.
 Resource Wealth: The ocean is rich in oil, natural gas, and minerals, driving economic
vibrancy in Asia and Europe.
Significance of the Indian Ocean
Economic Importance:
1. Mineral and Oil Resources: The ocean basin is a major source of offshore oil
production, accounting for 40% of the world’s output. India, as the fourth-largest LNG
importer, relies heavily on these sea routes.
2. Strategic Sea Lanes: Key Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs) in the Indian Ocean
facilitate significant trade between Asia, Europe, and America. Notable SLOCs include:
o Bab al-Mandab: Connects the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean.
o Strait of Hormuz: Links the Persian Gulf to the Indian Ocean.
o Straits of Malacca: Connects the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
3. Fishing Industry: Accounts for nearly 15% of the world’s total fish catch.
4. Maritime Trade: Transports 75% of global maritime trade and 50% of daily oil
consumption.
Strategic and Security Importance:
1. Coastal Security: India’s 7,500 km coastline requires robust security to protect its
population and economic interests.
2. Choke Points: Strategically important choke points like the Straits of Hormuz,
Malacca, and Bab el Mandeb are crucial for global trade and energy security. Countries
like the USA, France, and China maintain a naval presence to secure these routes.

3. Geopolitical Rivalry: The Indian Ocean is a hotspot for strategic developments,
including the rise of China and India, US interventions, and regional security issues like
terrorism and piracy.
4. Military and Naval Presence: India’s military initiatives in the region include
deploying patrol vessels and surveillance aircraft, and developing infrastructure in
strategic locations like the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
INDIA'S ROLE IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

Security and Growth:
 SAGAR Vision: Stands for “Security and Growth for All in the Region,” emphasizing
India’s commitment to ensuring regional security and fostering economic development.
 Net Security Provider: India aims to maintain peace and security in the region,
supporting initiatives like the “Zone of Peace” and participating in maritime exercises
like Malabar.
Humanitarian and Disaster Relief:
 India actively participates in humanitarian missions and disaster relief operations,
assisting neighboring countries during natural disasters, such as the 2004 tsunami and
various cyclones.
Blue Economy:
 Sagarmala Project: Aims to harness the economic potential of the Blue Economy
through port-led development and modernization.
 Sustainable Development: Focus on using renewable resources to address scarcity and
promote sustainable growth.
Cultural and Diaspora Engagement:
 India fosters cultural ties and engages with its diaspora to strengthen regional
relationships and cultural exchanges.
Space Technology:
 NavIC and GSAT-9: Indigenous satellite systems for navigation and communication
enhance India’s capabilities in disaster management and regional cooperation.
Indian Ocean Policy
Strategic Vision:
 India’s maritime strategy emphasizes ensuring a secure Indian Ocean Region (IOR),
deepening security cooperation, promoting cultural linkages, and fostering sustainable
economic development.
Multilateral Cooperation:
 Active participation in regional groupings like SAARC, BIMSTEC, ASEAN, and
IORA to promote regional cooperation and address common challenges such as piracy
and maritime safety.
Project Mausam:

 Aims to revive ancient maritime routes and cultural ties across the Indian Ocean,
enhancing India’s influence and strengthening regional bonds.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION IN INDIA

● India is the second-most populous country after China in the world with its total
population of 1,210 million (2011).
● India’s population is larger than the total population of North America, South America
and Australia put together.
Distribution of Population
● India has a highly uneven pattern of population distribution:
● Uttar Pradesh has the highest population followed by Maharashtra, Bihar, and West
Bengal.
● The share of population is very small in the states like Jammu & Kashmir (1.04%),
Arunachal Pradesh (0.11%)and Uttarakhand (0.84%) in spite of these states having
fairly large geographical area.
● Close relationship between population and physical, socioeconomic, and historical
factors.
○ The North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion of
population than the interior districts of southern and central Indian States,
Himalayas, some of the north eastern and the western states.
● Reasons for moderate to high Population in areas which were previously very thinly
populated:
○ The development of irrigation (Rajasthan).
○ Availability of mineral and energy resources (Jharkhand).
○ Development of the transport network (Peninsular States).
Socio-Economic and Historical Factors of Population Distribution
● Evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural development; the pattern of human
settlement; development of transport network, industrialisation, and urbanization.
● Though resources like land and water degraded in the northern plains of India the
concentration of population remains high because of the history of human settlement
and development.
● Urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and
Jaipur have high concentration of population due to industrial development and
urbanization drawing a large number of rural-urban migrants.
Density of Population
It is expressed as the number of persons per unit area. It helps in getting a better understanding
of the spatial distribution of population in relation to land.
Physiological Density = Total population / net cultivated area.

Agricultural Density = Total agricultural population / net cultivable area.
Agricultural Population includes cultivators and agricultural laborers and their family members.
Growth of Population
● It is the change in the number of people living in a particular area between two points
of time. Its rate is expressed in percentage.
● Population growth has two components:
○ Natural Growth: It is analyzed by assessing the crude birth and death rates.
○ Induced Growth: They are explained by the volume of inward and outward
movement of people in any given area.
● The decadal and annual growth rates of population in India are both very high and
steadily increasing over time. The annual growth rate of India’s population is 1.64 per
cent (2011).
● The growth rate of population in India over the last one century has been caused by
annual birth rate and death rate and rate of migration and thereby shows different trends.
Four Distinct Phases of Growth in India
Phase One
● The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant or stationary phase of
growth of India’s population, since in this period growth rate was very low, even
recording a negative growth rate during 1911-1921.
● Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping the rate of increase low.
○ Reasons: Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and
inefficient distribution system of food and other basic necessities.
Phase Two
● The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth.
● An overall improvement in health and sanitation brought down the mortality rate.
● Better transport and communication system improved distribution system.

● The crude birth rate remained high leading to higher growth rate than the previous
phase.
● The performance was impressive at the backdrop of Great Economic Depression, 1920s
and World War II.
Phase Three
● The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the period of population explosion in India
which was caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of
population.
● The average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2 per cent.
● During this period developmental activities were introduced through a centralized
planning process and the economy started showing up ensuring the improvement of
living conditions of people at large. Consequently, there was a high natural increase and
higher growth rate.
● International migration bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalies and Pakistanis
contributed to the high growth rate.
Phase Four
● In the post 1981 till present, the growth rate of population remained high but has started
slowing down gradually.
● A downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such a population growth
which was affected by an increase in the mean age at marriage, improved quality of life
particularly education of females in the country.
● The growth rate of population is, however, still high in the country, and it has been
projected by the World Development Report that the population of India will touch
1,350 million by 2025.
Regional Variation in Population Growth
● The growth rate of population during 1991- 2001 in the Indian States and UTs gives the
following information.
● The States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Puducherry,
and Goa show a low rate of growth not exceeding 20 per cent over the decade.
● Kerala registered the lowest growth rate (9.4) in India.
● During 2001-2011, the growth rates of almost all States and UTs have registered a lower
figure compared to the previous decade, namely, 1991-2001.
● The percentage decadal growth rates of the six most populous States: Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh have all fallen
during 2001-2011 compared to 1991-2001.
○ The fall being the lowest for Andhra Pradesh (3.5% percentage points).
○ Highest for Maharashtra (6.7 percentage points)
● Tamil Nadu (3.9 percentage points) and Puducherry (7.1 percentage points) have
registered some increase during 2001-2011 over the previous decade.
Adolescent Population
● An important aspect of population growth in India is the growth of its adolescents.
● At present the share of adolescents i.e., up to the age group of 10-19 years is about 20.9
per cent (2011).
○ The male adolescents constitute 52.7 per cent.
○ The female adolescents constitute 47.3 per cent.
Challenges of Adolescents
● Lower age at marriage.
● Illiteracy – particularly female illiteracy.
● School dropouts.
● Low intake of nutrients.
● High rate of maternal mortality of adolescent mothers.
● High rate of HIV and AIDS infections.
● Physical and mental disability or retardness.
● Drug abuse and alcoholism.
● Juvenile delinquency and competence of crimes, etc.
● The Indian government has undertaken certain policies to impart proper education to
adolescents:
● National Youth Policy(NYP-2014):
○ It was launched in February 2014 and proposes a holistic vision for the youth of
India.
○ The NYP–2014 has defined ‘youth’ as persons in the age group of 15–29 years.
● National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (2015):
○ It was formulated to provide an umbrella framework to all skilling activities and to
align these to common standards and link skilling with demand centers.
Population Composition
● It is a distinct field of study within-population geography with a vast coverage of
analysis of age and sex, place of residence, ethnic characteristics, tribes, language,
religion, etc.
Rural-Urban Composition
● Composition of population by their respective places of residence is an important
indicator of social and economic characteristics. It is very significant in countries like
India as 68.8 per cent of its total population lives in village (2011).
● India has 640,867 villages according to the Census 2011 out of which 597,608 (93.2
per cent) are inhabited villages.
● States like Bihar and Sikkim have very high percentage of rural population.
● Goa and Maharashtra have only little over half of their total population residing in
villages.
● The Union Territories have smaller proportion of rural population, except Dadra and
Nagar Haveli (53.38 per cent).
● Variation of size of villages: It is less than 200 persons in the hill states of north-eastern
India, Western Rajasthan and Rann of Kuchchh and as high as 17 thousand persons in
the states of Kerala and in parts of Maharashtra.
● The proportion of urban population(31.16 per cent) in India is quite low but it is
showing a much faster rate of growth over the decades.
● The growth rate of urban population has accelerated due to enhanced economic
development and improvement in health and hygienic conditions.
● It is noticed that in almost all the states and UTs, there has been a considerable increase
of urban population.
● The rural-urban migration is conspicuous in the case of urban areas along the main road
links and railroads in the North Indian Plains, the industrial areas around Kolkata,
Mumbai, Bengaluru – Mysuru, Madurai – Coimbatore, Ahmedabad – Surat, Delhi –
Kanpur and Ludhiana – Jalandhar.
● Low Degree of Urbanisation: In the agriculturally stagnant parts of the middle and
lower Ganga Plains, Telangana, non-irrigated Western Rajasthan, remote hilly, tribal
areas of northeast, along the flood prone areas of Peninsular India and along eastern
part of Madhya Pradesh.
Linguistic Composition
● According to Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903 – 1928), there were 179
languages and as many as 544 dialects in the country.
● In the context of modern India, there are about 22 scheduled languages and a number
of non-scheduled languages.
● Among the Scheduled Languages:
○ The speakers of Hindi have the highest percentage.
○ The smallest language groups are Sanskrit, Bodo and Manipuri speakers (2011).
Religious Composition
● The spatial distribution of religious communities in India shows that there is uneven
distribution of people of different religions in different states and districts.
Religious Communities of India, 2011
● Hindus are distributed as a major group in many states (ranging from 70-90 per cent
and above) except the districts of states along Indo-Bangladesh border, Indo-Pak
border, Jammu & Kashmir, Hill States of North-East and in scattered areas of Deccan
Plateau and Ganga Plain.
● Muslims, the largest religious minority, are concentrated in Jammu & Kashmir, certain
districts of West Bengal and Kerala, many districts of Uttar Pradesh, in and around
Delhi and in Lakshadweep. They form a majority in Kashmir valley and Lakshadweep.
● Christian population is distributed mostly in rural areas of the country. The main
concentration is observed along the Western coast around Goa, Kerala and also in the
hill states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Chotanagpur area and Hills of Manipur.
● Sikhs are mostly concentrated in relatively small areas of the country, particularly in
the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi.

● Jains and Buddhists, the smallest religious groups in India, have their concentration
only in selected areas of the country.Jains have a major concentration in the urban areas
of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.The Buddhists are concentrated mostly in
Maharashtra. The other areas of Buddhist majority are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,
Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir, Tripura, and Lahaul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.
● The other religions of India include Zoroastrians, tribal and other indigenous faiths and
beliefs.
Composition of Working Population
● The population of India according to their economic status is divided into three groups,
namely, main workers, marginal workers, and non-workers.
● It is observed that in India, the proportion of workers (both main and marginal) is only
39.8 per cent (2011) leaving a vast majority of about 60 percent as non-workers. This
indicates an economic status in which there is a larger proportion of dependent
population, further indicating possible existence of large number of unemployed or
underemployed people.
● States with larger Percentages of Workers: Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Meghalaya.
● Among the UTs: Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu have higher participation
rates.
Occupational Composition
● The occupational composition of India’s population which actually means engagement
of an individual in farming, manufacturing, trade, services or any kind of professional
activities.
● About 54.6 per cent of the total working population are cultivators and agricultural
laborers.
● Only 3.8% of workers are engaged in household industries and 41.6 % are other
workers including non-household industries, trade, commerce, construction and repair
and other services.
● The male workers out-number female workers in all the three sectors.
DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND IN INDIA

● India is the country where the ratio of the youngest people to other age groups is the
highest. And the median age in India is just 28 years by 2020, while the median age in
China and the USA is 37, and in Western Europe, it is 45 and 49 in Japan.
● India’s working age population from 15 to 64 years of age increases sharply compared
to the dependent or non-working population. Due to the increase in the standard of
living, a largely decreased total fertility rate occurs. (the total number of births a woman
gives during her childbearing years).
● The United Nation population fund highlights two interesting facts about the
demographic dividend in India:

● The opportunity to utilize the demographic dividend in India was available for five
decades, from 2005-06 to 2055-56, much larger than other countries worldwide.
● The opportunity to utilize the demographic dividend in India also differs from one state
to another state because of the diversity in the population parameters.
Latest Updates Regarding Demographic Dividend
● The latest updates regarding the demographic dividend in India have been listed here,
which are such as India is the country with the youngest population in the world. The
median age in India is 28.4 years by 2022.
● In China and the USA, it will be 37, 45 in Western Europe, and 49 in Japan. Check out
the other updates pertaining to the demographic dividend as enlisted here-
● The total fertility rate plays a major role in increasing the working-age population in
India.
● The total fertility rate has halved from 1990 till now. However, there are significant
differences between states, with Delhi, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu having lower total
fertility rates of up to 1.5, whereas Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh have
higher total fertility rates of up to 2.5.
● The schemes like Atmanirbhar Bharat, Make in India, and Startup India are helping to
utilize the potential of India’s demographic dividend.
Opportunities for Demographic Dividend in India

Due to the higher working-age population and lower dependent and non-working-age
populations, the country’s manpower will be strengthened and help increase the speed of the
economy’s growth.
● Personal earnings will also increase due to the demographic dividend phase, resulting
in greater purchasing power and further developing the country.
● Demographic dividends also made the women independent and increased their standard
of living, resulting in a decline in the Total Fertility Rate (TFR), leading to the
economy’s growth.

● Many people from the lower middle class and below the poverty level (BPL) have the
opportunity to shift toward a middle-class society. who educate their children or
generations, further establishing an enlightened and aspirational society.
● The demographic dividend also boosts the secondary sector, the manufacturing sector,
as more younger people get employed in the factory or industry, and the younger have
more potential compared to the older, which enhances the economy’s productivity.
● Historically, the demographic dividend has contributed up to 15% of the total growth
in advanced economies.
● The first major economic country to experience rapid growth due to the structural
change in population was Japan, whose demographic dividend phase was between 1964
and 2004.
Measures to Tap India’s Demographic Dividend

There are different measures and recommendations for tapping the demographic dividend and
growth of the country. Following are the measures to tap India’s demographic dividend
1. Increase the investment in the Education sector to improve and boost literacy in the
country.
2. Increase the funds to be spent on the Healthcare sector to improve the existing medical
facilities.
3. Release proper and required funds for the research and development section of the
government.
4. Invest more in the field of skill development.
Challenges of Demographic Dividend in India

India cannot utilize the demographic dividend in India, whereas the most populous countries
like China have become manufacturing hubs by utilizing the demographic dividend power.
● In India, there is a lack of skills in most of the population in the age group of 15 to 59
years. As seen during the pandemic COVID-19, most people became unemployed. Due
to the lower literacy and lack of skills, there is the possibility that the new job will be
highly skilled, and the lack of skills will become a major challenge.
● Recently, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Human Development
Index (HDI) was released, in which India ranks 131 out of 189 countries. So, to make
Indian manpower skilled, the perimeter of the Human Development Index, that is,
health, education, and standard of living have to be improved.
● In India, approx. 50% of the population is still engaged in agriculture and dependent on
agriculture in India, which can be described as disguised as unemployed, cyclic
unemployed, and less unemployed, among others.
● A huge number of the population are employed in the unorganized sector. In return,
they get very low wages, no social security, high working hours, poor employment
conditions, etc.

● There is prevalent and vast gender inequality in society. Women with more potential in
each group of 15 to 59 for a particular job will not get the opportunity. There are also
hurdles for women due to the patriarchal and stereotypical society, as it is seen that most
women want to do a job to contribute to their potential for economic growth. Still, they
have to leave their job under the pressure of their families.
● According to the National Sample Survey Office’s periodic labour survey force 2017-
18, India’s labor force participation rate for the age group 15 to 59 years is around 53%.
This means that 50% of the population is unemployed and jobless.
How Does India Benefit from a Demographic Dividend?

To utilize the demographic dividend in India, the main focus is to improve education, health,
job creation, skill development, etc. Here are some recommended actions to make the most of
the demographic dividend in India.
● Education System in India: In India, almost 41% of the population was below the age
of 20 years. They can utilize their potential to contribute to the economy’s growth by
having a better primary, secondary, and higher education system. The welcome step in
this is establishing the Higher Education Finance Agency (HEFA).
● Skill Development: Skill knowledge is very important to utilize their potential effects,
and it also increases productivity, which further helps in the economy’s growth.
Recently, the government established the National Skill Development Corporation
(NSDC) with an overall target of skilling 500 million people in India by 2022.
● Health: As it is said, health is wealth. The employee or individual must be healthy to
contribute to the economy’s growth. Aayushman Bharat and the National Health
Protection Scheme are examples of successful health schemes.
● Job Creation: To absorb all the workforce between the age groups of 15 to 59 years,
the nation needs to create 10 million jobs per year. Government schemes like Startup
India and Made in India also help job creation but cannot fully utilize the workforce.
But if the schemes are implemented properly, we will get the desired result soon.
SETTLEMENTS AND URBANIZATION

Human settlements
● Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings of any type or size where human beings
live. For this purpose, people may erect houses and other structures and command some
area or territory as their economic support-base.
● Thus, the process of settlement inherently involves grouping of people and apportioning
of territory as their resource base.
● Settlements vary in size and type.
● They range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. With size, the economic character and
social structure of settlements changes and so do its ecology and technology.
● Settlements could be small and sparsely spaced; they may also be large and closely
spaced.

● The sparsely located small settlements are called villages, specializing in agriculture or
other primary activities.
● On the other hand, there are fewer but larger settlements which are termed as urban
settlements specializing in secondary and tertiary activities. The basic differences
between rural and urban settlements are as follows :
1. The rural settlements derive their life support or basic economic needs from land
based primary economic activities, whereas, urban settlements, depend on
processing of raw materials and manufacturing of finished goods on the one hand
and a variety of services on the other.
2. Cities act as nodes of economic growth, provide goods and services not only to
urban dwellers but also to the people of the rural settlements in their hinterlands in
return for food and raw materials. This functional relationship between the urban
and rural settlements takes place through transport and communication networks.
3. Rural and urban settlements differ in terms of social relationship, attitude and
outlook. Rural people are less mobile and therefore, social relations among them
are intimate. In urban areas, on the other hand, way of life is complex and fast, and
social relations are formal.
Types of Rural Settlement

● Types of the settlement are determined by the extent of the built-up area and inter-house
distance. In India compact or clustered villages of a few hundred houses is a rather
universal feature, particularly in the northern plains.
● However, there are several areas, which have other forms of rural settlements.
● There are various factors and conditions responsible for having different types of rural
settlements in India. These include:
(i) physical features – nature of terrain, altitude, climate and availability of water
(ii) cultural and ethnic factors – social structure, caste and religion
(iii) security factors – defense against thefts and robberies.
Rural settlements in India can broadly be put into four types:
1. Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated
2.Semi-clustered or fragmented
3.Hamleted
4.Dispersed or isolated
1. Clustered Settlements
● The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built up area of houses. In this
type of village the general living area is distinct and separated from the surrounding
farms, barns and pastures.
● The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present some recognisable pattern
or geometric shape, such as rectangular, radial, linear, etc.

● Such settlements are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and in the northeastern
states. Sometimes, people live in compact villages for security or defense reasons, such
as in the Bundelkhand region of central India and in Nagaland.
● In Rajasthan, scarcity of water has necessitated compact settlement for maximum
utilization of available water resources.
2. Semi-Clustered Settlements
● Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may result from the tendency of clustering in
a restricted area of dispersed settlement.
● More often such a pattern may also result from segregation or fragmentation of a large
compact village.
● In this case, one or more sections of the village society choose or are forced to live a
little away from the main cluster or village.
● In such cases, generally, the land-owning and dominant community occupies the central
part of the main village, whereas people of lower strata of society and menial workers
settle on the outer flanks of the village.
● Such settlements are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan.
3. Hamleted Settlements
● Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several units physically separated from each
other bearing a common name.
● These units are locally called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in various parts of the
country.
● This segmentation of a large village is often motivated by social and ethnic factors.
● Such villages are more frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga plain,
Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the Himalayas.
4. Dispersed Settlements
● Dispersed or isolated settlement patterns in India appear in the form of isolated huts or
hamlets of few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills with farms or pasture on the
slopes.
● Extreme dispersion of settlement is often caused by the extremely fragmented nature of
the terrain and land resource base of habitable areas.
● Many areas of Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala have this type of
settlement.
Urban Settlements
● Unlike rural settlements, urban settlements are generally compact and larger in size.
They are engaged in a variety of non- agricultural, economic and administrative
functions.
● As mentioned earlier, cities are functionally linked to rural areas around them. Thus,
exchange of goods and services is performed sometimes directly and sometimes
through a series of market towns and cities.

● Thus, cities are connected directly as well as indirectly with the villages and also with
each other.
Evolution of Towns in India

● Towns flourished since prehistoric times in India. Even at the time of Indus valley
civilization, towns like Harappa and Mohanjodaro were in existence.
● The following period has witnessed the evolution of towns.
● It continued with periodic ups and downs until the arrival of Europeans in India in the
eighteenth century.
On the basis of their evolution in different periods, Indian towns may be classified as:
1.Ancient towns
2.Medieval towns
3.Modern towns
1. Ancient Towns
● There are a number of towns in India having historical background spanning over 2000
years.
● Most of them developed as religious and cultural centers. Varanasi is one of the
important towns among these. Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are
some other examples of ancient towns in the country.
2. Medieval Towns
● About 100 of the existing towns have their roots in the medieval period. Most of them
developed as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.
● These are fort towns which came up on the ruins of ancient towns.
● Important among them are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and Nagpur.
3. Modern Towns
● The British and other Europeans have developed a number of towns in India. Starting
their foothold on coastal locations, they first developed some trading ports such as
Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc.
● The British later consolidated their hold around three principal nodes – Mumbai
(Bombay), Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) – and built them in the British
style. Rapidly extending their domination either directly or through control over the
princely states, they established their administrative centers, hill- towns as summer
resorts, and added new civil, administrative and military areas to them.
● Towns based on modern industries also evolved after 1850. Jamshedpur can be cited as
an example.
● After independence, a large number of towns have been developed as administrative
headquarters, e.g. Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar, Dispur, etc. and industrial
centers such as Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri, Barauni. Some old towns also developed as
satellite towns around metropolitan cities such as Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurgaon around
Delhi.

● With increasing investment in rural areas, a large number of medium and small towns
have developed all over the country.
URBANIZATION IN INDIA
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease
in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this
change.
Causes of Urbanisation:
● Natural increase of population: It occurs when the number of births exceeds the
number of deaths.
● Rural to urban migration: It is driven by pull factors (that attract people to urban
areas) and push factors (that drive people away from the rural areas).
Employment opportunities, educational institutions and urban lifestyle are the main pull
factors.Poor living conditions, lack of educational and economic opportunities and poor
health care facilities are the main push factors.
● Global Urbanization: The most urbanized regions include Northern America (with
82% of its population living in urban areas (as of 2018)), Latin America and the
Caribbean (81%), Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%).
● The level of urbanization in Asia is now approximately 50%.
● Africa remains mostly rural, with 43% of its population living in urban areas.
Urbanization in India
Urbanization Prospects:
● The World Urbanization Prospects, 2018 report produced by the UN Department of
Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) notes that future increases in the size of the
world’s urban population are expected to be highly concentrated in just a few countries.

● Together, India, China and Nigeria will account for 35% of the projected growth of the
world’s urban population between 2018 and 2050.
● By 2050, it is projected that India will have added 416 million urban dwellers.
● Currently, India’s population stood at 1210 million in 2011, with an urbanization level
of 31.1% (Census of India 2011).
State-wise Scenario:
Number of Persons Living in Urban Areas:

● Over 75% of the urban population of the country is in 10 States: Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Kerala.
● Maharashtra leads with 50.8 million persons (13.5% of the total urban population of
the country).
● Uttar Pradesh accounts for about 44.4 million, followed by Tamil Nadu at 34.9 million.
● High-Scoring States: Goa is the most urbanised State with 62.2% urban population.
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Gujarat have attained over 40% urbanisation.

● Among the North-Eastern States, Mizoram is the most urbanised with 51.5% urban
population.
● Low-Scoring States: Bihar, Odisha, Assam, and Uttar Pradesh continue to be at a lower
level of urbanization than the national average.
● Union Territories: The NCT of Delhi and the UT of Chandigarh are most urbanized
with 97.5% and 97.25% urban population respectively, followed by Daman and Diu
and Lakshadweep (both above 75% urbanization).
India’s Global Commitments regarding Urban Development:
● The SDGs Goal 11 promotes urban planning as one of the recommended methods for
achieving sustainable development.
● The UN-Habitat’s New Urban Agenda was adopted at Habitat III in 2016.
It puts forth principles for the planning, construction, development, management, and
improvement of urban areas.
● The UN-Habitat (2020) suggests that the spatial conditions of a city can enhance its
power to generate social, economic and environmental value and well-being.
● Paris Agreement: India’s National Determined Contributions (NDCs) includes the goals
to reduce the emission intensity of the country's GDP by 33 to 35% by 2030 from 2005
level.
India’s Initiatives for Urbanisation:
Schemes/Programmes Related to Urban Development:
1. Smart Cities
2. AMRUT Mission
3. Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban
4. HRIDAY
5. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban
Government Initiatives for Slum Dwellers/Urban Poor:
i. Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana
ii. Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan (self-reliant India)
Significance of Urban Living
● Easier Access to Facilities: Urban living is linked with higher levels of literacy and
education, better health, longer life expectancy, greater access to social services and
enhanced opportunities for cultural and political participation.
● Access to Information: There are also benefits from easier access to sources of
information such as radio and television which may be used to communicate
information about health to the general public.For instance, women living in towns and
cities are more likely to be informed about family planning which results in reduction
in family size and less frequent childbirth.
● Individualism: Multiplicity of opportunities, social diversity, lack of familial and
social control over decision making leads to more self interest and facilitates decision-
making by an individual and choosing one’s career and actions by oneself.

Issues Associated to Urbanisation
● Excessive Population Pressure: On the one hand, the rural-urban migration
accelerates the pace of urbanization, on the other, it creates excessive population
pressure on the existing public utilities. Consequently, the cities suffer from the
problems of slums, crime, unemployment, urban poverty, pollution, congestion, ill-
health and several deviant social activities.
● Overflowing Slums: There are about 13.7 million slum households in the country
sheltering a population of 65.49 million people across the country.
As much as 65% of Indian cities have adjoining slums where people live in small houses
adjacent to each other.
● Inadequate Housing: Among the numerous social problems of urbanization, the
problem of housing is the most distressing. A vast majority of urban population live
under conditions of poor shelter and in highly congested spaces.In India, more than half
of the urban households occupy a single room, with an average occupancy per room of
4.4 persons.
● Unplanned Development: The model of building a developed city comprises
unplanned development, which only bolsters the dichotomy prevailing in urban cities
between the rich and the poor.
● Pandemic-Induced Problems: The Covid-19 pandemic has exacerbated the misery of
urban poor or slum dwellers.The sudden implementation of complete Covid lockdown
severely affected the ability of slum dwellers to earn their living.
● Non-Inclusive Welfare Schemes: The benefits of welfare schemes for urban poor
often reach only a small part of the intended beneficiaries. Most relief funds and
benefits do not reach slum dwellers, mainly because these settlements are not officially
recognised by the government.
Way Forward
● Sustainable Urbanization for Successful Development: As the world continues to
urbanize, sustainable development depends increasingly on the successful management
of urban growth, especially in low-income and lower-middle-income countries where
the pace of urbanization is projected to be the fastest.
● Improving Access to Health Facilities & Welfare Schemes: Accelerating efficiency
of welfare and relief schemes along with ensuring access to free vaccines, food security
and adequate shelter in the slums.
New Approaches for Urbanisation: New approaches to urban planning and effective
governance are the need of the hour. Necessary actions should be taken to build sustainable,
robust and inclusive infrastructure. Instead of a top-down approach, a bottom-up approach shall
be adopted to better understand unique challenges faced by the urban poor.

QUESTION & ANSWERS
Q.1) "Analyze the socio-demographic challenges brought about by the aging
population in India, as highlighted in the 'India Ageing Report 2023', and propose
suitable measures to address these challenges."
Introduction The demographic shift towards an aging population in India presents
multifaceted socio-demographic challenges. The 'India Ageing
Report 2023' by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and
the International Institute of Population Sciences (IIPS) sheds light
on these pressing issues.
Body Socio-Demographic Challenges:

Marital Status:
 The incidence of widowhood stands at 32%, with a notable
disparity between widowed women (54%) and men (16%),
underscoring significant financial and security concerns for
elderly women.
Living Arrangements:
 A shift in family dynamics is evident, with one-fifth of the
elderly living alone or with their spouse, indicating changes
in caregiving patterns and necessitating adaptive support
systems.
Economic Status:
 Workforce participation rates highlight economic disparities;
nearly half of elderly men are involved in work, in contrast to
only 22% of women. Rural areas exhibit higher participation,
largely in agriculture.
Health Status:
 Chronic morbidity affects over 30% of elderly women and
28% of men, with nutritional issues, disabilities, and
functional restrictions further complicating the health
landscape for the aged.
Mental Health:
 There are marked gender differentials in depression incidence,
with older women being more vulnerable, signaling the need
for targeted mental health interventions.
Suggestions for Addressing Challenges:
Women Empowerment:
 Strengthening financial independence and education for
elderly women is vital for their empowerment.
Rural Healthcare Access:
 Enhancing healthcare infrastructure and accessibility in rural
regions is essential for elderly healthcare.
Caregiver Support Programs:

 Initiatives to support caregivers, especially in rural settings,
are crucial for effective elderly care.
Multi-Sectoral Collaboration:
 Collaboration among healthcare, social services, and
community organizations is necessary for a holistic approach
to elderly care.
Skill Development for Elderly:
 Engaging the elderly through skill development programs can
ensure their active participation in society.
Strengthening Social Support:
 Developing community networks can provide both emotional
and practical support for the elderly.
Conclusion The demographic shift towards an aging population in India

necessitates an integrated approach that combines social, economic,
and healthcare strategies. Addressing the highlighted challenges
requires tailored interventions to empower the elderly, enhance
healthcare access, and foster community support, ensuring a dignified
life for India's aging population.
Q.2) Examine the contribution of animal husbandry to global greenhouse gas emissions
and assess the impact of climate change on the livestock sector. Also, suggest
mitigation and adaptation strategies to address the challenges posed by these
interactions.
Introduction Animal husbandry plays a crucial role in contributing to global
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through various activities, ranging
from enteric fermentation to supply chain transportation.
Concurrently, climate change poses significant challenges to the
livestock sector, affecting water availability, feed crop yield, and
animal productivity.
Body Contribution to GHG Emissions:

 Enteric Fermentation: Ruminant animals such as cattle
produce methane (CH4), a potent greenhouse gas, during the
digestive process.
 Manure Management: The anaerobic decomposition of
manure emits methane and ammonia, contributing
significantly to GHG emissions.
 Feed Production: The cultivation of livestock feed generates
carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions
through the use of fossil fuels and nitrogenous fertilizers.
 Livestock Production Activities: Methane and nitrous oxide
are released during various stages of livestock production,
exacerbating GHG emissions.

 Transportation: The transportation of livestock and their
products adds to the carbon footprint of the animal husbandry
sector.
Impact of Climate Change:
 Water and Disease Risks: Altered rainfall patterns impact
water resources, affecting livestock health and increasing
disease vulnerability.
 Heat Stress: Elevated temperatures result in heat stress
among livestock, reducing feed intake, reproductive
efficiency, and overall productivity.
 Forage and Feed Availability: Climate-induced variations in
forage and feed crop yields compromise the quality and
availability of livestock feed.
 Biodiversity and Disease Transmission: The loss of
biodiversity due to climate change alters disease dynamics
among livestock populations.
Mitigation Strategies:
 Efficient Practices: Implementing more efficient livestock
production practices and improving manure management can
reduce GHG emissions.
 Dietary Adjustments: Manipulating livestock diets to lower
methane emissions and developing vaccines against enteric
fermentation processes offer viable mitigation pathways.
Adaptation Strategies:
 Water Management and Breed Selection: Enhancing water
resource management and selecting breeds more resistant to
heat and disease can help livestock adapt to changing
climates.
 Forage Adaptation: Adapting irrigation practices, selecting
drought-resistant feed crops, and adjusting cropping calendars
can secure feed supply under climate stress.
 Economic and Institutional Support: Diversifying income
sources, implementing insurance schemes, and making
institutional changes can stabilize the livelihoods dependent
on livestock.
Conclusion Addressing the dual challenge of GHG emissions from animal

husbandry and the impacts of climate change on livestock
necessitates a comprehensive approach encompassing efficient
production practices, dietary innovations, and strategic adaptations in
water management, feed crop cultivation, and breed selection.
Implementing these strategies effectively requires coordinated efforts
at national and global levels, ensuring the sustainability of the
livestock sector in the face of climate change.

Q.3) "Assess the various factors influencing the geographical distribution of secondary
sector industries worldwide and their implications for regional development and
economic disparities."
Introduction The secondary sector, encompassing manufacturing and construction,
plays a pivotal role in global economic development. The
geographical distribution of these industries is not random but
influenced by a myriad of factors that dictate where they thrive.
Understanding these determinants is key to addressing regional
development challenges and economic disparities.
Body Factors Influencing Geographical Distribution:

Economic Factors:
 Market Demand: Industries gravitate towards regions with
high consumer demand to minimize transportation costs,
thereby optimizing access to markets.
 Labor Costs: The presence of skilled yet affordable labor is
a critical determinant, with industries often located in regions
offering competitive wage rates to reduce production costs.
 Access to Capital: The availability of investment and
financial incentives significantly influences the decision to
establish industries in certain areas.
Natural Resources:
 Raw Material Availability: Industries dependent on specific
raw materials typically locate near these sources to ensure
cost-effective supply chains.
 Energy Resources: Access to abundant and cost-effective
energy sources is crucial for energy-intensive industries,
influencing their geographic distribution.
Infrastructure and Transportation:
 Transport Networks: Robust infrastructure, including roads,
railways, and ports, is essential for the seamless transport of
goods, significantly affecting industrial locations.
 Utilities: Adequate access to essential utilities like water,
electricity, and telecommunications is a prerequisite for
industrial operations.
Government Policies and Regulations:
 Tax Incentives: Economic policies, including tax breaks and
subsidies, are employed by governments to attract industries
to specific regions, influencing their geographical
distribution.
 Environmental Regulations: The rigor of environmental
policies can either attract industries through lenient standards
or drive investment in greener technologies in regions with
stringent regulations.
Socio-Political Factors:

 Political Stability: A stable political climate is conducive to
business operations, attracting foreign investment and
industrial development.
 Labor Laws: The regulatory environment concerning labor
rights and working conditions can also play a significant role
in determining the favorable locations for industries.
Conclusion The location of secondary sector industries is shaped by a complex

mix of economic, natural, infrastructural, policy, and socio-political
factors, affecting regional development and reducing disparities.
Recognizing these elements is crucial for developing strategies that
ensure even industrial growth, sustainable progress, and fair
economic chances across different areas.
Q.4) Assess the merits and demerits of the river interlinking project in India,
considering its economic, environmental, and political implications.
Introduction The river interlinking project in India proposes to connect surplus
river basins with deficit ones to mitigate droughts, floods, and
enhance navigation. While the project promises numerous benefits, it
also faces significant challenges.
Body Merits of River Interlinking:

 Hydropower Generation: The project aims to generate 34 GW
of power, contributing to India's renewable energy goals and
groundwater recharge.
 Navigation and Irrigation: By ensuring year-round water
availability, it promises enhanced inland waterways and
increased irrigation potential, potentially irrigating 35 million
hectares, boosting agricultural productivity.
 Employment Opportunities: The construction and
maintenance phases are expected to generate substantial
employment, benefiting over a million people.
Demerits of River Interlinking:
 Environmental Concerns: Significant ecological impacts
include disruption of delta formations, loss of mangroves, and
biodiversity, with projects like the Ken-Betwa link
threatening forest land and national parks.
 Economic and Social Costs: The high cost of implementation
and maintenance, alongside the social costs of displacement
affecting over 583,000 people, raises concerns about the
project's viability.
 Political and Federal Issues: Interstate disputes and concerns
regarding federalism, along with potential tensions with
neighboring countries like Bangladesh, highlight the complex
political landscape the project navigates.

Conclusion The river interlinking project, despite its potential, is hindered by
economic, environmental, and political hurdles, suggesting the need
for reevaluation. A decentralized strategy and sustainable methods
like rainwater harvesting could be more viable. Through thorough
scientific evaluation and a dedicated water mission, effective and
equitable water resource management in India can be achieved.
Q.5) "Analyze the regional disparities in the impact of the Green Revolution in India,
with a focus on the Eastern region. Discuss the phases of the Green Revolution and
its socio-economic effects, including the challenges encountered."
Introduction Despite possessing fertile soil and ample water, the Eastern region of
India largely missed out on the Green Revolution's benefits, which
transformed agriculture in parts of Northern India. This disparity can
be attributed to various institutional, financial, and technological
factors.
Body Regional Disparities in the Green Revolution:

 Institutional Factors: The Green Revolution's success in the
Mahalwari regions like Punjab contrasted with its limited
impact in the Eastern regions, where the remnants of the
Zamindari system hindered agricultural development.
 Technical and Financial Constraints: The Green
Revolution's package technology, requiring significant
financial investment and skilled labor, was more readily
adopted by the affluent farmers of Northern India. High input
costs for HYV seeds, fertilizers, and machinery favored
regions with better financial resources.
Phases of the Green Revolution:
1. 1962-65 to 1970-73: Marked by significant yield increases in
wheat in Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh, this
phase is commonly identified as the Green Revolution.
2. 1970-73 to 1980-83: Saw the spread of HYV seed technology
to rice, expanding the Green Revolution to Eastern UP,
Coastal Andhra, and parts of South India.
3. 1980-83 to 1992-95: Extended the Green Revolution to
Eastern regions including West Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha,
albeit with limited success in bridging regional inequalities.
Socio-Economic Effects:
 Prosperity in Select Regions: The Green Revolution brought
unprecedented agricultural prosperity to Northern India,
enhancing food security and rabi crop growth.
 Socio-Economic Challenges: Despite national benefits, the
technology introduced disparities between large and small
farmers, land degradation, and excessive chemical use.
Challenges Encountered:

 Water Availability: The success in Northern regions was
partly due to better access to water from the Indus and its
tributaries, a condition not uniformly available across the
country.
 Financial Inequality: The financial capability to invest in
new agricultural technologies favored richer farmers,
exacerbating socio-economic disparities.
Conclusion The Green Revolution enhanced India's agriculture and food security
but also deepened regional and socio-economic differences.
Remedying these disparities necessitates targeted policies that
embrace local needs, sustainable farming, and fair access to
agricultural advancements.
Q.6) Discuss the ecological and economic challenges of river linking in India.
Introduction River linking, also known as interlinking of rivers, is a proposed
water management strategy in India that aims to transfer water
from surplus river basins to water-deficient regions. While this
ambitious project has garnered attention for its potential to
address water scarcity and support agriculture, it also presents
significant challenges, both ecological and economic, that need
to be considered.
Body Ecological Challenges of River Linking:

1. Disruption of Aquatic Ecosystems: Altering natural river
courses and constructing canals can disrupt aquatic
ecosystems, leading to habitat fragmentation, loss of
biodiversity, and changes in flow patterns. This can
adversely affect fish populations, migratory species, and
other aquatic organisms.
2. Invasive Species Spread: Interlinking rivers can facilitate
the spread of invasive species from one basin to another.
These non-native species can outcompete native species,
disrupt ecological balance, and harm indigenous flora and
fauna.
3. Water Quality Issues: Transferring water from one basin to
another can result in water quality problems. Different river
basins may have varying pollution levels, contaminants, and
sedimentation. Mixing water from different sources can lead
to increased pollution and the spread of waterborne diseases.
4. Loss of Riparian Habitats: River linking projects may
require the construction of reservoirs and canals, leading to
the submergence of riparian habitats. These habitats provide
critical ecosystems services, including flood control,
groundwater recharge, and supporting diverse plant and
animal species.

5. Impact on Wetlands and Floodplains: Altering river flows
can affect wetlands and floodplains, which are important
ecosystems for water purification, groundwater
replenishment, and providing habitat for numerous species.
Changes in water availability and inundation patterns can
disrupt these valuable ecosystems.
Economic Challenges of River Linking:
1. High Costs and Funding: Implementing large-scale river
linking projects involves significant financial investment.
The construction of canals, reservoirs, and associated
infrastructure requires substantial funding, potentially
straining government budgets and diverting resources from
other developmental priorities.
2. Uncertain Benefits and Returns: The economic benefits of
river linking projects are uncertain and challenging to
quantify. While the projects aim to improve water
availability for irrigation, there are concerns about the long-
term sustainability of transferred water and its impact on
downstream regions. The actual benefits may vary, and the
return on investment may not meet expectations.
3. Socioeconomic Displacement: River linking projects often
result in the displacement of communities living in the areas
where canals and reservoirs are constructed. This
displacement can lead to social and economic challenges for
affected communities, including loss of livelihoods, cultural
disruptions, and inadequate resettlement and rehabilitation
measures.
4. Conflict over Water Allocation: River linking projects can
potentially create conflicts between states or regions over
water allocation. Disagreements over sharing water
resources, especially during times of scarcity, can lead to
disputes and strained inter-state relations.
5. Impact on Local Agriculture: The alteration of river flows
and water availability can have unintended consequences for
local agriculture. Changes in water sources may disrupt
traditional irrigation systems, affect soil fertility, and require
costly adjustments in farming practices, potentially
impacting the livelihoods of farmers.
Conclusion It is imperative to conduct comprehensive assessments, involve

stakeholders, and implement environmental safeguards to
ensure that river linking projects are environmentally
sustainable and economically viable, while addressing the water
management needs of the country.

Q.7) Explain the processes of chemical weathering and their relationship with soil
formation.
Introduction Chemical weathering is a significant process in soil formation,
involving the decomposition of rocks and minerals through
various chemical reactions.
Body Chemical Processes of Weathering:

1. Hydration: This process involves the combination of water
molecules with specific minerals, leading to structural
changes. Minerals undergo swelling and volume increase
upon hydration, resulting in softening. Examples include the
formation of limonite from haematite and gypsum from
anhydrite.
2. Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis is a fundamental process in
chemical weathering, where water molecules dissociate into
H+ and OH- ions. These ions chemically react with minerals,
causing exchange, decomposition of crystalline structure,
and the formation of new compounds. Hydrolysis plays a
crucial role in the availability of clay minerals and nutrients
for plant growth.
3. Solution: Some substances present in rocks are directly
soluble in water. Continuous water action removes these
soluble substances, leading to the disintegration of rocks and
the formation of holes or rough surfaces. Acidified water
enhances the dissolution process. An example is the
dissolution of halite (NaCl) in water.
4. Carbonation: Carbon dioxide dissolved in water forms
carbonic acid. This acid attacks various rocks and minerals,
bringing them into solution. Carbonation has an etching
effect, especially on limestone, leading to disintegration. An
example is the conversion of calcite to calcium bicarbonate.
5. Oxidation: Oxidation involves the addition and
combination of oxygen with minerals, usually from
dissolved oxygen in soil water and the atmosphere. Moisture
enhances oxidation, resulting in the formation of hydrated
oxides. Minerals containing iron and magnesium are
susceptible to oxidation.
6. Reduction: Reduction is the opposite process of oxidation
and involves the removal of oxygen. It occurs under
conditions of excess water or waterlogged conditions with
limited oxygen availability. Reduction changes the soil color
and converts ferric iron compounds to ferrous iron
compounds.
Conclusion These processes alter the mineral composition of rocks, release

nutrients, and contribute to the development of secondary

minerals and the availability of essential elements for plant
growth.
Q.8) Evaluate the transformation of Hyderabad from a traditional manufacturing city

to a global metropolis post-economic reform of 1991, emphasizing the role of IT
and pharmaceutical industries in reshaping its urban and economic landscape.
Introduction The post-economic reforms era, initiated in 1991, marked a
significant turning point, ushering in an age of liberalization,
privatization, and globalization that redefined the city's industrial and
urban landscape. Central to this transformation have been the IT and
pharmaceutical industries, which have played pivotal roles in
reshaping Hyderabad into a global city.
Body Pre-Economic Reforms Phase:

 Industrial Foundations: Prior to 1991, Hyderabad's
economy was characterized by the presence of major public
enterprises and industrial clusters in areas such as Azamabad,
Balanagar-Sanathnagar-Kukatpally, and
Ramachandrapuram-Patancheru. These laid the
groundwork for the city's industrial base.
 Urban Expansion: The city witnessed significant urban
growth, extending towards new industrial nuclei and reaching
a population milestone of over 1 million.
Post-Economic Reforms Phase:
 IT and Pharmaceutical Industries: The liberalization
policies catalyzed the growth of the IT and pharmaceutical
sectors. Hyderabad's strategic embrace of the IT revolution,
marked by the establishment of Cyber Towers in HITEC
City, positioned the city as a major IT hub. Similarly, the
pharmaceutical industry, concentrated in the North-Western
part of Hyderabad, emerged as India's prime region for
pharmaceutical production and exports.
 Infrastructure Development: The development of
infrastructure, including the Rajiv Gandhi International
Airport, Jawaharlal Nehru Outer Ring Road, and Special
Economic Zones (SEZs), facilitated the city's economic
growth and urban expansion. These developments attracted
investments, enhancing the real estate sector and contributing
to the urban sprawl.
Role of IT and Pharmaceutical Industries:
 Economic Contributions: The IT industry, alongside
pharmaceuticals, significantly contributed to Hyderabad's
GDP, export revenue, and employment generation. This
diversification of the economy from traditional manufacturing
to high-tech industries stimulated robust economic growth.

 Urban Transformation: The rise of IT parks and
pharmaceutical campuses influenced the spatial dynamics of
Hyderabad, leading to the development of satellite towns and
residential areas catering to the workforce in these sectors.
This contributed to a more cosmopolitan urban fabric, marked
by modern amenities, gated communities, and improved
quality of life.
 Global Recognition: Hyderabad's emergence as a "Pharma
City" and an IT hub garnered international recognition,
attracting multinational corporations, fostering global
partnerships, and positioning the city as a destination for
talent and investment on the world stage.
Conclusion The economic reforms of 1991 served as a catalyst for Hyderabad's

transformation from a traditional manufacturing stronghold to a
global metropolis, emphasized by the flourishing IT and
pharmaceutical industries. As Hyderabad continues to evolve, the
foundational role of these sectors in propelling the city onto the global
stage remains a testament to the transformative power of economic
liberalization and strategic urban planning.
Q.9) Discuss different factors affecting the location of Iron and steel industries in India.
Introduction The iron and steel industry are a vital sector in the Indian economy,
contributing significantly to its industrial development and
economic growth. The location of iron and steel industries in India
is influenced by a range of factors, including:
Body 1. Raw materials: Most of the large integrated steel plants are
located close to the source of raw materials, as they use large
quantities of heavy and weight losing raw materials. Eg:
Concentration of iron and steel industry in Chota Nagpur region
is due to the presence of iron ore in this region. TISCO at
Jamshedpur gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore,
limestone, dolomite and manganese from Odisha and
Chhattisgarh.
2. Markets: Since the products in iron & steel industries are heavy
& bulky, transportation cost is high. Therefore nearness to
market is important, especially for mini steel plants access to
nearby markets is most important in order to minimize
transportation cost. TISCO in Jamshedpur is nearer to Kolkata
which provided a large market. Visakhapatnam steel plant
located near the coast has excellent import-export facility.
3. Labour: Availability of cheap labour is also important. Most of
the plants in Chota Nagpur region find abundant supply of cheap
labour in the region.

4. Availability of water for cooling: Eg: Bokaro steel plant on the
bank of river Damodar, Visheshwarya steel plant in Bhadravati,
Karnataka is near river Bhadra.
5. Nearness to Industrial Town: Mini steel plants, that use scrap
metals as input, require recycling of waste metals and hence, are
located mostly near industrial towns eg, steel plants in
Maharashtra.
6. Government Policies: Governments incentivise industries set
up in backward regions. It provides subsidies, tax rebates and
capital to influence the location of industries. Bhilai Steel Plant
in Chhattisgarh was set up to remove the backwardness of the
region.
7. Power: Availability of power is another determinant for the
industry location. TISCO and Bokaro steel plant get
hydroelectricity from Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
Bhilai Plant gets energy from Korba Thermal Station.
8. Transport: Connectivity to raw material locations, markets and
ports is another factor. TISCO is well connected with railway to
Kolkata, Mumbai Chennai. Durgapur Plant has Navigable Canal
from Durgapur to Hugli and Kolkata Port.
Conclusion To conclude iron and steel Industry is the backbone of

manufacturing sector in India. With change in technology, demand
patterns, international trade dynamics and energy sources the
location of the iron and steel industry keeps shifting. However, due
to industrial inertia the existing locations always remain relevant.
Q.10) Critically analyse the positive and negative impacts of green revolution in India.
Introduction The green revolution is defined as the transfer of modern research

technologies occurring between the year 1950 and late 1960s, which
enhanced agricultural production markedly throughout the entire
world.
It emphasized the cultivation of high yielding varieties of
particularly wheat and rice, to increase food production, especially
in India.
Body Although the Green Revolution had several benefits, it had a gloomy
side too that affected both the environment and society.
Some of the negative effects of the Green Revolution are stated
below:
1. The excessive utilization or application of fertilizers, herbicides
and pesticides adversely hampered the environmental
equilibrium due to increased pollution.
2. The new toxic materials added to the soil and plants polluted the
soil and water around the fields.

3. The soil pollution led to declined or impaired soil health and
quality that accelerated the hazard of topsoil erosion by the
action of wind or water.
4. Indiscriminate killing of useful insects, microorganisms and
predators that naturally check excess crop damage by insect
pests
5. The cultivation of a small number of crop cultivars with an aim
to produce higher yield levels declined genetic diversity among
different species.
6. High yielding varieties can increase irrigation requirements thus
placing stresses on India’s water budget leading to lowering of
the water table or creating water shortages or depleting the
groundwater reserves
7. Green revolution spread only in irrigated and high-potential rain
fed areas. The villages or regions without the access of sufficient
water were left out that widened the regional disparities between
adopters and non-adopters.
The benefits of Green Revolution are described below:
1. The dependence on food imports is eliminated with the increase
in agriculture production. The country becomes self-sufficient
in foodgrains.
2. The tremendous increase in agriculture production occurred as
a result of improvements in productivity.
3. Green revolution generated employment opportunities into
diverse activities which were created as a result of multiple
cropping and mechanization of farming. It helped to stimulate
non-farm economy that generated newer employment in various
services such as milling, marketing, warehousing etc.
4. The adoption of new agricultural technology has led to the
increased production and marketable surplus of crops especially
food grains that have resulted into price stability of food items.
5. The increase in agriculture production has strengthened the
forward linkage of agriculture sector with industry in the sense
of supplying inputs to the industry. The backward linkage with
the industry has also received a boost as agricultural
modernization created larger demand for inputs produced by
industry.
Conclusion The negative impacts of the Green Revolution highlight the need
for a sustainable and equitable agricultural development strategy
that balances productivity and environmental concerns, and
ensures that the benefits of agricultural growth are shared by all.

Telangana State
Introduction of Telangana State
The Telangana State was carved-out from the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh and came into
existence with effect from 2nd June, 2014. The State emerged as 29th and the youngest State
in the Indian Union with a geographical area of 1,12,077 Sq. Kms., (After accounting for the
transferred 327 villages from the erstwhile Khammam district to Andhra Pradesh) and is the
twelfth largest State in terms of both area and the size of the population in the country.
• Telangana is located on the Deccan Plateau and lies in the Southern region of India.
The State is strategically located in the central stretch of the eastern seaboard of Indian
Peninsula. The State is bordered by the States of Maharashtra to the North and North-
West and Chhattisgarh to the North, Karnataka to the West, and Andhra Pradesh to the
South, East and North- East.
• As per the 2011 Census, total population of the State is about 3.50 crore. The overall
population growth rate during 2001 to 2011 is about 13.58 percent as against the
national growth of 17.70 percent. Majority of the population in the State reside in rural
areas and mainly depend on agriculture for their livelihood.
• However, population in urban areas has been witnessing a significant increase in recent
years, resulting in Telangana becoming one of the fastest urbanizing States in the
country. The major cities in Telangana State include Hyderabad, Warangal,
Mahabubnagar, Karimnagar, Nizamabad, and Khammam.
• Telangana State is divided into four agro-climatic zones based on the geographical
characteristics such as rainfall, nature of soils, climate etc., viz., (i) Northern Telangana
Zone (ii) Central Telangana Zone, (iii) Southern Telangana Zone and (iv) High Altitude
and Tribal Zone. The Climate of the State is predominantly hot and dry.
• The annual normal rainfall of the State is around 905.3 mm. Important soils include red
sandy loams, red loams with clay base along with very small patches of alluvial soils.
The maximum and minimum temperatures during south west monsoon ranges between
13°C – 27°C and 29°C – 34°C, respectively. Horticulture has become a promising
source of income for farmers due to favourable climatic conditions.
• Presently, the State is the major contributor in horticultural production, such as mango,
mosambi, red-chilli, turmeric, marigold and vegetables. Telangana is rich in livestock
resources, especially cattle and sheep population. Animal Husbandry provides an
additional income and employment to the farmers, especially during droughts.
• Telangana has diversified its industrial base, from high-tech nano-technology,
biotechnology and pharmaceuticals to traditional textiles, leather, minerals, and food
processing. The State is one the major exporter of Information Technology (IT) services
in the country. Hyderabad has become a premier global destination for IT and ITeS.
• Apart from Hyderabad, cities such as Warangal, Karimnagar and Nizamabad are
emerging as Tier-2 for IT and IT-based industries.
• The State has become an important tourist destination for both domestic and
international tourists. Hyderabad has gained a brand of its-own and became a premier
medical, business and MICE tourism destination in the world.
Geography of Telangana
• The Deccan plateau belongs to the Archean system. It is made up of basalt, gneiss and
schist rocks.
• Telangana is located in the Northern hemisphere.
• It is situated in South Asia.
• Physically, Telangana state is located on the Deccan Plateau. It is a part of Deccan
plateau and the area where it is spread on the Deccan Plateau is called Telangana
Plateau'. The general slope of the Deccan Plateau is from West to East. This plateau
consists of three ranges of erosion surface. They are:
(a) Region above 600 meters from mean sea level
(b) Region from 300m- 600m above the mean sea level
(c) Region below 300m above the mean sea level
A. Region above 600 meters from mean sea level
• This erosion surface is spread mainly in the west side of the state. It lies in Hyderabad,
Rangareddy,
• Medchal Malkajgiri, Vikarabad, Sangareddy, Medak, Siddipet southern region and
Nagarkurnool.
• This region consists of peneplained surfaces made of rocks of archacan origin.
Normally this region slopes towards the East.
• This area includes the east flowing rivers of fKrishna and Godavari.
B. Region between 300m-600m above mean seal level:
• This region lies between the highest region in the west and lowest region in the east. It
is spread over the western districts of Telangana state- Vikarabad, Mahabubnagar,
Nizamabad,Kamareddy and Warangal.
• The fault valleys of Godavari came into existence due to the subsidence process.
Krishna and Tungabhadra valley is present at an altitude between 300 meters to 450
meters in the south.
• It is internally comnoseda Gneiss rock. This region has plenty of water resources such
as lakes that support agriculture
C. Region below 300m above the mean sea level:
• This region occupies a large area in Telangana state and extends on both sides of
Godavari river lt lie mainly in the erstwhile Nalgonda, Khamypam, Waranga,
Karimnagar and Adilabad-districts.
• This region is also favorable for cultivation.
• Another name of Telangana is Ratnagarbha.
• The territory of Telangana looks like an Isosceles triangle. Telangana is a part of
Peninsular India that was separated from Gondwana region. The 33 districts
ofTelangana state are present in Deccan plateau. Many hill groups made up of granite
in the shape of toes and boulders are distributed in Hyderabad, Rangareddy, Vikarabad,
Medchal Malkajgiri districts.

• Region between United Rangareddy and Mahabubnagar districts- Peneplains formed
with basalt lava. Nizamabad, Kamareddy, Medak, Sangareddy, Siddipet districts-
gneiss and granite rocks.
• Nirmal, Mancherial, Jagtial, Peddapalli, Jayashankar Bhupalapally, Mulugu, Bhadradri
Kothagudem districts- As these districts are in Godavari river valley, coal deposits were
formed with ancient Gondwana rocks. Gondwana rocks are present in Telangana in
Godavari basin.
• Telangana region is located at an altitude of480m-600m above sea level.
• Hyderabad lies at an altitude of 600 m above sea level
• The region between Krishna and Tungabhadra river valleys lies at an altitude of 300m-
450m.
• The region between Bhima and Godavari rivers (The region encompassed by
Hyderabad, Khammmam and Warangal) lies at an altitude of 730 m. The Eastern ghats
on the eastern side and Western ghats of the southern side of Deccan plateau enter the
Telangana region. Western ghats are also known as Sahyadri or Satnala range. The
Western Ghats of Sahyadri range detached from Ajantha range entered Adilabad district
from South East of Telangana region. The Eastern ghats spread to Telangana from
Mahabubnagar in the form of Eastern hills. The Eastern ghats in Telangana form several
discontinuous ranges of low hills which are called with different names in different
regions.
• The highest peak in Eastern ghats in Telangana is Lakshmidevipalli hill. This is located
in Siddipet district.
• The highest range in Western ghats in Telangana (Nirmal district)is Mahabub Ghat.
• The highest point in the Deccan plateau isSolamile (Jangaon).
Telangana region can be divided into 3 regions based on topography.
They are:
• 1. Telangana Plateau
• 2. Godavari Basin
• 3. Krishna Piedmont

1. Telangana Plateau:
• It occupies nearly 59,903 sq Km in Telangana's geographical area.
• It is described as the largest region of Telangana.
• This region lies at an altitude of 500m- 600m from the mean sea level.
• This plateau slopes down from West to East.
• This plateau covers Nirmal (Bhainsa- Nirmal Plateau), Nizamabad, Kamareddy,
Bhuvanagiri- Ramannapet Plateau, Devarakonda Plateau, Nalgonda- Miryalaguda
Plateau, Suryapet- Huzurnagar Plateau, Medak, Sangareddy and Hyderabad districts.
• This region consists of hills, hillocks and uneven topography.
Hills, hillocks in various districts
Adilabad, Nirmal, Mancherial, Komaram Bheem Asifabad districts :
• Nirmal ranges- Nirmal Satnala hills- Adilabad
• Sirpur hills- Komaram Bheem Asifabad
• Kerimeri Ghats- Komaram Bheem Asifabad Mahabub Ghats- Nirmal
Jagtial, Peddapalli districts :
• Rakhi hills- Jagtial
• Ramagiri hills- Peddapalli
Hanmakonda, Jayashankar- Bhupalpally districts :
• Kandikal hills- Warangal Urban Hanamkonda- Warangal Urban
• Pandavula Gutalu- Jayashankar- Bhupalapalli
Khammam, Bhadradri Kothagudem districts:
• Kanakgiri hillocks- Khammam
• Yellandlapadu hillocks- Khammam
• Raju hillocks- Khammam
* Papikondalu (Bhadradri Kothagudem)*
• Papikondalu is a picturesque landscape spread across Bhadradri Kothagudem and East
Godavari districts. Papikondalu- Godavari river flows through this hills. Boating
facility is present between Rajahmundry and Bhadrachalam in Godavari river.
Nalgonda, Yadadri- Bhuvanagiri districts :
• Yadadri Guttalu - Yadadri Bhuvanagiri
• Nagarjuna hills - Nalgonda
• Bhuvanagiri hills - Yadadri Bhuvanagiri
• Nandi hills - Nalgonda
• Rámagiri hills, Rachakonda - Yadadri Bhuvanagiri
• Nandagiri hills- Nalgonda
Mahabubnagar, Wanaparthy, Jogulamba Gadwal, Nagarkurnool districts:
• Amrabad hills- Nagarkurnool
• Shabad hills- Mahabubnagar
• Koil Hillocks- Mahabubnagar
• Nallamala hills- Nagarkurnool
*Ananthagiri hills-Vikarabad*
• Musi river originates in Anathagirí hills. It is located near Shivareddypet in Vikarabad.
• It is famous for medicinal plants. Anantha Padmanabha swamy Temple is situated here.
Rangareddy, Hyderabad districts :
• Golkonda
• Rachakonda
• Rachakonda is extended to Devarakonda taluk, Nalgonda district in the East,
Ananthagiri hills, Vikarabad district in the West, Shabad hills in Mahabubnagar district
in the South.
• The hills spread in Hyderabad and Mahabubnagar districts belong tọ Balaghat range.
Medak, Siddipet districts:
• Booju Guttalu
• Lakshmi Devi Palli hills
• Lakshmidevunipalli hills are the highest hills in Eastern ghats in Telangana.
Nizamabad, Kamareddy districts:
• Sirnapalli hills (Khaithi Lambadis are living here)
• Rathi hills (identified by Chellappa Committee Recently)
• Sirnapalli hills extend from Sirnapalli to Armoor.
Gondwana Rocks:
• Gondwana rocks are present in Godavari basin in Telangana,
• Gondwana rocks contain Coal reserves.
• The coal mining company in Telangana is- Singareni Collieries. It was established in
1921 at Singareni.
• The headquarters of Singareni Collieries is located at - Kothagudem (Bhadradri
Kothagudem Districts with abundant coal reserves in Telangana are:
1. Bhadradri Kóthagudem
2. Jayashankar Blrüpalapalli
3. Peddapalli
4. Mancherial
5. Komaram Bheem Asifabad
2. Godavari Basin
• This basin is regarded as the main feature ofIndian Peninsula.
• It is called Godavari basin because the large river Godavari flows through it Godavari
basin mainly extends over the districts ofNizamabad, Nirmal, Manehefis Jaetiat,
Peddapalli, Jay ashankar Bhupalapali, Mulug, Bhadradrikothagudem.
• It spreads over an area of about 37,934 Sq Km.
Important Projects on Godavari:

● Polavaram Irrigation Project
● Kaleshwaram.
● Sadarmatt Anicut
● Inchampalli project
● Sriram Sagar Project (SRSP)
• Geologically it consists of Carboniferous, Archean and Gneissic rocks. Godavari basin

mainly spreads in Kaleshwaram in Jayashankar Bhupalpally district; Eturuņagaram in
Mulugu district; Jagtigland Metpalln Jagis district; Sultangkad and Peddapatfi in
Peddapalli district; Bodhan, Armqopand Bheemgal Nizamabad district Laksettipet and
Chennur in Mancherial district; Nirmal, Khanapur and Muthol in Nirmal district;
Manugur Bhurgampadu in Bhadradri Kothagudem district.
• The river Godavari flows in the South west direction in this regios Rivulets such as
Sabari, Munner, Palair, Alair and Wyra flow in this area which is affected by floods in
the rainy season. It is eroded by the rivers during floods.
3. Krishna Piedmont
• This region extends over an arca about 14,240 Sq Km in Telangana state.
• This is mainly spread in Narayanpet, Mahabubnagar, Jogulamba Gadwal,
Nagarkurnool , Nalgonda , Devarakonda, Miryalaguda and Huzurnagar and areas of
Suryapet district.
• The terrain in this region is uneven. It is mainly an exposed rocky surface.
• Geologically it is composed of Archean and Precambrian rocks. Soil in this region
facilitates cultivation.
Climate of Telangana
• The climate of a region is mainly dependent on many factors such as geography,
insolation, altitude, atmospheric pressure, winds, humidity and topography.
Factors Determining Climate of India
Climate is controlled by a number of factors which can be broadly divided into two groups
1. factors related to location and relief, and
2. factors related to air pressure and winds.
Factors related to Location and Relief
• Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part of India in east-west direction. Thus,
northern part of the India lies in sub-tropical and temperate zone and the part lying
south of the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone.

• The tropical zone being nearer to the equator, experiences high temperatures throughout
the year with small daily and annual range.
• The Himalayan Mountains in the north along with its extensions act as an effective
climatic divide.
• The mountain chain provides an invincible shield to protect the subcontinent from the
cold northern winds. These cold and chilly winds originate near the Arctic circle and
blow across central and eastern Asia.
• The Himalayas also trap the monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture within
the subcontinent.
• As compared to the landmass, water heats up or cools down slowly. This differential
heating of land and sea creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in and
around the Indian subcontinent.
 Difference in air pressure causes reversal in the direction of monsoon winds.
• Distance from the Sea -With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable
climate. Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the
sea. Such areas have extremes of climate.
• Temperature decreases with height. Due to thin air, places in the mountains are cooler
than places on the plains.
• The physiography or relief of India also affects the temperature, air pressure, direction
and speed of wind and the amount and distribution of rainfall.
• The windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall whereas the
southern plateau remains dry due to its leeward situation along the Western Ghats.
Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind
(i) Distribution of air pressure and winds on the surface of the earth.
(ii) Upper air circulation caused by factors controlling global weather and the inflow of
different air masses and jet streams.
(iii) Inflow of western cyclones generally known as disturbances during the winter season
and tropical depressions during the south-west monsoon period into India, creating
weather conditions favourable to rainfall.
The mechanism of these three factors can be understood with reference to winter and summer
seasons of the year separately.
Climate of Telangana
• Telangana has the most favourable climate for human life. It has moderate climatic
conditions. Days and nights have almost equal length.
• Telangana is located in Northern hemisphere. So it is considered to be located in
Tropical zone. The climate of- Telangana is classified as Tropical monsoon climate.
• The Deccan plateau is extended at a high altitude from sea level. This region
experiences hot summer in May and cold in winter.
•Northern Telangana features 'Humid subtropical climate' whereas Southern Telangana
has Semi arid climate.
• According to Koppen climatic classification, Telangana state has a Semi Arid or Humid
Subtropical climate in India. The average rainfall in Telangana is 906 mm.
• The summer extends from March to June.
• During this period. thunderstorms and strong wind gusts occur due to Cumulonimbus
clouds. It is called Convectional rainfall. The local people call them destroying rains,
unseasonal rains or Avakal pani.
• Heat waves typically occur in the second and third weeks of May during summer.
Highest temperature in the state is recorded at Ramagundam in Peddapalli district.
• Lowest temperature is recorded during winter in Medak and Adilabad.
• Highest average temperature of the state is 42 degree Celsius in summer while the
average lowest temperature is 29-12 degree Celsius in winter. Normally, heat is intense
in the month of May.
• Places where highest temperature is recorded in Telangana- Ramagundam,
Kothagudem.
• Place where lowest temperature is recorded in Telangana- Adilabad
The Indian Meteorological Department classifies four climatological seasons in India.
They are:
1. Winter (December to February)
2. Summer (March to May)
3. South West Monsoon Period or Rainy Season (June to September)
4. Monsoon Retreating Period (October to November)
WINDS
• According to famous meteorologist (Roy) two types of winds flox in Telangana. They
are:
1.South West winds/ Humid winds
2. North East winds/ Dry winds
North East Monsoon Period:
• The transition period between October rainy season and dry winter season is called the
Retrezíng South West Monsoon period.
• During this period, rainfall occurs due to Cyclones.
• The normal rainfall in this period is 126,mm (or) 129 mm
• Hyderabad receives maximum rainfall and erstwhile Karimnagar district receives
lowest rainfall due to North East winds, In all, Adilabad receives highest rainfall and
erstwhile Mahabubnagar receives lowest rainfall in Telangana state.
• Sileru basin is identified as the highest rainfall receiving area of Telangana.
• During winter, tropical continental air travels through the Deccan plateau and reaches
the south of Bay of Bengal.
• It becomes a tropical sea breeze. As Telangana is far from the sea, tropical climate
prevail over the state with weak high pressure conditions

• In the Southern region of the state, favorable conditions for rainfall decrease due to
anticyclones and it receives no rain. But rainfall occurs in some places such as
Achchampet in Nagarkurnool, Madhira in Khammam, Nalgonda and Bhadradri
Kothagudem districts.
South West Monsoon Period or Rainy Season :
• This period extends from June to September. Telangana state receives(80% of the total
rainfall from South West monsoons.
• The effect of South West Monsoons begins in the first and second weeks of June in
Telangana and they occupy the entire state by the end of the month.
• The average rainfall increases from Southern Telangana to Northern Telan gana Annual
average rainfall ranges from 700mm to 900mm in Southern Telangana and 900mm to
1500mm in Northern Telangana.
• Hot weather starts in the third week of February and gradually increases from March
and temperature reaches high by the month of May.
• Highest average temperature of the state is 42 degrée Celsius in summer while the
average lowest temperature is 29-12 degree Celsius in winter. They continue from the
middle of June to September.
• Normally the rainfall during this period is about 720.4 man. Due to the effect of low
pressure that travels from Bay of Bengal to Ganga plains, Telangana receives highest
rainfall in the months of September, October.
• The normal rainfall during the north-east monsoon between October and December is
124.9 mm.
• Telangana receives high rainfall in September due to low pressure systems traveling
from Bay of Bengal to Gangetic plain. The state receives rainfall for about 60 days only.
Rainfall increases from South to North direction.
• The South west Monsoon causes highest rainfall in Mulugu and lowest rainfall in
Nagarkurnool, Jogulamba Gadwal-Alampur
• As Telangana is located in hot semi arid zone rainfall plays an important role in
Agriculture. The instability in raintall in the state can be observed when Telangana
socio economic outlook - 2022 is studied.
• During 2004-05 the state received a low rainfall of 6l4 mn from South West monsoon,
In the later period during 2020-21, it received a rainfall of 1322.4 mn. This year is
recorded as the year with highest rainfall, the highest rainfall in Telangana in the last
20 years.
• During the same period Telangana received a rainfall of 179,4 mm hom North East
monsoon, This is 43,46% more than Normal.
• The instability in rainfall in Telangana is more than 25% in the South West monsoon
period and 80% in the North East monsoon period.
• This instability is more once in every three years, The unstable rains are less in the
northern and North western areas of Telangana.

• The instability of rains is more in Southern Telangana mainly in Mahabubnagar,
Narayanpet, Jogulamba Gadwal, Nalgonda and Suryapet districts, Rainfall occurs in
October- December months.
• Due to the North East monsoon, Rainy season is also pleasant in Telangana. Thousands
of plant species grow after the rainy season making the land lush green.
•
• There are 8 meteorological stations in Telangana that record the temperature of 33
districts.
• They are located at the district centers of Hyderabad, Warangal, Nalgonda, Mahabub
Nagar, Khammam, Nizamabad and Medak.
• But the weather station of Peddapalli is located at Ramagundam.
Summer
• Summer season in Telangana continúes from March to June.
• During summer, the highest mean temperature at Ramagundam go upto 50 degree
Celsius and at Nizamabad, Kamareddy, Bhadradri Kothagudem and Khammam it is
about 40-43 degree Celsius. Sometimes, the highest temperature reaches more than 50
degree Celsius.
• Bhadrachalam and Kothagudem may record nearly 48 degree Celsius.
• The summer climate of Hyderabad feels a little colder when compared to other districts
of Telangana.
• Telangana experiences warm days and cold nights.
• The difference in temperatures of day and night is huge. Temperature has risen dụe to
cutting of trees in the last decade.
• Temperature of Hyderabad has been on constant rise because of vehicular traffic and
pollution. Highest diurnal temperature is recorded at Ramagundam.
• A little convectional rainfall also occurs due to high temperature.
Winter
• Telangana experiences the winter season from December to February. Normally the
climate is dry without rainfall.
• Cold winds blow during night and low temperatures are recorded. Sangareddy and
Ramagundam witness lowest temperatures (Less than 13°C) in December.
According to Telangana state statistical Abstract 2021:
• Places that recorded lowest temperatures till now-
1.Kohir Mandal (Sangareddy): 2°C
2. Lingapur Mandal (Komuram Bheem) : 2.4°C
3. Madnoor Mandal (Kamareddy) : 2.,5°C
• Places that recorded highest temperatures till now-

1. In May 2015, Ghanpur in Jayashankar district, Chinthalapalem in Suryapet district,
Dandapally in Mancherial district and Madulapally in Nalgonda district recorded the
highest temperature of 48.9°C.
Rainfall
Rainfall in India
• The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations.
• Areas of High Rainfall : The highest rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the Western
Ghats, as well as in the sub-Himalayan areas is the northeast and the hills of Meghalaya.
• Here the rainfall exceeds 200 cm. In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills, the rainfall
exceeds 1,000 cm. In the Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining hills, the rainfall is less
then 200 cm.
• Areas of Medium Rainfall : Rainfall between 100-200 cm is received in the southern
parts of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, northeastern Peninsula covering Odisha, Jharkhand,
Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga plain along the sub-Himalayas and the
Cachar Valley and Manipur.
• Areas of Low Rainfall : Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and
Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between 50-
100 cm.
• Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall
below 50 cm.
Rainfall in Telangana
Normal Rainfall :
• The normal rainfall in Telangana is 905.44 m.m. But this is not standard. The normal
rainfall is calculated on district and state basis. Generally the normal rainfall changes
according to the actual rainfall.
• The actual rainfall in a given year may be more or less than the normal level. The
variation may be positive or negative.
District wise rainfall - Variation :
Districts with Lowest rainfall in Telangana:
1. Mulugu
2. Adilabad
3. Komuram Bheem
4. Mancherial
5. Bhadradri Kothagudem
Districts with highest rainfall in Telangana :
1. Gadwal
2. Narayanpet
3. Wannaparthy
4. Mahabubnagar
5. Nagarkurnool
River System of Telangana

• The flow of rivers in Telangana - The general slope of India is from North West to South
East.
• So the rivers flow from North West to South East.
• The original point from which the river flows is called Source of the river or Head
water.
• The area of land from which precipitation collects and drains off into a river through
streams is called the Drainage basin.
There are two categories of rivers in India. They are:
1. Himalayan rivers
2. Peninsular rivers.
• The Peninsular Rivers are older than the Himalayan Rivers. The Peninsular rivers form
V' shaped valleys.
• The major rivers flowing through Telangana are- Godavari, Krishna, Majeera, Musi,
Tungabhadra. Among the major rivers, the Godavari basin is about 79% and the Krishna
basin is about 69%.

1. GODAVARI RIVER
• The area of Godavari basin is 3,12,812 Sq Km (Second largest river basin in the
Country). Godavari river is mentioned in Puranas as Tellivaha river.
• It is also called the River of Poets.
• It is the largest among the Peninsular rivers in terms of length, catchment area and
discharge. Godavari basin drains about 10% of India's total geographical area.
• It is the second longest river in India and the longest river in South India. Length of
Godavari- 1465 Km (910 miles).
• The length of Godavari in Telangana is 560 Km. (Total length in Telangana and A.P is
772 Km).
• The state with highest catchment basin is - Maharashtra (48.6%).
• It flows through the states of Maharashtra, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh,
Puducherry
Origin :
• Godavari river originates from a sacred pond in the Trimbakeshwar Temple on
Brahmagiri mountain near Nashik in Western ghats/ Sahyadris in Maharashtra state.
Elevation- 920m (3018 feet) above sea level.
Other Names: Vridha Ganga, Dakshina Ganga, Poetic river and Rhine of India.
• Annual average rainfall in its catchment area is 110 cm.
• The river island created by Godavari is Badanakurthi (Nirmal district)
• The first project built on Godavari in Telangana is Pochampadu (Sriram Sagar
Projecet).
• Godavari basin is the only river basin in South India with availability of coal deposits,
Godavari splits intg seven branches near Vempalli Venkatraopet village in Jagtial
district.
• Godavari takes the shape of a crescent at Cheggaon village located in the border of
Jagtial and Peddapalli districts.
• Godavari forms Triveni Sangamam (Confluence. three rivers) by joining with two
rivers namely Manjeera and Haridra at Kandakurthi village in Renjal mandal of
Nizamabad district.
• It forms another Triveni Sangamam by joining with two rivers Pranahita and Saraswati
a Kaleshwaram in Bhupalpally district.
• Godavari basin is bounded on the North by the Ajanta, Nirmal, Satmala hil. and forms
the Southern edge of Papi hills. The highest Peak in Godavari Basin area - Arma Konda
(1 680 km).
Course of Godavari river
• It originates at Trimbakeshwar near Nashik in Brahmagirí hills in Western ghats in
Maharashtra Godavari flows through Maharashtra and enters Telangana at Kandakurthi
in Nizamabad district and flows through Basara in Nirmal district.

• It reaches Sriram Sagar Project (Pochampadu) after traveling along the border of
Nirmal and Nizamabad districts.
• Later it crosses the districts afNizamghád, Jaetişl Mancherial, Peddnglh, Jayashankár
Bhupalpally, Mulygu, Bhadradri Kothagudem and cut across Papi hills forming the
Bison gorge and enters Andhra Pradesh at Polavarám (Telangana- Andhra border).
• It separates the districts of East Godavari and West Godavari. After flowing at
Rajahmundry, it splits into five major branches (total 7 branches) at Dhavaleswaram
and every branch joins Bay of Bengal at different places. So it is called Sapta Godavari.
Branches of Godavari
 Gowthami- Northern branch: Falls into Bay of Bengal at Yanam.
 Vasista- Middle branch. Falls into Bay of Bengal at Antarvedi.
 Vynatheya- Southern branch. Falls into Bay of Bengal at Komarigpatnam.
 Tulya- Falls into Bay of Bengal at Bendamuflanka.
 Bharadwaja- Falls into Bay of Bengal at Bendamtlanka.
• Kousika and Atreya branches join Tulya and Bharadwaja branches and flow as a single
branch and fall into Bay of Bengal at Bendamurlanka. The delta region formed between
CGowtami and Vasista is Konaseema. Konaseem is called as the Garden of Andhra
Pradesh.
• The districts on the left side of Godavari are Nirmal, Mancherial.
• The districts on the right side of Godavari are Nizamabad, Jagtial, Peddapalli,
Jayashanka Bhupalapally, Mulugu, Bhadradri Kothgudem.
Tributaries of Godavari
• Pravara (Maharashtra)
• Manjeera (Telangana)
• Peddavagu (Telangana)
• Indravati (Telangana)
• Sabari (Telangana)
• Manair (Telangana)
• Pranahita (Telangana)
• Purna (Maharashtra)
• Penganaga (Telangana)
• Wardha (Telangana)
• Wainganga (Telangana)
• Kinnerasani (Telangana)
• Sileru (A.P)
• Taliperu (A.P)
The tributaries that join Godavari from Right side:
1. Manair
2. Peddavagu
3. Manjeera
4. Kinnerasani
5. Moola
6. Pravara
 Total catchment area is 16.14%.
The tributaries that join Godavari from Left side:
1. Purna
2. Sileru
3. Sabafi
4. Indraxati
5. Pranahita
6. Wainganga
7. Penganga
8. Dudhna
9. Kaddam
• Total catchment area is 59.7%.
• The first tributary that joins Godavari in Telangana is Manjeera (at Kandakurthi)
• The last tributary that joins Godavari in Telangana is Sabari (before Kunavarm)
TRIBUTARIES OF GODAVARI
Manjeera
• It is the first tributary of Godavari in Telangana. Manjeera, a non perennial river is a
main tributary of Godavari.
• Manjeera river is called as Manjra' in Maharashtra. It is also known as Halsi.
• Manjeera river originates at Jamkhed hill (Patoda taluka of Beed district) in Balaghat
range in Maharashtra. It passes through Maharashtra and Karnataka and enters
Telangana near Narayankhed in Sangareddy district. It flows through Medak district
and Nizam Sagar Project in Kamareddy district.
• Later it cuts across Nizamabad district and falls into Godavari at Kandakurthi (Triveni
Sangamam- Manjeera, Godavari, Haridra rivers). It is the longest and main tributary of
Godavari.
• Tributaries of Manjeera river: Kakivaagu, Nallavaagu, Koulas nala, Haldi, Lendi,
Karanga, Tirna, Gharni, Manyad.
• Manjeera river flows through the states of - Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana
• The length of Manjeera river is 724 Km.
• Total catchment area of Manjeera river is 30,844 Sq Km.
• It is the main resource of drinking water för the districts of Sangaréddy and Medak.
• Manjeera Wild life Sanctuary is located in Manjeera basin.
• Famous temple located in the Manjeera basin- Edupayala Vanadurga temple.
Projects constructed on Manjeera river-
1. Nizamsagar Project
2. Singur Project
Nizam Sagar Project:
• Nizam Sagar Project is built açross Manjeera river between Atchampet and Vangapalli
villages in NizamSagar mandal of Kamąreddy district.
• It was constructed between 1923- 1931 during the rule of the 7th Nizam Mir Osman
Ali Khan.
• Objective: To provide drinking water to Hyderabad city.
Singur Project
• It is also known as Mogili Gundla Baga Reddy Singur Project.
• It has been constructed across Manjira River near Singur village in Pulkal Mandal of
Sangareddy district.
• It is primarily intended to provide drinking water to the twin cities of Hyderábad and
Secunderabad.
Pranahita River
• The largest tributary of the Godavari is the Pranahita with about three rivers namely
Penganga, Waingapga and Wardhá combine to form Pranahitą.
• These three rivers flow through Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra and merge at
Tammidikatti in Komaram Bheem Asifabad district of Telangana to t 34.87 coverage of
drainage area. form Pranahita river(Asifabad valley is located between Godavari and
Pranahita rivers.
• Pranahita river facilitates inland water transport between Gadchiroli and Kaleswaram.
• Pranahita river flows through the districts of Komaram Bheem Asifabad, Mancherial
and Jayashankar Bhupalapally in Telangana.
• This river flows 113 Kms along the border ofTelangana and Maharashtra states and falls
into the river Godavari at Kaleshwaram in Jayashankar Bhupalpally district. Penganga
river from the right, Wardha river from the middle and Wainganga from the left fall into
Pranahita river.
• This river basin is spread in the şouthern slope ofVidarbha and Satpura. Pranahita
Hydro electric Project is located nearKouthala (Sirpur KagajNagar) on the border of
Telangana and Maharashtra states.
• The basin of Pranahita river, the 7th Largest river basin in India is spread in 1,09,078
Sq Kms. This river flows towards the south like the other rivers ofDeccan plateau.
• The river basin of Pranahaita is a hub of rich biodiversity with thick forests, flora and
fauna.

• The three rivers that form the Pranahita river originate in the Satpura mountain range
(Madhya Pradesh).
Wadha river
• It originates at Multai In Satpura range in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
• It flows through Vidarbha in Maharashtra and joins Penganga at Jugaad village in
Maharashtra near the border of Komaram Bheem Asifabad district after traveling 528
Kms.
• It is the biggest river in Vidarbha region.
Penganga river
• Penganga river originates at Revulghat mountains in Vidarbha and merges with Wardha
river ugad in Yavatmal district of Maharashtra. It is 676 km long.
• The Lower Penganga project has been constructed on this river as an interstate irrigation
project.
• Chanaka- Korata barrage also has been constructed across this river in Adilabad district.
• This barrage provides water for irrigation to about 50 thousand acres in Thamsi, Jainath
and Bera mandals of Adilabad district.
• Yavatmal Plateau is located between Penganga and Wardha rivers.
• Pranahita- Chevella Lift Irrigation Scheme, a flagship project of Telangana government
is located at Tammishetti village in Korutla mandal ofAsifabad district. It is also known
as Dr B.R. Ambedkar Pranahita- Chevella Lift Irrigation Scheme.
Wainganga river
• Wainganga originates in Mundhara village in Seonidístrict on the southern slopes of the
Satpura range of Madhya Pradesh and merges with Pengangaat Chamorshi.
• Wainganga joins the Pranahita river from the eft side. It provides 40% of total water in
Godavari.
• Srí Komaram Bheem Project has been built across Peddavagu stream near Ada village
in Asifabad district, Vatti Vagu Project is built across Vatti Vagu stream near
Pahadibanda village and NTR Sagar (Chelimelavagu Project) Project is constructed
across Chelimelavagu stream near Anakapalli village in Thiryani mandal.
Peddavagu
• It falls into Pranahita river near Rampur in Gadchiroli district (near Asifabad) of
Maharashtra. Area of this river basin is 6000 Sq Km.
Kaddam River
• Kaddam river originates at Bithai village in Bodh taluk of Adilabad district.
• It merges with Godavari at Pasupula village in Khanapur mandal of Nirmal district.
• It flows through Adilabad and Nirmal districts only. It is a left bank tributary of
Godavari.
Waterfalls on Kaddam river
Kuntala :

• It is located at Neradigonda mandal in Adilabad district.
• Its height is 147 feet/45 meters.
• It is believed that it got its name after Shakuntala, the wife of Dushyanta.
• This waterfall is of the cascade type.
Pochera
• It is located at Bodh in Adilabad district.
• Its height is 20 meters.
• This waterfall is of the plunge type
Gayatri
• It is situated at Kurdu village in Neradigonda mandal of Adilabad district.
Haridra River
• Haridra river rises near Sangareddy and flows through the districts of Sangarstáy and
Nizamabad.
• It form triveni Sangamam by joining with Godavari and Manjeera rivers at Kandakurthi
in Ňizamabad district.
• Districts through which Haridra river flows are- Sangareddy, Nizamabad, Kamareddy.
• Temple located at Kandakurthi is- Sangameshwara Temple
Manair
• Birthplace of this river is Sircilla hills in Rajanna Sírcilla district. Total length of
Manair- 128 Km. Manai river flows through the districts of Rajanna Sipeilla,
Karimnagar, Jayashapkar Bhupalapally.
• It is a right bank tributary of Godavari that joins at Narmala village in Mahadevapura
taluk ofJayashankar Bhupalpally district. Majo town located on the banks of Manair is
Karimnagar, Sircilla.
• On this river, Upper Manair Dam (built in Nizams period) is located at Narmala village
in Gambhiraope mandal, Mid Manair dam (construction in progress) at Manuvada near
Sircilla and Lower Manair dam in Karimnagar district. Lower Manair dam provides
drinking water for Karimnagar and water for NTPC (Ramagundam).
Indravati
• Indravati rises from a hilltop in Kalahandi district in Dandakaranya of Eastern ghats in
Odisha- Chhattisgarh border.
• It joins Godavari from the left at Mahadevpur in Jayashankar Bhupalpally district. It
flows through Dandakaranya and Bastar Plateau.
• Total length of this river is 535 Km. The river basin covers an area of 40,939 sq.km.
• This river basin receives plenty of rainfall due to the presence of many thick forests.
Indravati river flows through the states of Chattisgarh, Odisha, Telangana.

• This river has the name of the fastest joining tributary of Godavari'. Waterfalls on this
river are Chitrakote waterfalls (Chattisgarh). It is the largest waterfall in India. Hence
it is called Indian Niagara Falls.
Kinnerasani
• This river originates near Laknavaram lake (Tadvai hills) in Mulugu district.
• Total length of this river is 96 km. Kinnerasani river flows through the districts of
Mulugu, Warangal and Kothagudem and falls into Godavan river from the right
between Burgampadu and Veleru villages after Bhadrachalam in Kothagudem district.
Sabari River
• It is also known as Kolab river.
• The main tributary of Sabari is Sileru river. Another tributary is Taliperu It is about 418
Km.
• It is the last tributary of Godavari in Telangana state. Sabari river rises from Sinkaram
hills in Eastern ghats.
• Its basin is spread in Telangana, Odisha and.Chattisgarh. Sabari river joins Godavari
from the left at Indira Sagar in Bhadradri Kothagudem district.
• Highest annual rainfall in Telangana occurs in Sabari basin (1250 mm).
• Parnasala is located on the banks of Sabari river.
• Kinnerasani reservoir has been built across Sabari river at Yanambilu Village in
Paloncha mandal. This reservoir supplies water to KTPS.
• Most of the river basin of Kinnerasani and Sabari rivers has been merged with residual
Andhra Pradesh state. Sileru
• Sileru is a tributary of Sabari river. It falls into Godavari river in Andhra Pradesh.
• Sileru river joins Sabari river at the Tri- Junction boundary point ofA.P, Chhattisgarh
and Odisha.
2. KRISHNA RIVER
• Total basin area- 2,58,948 Sq Km.
• Total length- 1401 Km
• Length of Krishna river in both Telangana and A.P 612 Km
• The source of river Krishna is located near Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra) in Western
Ghats.
• It is the 4h largest river in the Country and 2nd largest river in South India.
• The meeting place where river Krishna joins with its four tributaries in Satara district
is known as Preeti Sangam/ Lovers meeting point.
• Krishna river flows through the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka and enters
Telangana at Tangadi village in Maktal taluk of Narayanpet district.

• It passes through the districts of Wanaparthy. Gadwal, Nagarkurnool, Mahabubnagar,
Nalgonda and Sutyapetin Telangana and Kurnool, Prakasam, Guntur and Krishna
districts in Andhra Pradesh. Telangana Geography
Tributaries of Krishna
Left bank tributaries:
1. Bheema, Dindi- Mahabubnagar
2. Musi- Vikarabad
3. Halia- Nalgonda
4. Palair, Munnair- Warangal
Right bank tributaries:
1. Malaprabha
2. Ramileru
3. Ghataprabha
4. Tungabhadra (Kurnool)
5. Tammileru
6. Budameru
7. Koyna
8. Panchganga
9. Doodhganga
Tungabhadra
• Total length of the Tungabhadra: 531 Km
• Total river basin: 74,417 Sq Km
• It is the largest tributary of river Krishna.
• Origin- Varaha parvatsór Gangamoola Hills (Karnataka) in Western Ghats.
• Varaha hills join together in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka
• Two rivers namely Tunga and Bhadra that rise in to form Tungabhadra river.
• Tungabhadra flows through Karnataka and enters Andhra Pradesh at Kosigi in Kurnool
District and merges with river Krishna at Sangameswaram (Kurnool district) (near the
border of Jogulamba Gadwal district).
• An irrigation and hydroelectric project was built across Tungabhadra near Hospet in
Karnataka. Jogulamba temple in Jogulamba Gadwal district and Guru Raghavendra
temple at Mantralayam in Kurnool district are located on the banks of river
Tungabhadra.
Tributaries:
1. Varada river
2. Kumudvathi (Kundu river)
3. Hagari (Largest tributary- Handri- neeva)
4. Vedavati (Pampa river)
• Tungabhadra flows through the states of Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh
• Tungabhadra river is termed as Pampa in Ramayana.
Bhima River
• It is the longest tributary of river Krishna.
• The length of Bhima ivef is 861 Km.
• It originates in Bhimashankar Hills in Western Ghats in Maharashtra.
• Total area of the river basin is 70,614 Sq Km.
• River Bhima flows through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana and
merges with river Krishna at Raichur.
• Tributaries of Bhima are- Kagna, Mula- Mutha, Indrayani, Ghod, Sina, Nira.
Kagna River
• Kagna river originates in Ananthagifí hills Vikarabad district
• It flows in Western direction, enters Karnataka state and falls into Bhima river.
Musi River
• Musi river is also known as Mchikunda river.
• Its total length is 250 Km.
• It rises from Ananthagiri hills near Shivareddypet in Vikarabad district.
• Largest city on the banks of river Musi- Hyderabad.
• Musi river flows through Vikarabad, Ragareddy districts and merges with Krishna river
at Vadapalli in Nalgonda district.
• Musi and Esa rivers join together at Bapu Ghat (Langar Houz).
• Tributaries of Musi are- Esa, Alair, Sakalavani
• In 1920, Mir Osman Ali Khan built Osman Sagar Dam across Musi river.
• In 1927, Mir Osman Ali Khan built Himayat Sagaf reservoir across Esa river, a tributary
of Musi.
• The Great Musi flood occurred on 28 September 1908.
Dindi River
• Length- 152 Km.
• Dindi river rises from Shabad hills in Mahabubnagar and passes through the districts of
Mahabubnagar, Nagarkurnool and Nalgonda districts and merges with river Krishna at
Eleswaram. Dindi river is also called Meenambaram.
Palair River
• The length of Palair river is 145 Km. It is also known as Palleru.
• Palair river originates at Dakshina Chinnapuram in Jangaon district and flows along the
border of Suryapet and Nalgonda district and joins Krishna river at Jaggayyapeta in
Krishna district.
• A reservoir is built across Palair river near Palair town in Khammam district which
provides drinking water to Khammam town.

Munneru River
• The length of Munneru river is -192 Km.
• This river originates from Pakala tank located at the border of Warangal rural and
Mahabubabad districts. It flows through Warangal rural, Mahabubabad and Khammam
districts.
• Tributaries of Munneru are- Wyra, Katleru.
• Munneru river merges with river Krishna at Eluru village in Nandigama taluk of
Krishna district.
SOILS OF TELANGANA
• The loose surface material of the Earth is called Soil. The study of soil is called
Pedology or Edaphology.
• The study of the origin and formation of soil is known as Pedogenesis.
• The study of nature of soils is called Lithology.
• Soils are formed as a result of Weathering of rocks and minerals by physical and
chemical processes.
• Weathering involves disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals.
• Soil constitutes the upper layer of the Earth's crust, comprising weathered rock particles
and organic matter. Its formation is influenced by various factors:
• Parent Material: The original rock from which soil develops.
• Relief/Topography: The landscape features like slope and elevation affecting soil
formation.
• Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and other climatic factors impacting soil
development.
• Natural Vegetation & Biological Factors: Plant growth and microbial activity
influencing soil characteristics.
• Time: The duration over which soil-forming processes occur, contributing to soil
maturity and complexity.
• Earth Day- 22 April
• World Wetlands day- 2 February
• World Soil Day- 5 December
• The Ph of soil favorable for agriculture: 6.5- 7.5.
• The substance formed due to weathering of rocks is known as Soil.
• Telangana contains various soil types extending from highly fertile alluvial soils to
infertile sand soils.
• Even though there are irregular peneplains in the state, red soils, black soils and laterite
soils are present. Telangana mainly consists of Red soils, Alluvial Soils, Black soils and
Laterite soils.

• In ancient India, soil classification was rudimentary, primarily distinguishing between
fertile (Urvara) and sterile (Usara) soil. Modern classification considers various
characteristics like texture, color, and moisture. The Soil Survey of India, founded in
1956, extensively studied India's soils, as did the National Bureau of Soil Survey and
Land Use Planning, a unit of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
• Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR); was established in 1929) Survey of
India was established in 1956.
• ICAR has classified the soils of India into 8 categories.
There are mainly four categories of Soils in Telangana
• Major Soil types in Telangana
• According to Soils of Andhra Pradesh, 1976, there are 7 types of soils in the Telangana
region.
They are:
1. Red sandy loams (Chalka Soils)
2. Red loamy sands (Dubba soils)
3. Alluvial soils
4. Shallow to Medium black soil
5. Deep black soils
6. Lateritic soils
7. Salt affected soils
1. Red Soils
• Parent rocks are- Granite and Gneiss.
• The PH of the red soils lies ín the range of 6.0-75. Red Soils are spread over 64%
ofTelangana.
• These are red in color due to the presence of Iron Oxide.
• Red soils are spread in almost all districts of Telangana.
• The Red soils area is less in Adilabad, Mancherial, Nirmal, Kumuram Bheem,
Kamareddy, Nizamabad, Sangareddy, Jogulamba Gadwal districts.
• Telangana mainly consists of red soils.
• Red soil has less nutrients and organic material but more phosphorus.
• They are classified as Chelka (Red Sandy Loams) and Dubba soils (Red Loamy Sands)
in Telangana.
1. Chelka Soils (Red Sandy Loams)
• Chelka soils are derived from weathering of Quartzite and coarse granite rocks. They
are mainly located in lower areas i.e in the slopes between hillocks.
• Red Sandy soils have a high percentage of sand molecules and less percentage of clay
molecules. They are poor in Nitrogen and Phosphorus and are less fertile.
• Chelka soils are pqrolis and frigble. The water retention capacity is less. So they are
mixed with black soils, loamy soils and fertilizers to improve water retention capacity.
2. Dubba soils (Red Loamy Sands)
• Dubba soils have less percentage of sand moleculęs and high percentage of clay
molecules. So they have good water retention capacity.
• They are less fragile and pale gray in color.
• Groundnut is mainly cultivated in red soils. They are loose soils.
• They are primarily spread in Mahabubnagar, Wanaparthy, Nagarkurnool, Gadwal,
Nalgonda, Suryapet, Khammam, Kothagudem, Warangal, Bhupalpally, Karimnagar,
Jagtial, Peddapalli, Rangareddy. Vikarabad, Kamareddy and Nizamabad districts.
• There are very few in Adilabad district.
2. Black Soils
• They are also called Self plowing soils.
• They are spread over 26% area in Telangana. Black soils have higher water retention
capacity.
• Black soils are formed due to weathering in the areas of sedimentary rocks,
metamorphic rocks, limestone and shells.
• They are black or dark gray in color due to the presence of Magpeşlum oxide.
• The rocks spread in black soils- Basalt, Granite.
• These soils are formed on lava, gneiss and granite rocks located in the Deccan plateau
having a semi semi-arid climate.
• Black soils have a high amount of clay and higher moisture retention capacity.
• They are also known as Regur sóils or Black Cotton soils. Black soils have higher
content of Iron and Calcium and lesser content of Phosphorus, Nitrogen and organic
material.
• They are mainly spread over the districts of Adilabad, Mancherial, Nirmal, Rangareddy,
Nizamabad and Kamareddy and less spread in the districts of Karimnagar, Waranagal
and Mahabubnagar.
• Black soils are best for the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, turmeric, chili and Millet,
crops. The PH of black soils ranges from 7.8 to 8.7.
3. Laterite Soils
• Later means Brick in Latin.
• These are spread over an area of 2% across the districts of Telangana.
• Laterite soils become sticky when they are soaked and become hard when they are dry.
So they are called Brick Soils.
• They are acidic in nature and rich in Bauxite.
• They are a mixture of Hydrides and Oxides of Iron and Aluminium.
• Laterite soils become black in the rainy season.
• They are generally formed in hot and wet tropical areas.
• Laterite soils are also known as Rusty Red soils.

• PH of Laterite soils ranges between 6.0-6.8.
• They are located in Narayankhed and Jaheerabad of Sangareddy district and Khammam
district.
• Laterite soils are yellow, brown and red in color. It is used to make bricks.
• These soils are best for growing Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Cashew, and Spices crops.
4. Alluvial Soils
• Alluvial soils are very fertile soils. They are formed due to silt deposited by the flow of
rivers for many years. They are called Khadar in Telangana.
• Alluvial soils are very fertile and retain moisture well.
• They have high content of Potash, Phosphorus and Calcium and low content of
Nitrogen and organic Carbon.
• These soils are mainly located in Godavari and Krishna deltas.
• They are best suitable for the cultivation of Paddy, Sugarcane, Banana, Mango and
Citrus crops.
• Alluvial soils are formed by the deposition of fine silt.
• They are yellow in color with a higher content of Sand.
• Alluvial soils are rich in Potash and Limestone and lack Nitrogen.
• They are called the granaries of India.
• They are generally basic in nature.
• Alluvial soils are best for cultivation because they are very fertile.
• They have acidic properties when rainfall is more than evaporation.
Problem of Soils:
Soil degradation in India presents several challenges:
1. Soil Erosion:
 Soil loss due to natural forces like wind and water exceeds replenishment rates.
 Agricultural productivity and the economy are adversely affected.
2. Nutrient Deficiency:
 Indian soils lack nitrogen and phosphorus, especially in certain regions.
 Long-term imbalanced fertilizer use exacerbates nutrient imbalances.
3. Desertification:
 Arid and semi-arid regions experience desert-like conditions due to factors like
overgrazing and deforestation.
 Potential consequences include increased wind erosion and drought frequency.
4. Waterlogging:
 Flat depressions hinder surface water drainage, causing waterlogging.
 Over-irrigation exacerbates the problem, leading to reduced productivity.

5. Salinity and Alkalinity:
 Over-irrigation causes salt deposition, rendering fertile soils useless.
 Salinity and alkalinity, particularly in Punjab and Haryana, stem from intensive
irrigation.
6. Wasteland and Urban Development:
 Urbanization contributes to soil toxicity through chemical waste dumping.
 Heavy metal accumulation in urban soils poses health risks.
7. Industrialization Impact:
 Industrial activities encroach on agricultural and forest lands, leading to soil
degradation.
 Opencast mining disrupts soil characteristics and alters socioeconomic landscapes.
Addressing these issues requires sustainable land management practices, balanced fertilizer
use, and efficient water resource utilization.
Conservation of Soil:
Soil conservation methods encompass various approaches:
1. Afforestation:
 Cease deforestation and promote tree planting to increase forest cover, aiming for
33% of total land, with specific targets for different regions.
2. Overgrazing Control:
 Implement measures to limit overgrazing by designating separate grazing areas and
monitoring grazing practices.
3. Agricultural Practices Modification:
 Adopt diversified practices like crop rotation and leguminous plant cultivation to
maintain soil fertility.
 Implement strip cropping and no-till farming to minimize soil erosion and
maximize land productivity.
4. Contour Ploughing:
 Plough along the natural contours of hills to create ridges and furrows that slow
water flow and reduce erosion.
5. Shifting Cultivation Regulation:
 Encourage tribal communities to transition to settled agriculture by providing land
and resources.
6. Terrace Farming:
 Construct terraces on hill slopes to create level areas, reducing erosion and
conserving soil.
7. Windbreaks Establishment:
 Plant dense rows of trees to protect agricultural fields from wind erosion,
particularly using evergreen species.
8. Salinity Management:
 Utilize humic acids to mitigate soil salinity by fixing ions and preventing salt
buildup.
 Plant salt-tolerant species to lower water tables and decrease surface salt
accumulation.
9. Natural Fertilizer Use:
 Replace chemical fertilizers with natural alternatives like livestock manure and
organic matter to replenish soil nutrients sustainably.
FORESTS OF TELANGANA
• The word 'Forest' derives from the Latin word Fores'. It means 'outdoor or outside or
the land outside the village'. It is a village border, uncultivated land or uninhabited land
or an area of unenclosed countryside.
• Forest is a large tract of land covered with naturally grown trees and underbrush or a
natural area densely covered with trees. The territory that is specified under the Forest
Act is known as Forest.
• Forests are renewable natural resources.
• They contribute substantially to the economic development of a country. So these are
considered as National property.
• Forests are known as the lungs of the Earth because they purity the al a is breathed by
the living organism.
Definitions of forests
• Forests are generally known as the natural flora that is unaffected by humans.
• The first forest policy in India was announced by the British in 1894 based on the
recommendations of Dr. Dietrich Brandis.
• National Forest Policy 1952 drafted after independence aims to maintain a minimum
of33% of the total land area of the Country under forest or tree cover.
• The policy's goal is to maintain 60% of the area under forest and tree cover in the hills
and mountainous regions and to maintain 20% of the area and 10 million hectares of
area under forest and tree cover in the plains.
• Eastern and Western Ghats have 50%, Deccan Plateau has 18% and Gangetic Plains
have 7.5% of the total forest area of India.
• Social forestry was proposed by the National Commission on Agriculture in 1976.
• Social forestry programme was proposed in the 5th Five year plan (1976) and it was
implemented in the 6th Five year plan (1980-85).
• National Forest Policy 1988 is also known as the Revised National Forest Policy.
• According to National Forest Policy 1988, the area under forest and tree cover in the
hills and mountainous regions was increased to 66%.
• A new National Environmental Policy was formulated in 2006.

• The Forest Rights Act 2006 mandates the conservation of forests and providing
livelihood and food Security to the forest dwellers.
• Forest cover in Telangana increased by 6.85 per cent during 2015 to 2021 period,
according to the Telangana Socio Economic Outlook 2023.
• The India State of Forest Reports revealed a notable increase in forest cover in
Telangana, rising from 19,854 sq km in 2015 to 21,214 sq km in 2021, marking a growth
of 6.85% over the six-year period.
• Among major cities like Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, and
Mumbai, Telangana saw a remarkable forest cover growth rate of 146.8% between 2011
and 2021.
• Telangana's total forest area stands at 26,969.61 sq km, constituting 24.06% of the
state's total geographical area, as per the government survey.
• The state's ambitious green initiative, Telangana ku Haritha Haaram, aimed to plant 230
crore seedlings from 2015-16 to 2022-23, surpassing expectations by planting 270.65
crore saplings by January 2023, with an expenditure of Rs 10,417 crore.
• Forest cover outside the recorded forest area in Telangana showed a significant
increase, from 1,727 sq km in 2015 to 2,518 sq km in 2021, marking a rise of 45.80%,
attributed to government programs like 'Haritha Haranı'.
• Hyderabad received recognition as the "Tree City of the World" by the FAO and Arbor
Day Foundation for consecutive years in 2020 and 2021, highlighting its commitment
to environmental conservation.
Types of forest
• According to Champion and Seth Classification, 1968, the forests in Telangana have
been classified into the following categories:
1. Tropical moist deciduous forests
2. Southern dry deciduous forests
3. Northern mixed dry deciduous forests
4. Dry Savanna Forests
5. Tropical dry deciduous scrubs
• The flora of Telangana comprises about 1945 taxa of flowering plants ((163 cultivable
among them) distributed within 893 genera and 162 families.
• The state is bestowed with dense Teak forest Telangana is home for several deciduous
species like Nallamaddi, Yegisa, Rose Rood, Narepa, Bamboo in addition to Teak.
• 80% of vegetation of Telangana belongs to Hardwickía Binata and Albizia
Forest Types in Telangana
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
1. Southern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forests
2. Dry Deciduous Scrubs
3. Dry Teak Forests
4. Secondary Dry Deciduous Forests
5. Dry Bamboo Brakes
6. Hardwickia Forests
7. Dry Savannah Forests
8. Boswellia Forests
9. Dry GrassLands
Tropical Thorn Forests
1. Southern Thorn Forests
2. Southern Thorn Scrubs
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
• Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous Forests
• Almost all programmes and schemes of the Forest Department are being implemented
through participation of local people, Vana samrakshna Samithis (V8S) and Eco-
Development Committees (EDOS) in Protected Areas and Watershed Development
Committees in the Watershed areas.
• The Forest Development Authority operates in a 3-Tier system.
They are:
1. State Forest Development Agency (SFDA) at the State Level
2. Forest Development Agency (FDA) at Divisional Level
3. Vana Samrakshana Samithi (VSS) at Village Level.
Objectives of Forest Policy:
• Its main objective is to provide livelihood to the forest sector.
• Utilization of forests as a weapon to alleviate rural poverty.
Biodiversity in Telangana
• Biodiversity, according to the Convention on Biological Diversity, refers to the range
of living organisms across various environments, including terrestrial, marine, and
aquatic ecosystems, along with the interconnected ecological systems they comprise.
• This encompasses the diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems,
recognized at three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
• Genetic diversity pertains to the assortment of genes within a species, collectively
known as the gene pool, reflecting the variation among individuals.
• Species diversity denotes the variety of different species present in various habitats on
Earth, exemplified by the abundance of plant, animal, and microbial species in locations
such as tropical rainforests.
• Ecosystem diversity highlights the assortment of ecosystems within the biosphere,
encompassing environments like wetlands, coral reefs, estuaries, deserts, mangroves,
and temperate forests, among others.
• Biodiversity conservation methods can be broadly categorized into two types: In Situ
Conservation and Ex Situ Conservation.

• In Situ Conservation focuses on preserving wildlife and their habitats where they
naturally exist, making it the primary method of conservation.
• This approach emphasizes the establishment and maintenance of protected areas,
ensuring the adequate preservation of different species and their ecosystems.
• In India, several protected areas, such as wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere
reserves, tiger reserves, and Ramsar sites, have been designated for the protection and
conservation of biodiversity.
• The term Biological diversity was first used by Raymond F. Dasmann (1962).
• The term Biodiversity was first coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985.
• Telangana State Biodiversity Board constituted more than 3000 Biodiversity
Management Committees at local level in the State. It prepared more than 210 People's
Biodiversity Registers.
• It also recognized 25 plant species, 23 mammal species, 27 bird species, 9 reptile
species, 12 fish species and 1 amphibian species as threatened or endangered species at
the verge of extinction.
• The State has 2,939 plant species, 365 bird species, 103 mammal species and 28 reptile
species, in addition to a large number of Invertebrate species.
• Poda Thurupu or Mannanur Cattle, the local cattle breed endemic to Amrabad,
Mannanur, Achampet and surrounding areas has become Telangana's first recognized
native cattle breed.
• This breed has been officially registered under the National Bureau of Animal Genetic
Resources (NBAGR) in Haryana, on 24 January 2020. There are about 166 fish species
in Telangana. Channa Striatus or popularly known as Murrel (Koramenu) is officially
announced as the 'State lcon Fish' of Telangana State.
• Many animals like tiger, leopard, Indian Bison, four horned antelope, black buck and
marsh crocodile are facing the threat of extinction. The state is bestowed with dense
Teak forest along the banks of river Godavari right from Nizamabad through Adilabad,
Karimnagar, Warangal up to Khammam district.
Wildlife Sanctuaries in Telangana

1. Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary
 It is one of the oldest sanctuaries in Telangana. (Deccan deciduous forest). Eturnagaram
Wildlife Sanctuary is located on the border of Telangana, Maharashtra and Chattisgarh
states.
 It was established on 30 January 1952 at present day Eturnagaram mandal headquarter
in Mulug district.
 It was notified on 7 July 1999. Area- 803 sq km.
 The climatic conditions of this sanctuary located along the banks of River Godavari in
Deccan plateau contribute to the growth of rich biodiversity.
 The largest tribal congregation in Asia, Medarama Jatara is celebrated once in every
two years at Tadvai mandal headquarters located within the limits of this sanctuary.
 Many stone human dwellings of historic age and rakshasa gullu were found in this
wildlife sanctuary.
 Primary plant species- Teakwood
 Fauna- Indian Bisons, Tigers, Antelopes, Blackbucks, Wolves, Sambars, Python,
Nilgais.
2. Pakhala Wildlife Sanctuary
 Pakhala Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Warangal Rural district. It is spread over an
area of 860 sq km.
 It was established under Hyderabad Fasli Act (1951) for conservation of wildlife in
1999.
 It was enacted under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972. Maximum and minimum
temperature varies from 47° Ct0 10°C respectively throughout the year.
 Average annual rainfall is 1143 mm. Dry and deciduous vegetation along with
evergreen vegetation is found here.
 Fauna found here includes tigers, Indian bison, antelopes, sambars, nilgai, chinkaras,
leopards, sloth bears and monkeys.
 It also has reptiles like crocodiles, cobras and chameleons. Birds- Starks, Owls, Wild
geese etc.
3. Sivaram Wildlife Sanctuary
 Sivaram Wildlife Sanctuary is spread between Macherial and Peddapali districts. Major
part of it is spread in Mancherial district.
 Area - 30 sq km
 Initially it was started for the conservation of Mugger or marsh crocodile under the
Hyderabad Fasli Act 1952.
 It was notified in 1978 under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
 This wildlife sanctuary is well known for Marsh Crocodiles.
 It is covered with dry deciduous forest.
 Sivaram wildlife sanctuary consists of various species of birds, leopards, crocodiles,
sloth bears, bison, antelopes, pythons and tigers.
 People belonging to Gond, Mannepod, Naikpod and Lambadi tribes are living in this
Sanctuary.
4. Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary
 Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Mancherial district at the border of Telangana
and Maharashtra states.
 It is spread over an area of 136 sq km.
 It was notified in 1980 under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
 Main attraction of Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary is- Blackbucks.
 A tribe namely Naikpods are living in this forest.

 They mainly depend on wood, forest produce and shifting cultivation.
 Pranahita Wilde Conctuary houses dry deciduous forests and grass species, Maximum
and minimum temperature varies from 46°C to 9°C respectively.
 This wildlife sanctuary is situated on the bank of Pranahita river.
5. Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary
 The Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary located at a distance of 35 km from Bhadrachalam
and 24 km from Kothagudem is a part of Dandakaranya.
 This sanctuary got its name after the river Kinnerasani. This river divides the sanctuary
and meets Godavari.
 The wildlife found in this sanctuary are Tigers, Chinkaras, Sambhar, pythons and many
more. The sanctuary covers an area of 635 sq km and is located near the Kinnerasani
reservoir.
 Main tourist attractions are deer park, glass guést house, ecopark and ecological
information center.
 It was declared as a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. Average maximum and minimum
temperatures recorded here are 15 degree Celsius and 45°C respectively.
 Average annual rainfall- 863.55 mm.
6. Manjeera Wildlife Sanctuary
 Manjeera wildlife sanctuary is located at a distance of 50 km from Hyderabad along
river Manjeera.
 It is spread over an area of 20 sq km. It is situated in Sangareddy district.It was
established in 1978.
 About 70 species of birds, mammals, reptiles and flora are living in this sanctuary.
Minimum and Maximum temperatures vary from 15°C to 42°C. Average annual
rainfall- 915 mm.
 There are many organisms at the verge of extinction that are present in this sanctuary.
 It is well known for marsh crocodiles (Mugger) or freshwater crocodiles.
 Manjeera reservoir located in this sanctuary is the most important man made reservoir
in Telangana.
 It supplies drinking water to Hyderabad and Secunderabad.
 There are nine small and very beautiful islands gdda, Sangamadda, Puttigadda,
Karnamgadda and others which together form the Manjira Wildlife & Bird Sanctuary.
7. Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary
 This wildlife sanctuary situated at a distance of 115 km from Hyderabad and 15 km
from Medak district was founded near Pocharam lake.
 Once it was a hunting ground for the Nizam kings.
 This sanctuary is spread over an area of 130 sq km and is a visual treat with many trees
and flowering plants.
 Pocharam lake is located beside the sanctuary. Antelopes and deer are present here.
 Temperature rises to 46'C during summer and falls to 6°C during winter.
 Flora- Mixed dry deciduous forest with patches of scrub and grassy plains. Terrain
undulating with low hills and small water pools.
 Fauna- Panthers, Sloth Bears, Wild Boars, Cheetals, Sambars, Nilgai, Chowsinghas,
Chinkare Hyenas, Jackals, Pythons, Ducks, Teals, Partridges & Quails. Average annual
rainfall-800 mm.
8. Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary
 Kawal Tiger Reserve was established in 1965.
 It was declared as a Wildlife sanctuary on 14 July 1969 under the Wildlife Protection
Act 1972. Kawal Tiger reserve was recognized in 2012 in erstwhile Adilabad district.
 It was recognized as the 40 th tiger reserve by the Union.
 It is spread over an area of 2,015Sq km, Core area 89215 sq km and Buffer Area 1,123
sqkm.
 Kawal tiger reserve is spread over four districts namely Adilabad.
 Komaram Bheem Asifabad, Mancherial and Nirmal.
 Its core area is mainly present Jannaram mandal headquarters in Mancherial district.
 Majority area of this wildlife sanctuary is located in Nirmal district (82,110.83
hectares).
 The sanctuary houses several species of animals including Cheetals, Sambars, Barking
Deer, Nilgai, Sloth Bears, Chowsingas, Farm civets, Gaurs. Indian Bisons, Panthers and
Tigers and reptiles like Crocodiles, Pythons, Monitor Lizards, Star Tortoises and
Cobras.
 It is the sanctuary with the largest number of Teak trees.
 Kaddam river flows through this sanctuary.
9. Amrabad Tiger Reserve
 It is also known as the Rajiv Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary.
 Amrabad tiger reserve is spread over Nagarkuríool, Mahabubnagar and Nalgondá
districts.
 Core area of this wildlife sanctuary is 2,166 sq km and the buffer area is 445.02 sq km.
 It was declared officially as a wildlife sanctuary in 1978.
 It was recognized by the Project Tiger reserve in 1983.
 Maximum temperature- 45°C, Minimum temperature- 8°C.
 Average annual rainfall- 900- 1000 mm.
 This sanctuary includes míxed deciduous forest, grasslands and bamboo.
 Primitive tribal groups like Chenchus and Lambadas are living here.
 Tiger is recognized as the primary animal in this sanctuary.
 River Krishna and Nagarjuna Sagar reservoir, Pedda dookudu and Saleshwaram
waterfalls are also located in this tiger reserve.
 It is a home for tigers, leopards, wolves, jackals, antelopes, sambar, barking deer and
more than 200 bird species.
 Amrabad tiger reserve is a rich biodiversity hotspot and has a Contiguous landscape of
good forest ecosystems and forms the catchment area of Krishna river.
 The Eco-Tourism project which is being implemented with the involvement of local
communities at Mannanur, Farhabad, Mallela Theertham and Domalapenta, is running
successfully and benefiting more than 50 families of local primitive tribes Chenchus
and other communities.
National Parks
1. Mrugavani National Park
 Mrugavani National Park is situated at Chilkur village in Moinabad mandal of
Rangareddy district.
 Earlier it was a reserve' forest and later made as Mrugavani park.
 In 1994, the Government of India announced a wildlife sanctuary.
 In 1998, it was renamed as 'Mrugavani National Deer Park. Mrugavani National Park
is present between Gandipet and Himayat Sagar lakes.
 This 1211 acres (4 sq km) National park harbors over 600 plant species.
2. Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park
 It was established in the year 19984t Banjara hills in Hyderabad.
 There are about 600 species of trees and plants and about 140 bird species in this 1 sq
km park. It is also known as ‘Chiran Palace'.
3. Mahavir Harina Vanasthali Park
 This park was established in 1975 at Vanasthalipuram, Ranga Reddy district on the eve
of completion of 2500 years of Nirvana of Vardhaman Mahaveer.
 It is spread over an area of 15 sq km and the mait attractíon is deer.
 The Natíonal Park is known as the largest green lung space in the city of Hyderabad.
Ameenpur Lake as Biodiversity Heritage Site
 The Government of Telangana declared Ameenpur lake as Biodiversity Heritage Site
under Section 37 of Biological diversity Act 2002.
 It is the first in the Country for a water body.
 It is spread over an area of 93.1 acres.
 Every year, about 223 species of migratory birds and native birds visit this lake. So, it
is known a5 Birding Paradise.
Palapitta Cycling Park
 Palapitta Cycling Park is a best example of urban green infrastructure developed for the
residents and vÍsitors of Cyberabad area.

 The cycling park named after the state bird Palapitta Pala Pitta is a reserved forest that
has been developed into a cycling park by Telangana State Forest Development
Corporation.
 It was thrown open to the public on 20 November 2017.
Mineral Resources of Telangana

Chota Nagpur Plateau is also known as the Mineral Heartland of India. National Mineral
Development Corporation (NMDC) was established in November 1958. New National
Mineral Policy was announced in 1993-94.
Mineral resources of India are accumulated in peninsular plateau, hills and river basins.
Telangana is one of the major producing States of Coal, Manganese, Iron ore, Black Granite
and Colour Granite in India.
Singareni Coal plays a vital role in meeting the thermal energy requirements of the State.
Telangana produces 20% of the total Coal produced in India. Telangana produces about 37
million tonnes of Industrial minerals, 65-68 million tonnes of Coal every year.
Telangana is well known for its rich mineral resources. The State with highest Coal reserves
in South India- Telangana. Bayyaram has vast reserves of medium grade iron ore.
Telangana is the Only State in entire Southern India with vast deposits of Coal. The Black
Gold is being mined by M/s.Singareni Collieries Company Ltd, (State Government
Company).
State is endowed with medium grade Iron Ore deposits in Bayyaram Reserve Forest and
Float Iron Ore deposits in Revenue & Patta Lands of Khammam District and low grade
scattered Iron Ore deposits in Karimnagar District.
Iron Ore deposits in Telangana State is under exploration by GSI, DM&G and SCCL to
assess mineral reserves for establishment of Steel Plant as envisaged in State
Reorganisation Act, 2014.
Uranium deposit with estimated reserves of 20000 Metric Tons occurs in Lambapur,
Pulicherla, Nammapuram & Yellapuram areas of Nalgonda District. M/s.Uranium
Corporation of India Ltd (UCIL) filed application over an extent of 542 Hectares for
mineral concession.
Mineral Belts in India:
Mineral Resources
 Minerals are classified into Major, Minor and other minerals. Coal, Garnet, Graphite,
Iron ore, Limestone, Manganese ore, Stowing Sand are known as Major minerals.
Amethyst, Barytes, Dolomite, Feldspar, Fire Clay.
 Laterite, Mica, Quartz, Silica Sand, Shale, White Clay, Yellow ochre are known as
Minor minerals.Black Granite, Colour Granite, Gravel, Limestone slabs, Lime kankar,
Mosaic chips, Marble, Road metal, Ordinary Sand are known as other Minor minerals.
District-wise Mineral distribution in Telangana:
1. Adilabad: Abundant in manganese ore, laterite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and
ordinary earth.
2. Bhadradri-Kothagudem: Known for garnet, stowing sand, and coal, also containing
marble, calcite, laterite, quartz, feldspar, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary
earth.
3. Jagityal: Rich in iron ore, manganese, and limestone, along with quartz, granite, road
metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
4. Jangaon: Notable for granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
5. Jayashankar: Contains iron ore, coal, and stowing sand, with dolomite, laterite, granite,
road metal, gravel, morrum, ordinary earth, and sand.
6. Jogulamba-Gadwal: Abundant in limestone, along with quartz, feldspar, granite, road
metal, gravel, morrum, ordinary earth, and sand.
7. Kamareddy: Rich in quartz, feldspar, granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, ordinary
earth, and sand.
8. Karimnagar: Known for quartz, feldspar, laterite, road metal, gravel, morrum, ordinary
earth, and sand.
9. Khammam: Abundant in iron ore and coal, also containing mica, dolomite, corundum,
barytes, quartz, granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
10. Komaram Bheem: Contains limestone and coal, with white clay, sandstone, road metal,
gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
11. Mahabubabad: Notable for iron ore, along with barytes, kaolin, granite, road metal,
gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
12. Mahabubnagar: Rich in gold and diamonds, also containing quartz, feldspar, granite,
road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
13. Mancherial: Abundant in limestone, coal, and stowing sand, with dolomite, granite,
road metal, gravel, ordinary earth, and sand.
14. Medak: Contains quartz, feldspar, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
15. Medchal: Rich in quartz, feldspar, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
16. Nagarkurnool: Notable for quartz, feldspar, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary
earth.
17. Nalgonda: Abundant in limestone, gold, and diamonds, also containing quartz, feldspar,
granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
18. Nirmal: Rich in quartz, granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
19. Nizamabad: Contains granite, feldspar, quartz, road metal, gravel, morrum, ordinary
earth, and sand.
20. Peddapalli: Abundant in limestone, iron ore, coal, and stowing sand, also containing
granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, ordinary earth, and sand.
21. Rajanna-Sircilla: Known for granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, ordinary earth, and
sand.
22. RangaReddy: Rich in quartz, feldspar, granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and
ordinary earth.
23. SangaReddy: Contains quartz, laterite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
24. Siddipet: Notable for granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
25. Suryapet: Abundant in limestone, gold, and diamonds, also containing laterite, quartz,
feldspar, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary earth.
26. Vikarabad: Contains limestone, laterite, quartz, feldspar, fullers earth, limestone slabs,
road metal, gravel, and ordinary earth.
27. Wanaparthy: Rich in limestone, with quartz, feldspar, granite, road metal, gravel,
morrum, ordinary earth, and sand.
28. Warangal Rural: Known for laterite, granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary
earth.
29. Warangal Urban: Contains quartz, granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary
earth.
30. Yadadri: Notable for quartz, feldspar, granite, road metal, gravel, morrum, and ordinary
earth.
Coal
 Telangana has the largest deposits of coal among all South Indian states. It has proven
deposits of 11,394.76 million tonnes, accounting for 7.04% of all proven deposits in the
country, Mancherial, Peddapalli and Bhadradri Kothagudem districts account for 75%
of these reserves.
 Coal is used in Iron and Steel plants, Thermal power plants, Cement industry, Railways,
small industries and as domestic fuel. Gondwana coal was formed about 250 million
years ago due to natural calamities. Coal isa powerful energy source. On the basis of
carbon content, coal has been classified into four types.
 Lignite ís often brown in color. It carries 40 to 55 percent carbon content. It is an
intermediate stage which happens during the alteration of woody matter into coal. It has
high moisture content so it gives smoke when burnt.
 Peat has less than 40 per cent carbon content. It is in the first stage of transformation
from wood to coal. It has low calorific value and burns like wood. The coal available
in Telangana belongs to semi bituminous type. It has 81-82% of carbon.
 It is extensively used in industries to produce steam. Pranahíta and Godavari river
valleys in Telangana have large deposits of coal. According to the Geological Survey
of India, there are about 301.56 billion tonnes of coal deposits in India. Telangana has
about 7.45% of the total coal deposíts of Indía i.e 22.48 billion tonnes of coal and
occupies 6 place in terms of coal deposits in the country.
 Coal is available in the districts of Mancherial, Peddapalli, Khammam, Bhadradrí
Kothagudem, Jayashankar Bhupalpally, Komaram Bheem Asifabad.
 The district having A- grade coal deposits- Jayashankar Bhupalapally
 Districts with largest amount of coal deposits in Telangana- Mancherial, Peddapalli.
1. Largest Coal producing district in Telangana- Bhadradri Kothagudem
2. Largest Coal producing State in India- Jharkhand
 M/s Singareni Collieries Company Ltd (SCCL), a State Public Sector Undertaking, is
the primary coal mining corporation in Telangana. It is the second-largest coal producer
in India.

 The total coal production for the Singareni Collieries Company Ltd. grew over 42.5%
for the current fiscal year, from 32.65 million tonnes in 2020- 21 to 46.52 million tonnes
until December 2021-22.
 The company had a turnover of Rs. 18,907 crore in the first three quarters of 2021-22
and recorded a profit of Rs. 1,070 crore, achieving a 227% rise in profit compared to
the same quarters in the previous financial year.
 In 2021 the Singareni Thermal Plant was awarded by the Mission Energy Foundation
for its effective utilization of fly ash. In 2021, the thermal plant was also declared the
best power plant in the country in terms of Plant Load Factor (PLF). The company also
received the Solar Excellency Award 2021 for its 219 MW Solar Plant.
Iron ore
 The iron ore available in the State is used in the manufacture of steel, sponge iron, pig
iron and pelletization. Iron ore has been classified into four types based on quality.
 They are: Magnetite, Hematite, Limonite andSiderite. Hematite in large quantities and
Magnetite in little quantities are available in Telangana. Magnetite deposits are present
in Bhilwara, Kallada, Rasturabad, Robanpalli, Luxettipet and Sirpur.
 Iron ore is also available in Cheruvu Puram, Bayyaram, Navapadu, Kothagudem,
undividedAdilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, Mahabubabad, Khammam, Mancherial
and Jagtial districts.
 The place in Telangana having highest deposits of iron ore- Bayyaram (Mahabubabad).
There are about 162 million tonnes of estimated low grade iron ore deposits in
Telangana. An integrated Steel plant has been proposed in Khammam.
1. Region with highest reserves of Iron in Telangana- Bayyaram
2. Largest Iron producing state in India- Karnataka
3. State with largest Iron reserves in India- Jharkhand
Limestone
 Limestone deposits are extensively found in the districts of Adilabad, Peddapalli,
Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Suryapet, Vikarabad and Mancherial districts.
 There are about 75-19 million tonnes of estimated limestone deposits in Telangana.
 Limestone is used in the manufacture of cement in 21 cement plants in the State that
have an installed capacity of 29,50 million tonnes per annum.
 Mining for Coal, Limestone falls under large scale mechanized sector, while Granite,
Dolomite, quartz,feldspar, Clays and Barytes Etc fall under semi mechanized medium
sector and the other minerals fall under semi mechanized sector.
 Nearly 90% of the Mines fall under the small sector and the remaining 10% under
medium and large sectors.
1. Largest Limestone producing district in Telangana- Nalgonda
2. The Limestone slab (Shahabad stone) available at Vikarabad is famous throughout
South India

Thermal and Hydro power in Telangana
• The total contracted capacity of Telangana more than doubled between 2014-15 and
2020 from 7,872 MW to 16,614 MW.
• There are two types of energy sources
1. Renewable energy sources
2. Non-Renewable energy sources.
A. Renewable Energy Sources
• The renewable sources held nearly one-fifth (23%) of the total contracted capacity in
the sent 2020-21.
• This includes solar, wind, bagasse, biomass, municipal/industrial waste & mini-heal
on.01-09-2021.
• The total contracted capacity of renewable energy sources along with solar end is 3,818
M.W.
• In terms of sources of electricity generation, thermal sources continue to make up more
than half the total installed capacity because of the availability of abundant coal in the
state. In addition to thermal power, the share of renewable sources of energy such as
solar power and biomass is increasing.
1. Hydroelectricity or Hydropower
• Hydroelectricity or Hydropower is a form of renewable energy that uses the water
stored in dams and flowing in rivers to create electricity in hydropower plants.
• The falling water rotates blades of a turbine, which then spins a generator that converts
the mechanical energy of the spinning turbine into electrical energy.
• Hydroelectric power is a significant component of electricity production Worldwide.
As on 01-09- 2021, the hydel power production capacity in Telangana was 2,506.9
(15.1%) M.W.
Benefits of Hydropower:
• Relatively low operations, maintenance costs and the projects are long lasting.
• The technology is reliable and proven over time.
• Rainfall renews the water in the reservoir, so the fuel is almost always present.
• Fuel is not burned so there is minimal pollution.
• Hydropower plays a major role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• The first major hydroelectric project (4.5MW) in Asia was built in 1902 near
Shivasamudram waterfall of Cauvery River in Karnataka. It is known as
Shivanasamudra Hydroelectric project.
Issues with Hydro Power Generation:
• Hydropower development in India faces several challenges that impact its growth and
contribution to the country's energy mix:
• Development vs. Indigenous Communities:

• In central India, the potential for hydroelectric power generation in river basins like
Godavari, Mahanadi, Nagavali, Vamsadhara, and Narmada has not been fully realized
due to opposition from tribal communities concerned about the impact on their
livelihoods and environment.
• Majority Power from Thermal Sources:
• Hydropower's contribution to India's electricity generation has been declining,
constituting only about 10% of the total generation. Thermal power remains the
dominant source, accounting for around 80% of electricity production.
• Complex Clearance Norms:
• Existing hydropower projects often face delays due to complicated planning processes,
extended land acquisition and resettlement procedures, inadequate infrastructure
(especially transmission), limited market opportunities, and challenges in securing
long-term financing.
• Environmental Concerns:
• Many hydroelectric projects are stalled due to conflicts over contracts, environmental
litigation, local opposition, financial constraints, and lack of demand from potential
buyers.
• Slow Addition of Hydropower Capacity:
• Over the past decade, only about 10,000 megawatts (MW) of hydropower capacity has
been added, reflecting the challenges and limitations in expanding this sector.
• Centre-State Disputes:
• Since water and hydropower are state subjects, disputes among riparian states often
delay the construction of hydroelectric projects. The Subansiri Hydroelectric Project is
an example of such inter-state conflicts.
Advantages of Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power offers several advantages that make it a valuable renewable energy source:
1. Renewable and Non-Consumptive:
• Hydroelectric power utilizes water to generate electricity without consuming it, making
this resource renewable and leaving water available for other purposes like irrigation
and drinking.
2. Low Recurring Cost:
• Once constructed, hydropower plants have relatively low recurring costs compared to
fossil fuel-based power plants, resulting in cost-effectiveness over the long term.
3. Cost-Effective:
• Hydroelectricity tends to be less expensive than electricity generated from coal or gas-
fired power plants, providing a competitive advantage in terms of operational costs.
4. Stability and Dependability:
• Hydropower contributes to grid stability by reducing financial losses associated with
frequency fluctuations. It is a reliable source of energy that is not affected by inflation,
as it does not rely on fossil fuels.
5. Quick Response for Peak Loads:
• Hydropower stations can quickly start and stop operations, making them ideal for
meeting peak electricity demand in grids efficiently.
6. Complementary with Thermal Power Plants:
• The operational characteristics of hydro and thermal power plants complement each
other. A balanced mix of both types maximizes overall capacity utilization and grid
stability.
7. Matching Seasonal Load Curves:
• The seasonal generation pattern of hydropower aligns well with the seasonal load
curves of regional grids, contributing to efficient electricity supply management
throughout the year.
Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power
While hydroelectric power offers numerous benefits, it also presents several challenges and
drawbacks:
1. Capital-Intensive:
• Developing hydropower projects requires significant upfront investment in
infrastructure, including dams, turbines, and transmission lines, making it a capital-
intensive form of electricity generation.
2. Environmental Impact:
• Hydroelectric projects often necessitate the diversion of forested land, particularly in
hilly areas where projects are typically located. This can lead to deforestation, habitat
loss, and disruption of ecosystems.
3. Land Submergence and Displacement:
• The construction of dams for hydropower projects can result in the submergence of
land, leading to the loss of flora, fauna, and agricultural areas. Additionally, large-scale
displacement of communities living in affected areas can occur.
4. Limited Dam Locations:
• Dams for hydropower generation can only be constructed in specific geographic areas
where suitable terrain and water resources exist, limiting the potential for widespread
implementation.
5. Agricultural Impact:
• The submergence of land due to reservoir creation can result in the loss of valuable
agricultural land, impacting local farming communities and food production.
Hydroelectric Projects in Telangana
1. NagarjunaSagar Hydroelectric Project
• Nagarjuna Sagar is a major hydroelectric project in Telangana.
• It is a multipurpose project built across river Krishna in Nalgonda district at Southern
border of the State.
• The hydroelectric plant has a power generation capacity of 815.6 MW with 8 units (1
× l10 MW + 7 × 100.8 MW).

• First unit was commissioned on 7 March 1978 and 8th unit was commissioned on 24
December 1985.
2. Srisailam Left bank powerhouse
• Srisailam Left bank Power House is built across river Krishna. Its construction
commenced in 1960 and completed on 24 July 1980.
• It is located in Nagarkurnool district. The output capacity of the power house is 900
MW.This Powerhouse is the(3d largest hydel power plant in the Country.
• It is the only underground powerhouse in India.
3. Priyadarshini Jurala Hydroelectric Plant
• Jurala Hydro Electric Plant was built in 1995 across river Krishna at Revulapally village
inJogulamba Gadwal district.
• It is a joint project of Telangana and Karnataka States.
• Installed capacity: 234 MW (6x 39 MW)
4. Nizam Sagar Hydro Electricity Project
• It is located in Kamareddy district.
• Generation capacity- 10 MW (2 x 5 MW)
5. Nagarjuna Sagar Left Canal Power Station
• It is located at Nandįkonda village in Nalgonda district.
• Power generation capacity: 60 MW (2 × 30 MW)
6. Singur Hydro power Station
• Singur power station is located in Rangareddy district.
• Generation capacity: 15 MW (2 × 7.5 MW)
7. Pochampad Hydro Power Station
• Pochampadu Hydro Power Station is located in Námabad district.
8. Lower JuralaHydro Power Station
• Lower Jurala Power Station was started in 2008.
• 6 units of the Power Station with 40 MW each are installed here.
9. Puttamgandi Hydro Power Project
• This power project is located in Nalgonda district.
• The hydroelectric plant has 4 units with power generation capacity of 18 MW each.
• Power generation capacity: 72 MW
10. Peddapalli Mini Hydro PowerPlant
• Peddapalli Power plant is built across Kakatiya canal in Peddapalli district.
• It was inaugurated on 31 March 1986.
• Power generation capacity: 9.16 MW

11. Palair Mini Hydro Power Plant
• Palair Mini Power plant was built in Palair, Khammam district on 13 February 1993.
12. Pulichintala Hydro Power Plant
• This power plant is located at Nemalipuri village in Suryapet district.

QUESTION & ANSWERS
1. Give a brief account of Physiographic divisions of Telangana.
Introduction Telangana, a vibrant state located on the Deccan Plateau in South
Asia, is characterized by its diverse topography and rich geological
features. The state's physiographic divisions are a testament to its
complex geological history, varied climate, and agricultural potential.
Body Geography and Topographical Features of Telangana

Location and Physical Setting
 Situated in the Northern Hemisphere, forming part of South
Asia.
 Located on the Deccan Plateau, specifically termed the
'Telangana Plateau'.
Geographical Divisions
 Telangana Plateau: Occupies 59,903 sq km, the largest
region with an altitude of 500m-600m, comprising various
districts and showcasing diverse topography with hills and
hillocks like Papikondalu, Anantagiri Hills.
 Godavari Basin: Covers significant parts of Telangana,
affected by floods, and geologically consists of
Carboniferous, Archean, and Gneissic rocks.
 Krishna Piedmont: Spans approximately 14,240 Sq Km,
featuring an uneven rocky surface conducive to cultivation.
Important Geological and Natural Features
 Hill Ranges: Include Nirmal ranges, Satnala hills, and
others, with notable formations like Papikondalu offering
scenic beauty.
 Coal Reserves: Gondwana rocks present in the Godavari
basin harbor coal deposits, exploited by Singareni Collieries.
 River Valleys: Godavari and Krishna rivers dominate the
landscape, influencing the agriculture and settlements through
their flood plains.
Administrative and Cultural Aspects
 Renamed Places: Reflect Islamic cultural influence during
Nizam's rule, with several areas renamed to match Islamic
traditions.
 Ratnagarbha ("Gem of the Earth"): A nickname for
Telangana, indicative of its rich mineral resources and cultural
heritage.
 Shape: The territory's layout is likened to an isosceles
triangle, contributing to its distinct geographical identity.
Unique Geological Formations and District Features
 Granite and Gneiss: Formations prevalent in districts such
as Nizamabad and Kamareddy.
 Gondwana Rocks: Basis for the coal deposits in the Godavari

basin, critical for the region's industrial activities.
Peaks and Ghats
 Eastern and Western Ghats: These mountain ranges frame
the plateau, contributing to its biodiversity and climatic
conditions.
 Lakshmidevipalli hill: Marks the highest point in the Eastern
Ghats within Telangana located in Siddipet District
 Mahabub Ghat: Represents the highest elevation in the
Western Ghats of the region located in Nirmal District
 The Highest point in Deccan Plateau is Solamile (Jangaon)
Erosion Surfaces and Altitudes
 Above 600 meters: Western Telangana, including Hyderabad,
with peneplained Archean rocks.
 300m-600m: Western districts, water-rich, supports
agriculture.
 Below 300m: Along Godavari River, fertile lands ideal for
cultivation.
Conclusion Telangana's physiographic divisions encapsulate the essence of its

geographical, geological, and cultural identity. From the high-altitude
western parts to the fertile river valleys, each division contributes
uniquely to the state's diversity. The interplay between the natural
landscape and human activity over centuries has shaped Telangana
into a region of rich agricultural potential, historical significance, and
natural beauty.
2. How does Telangana's geographical location on the Deccan Plateau influence its
climate, specifically in terms of seasonal variations, temperature extremes, and
rainfall patterns?
Introduction Telangana's geographical position on the Deccan Plateau significantly
influences its climatic conditions, contributing to a diverse range of
weather patterns. This state, nestled in the Northern Hemisphere's
tropical zone, experiences variations ranging from humid subtropical
in the north to semi-arid in the south, manifesting distinct seasonal
fluctuations, temperature extremes, and rainfall patterns.

Body Seasonal Variations
Winter (December to February):
This season is characterized by cold weather with minimal
rainfall, signifying a sharp contrast to the state's otherwise
warm climate.
 Eg: Sangareddy and Ramagundam witness lowest
temperatures.
Summer (March to May):
 Marked by high temperatures, this period is prone to
thunderstorms and strong wind gusts, leading to occasional
convectional rainfall.
South West Monsoon (June to September):
 Constitutes the mainly rainy season, bringing the majority of
the state's annual rainfall, enhancing agricultural activities.
 Annual average rainfall ranges from 700mm to 900mm in
Southern Telangana and 900mm to 1500mm in Northern
Telangana.
 Highest average temperature of the state is 42°C in summer
while the average lowest temperature is 29-12 degree Celsius
in winter.
 The South west Monsoon causes highest rainfall in Mulugu
and lowest rainfall in Nagarkurnool, Jogulamba Gadwal-
Alampur
Retreating Monsoon (October to November):
 Characterized by cyclone-induced rainfall, adding to the
variability of the state's precipitation.
 Sileru Basin is identified as the highest rainfall receiving area
in Telangana.
Temperature Extremes
 The highest temperatures have been recorded in
Ramagundam, with peaks occasionally reaching 50°C
during summer, demonstrating the intensity of heat in the
region.
 Conversely, the lowest temperatures are observed during
winter, particularly in Medak and Adilabad, where the
mercury can drop significantly, affecting local lifestyles and
crop patterns.
Rainfall Patterns
 Rainfall in Telangana showcases marked instability, with
significant variability noted during both the Southwest and
Northeast monsoon periods. This inconsistency affects water
availability for irrigation and domestic use.
 The highest annual rainfall recorded in 2020-21 underscores
the unpredictability of precipitation, which can significantly
impact agriculture and water resources management.
Wind Patterns

 The monsoonal wind patterns, with humid South West winds
during the monsoon season and dry North East winds during
the retreating monsoon, play a pivotal role in determining the
state's climate. These winds influence the distribution and
intensity of rainfall across different regions.
Conclusion Telangana's climate, shaped by its unique placement on the Deccan
Plateau, encompasses a broad spectrum of weather conditions, from
intense summer heat to significant monsoonal rainfall. This
geographical location brings about pronounced seasonal variations,
extreme temperature fluctuations, and diverse rainfall patterns.
3. Elucidate the significance of soil types and their distribution in Telangana for
sustainable agricultural practices. Suggest measures for Soil conservation
Introduction Soil in Telangana is as diverse as its landscape, ranging from nutrient-
rich black soils to the iron-oxide laden red soils. This diversity not
only dictates the agricultural capability of the region but also
necessitates focused conservation efforts to sustain and enhance
productivity.
Body Soil Types and Agricultural Suitability:

Red Soils:
 Encompassing 64% of Telangana's terrain, these soils are
characterized by their iron oxide content, rendering them less
fertile due to lower nitrogen and phosphorus levels.
 They are extensively utilized, emphasizing the need for
nutrient management practices to enhance their agricultural
potential.
 They are classified as
o Chelka (Red Sandy Loams) – Derived from weathering
of Quartzite and coarse Granite rocks, located mainly in
lower areas.
o Dubba Soils (Redloamy soils)- Less percentage of sand
molecules and high percentage of clay molecules
 Eg: Mahabubnagar, wanaparthy, Nagarkurnool, Gadwal etc
Black Soils:
 Covering 26% of the region, their excellent moisture retention
qualities make them ideal for cotton cultivation.
 High fertility and pH levels facilitate a wide range of crops,
making them a backbone of Telangana’s agriculture.
 Eg: Mainly in Adilabad, Mancherial, Nirmal, Rangareddy etc
Laterite Soils:
 Although comprising only 2% of the state's soils, their
suitability for plantation crops can be harnessed to diversify
agricultural outputs.
 Eg: Sangareddy and Khammam district
Alluvial Soils:

 Their nutrient-rich nature supports a versatile range of
agricultural activities, highlighting the importance of river
management to prevent soil erosion and maintain fertility.
 Soils mainly located in Godavari and Krishna rivers and best
suitable for cultivation if paddy, Sugarcane, Banana, Mango
etc
Soil Erosion and Conservation: Soil erosion, a significant
challenge, necessitates adopting conservation techniques like
afforestation, contour bunding, and watershed construction. These
methods not only prevent soil loss but also ensure the long-term
sustainability of agricultural practices.
Suggested Measures for Soil Conservation:
 Implement Crop Rotation: To maintain soil fertility and
reduce erosion.
 Use of Organic Fertilizers: To enhance soil structure and
nutrient content.
 Water Conservation Techniques: Like drip irrigation to
minimize erosion and improve water use efficiency.
 Soil Testing: Regular testing to monitor pH and nutrient
levels for appropriate amendments.
Conclusion The diverse soil types of Telangana, each with unique properties and
challenges, are central to the state's agricultural sustainability.
Emphasizing soil health through research, awareness, and sustainable
practices ensures that the very foundation of our agriculture remains
robust for future generations.
4. Discuss the benefits of solar power and assess the features of Telangana State's
Solar Policy 2015 on renewable energy initiatives and environmental
sustainability.
Introduction Harnessing solar energy, an abundant and eco-friendly resource, has
become a priority for Telangana, leveraging over 300 sunny days
annually. The state's Solar Policy 2015 is a testament to its
commitment to promoting solar power as a cornerstone of its energy
strategy.
Body Introduction to Solar Power

 Solar power utilizes the Sun's energy for electric or thermal
energy production.
 Telangana's Solar Policy 2015 aims to harness over 300
sunshine days annually.
Benefits of Solar Power
 Abundant sunlight availability.
 Eco-friendly, non-polluting energy source.
 First solar power plant in India: Kalyanpur, Uttar Pradesh.
 Telangana's first solar plant: Gattu, Jogulamba Gadwal
district.

Jurala Solar Power Plant
 Telangana's inaugural solar plant, established on 29 December
2011.
 Location: Jogulamba Gadwal district.
 Managed by TSGENCO with a 1 MW capacity.
 New projects of 20 MW planned at Kothagudem, Pulichintala,
and Peddapally.
Telangana State Solar Power Policy 2015
 Provides incentives to solar developers, significantly
increasing solar power capacity from 74 MW (2014-15) to
3,489 MW (2020-21).
 Supports solar projects, rooftop initiatives, off-grid
applications, and solar parks.
 Facilitates a single-window clearance and offers various fiscal
incentives.
Key features of Telangana State's Solar Policy 2015
 Operative for 5 years with a 10-year incentive period from
commissioning.
 Expedited approval process through a single-window system.
 Exemptions on land ceiling act and various surcharges and
duties.
 Gross and net metering options for rooftop solar, extending to
solar pump sets for farmers.
 Simplified application process for rooftop projects and open
access clearances.
Special Incentives
 Additional incentives for early commissioning, including Rs
2 lakhs/MW for one month early and up to Rs 3 lakhs/MW for
three months early.
Administrative Framework
 A high-level committee oversees project progress, featuring
energy secretaries and industry representatives.
 Development charges set at Rs 25,000 per acre for solar
projects and parks, with fast-tracked approvals by Gram
Panchayats.
Conclusion The Telangana State's Solar Policy 2015 has significantly propelled
the state towards achieving its renewable energy goals, making it a
model for sustainable development. The policy's comprehensive
incentives and streamlined administrative processes have catalyzed a
remarkable increase in solar power capacity, paving the way for a
greener, more sustainable future.

5. Analyze the role of Telangana's coal reserves and the Singareni Collieries
Company Ltd. in contributing to India's energy sector and its impact on the socio-
economic development of the region.
Introduction In the heart of South India, Telangana's substantial coal deposits,
primarily managed by SCCL, play a pivotal role in fueling India's
energy demands while fostering regional growth and development.
Body Coal Reserves in Telangana:

 Geographical Distribution: With a 7.04% share of India's
total coal deposits, districts like Mancherial, Peddapalli, and
Bhadradri Kothagudem are key contributors to Telangana's
mining landscape.
 Coal Varieties and Applications: The state's semi-
bituminous coal, characterized by its high carbon content, is
indispensable to sectors ranging from thermal power
generation to various industries, highlighting Telangana's
strategic importance in energy provision.
Singareni Collieries Company Ltd. (SCCL):
 Historical and Economic Significance: As India's second-
largest coal producer, SCCL's contributions extend beyond
mining; its operational efficiency and financial performance
have made it a cornerstone of Telangana's economy.
 Achievements and Recognitions: Notable achievements
include the Solar Excellency Award 2021 and recognition
for flyash utilization and solar power initiatives emphasize
its commitment to sustainable mining practices, blending
environmental responsibility with industrial efficiency.
Impressive growth in coal production and profitability in the
fiscal year 2021-22.
Socio-Economic Impact:
 Employment Generation and Community Development:
The employment opportunities provided by SCCL have led to
significant improvements in living standards within mining
communities, fostering economic stability and growth.
 Infrastructure Development: The financial inflows from
coal production have been pivotal in enhancing local
infrastructure, health, and education services, underpinning
the transformative impact of coal mining on regional
development.
Environmental and Technological Progress:
 Commitment to Sustainability: SCCL’s recognition for
environmental stewardship and the implementation of solar
power projects reflect its dedication to sustainable energy
practices.
 Innovation and Efficiency: The awards received for
operational excellence, including high Plant Load Factor

(PLF) achievements, exemplify SCCL’s role in driving
technological innovation within the coal and energy sectors.
Conclusion Telangana's coal reserves and SCCL's stewardship collectively

emphasize a model of resource utilization that balances energy
production with socio-economic advancement and environmental
sustainability. The state's approach, exemplified by SCCL's
achievements, sets a benchmark in leveraging natural resources for
comprehensive regional development, making a significant
contribution to India's broader energy and economic objectives.
6. Discuss the significance of Amrabad and Kawal Tiger Reserves in Telangana

under Project Tiger for biodiversity conservation and local community
involvement.
Introduction The inception of Amrabad and Kawal Tiger Reserves under Project
Tiger in Telangana marks a significant stride towards the conservation
of biodiversity and the engagement of local communities in
environmental stewardship. These reserves are not only sanctuaries
for the endangered tiger but also embody the concerted efforts to
preserve the rich flora and fauna, demonstrating a harmonious
balance between conservation initiatives and the socio-economic
upliftment of indigenous tribes.
Body Amrabad Tiger Reserve:

 Foundation and Area: Recognized under Project Tiger in
1983, following its establishment as a wildlife sanctuary in
1978, Amrabad Tiger Reserve sprawls across Nagarkurnool,
Mahabubnagar, and Nalgonda districts. It encompasses a
core area of 2,166 sq km and a buffer zone of 445.02 sq km,
making it one of the largest tiger reserves in India.
 Biodiversity: The reserve is a haven for mixed deciduous

forests, bamboo groves, and grasslands. It hosts an array of
wildlife including tigers, leopards, wolves, and over 200 bird
species, thereby playing a crucial role in biodiversity
conservation.

 Climate and Features: With temperatures ranging from 8°C
to 45°C and receiving 900-1000 mm of annual rainfall, the
reserve's geography is enhanced by the Krishna River,
Pedda dookudu, and Saleswaram waterfalls.
 Community Engagement: Home to Chenchus and
Lambadas, the reserve's Eco-Tourism project benefits over
50 families, exemplifying the role of local community
involvement in conservation efforts.
Kawal Tiger Reserve:
 Establishment and Location: Declared a tiger reserve in
2012, Kawal's history as a wildlife sanctuary dates back to
1965. It extends over Adilabad, Kumuram Bheem
Asifabad, Mancherial, and Nirmal districts, covering a total
area of 2,015 sq km.
 Biodiversity and Habitat: The reserve is distinguished for its
vast teak forests and diverse wildlife, including cheetals,
sambars, nilgai, and the elusive tiger, contributing
significantly to the state's ecological diversity.
 Notable Features: Dominated largely by Nirmal district, the
reserve is traversed by the Kaddam river, creating a lush
habitat conducive to the thriving of diverse species.
Significance:
 Biodiversity Conservation: Both reserves are critical for the
conservation of tigers in India, contributing to the stabilization
and increase of tiger populations as indicated by the 2018
Tiger Estimation.
 Local Community Involvement: The engagement of
indigenous communities through eco-tourism and
conservation initiatives demonstrates a sustainable model of
conservation that benefits both wildlife and people. This
model ensures the protection of biodiversity while providing
livelihoods to local tribes, fostering a sense of ownership and
responsibility towards natural heritage.
 Ecological Balance: These reserves are vital for maintaining
ecological balance, protecting water sources, and preserving
the natural habitat of numerous species, thereby ensuring
environmental sustainability.
Conclusion The establishment of Amrabad and Kawal Tiger Reserves under

Project Tiger in Telangana exemplifies a successful integration of
biodiversity conservation with community development. The active
participation of local communities in conservation efforts highlights
the significance of inclusive conservation practices that benefit both
nature and humanity, setting a precedent for conservation projects
nationwide.

7. Examine the key features of the physiography of Telangana and discuss how it
influences the region’s climate, agriculture, and socio-economic development?
Introduction Telangana, located on the Deccan Plateau in the Indian Peninsula, is
characterized by its unique physiography which significantly
influences the region’s climate, agriculture, and socio-economic
development
Body The physiography is divided into three main regions based on

surface elevation: Telangana plateau, Godavari basin, and
Krishna piedmont.
Telangana plateau
 Telangana is predominantly located on an elevated portion
of the Deccan Plateau. This plateau is made up of ancient
rocks like gneisses, horn blendes, and biotites.
 The western and southwestern areas of the plateau are higher
in elevation, gradually sloping down towards the east and
northeast. This sloping terrain influences the direction of
rivers, causing them to flow primarily from west to east.
The region comprises various geographic features, including
 Hill tracts: Satmala, Nirmal, Bhainsa-Nirmal
 Plateaus: Bhainsa-Nirmal, Devarakonda, Kodangal-Koilkonda
 Plains: Bheemgal, Narayankhed-Andole
 Hills: Sirnapalli ranges, Rachakonda Hills (Hyderabad), Shabad
hills, and Koil hills
The primary rivers in the region flowing through Hyderabad are the
Musi and Manjira. Additionally, the area is characterized by diverse
soil types, including deep black soil, red sandy soil, and laterite soil.
Several districts are located within this region, including Adilabad,
Nizamabad, Medak, Hyderabad, Rangareddy, and
Mahabubnagar.
Godavari Basin
 The Godavari River Basin region is characterized by a
unique geological composition. It is primarily made up of
Carboniferous rocks, ancient Archean Gneisses, and
Gondwana rocks. These geological features contribute to the
formation of vast, fertile plains like the Karimnagar-
Peddapalli plain, Metpalli-Jagtial plain, Parkal plain, and the
expansive Khammam-Madira-Kalluru-Kothagudem plain.
These plains, with their fertile soils, are highly suitable for
agriculture.
 The eastern boundary of the region is marked by the Eastern
Ghats mountain range. This range includes features like the
Rekapalle Hills and the Eastern Ghat Granulite Belt,

visible in Bhadradri Kothagudem and Khammam
districts.
 However, the region is prone to flooding due to the presence
of numerous rivers flowing through it. Major rivers like the
Godavari, Sabari, Munneru, Palair, Wira, and Aleru
contribute to this vulnerability.
 Godavari Basin region is home to several districts, including
Jagtial, Rajanna Sircilla, Karimnagar, Peddapalli,
Warangal, Khammam, and Hanmakonda.
 The landscape is further enriched by the presence of various
hills like Hasnaparthi, Chandragiri Hills, the
Papikondalu range, RakiGuttalu, Ramagiriguttalu, and
Kandikalguttalu. These hills add to the diverse and scenic
character of the Godavari River Basin region.
Krishna Piedmont :
The Krishna River and its tributaries and distributaries make this
area ideal for farming.
 This area's primary soil type is red sandy soil.
 It is madeup of Archean Gneisses and Granites
 This region includes the Krishna-Dindi Forest Tract, the
Nalgonda-Miryalaguda Plateau, and the Bhongir-Ramanapet
Plateau
 This area is home to hills like Yadadri's Ramagiri Hills and
Nandagiri Hills near Nalgonda
 This area is covered with dry deciduous scrub woods
 Krishna piedmont includes the regions of Wanaparthy,
Suryapet, Yadadri, Miryalaguda, Devarakonda, and
Nalgonda.
Climate Influence
 The physiography of Telangana contributes to its semi-arid
climate, with hot and dry conditions prevailing for most of
the year. The plateau experiences high temperatures during
summers, with the average maximum reaching 40 to 43°C in
May. Winters are relatively mild, and the region receives an
average annual rainfall of about 906 mm, primarily from the
Southwest monsoon23. This climate pattern affects water
availability and agricultural cycles.
Agricultural Influence
 Agriculture in Telangana is largely dependent on the
monsoon rains and river irrigation. The presence of major
rivers and their tributaries allows for irrigation, which
supports agriculture, particularly in the fertile river valleys.
However, the arid zones and variability in rainfall lead to
reliance on irrigation projects and affect the choice of crops,

with a focus on drought-resistant varieties and crops suitable
for black cotton soils
Socio-Economic Influence
 The physiography and climate of Telangana have a direct
impact on the socio-economic development of the region.
The availability of water resources from rivers has led to the
establishment of hydroelectric power plants and irrigation
projects, which in turn support industrial and agricultural
development. Urbanization patterns are also influenced,
with cities like Hyderabad becoming hubs for technology
and industry due to their strategic location on the plateau
Conclusion Physiographic characteristics of Telangana significantly impact the

region's agriculture, climate patterns, and socio-economic
development. Understanding and effectively managing these
geographical features are essential for sustainable development and
improving the livelihoods of people in Telangana.
8. Analyze the characteristics and distribution of soil types in Telangana and discuss
their significance for the state’s agriculture?
Introduction Soils are a vital component of the ecosystem, providing support to
plants, serving as a medium for nutrient exchange, and contributing
to the overall health of the environment. In Telangana, a diverse
range of soils is present, each with unique characteristics and
agricultural suitability.
Body According to Soils of AP-1976, Seven types of soils are spread

over Telangana state
1. Red Soils
a. Red Sandy loams (Chalaka Soils)
b. Red loamy Sands ( Dubba Soils)
2. Black Soils
a. Shallow to medium black soils
b. Deep black soils
3. Laterite Soils
4. Salt affected soils
5. Alluvial Soils
Red Soils :
 These soils are formed from the weathering of granite and
are found in the Deccan plateau region. They are generally
acidic, low in nutrients, and require the addition of lime and
fertilizers for agriculture. Despite their nutrient limitations,
red soils exhibit a commendable water-holding capacity.

 Red sandy loams have relatively less water holding capacity
and Red loamy sands have more water holding capacity.
Crops and Agriculture:
 Red soils in Telangana support the cultivation of crops like
oilseeds, pulses such as red gram, green gram, horse gram,
groundnut, and castor. Furthermore, horticulture thrives on
red soils under conditions of assured irrigation.
Distribution:
The distribution of red soils covers a vast expanse in Telangana,
encompassing 32 out of the 33 districts in the state.
 Red Soils are covered 64 % of the geographical area of the
state
Black Soils :
Formation
 Black soils, covering approximately 26% of Telangana's
geographical area with diverse textures, are primarily
formed from the solidification of lava across the expansive
Deccan plateau.
Characteristics
These soils are characterized by their clayey composition, depth,
and impermeability. When wet, black soils tend to swell and become
sticky; conversely, they shrink upon drying.
 Notably, black soil retains moisture for extended periods due
to its exceptional water-holding capacity.
 They are rich in iron, aluminium, magnesium, lime and poor
in organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorous
Agricultural Significance: Renowned for their suitability for
cotton cultivation, black soils are aptly referred to as "Black Cotton
Soils.".
 Crops : Cotton Maize, Millets, Tobacco can be grown and if
irrigated sugarcane also can be grown
Distribution :
 Apporximately 26% of grographical area of Telangana
covered with black soils in Adilabad, Kumuram Bheem ,
Nirmal Medak, Sangareddy, Peddapally, Kamareddy,
Mancherial and Narayanpet
Mixed Black and Red soils :

Distribution:
 Mixed black and red soils are predominantly found in the
southern districts of Telangana such as Wanaparthy,
Jogulamba Gadwal, Nagar Kurnool, and in the northern
districts like Adilabad, Nirmal, Jagtial, among others.
Notably, Adilabad district boasts the highest concentration

of mixed black and red soils, covering nearly 7% of the
state's geographical area.
Crops Cultivated:
 The major crops cultivated in these mixed soils include
cotton and maize. These soils provide a conducive
environment for the growth of these crops, contributing
significantly to agricultural activities in the region.
Laterite Soils
 Laterite soils in Telangana are a result of intense leaching
caused by tropical rains. These soils typically develop in
areas characterized by high temperatures and substantial
rainfall, approximately around 200 cm annually.
Nature:
 Laterite soils are known for their poor organic matter
content, deficiency in nitrogen, phosphate, and calcium,
while being rich in iron oxide and potash.
Distribution:
 2% of Geographical area of the state covered with laterite
soils . . .Sangareddy , Vikarabad districts contain these types
of soils
Crops :
 Despite their less fertile nature, crops like ginger, potato,
mango, and tamarind can be successfully grown in these
soils.
Salt-Affected Soils:
 Salt-affected soils are inherently infertile and pose
challenges for agricultural productivity. These soils are
notably present in certain regions of Telangana, including
parts of Rangareddy, Nizamabad, and Medak districts within
the state.
Alluvial Soils:
 Approximately 1% of Telangana's geographical area is
covered by alluvial soils, primarily located along river belts.
These fertile soils can be found in specific areas of Medak,
Nalgonda, and Suryapet districts in the state.
Conclusion The diverse soil types present in Telangana play a crucial role in
shaping agricultural practices and productivity across different
regions of the state. Understanding the characteristics and
distributions of mixed black and red soils alongside laterite soils is
essential for farmers to make informed decisions regarding crop
selection and cultivation techniques to optimize agricultural output
effectively.

9. Give an account of agro- climatic zones of Telangana?
Introduction The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
defines agro-climatic regions as land units that are climatically
suitable for specific crops and cultivars.
These regions are based on geographical characteristics such as
rainfall, temperature, soil type, and water availability.
Body Northern Telangana agro climatic zone: (Headquarter : Jagtial)

 Area : 81.7 lakh acres (29.5% )
 Temperature : Maximum temperature ranges from 31°C to
39°C, while the minimum temperature varies between 14°C
and 25°C
 Rainfall: The annual precipitation in this area ranges from
867mm to 1189mm, primarily received during the southwest
monsoon season.
 Soil: Red soils of various textures dominate this region,
although black soils and calcareous soils are also present,
totaling 16 different soil types.
 Major crops: Rice, maize, Soyabeen ,Redgram, Turmeric
,cotton, and sugarcane.
 Distribution: This zone encompasses Adilabad, Kumuram
Bheem, Mancherial, Nirmal, Peddapally, Jagtial, Rajanna
Sircilla, Karimnagar, Kamareddy and Nizamabad
Central Telangana Agro-climatic Zone : (Headquarters -

Warangal)
 Area: 95.4 lakh acres (34.5 %)
 Temperature : Maximum temperature ranges between 29°C
and 39°C, with minimum temperatures ranging from 16°C
to 25°C.
 Rainfall : The annual rainfall in this region varies from
779mm to 1213mm, predominantly occurring during the
southwest monsoon.
 Soil : Over half of this region is characterized by red soils,
with the presence of black soils and calcareous soils as well.
 Crops : The predominant crops grown in this zone include
cotton, rice, maize, green gram, mangoes, and chilies.
Distribution:
 This zone includes districts like Medak, Sangareddy,
Siddipet, Jayashankar, Jangoan, Warangal, Mahabubabad,
Bhadradri and Khammam
Southern Telangana Agro Climatic Zone : (Head quarter:

Palem)

 Area : 99.8 lakh acres
 Temperature :Maximum : Ranges between 28°C to 38°C
 Minimum : Ranges between 16°C to 25°C
southwest monsoon
 Soil: Over half of this region is occupied by different texture
of red soils (chulka soils,). Other Soils like alluvio- colluvial
soils and calcareous soils can be seen
 Major Crops: Cotton, Rice, Redgram, Maize and
Greengram
 Districts : Rangareddy, Vikarabad, Medchal, Yadadri,
Jogulamba, Narayanpet, Wanaparthy, Suryapet , Nalgond
Impact on Agriculture and Land Use:

 The distribution of soil types significantly influences crop
selection and agricultural practices. Black soils in NTZ are
ideal for cotton, while red soils in CTZ and STZ require
careful management to retain moisture and prevent erosion.
 Rainfall patterns also play a crucial role. Higher rainfall in
NTZ allows for a wider variety of crops compared to the
drier STZ, which relies more on drought-resistant crops.
 Land-use patterns reflect these variations. Areas with fertile
black soils and assured irrigation see intensive agriculture,
while regions with red soils and lower rainfall might have a
mix of agriculture, forestry, and fallow land.
Conclusion Understanding Telangana's agro-climatic zones is essential for

promoting sustainable agriculture. By tailoring crop choices,
irrigation methods, and soil management practices to specific zones,
agricultural productivity can be optimized while minimizing
negative environmental impacts. Diversification of crops,
promoting water conservation techniques, and utilizing
technological advancements are crucial steps towards a resilient and
prosperous agricultural sector in Telangana
10. Discuss the river systems of Telangana, their characteristics and the inter-state
water disputes involving these rivers.
Introduction Telangana is home to several major river systems that play a crucial
role in the state's economy, agriculture, and ecology. These rivers
have distinct characteristics and have been the subject of inter-state
water disputes.
Body RIVER SYSTEMS OF TELANGANA:

Godavari River System
The river Godavari rises in the Western Ghat near the Brahmagiri
Hills (Triambak) in the Nasik districts of Maharahtra at an elevation
of 1067 metres. After flowing south-east for approximately 1,465
km, it empties into the Bay of Bengal at Antarvedi.
 The Godavari basin receives 84 % of its annual
precicipitation during the Southwest Monsoon.
 Telanagana has about 79% of the Godavari River Catchment
area.
 The Catchment area of Godavari basin in Telangana is
62,150 square km
 Godavari is India’s second larget basin and accounts anout
9.5% of the total geographical area of the country .
 The largest tributary of the Godavari is the Pranahita with
about 34.87% coverage of the drainage area.
 The river forms inter-State boundaries between the States
of Telangana and Maharastra, as well as Telangana and
Chattisgarh.
Tributaries:
 Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Manjira,
Peddavagu, Manair.
 Left Bank Tributaries: Wainganga, Wardha, Kadva,
Penganga, Purna, Kadam, Pranahita , Indravati, Sabari, and
Darna
Telangana districts along the Godavari :
 Niramal, Nizamabad, Jagtial, Peddapally, Mancherial,
Jayashankar – Bhupalapally, Mulugu, Bhadradri-
Kothagudem
Importance :
 Godavari river supports agriculture, providing irrigation to
vast stretches of agricultural land in the region.
Krishna River System :

 The Krishna river originates from the Mahabaleshwar range
of the Western Ghats in Maharashtra, India. The river
embarks on a remarkable 1,400-kilometer journey. It flows
through the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka and enters
Telangana at Maktal taluka, Krishna mandal, Tangidi Village
in Narayanapet district and flows through Narayanapet,
Mahabubnagar, Vanaparthi, Gadwala, Nagarkurnool,
Nalgonda, Suryapet districts and flows through Kurnool,
Prakasam, Guntur and Krishna districts of AP. Downstream
it splits into two bays at Puligadda (about 64 km away) and
joins the Bay of Bengal at Hamsala Devi.
 The Krishna River's flow is characterized by marked
seasonal variations. It has peak flows during the monsoon
season and reduced flows in the summer months. Its average
annual discharge is estimated at around 2,100 cubic meters
per second.
Catchment area:
 The catchment area of the Krishna River in Telangana is part
of the river’s extensive basin that spans across several states.
The Krishna River basin extends over an area of 258,948
km²,
Tributaries :
 Right Bank Tributaries : Bhima, Dindi, Musi, Halia,
Paleru, Munneru
 Left Bank Tributaries : Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha,
Malaprabha, Budameru, Koina, Tammileru, Ramileru,
Dudhganga and Panchganaga
Importance :
 The Krishna River holds deep cultural and religious
significance for the people of India. It is revered as a sacred
river, mentioned in ancient Hindu scriptures.
 The Krishna River's substantial water flow and elevation
differences make it a valuable source of hydroelectric power.
Several dams and hydropower stations have been
constructed along its course.
 The Krishna River supports a diverse ecosystem of aquatic
and terrestrial species. Its floodplain provides critical habitat
for various plants and wildlife, contributing to the region's
biodiversity.
INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES:
Godavari River Dispute:
 The allocation of Godavari river waters between Telangana,
Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh has been a longstanding
issue.
 Disputes arise over the construction of dams and barrages,
as each state seeks to maximize its water utilization, leading
to conflicts over water sharing.
 The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal and Godavari Water
Disputes Tribunal have been set up to adjudicate on water
allocation issues, but resolution remains elusive.
Krishna River Dispute:
 The sharing of Krishna river waters between Telangana and
Andhra Pradesh has been contentious, particularly
concerning the Srisailam and Nagarjuna Sagar reservoirs.
 Disputes over the utilization of water for irrigation,
hydropower generation, and drinking water supply have led
to legal battles and tensions between the states.

 The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal's recommendations
have not fully addressed the concerns of both states,
necessitating continued negotiations.
Conclusion Telangana's river systems are vital for its development. Addressing
inter-state water disputes through a combination of legal
frameworks, cooperation, and sustainable water management
practices is crucial for ensuring water security and the state's long-
term prosperity.

Agro Climatic Zones in Telangana
Agro Climatic Zones in Telangana
Telangana State has been divided into four agro-climatic zones based on the geographical
characteristics such as rainfall, nature of soils, climate etc. They are
• Northern Telangana Zone, (Adilabad, Nizamabad and Karimnagar)
• Central Telangana Zone, (Medak, Warangal and Khammam)
• Southern Telangana Zone (Rangareddy, Hyderabad, Nalgonda and Mahaboonagar)
Northern Telangana Zone
• Total area: 81,71,000 Acres
• Headquarters: Polasa (Jagtial)
• Northern Telangana Zone includes the districts of Adilabad, Komaram Bheem
Asifabad, Nirmal, Mancherial, Karimnagar, Peddapalli, Jagtial, Rajanna Sircilla
Nizamabad and Kamareddy.
• Annual rainfall ranges from 867 mm to 1189 mm, received mostly from the south-west
monsoon rainfall. During the monsoon season maximum temperatures range between
32° to 37°C and minimum ranges between 14 to 25°C.
• Red soils of different textures are predominant in this zone. It has shallow black soils,
deep calcareous soils and red clayey soils. Primary crops in this zone include
rice,maize, red gram, and turmeric.
• Research stations in Northern Telangana Zone- 7
• Regional research stations in Northern Telangana Zone- 144.
Central Telangana Zone
• Total area 95,39,000 Acres
• Headquarters: Warangal
• Central Telangana Zone consists of the districts of Sangareddy, Medak, Siddipet,
Jangaon, Hanmakonda, Warangal, Mulugu, Mahabubabad, Jayashankar Bhupalapally,
Bhadradri Kothagudem and Khammam.
• Annual rainfall in this zone ranges from 779 mm 1213 mm. received mostly from south-
west monsoon rainfall. During this season maximum temperature ranges between 29°
and 39 ° C and minimum ranges between 21° and 25°c. Red soils of different textures
are predominant in this zone. It has shallow black soils, deep calcareous soils and red
clayey soils. Primary crops in this zone include rice, majze, greengram, mango, and
chili.
• Research stations in Central Telangana Zone- 6
• Regional research stations in Central Telangana Zone- 132
Southern Telangana Zone
• Total area- 99,84,000 Acres

• Headquarters: Palem (Nagarkurnool)
• This zone includes Vikarabad, Medchal Malkäjgiri; Hyderabad, Yadadri Bhuvanagiri,
Rangareddy, Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Suryapet, Narayanapet, Wanaparthy,
Nagarkurnool and JogulambaGadwal districts.
• Annual rainfall ranges from 600 mm to 853 mm, received mostly from south west
monsoon rainfall. During this season maximum temperature ranges between 28° and
38C and minimum ranges between 22° and 23°C. Primary crops in the zone include :
Sesame, Cotton, Rice, Safflower, Groundnut, Red gram, Maize.
• Research stations in Southern Telangana Zone- 7
• Regional research stations in Southern Telangana Zone- 164
• The Agricultural capability of Telangana is mainly dependent on factors such as
 Land Holdings
 Cropping intensity
 Irrigation facility
 Crop density
Land Holdings in Telangana- Agriculture Census 2015-16
• According to Agriculture Census 2015-16, Telangana occupies 11th place in the
Country with about 5.94 million (59,48 lakhs) of operational holdings.
• The total number of operational holdings in Telangana has increased from 5.54 million
in 2010-11 to 5.94 million in 2015-16 with an increase of 7.09%. .
• Total area under operational holdings in Telangana fell from 61.97 lakh hectares in
2010- 11 to 59.72 lakh hectares in 2015-16 showing a decline of 3.63%. It means when
compared to 2011-12, it was decreased by 2.25 lakh hectares.
• According to the latest report, the average size of operational holding in Telangana has
been registered at I hectare. It is 1.01 in male operational holders and 0.9 in female
operational holders.
• The number of land holdings of SC farmers in Telangana declined by 5.86%from 7.44
lakhs in 2010-11 to 7 lakhs in 2015-16. The area under them also declined by 9.2%
from 5.88 lakh hectares in 2010-11 to 5.32 lakh hectares in 2015-16.
• The number of land holdings of ST farmers in Telangana roseby 5.95% from 6.72 lakhs
in 2010-11 to 7.12 lakhs in 2015-16. But,the area under them declined by 3.90% from
7.7 Lakh hectares in 2010-11 to 7.41 lakh hectares in 2015-16.
• When compared to 2010-1 1, the share of marginal holdings in the total operational
holdings in 2015-16 rose from 61.96% to 64.56% and the share of other main categories
(Small, Semi- medium, Medium and Large) decreased.
• When compared to 2010-1 1, the share of area under marginal holdings in the total
operated area increased from 25.28% to 28.58% and that of small holdings increased
from 30.17% to 33.10% and the share of remaining holdings (Semi medíum, Medium
and Large) decreased in 2015-16 Census.
• The average size of operational holding in the State decreased from 112 hectares in
2011 to 1.00 hectare in 2015.
• According to Agriculture Census 2015-16, the average size of holding ofSCs:0.76
hectares According to Agriculture Census 2015-16, the average size of holding ofSTs:
1.04 hectares
• Of the total 59.48 1akh operational holdings in Telangana, 45.79 lakh holdings are
under male operational holders and 13.68 lakh holdings are under female operational
holders.
• Of the total 59.72 lakh hectares of area in Telangana, 46.29 lakh hectares are under male
farmers and 13.37 lakh hectares under female farmers.
Irrigation
• Gross irrigated area of Telangana (2014-15) - 25.29 lakh hectares
• Gross irrigated area of Telangana (2015-1 6) - 20.27 lakh hectares
• The gross irrigated area was decreased by 19.85%i.e 5.02 lakh hectares in 2015-16
when compared to 2014-1s
• Net irrigated area ofTelangana (2014-15) -17.26 lakh hectares.
• Net irrigated area ofTelangana (2015-16) -14.86 lakh hectares
• The net irrigated area decreased by 13,90% i.e. 2.40 lakh hectares in 2015-16 when
compared to 2014-15.
Sources of Irrigation
• Wells are main source of irrigation in the State, irrigating abou(84% the total net
irrigated area in 2014-lD. The share of canal and tank irrigation is confined to mere 10
percent and 4 percent respectively. The tankane irrigation shows a declining trend over
the years and the well irrigation shows a faster growth rate.
• The well irrigation which was 16 percent in 1955-56 was increased to 37% in 1985-86
and further increased to. 81% in 2015-16. The tank irrigation was three times higher
than the well and canal irrigation in 1955-56. Over a period of time, it has declined
significantly. In the year 1955-56 the percentage share of tank irrigation was 64% which
declined to 28% in 1985-86 and further to 8% in 2012-13. This is a clear indicator of
deliberate neglect of thousands of tanks in the Telangana area during the United Andhra
Pradesh state.
• High dependency on wells has adverse effects on cost of cultivation and groundwater
levels. Therefore there is a need to increase tank and canal irrigation sources in the
State. Hence, the Government ofTelanganahas launched Mission Kakatiya' to revive
and rejuvenate tank irrigation.
• In 2018-19, the highest net area sown was reported in Nalgonda đistrict with 3.78 lakh
hectares, followed by Khammam with 2.64 lakh hectares.
• Top ten districts account for almost 50% of the total net sown area.
• Three districts namely Nagarkurnool,Sangareddy, Adilabad along with Nalgonda and
Khammam districts have net area sown of more than 2 lakh hectares in cach district.
• 8 districts viz. Siddipet, Suryapet, Vikarabad, Nizamabad, Nirmal, Rangareddy,
Jogulamba Gadwal and Kamareddy have a net area sown between 1.5 - 2 lakh hectares.

• Another eleven districts viz,, Mahabubnagar, Warangal Rural, Kuuram Bheem,
BhadradriKotagen Yadadri Bhuvanagiri, Jangaon, Mancherial, Karimnagar, Jagýtia,
Narayanpet, Mahabhad reprtetam area sown between 1.0 and 1.5 lakh hectares.
• 8 districts viz Peddapalli, Wanaparthy, Rajanna Sireilla, Warangal Urban, Jayashankar
Bhupalpally, Medak, Mulugu, Medchal- Malkajgiri have a net area sown less than 1
lakh.
Cropping Pattern vs Cropping System:
• Cropping systems refer to the specific arrangement and types of crops grown, as well
as the techniques utilized for cultivation. They encompass the various crop sequences
adopted across different locations and periods, incorporating available agricultural
technologies to optimize yield.
• Cropping patterns, on the other hand, are fluid and subject to change across both spatial
and temporal dimensions. They represent the distribution of different crops across a
given area at a particular time, depicting the annual sequence and spatial layout of
planting and fallow periods. In India, cropping patterns are influenced by factors such
as rainfall, climate, temperature, soil characteristics, and technological advancements.
Types of Cropping Pattern:
• Monocropping involves cultivating a single agricultural species on a piece of land at a
time. It can lead to soil fertility depletion, soil structure damage, and increased reliance
on chemical fertilizers. Pests and diseases may also proliferate due to this practice.
• Mixed cropping entails growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same land.
For instance, wheat and gram can be cultivated together. This method mitigates the risk
of crop failure due to adverse weather conditions and provides insurance against losses.
The crops chosen for mixed cropping should have varied maturation times and water
requirements.
• Intercropping involves planting more than one crop in alternating rows on the same
field simultaneously. For example, after one row of the main crop, three rows of
intercrops can be sown. This enhances productivity per unit area.
• Crop rotation is a practice where different crops are cultivated successively on the same
land in a predetermined sequence. Crops are categorized based on their duration, with
options like one-year rotation, two-year rotation, and three-year rotation. Legumes are
often included in rotation to improve soil fertility, with crops requiring high fertility
levels following legumes. Low-input crops typically follow those requiring higher
inputs.
Importance of Cropping Pattern
• Enhances Soil Fertility: Cropping patterns prevent soil nutrient depletion by rotating
different crops, each interacting uniquely with the soil to release and absorb specific
nutrients. This replenishes deficient nutrients and balances excess ones, thus improving
soil fertility.
• Boosts Crop Yield: By incorporating diverse crop types, cropping patterns increase
overall harvests. Scientific studies suggest a 10 to 25% yield increase through crop
rotation compared to monoculture.

• Improves Soil Nutrients: Allowing land to rest and regenerate during non-cropping
seasons enables natural replenishment of soil nutrients, reducing reliance on external
fertilizers.
• Mitigates Soil Erosion: Cropping patterns, particularly when combined with tree
planting, stabilize soil by reducing the impact of raindrops and water erosion through
root systems' soil-binding effects.
• Enhances Soil Structure: Cropping patterns prevent soil compaction, improving soil
physical conditions and texture. This promotes optimal conditions for seed germination
and root growth.
• Diversifies and Reduces Production Costs: Different crops require varying levels of
labor and machinery, distributing workload and resources across the year. This
diversification reduces overall production costs to some extent.
Crop Diversification
• Sustainable agricultural growth in the state requires crop diversification. This will make
farmer incomes more resilient to fluctuating prices and help them realize higher farm
incomes. State government has emphasized on the importance of crop diversification,
in order to avoid glut in production and recommended crops like Ground nut, Sun
flower, Sesamum, Bengal gram, Black gram, Green gram, Castor, Mustard, Kusurma,
Oilpalm and Jowar.
• In 2020-21, there was significantly greater crop diversification (as measured by a crop
diversification index) in Nirmal, Vikarabad and Sangareddy (the three most diversified
districts), compared to Peddapalli, Karimnagar and Suryapet (the three least
diversified).
PRODUCTIVITY OF AGRICULTURE
• Agriculture productivity refers to the quantity of crops produced per unit of land.
• India's agricultural productivity remains significantly lower compared to countries like
China and the USA, with an average of 3075 Kg/ha in 2018, slightly below the global
average of 3200kg/ha.
• Factors such as fertilizer usage, irrigation methods, and rainfall patterns contribute to
variations in productivity.
• Regions that underwent the Green Revolution, along with Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West
Bengal, and Maharashtra, tend to exhibit higher productivity levels.
• Productivity decline in the Gangetic plain is attributed to land fragmentation resulting
from smaller landholdings.
• Major challenges impacting agricultural productivity include shrinking land sizes,
reliance on monsoon rains, limited access to irrigation, imbalanced soil nutrient
management leading to soil fertility loss, uneven adoption of modern technology across
regions, inadequate access to formal credit, limited government procurement of food
grains, and insufficient provision of remunerative prices to farmers.
Crop Seasons
• Agriculture seasons have been classified into three categories based on Crop duration.
• Kharif: (South- West monsoon season) June- October.
• Crop duration- 5 months.
• Main crops- Rice, Sorghum (Zowar), Maize, Pearl millet (Bajra), Finger millet (Ragi),
Groundnut, Coton. Sugarcane, Tobacco.
Rabi: November- February. Crop duration-4 months
• Main crops- Wheat, Sorghum, Pulses, beans, Soya beans, Chili
• Zaid: March to May (summer crop) Crop duration-3 months
• Main crops- Rice, Muskmelon, Water melon, vegetables, Maize etc. Telangana
Geography
• The Agriculture Department has issued orders directing departments concerned to
replace the terms Kharif and Rabi in their official communication with Vanakalam
(rainy season) and Yasangi (summer season) respectively.
Important Crops of Telangana

Food Crops:
• They are two types
• Staple crops (Cereals)-Rice, Wheat, Maize
• Millets- Sorghum, Bajra, Ragi
Cash Crops:
• Cotton, Tobacco, Jute, Sugarcane, Oil seeds etc.
• Plantation Crops: Coffee, Tea, Coconut, Rubber, Spices Horticultural Crops: Fruits,
Flowers, Vegetables, Herbs
• Agriculture and Allied Activities: Trends in Output
• Sown Area
• As a result of the government's efforts and focus, overall cropping area and irrigated
area have increased significantly, the Gross Sown Area (GSA) has significantly
increased from 131 lakh acres in 2014-15 to 210 lakh acres in 2020-21. During this
period, more than 79 lakh acres were brought under cultivation. This increase can be
attributed to the sustained investment in irrigation projects and paddy procurement by
the Government, which has made it possible for farmers to cultivate paddy in both
seasons of the year.
• Paddy, Cotton, Maize and Red Gram are the major crops grown in Telangana.
Cumulatively, the area under these crops constitutes nearly 85% of the total area under
cultivation. Currently, cultivated area under Paddy (50%) and Cotton (28%) constitutes
78% of the total.
• In 2014-15, total area cultivated under Paddy was around 35 lakh acres and by the end
of 2020-21, it increased nearly 197% to 104 lakh acres, The total area under cotton
cultivation increased by 38% from 42 lakh acres to 58 1 lakh acres. There was a
significant decline in the coverage of Maize from 12. 5% of overall gross area sown in
Vanakalam 0 of the gross area sown in 2020-21 Vanakalam.

Production of major crops
• The improvement in cropping area led to the overall agriculture production in the state
which increased by 52% from 232 lakh MT in 2014-15 to 353 lakh MT in 2020-21. The
3 major crops grown in Telangana by production are Paddy Cotton- and Maize, These
three crops together constitute nearly 75% of total produce in 2020.
• As per the agriculture statistics 2020 of Ministry ofAgriculture and Farmer Welfare,
Gol, Telangana stands at 2nd for cotton production (with an output of 6.83 million
bales) and at 3 position in Maize production (with an output of 3 Million tonnes).
However, looking at the growth rate of production of pulses between 2018-19 and 2019-
20, Telangana stood 4th at the national level. As compared to the national growth rate
of 4.3%, Telangana's growth rate was 20.49% points higher.
Paddy (Rice)
• The scientific name of Paddy (Rice)is Oryza Sativa.
• Paddy is the major crop in the State. It is cultivated in 26% of the Gross cropped area.
It is cultivated extensively during Kharif and Rabiseasons.
• The crop duration of rice is 120 days/ 4 months.
• Rice is the major cultivated cereal crop in the World.
• Rice is cultivated in the largest area in India.
• It is a tropical crop. Clayey loam is well suited to the raising of paddy crops.
• Rice is mainly cultivated in the districts of 1. Nalgonda 2.Suryapet 3.Karimnagar
4.Peddapalli 5.Nizamabad 6.Jayashankar Bhupalpally 7. Mulugu 8. Wanaparthy
Wheat
• Wheat is mainly grown in Tropical and SubTropical zones.
• Wheat is the second major cultivated and produced food crop after Rice in India.
• The Climate of Telangana is not suitable for Wheat. So it is very less cultivated in the
state. It is a rabi crop. It is cultivated in some areas of Adilabad, Medak and Nizamabad
districts.
• Adilabad is the top most district in terms of productivity, production and area of Wheat
in Telangana.
• The largest Wheat producing State of India- Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh
• The State with highest yield of Wheat- Punjab
• The Largest Wheat producing Country in the World-China
Maize
• It is a tropical crop. Maize producing districts of Telangana- Karimnagar, Peddapalli,
Mahabubnagar, Gadwal, Nizamabad, Kamareddy, Medak.
• The States that ranks first in terms of area of cultivation of maize - 1.Karnataka 2.
Madhya Pradesh 3. Maharashtra
• The Largest maize producing States of India - Karnataka, Maharashtra.
• The states with highest yield of maize- Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand.
Sorghum (Jowar)
• It is also known as the Great Millet.
• Jowar can be cultivated on a variety of soil types such as black soils, clayey loam soils
and sand soils. In India it is considered as a semi arid crop
• Sorghum ís said to be the Poor man's food in India. Jowar is cultivated in about 83,401
hectares inTelangana.
• Highest cultivating districts- 1.Erstwhile Mahabubnagar 2.Adilabad 3. Erstwhile
Karimnagar
• Jowar is highly cultivated in Mahabubnagar district.
• The district that registered highest yield of Jowar is- Karimnagar
• Jowar is very much connected to the traditions of Telangana. In some areas, it is used
as Talambralu in marriages.
• The largest Jowar producing State in India- Maharashtra, Karnataka
Oil Seeds
• Largest cultivated districts of Oil Seeds in Telangana- Wanaparthy, Gadwal,
Nagarkurnool, Nazamah Mahabubnagar, Kamareddy, Adilabad, Nirmal.
• District with largest cultivated area and highest production- Mahabubnagar
• District with highest yield- Khammam
• The largest Oil seeds producing State of India - Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra.
• The largest Oil seeds producing Country in the World- U.S.A., China, Brazil, India
Groundnut
• ICAR- Groundnut Research Institute- Junagadh (Gujarat)
• Largest cultivated districts of Groundnut- Mahabubnagar, Wanaparthy, Jogulamba
Gadwal, Nagarkurno Janagaon, Warangal Rural, Jayshankar Bhupalapally, Mulugu,
Nalgonda, Suryapet
• The largest Groundnut producing State of India- Gujarat, Rajasthan
• The largest Groundnut Producing Country in the World-China
• The Country with largest cultivated area of Groundnut in the World- India
Sesame (Gingelly)
• Largest cultivated districts of Sesame in Telangana- Peddapalli, Jagtial, Karimnagar,
Kamareddy, Vikarabad, Rangareddy
• District with largest cultivated area and highest production - Adilabad
• District with highest yield - Karimnagar
• It is a Rabi crop in South India.
• The largest Sesame producing States of India - 1.Rajasthan 2. Haryana. 3. Madhya
Pradesh
Safflower Seeds (Kusuma)
• Largest cultivated districts of Safflower Seeds in Telangana- Sangareddy, Medak,
Nizamabad, Kamareddy. Vikarabad, Rangareddy
• District with highest production and productivity (Yield) -Nizamabad
• District with largest cultivated area of Safflower - Medak
Sunflower Seeds
• Largest cultivated districts of Sunflower- Nizamabad, Kamareddy, Medak, Sangareddy,
Siddipet, Nagarkurnool, Wanaparthy, Gadwal, Mahabubnagar
• District with largest area of cultivation, highest production and productivity- Medak
• The largest Sunflower producing State of India - Karnataka, Haryana
Castor Beans
• Largest cultivated districts of Cąstor beans- Mahabubnagar, Wanaparthy, Gadwal,
Nagarkurnool, Nalgonda, Suryapet, Rangareddy, Vikarabad
• District with largest area of cultivation, highest production and productivity-Khammam
• Castor oil is mainly used as lubricant.
• The largest Castor beans producing State of India- Gujarat
• The largest Castor beans producing Country in the World- India
Coconut
• Coconut tree, for its benefits to mankind is called as Kalpavriksha'. The only district
ofTelangana that cultivates Coconut is- Khammam.
• The State with largest cultivated area of Coconut- Kerala
• The State with highest production and productivity of Coconut- Tamilnadu.
• The largest Coconut producing Country in the World- Indonesia
Commercial Crops
• Crops that are mainly cultivated for commercial purposes and profits are called
Commercial Crops.
• Important Commercial Crops - Cotton, Tobacco, Sugarcane, Jute
Cotton
• It is also known as White Gold or King of Fibers. Cotton is measured in Bales. 1 Bale-
170 kg
• Cotton is the most important commercial crop in India because it serves as the backbone
for the development of the textile industry.
• Telangana occupies 3rd place in the annual production of long staple cotton in India.
• Cotton is primarily cultivated in the districts of Nirmal, Adilabad, Nalgonda, Warangal
rural, Mahabubabad, Warangal Urban, Jayashankar Bhupalapally, Janagaon.
Tobacco
• Tobacco was introduced in India in A.D 1508 by the Portuguese.
• It is also measured in Bales. It is a Rabi crop.
• Tobacco is primarily cultivated in the districts of Jogulamba Gadwal, Khammam,
Nizamabad, Nirmal.
• District with largest cultivating area of Tobacco - Mahabubnagar

• District with highest productivity of Tobacco - Medak, Nalgonda
• District with highest production - Khammam
Sugarcane
• Sugarcane is largely cultivated in the districts of Medak, Sangareddy, Nizamabad,
Kamareddy, Bhadradri Kothagudem, Khammam
• Crop duration- 12 months. It is a tropical crop.
• District with largest cultivated area and highest production - Medak
• District with highest productivity - Nalgonda
Oil palm cultivation
• Oil palm cultivation assumes significance for augmenting the indigenous availability
of edible oil as it is the highest oil yielding perennial crop. Oil palm cultivation Oil
palm cultivation assumes significance for augmenting the indigenous availability of
edible oil as it is the highest oil yielding perennial crop.
• The consumption of edible oil in India is at 22 Million MTs per annum with a per capita
consumption of 16 kg per person whereas the production is only 7 million MTs. The
deficit of 15 Million MTs of edible oil is being met through imports from Indonesia and
Malaysia spending huge foreign exchange. Out of the total edible oil imports, Palm oil
accounts to 60% i.e., 9-10 Million MTs of the total imports worth of Rs.60,000 to
Rs.70,000 crores per annum. At present, Oil Palm cultivation is taken up in 3.30 lakh
Ha (8.25 lakh acres) with an annual Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) production of 1 6.85
Lakh MT and Crude Palm Oil(CPO) production of 2.81 Lakh MTs in India. To attain
self-sufficiency under oil palm in India, an additional area of28 lakh Ha (70 lakh acres)
is required.
• Telangana Stands 6 in Oil palm area with 21,382 Ha (53,455 acres), 1st in productivity
(8 MT of FFB per acre) and 1st in Oil Extraction Rate (OER) with 19.22 % (2020-21)
in the country.
• The State production of Crude Palm Oil is around 0.45 Lakh MT against the
requirement of 3.66 Lakh MT. Considering the potentiality for Oil Palm cultivation in
Telangana, the state government is planning to take up 20 lakh acres under Oil Palm in
a mission mode as part of crop diversification and has notified 26 districts for oil palm
cultivation and during 2022-23, state government is planning to cover 1.00 lakh ha (2.5
lakh acres) with an outlay of Rs.471.93 crores (Gol share: Rs.283.16 crores & State
share: Rs. l88.77 crores) and rest of the area in the subsequent years. Around 11 Oil
processing units are operating in the state at present. To augment the Oil Palm
cultivation in the state, the Government of Telangana is providing a subsidy of Rs.
26,000 per acre to oil palm farmers in the first year, Rs. 5000 per acre each in second,
third and fourth year as a crop investment incentive and also can avail assistance on
Micro Drip Irrigation (at Rs. 23,000 Hectare).
Irrigation- Wells, Tanks, Canals

• Total irrigated area in the State : 20.27 lakh hectares
• Area under well irrigation : 18.05 lakh hectares (89%)
• Area under tank irrigation : 1.21 lakh hectares (5.96%)
• Area under canals : 0.6 lakh hectares (3%)
• Area under other sources :0.4 lakh hectares (2%)
• Majority of irrigation in Telangana is carried under wells followed by tanks.
Tank Irrigation
• Tank irrigation has been a traditional and integral part of agriculture in Telangana for
centuries.
• Tank irrigation systems consist of small to medium-sized reservoirs or tanks built to
capture and store rainwater for agricultural use.
• Tanks are vital for the development of Telangana due to its geographical positioning
and dependence on tank irrigation across all 31 districts.
• The topography and rainfall pattern of Telangana make tank irrigation ideal for storing
and regulating water flow for agricultural use.
• Tank construction has historical roots dating back to the pre-Satavahana era, with
significant advancements during the Kakatiya period, known for their technical
expertise in building large tanks like Ramappa, Pakhala, Laknavaram, Ghanapuram,
and Bayyaram that greatly supported agriculture and overall prosperity.
• The vision of Kakatiyas was continued by subsequent rulers like the Qutubshahis and
Asafjahis, who constructed numerous large and small tanks in the region.
• The government aims to revive and restore minor irrigation sources in Telangana,
inspired by the Kakatiya vision.
• Tank irrigation contributes significantly to rural employment generation, poverty
reduction, and agricultural growth due to the extensive command area it covers,
facilitating commercial agriculture through market linkages.
• The focus on major irrigation projects under the Andhra Pradesh irrigation policy has
led to uneven development, neglecting the significance of tank-based irrigation in
alluvial plains.
• Neglect of tank maintenance and development by successive governments has resulted
in siltation, breaches, encroachments, and the decline of the tank system, making
previously self-sufficient villages in Telangana prone to drought.
• Here's an account of tank irrigation in Telangana:
1. Historical Significance:
• Tank irrigation has a long history in Telangana, dating back to ancient times. Many
tanks were built during the Kakatiya and Qutb Shahi periods, showcasing the region's
rich tradition of water management and agriculture.
2. Types of Tanks:
• Tank irrigation systems in Telangana vary in size and scale, ranging from small village
tanks ("choruses" or "kuntas") to larger reservoirs. These tanks are typically earthen
embankments built across natural depressions or valleys to capture rainwater during the
monsoon season.
3. Storage Capacity:
• The storage capacity of tanks in Telangana can vary widely, with some smaller tanks
holding only a few thousand cubic meters of water, while larger reservoirs can hold
millions of cubic meters. The water stored in these tanks is crucial for irrigation during
the dry months, providing a lifeline for agricultural activities.
4. Distribution Networks:
• Water from the tanks is distributed to agricultural fields through a network of canals,
channels, and sluices. Traditional water management practices, including community-
based water sharing arrangements and irrigation schedules, are often employed to
ensure equitable distribution among farmers.
5. Importance in Agriculture:
• Tank irrigation plays a significant role in supporting agriculture in Telangana, especially
in areas where access to perennial rivers or groundwater is limited. Farmers rely on tank
water for cultivating a variety of crops, including paddy, cotton, pulses, and vegetables.
6. Challenges:
• Despite their historical significance and importance, tank irrigation systems in
Telangana face various challenges, including siltation, encroachment, inadequate
maintenance, and declining water levels due to groundwater depletion. Climate change
and erratic rainfall patterns also pose additional threats to the sustainability of tank-
based agriculture.
7. Revival and Conservation Efforts:
• Recognizing the importance of tank irrigation for rural livelihoods and agricultural
sustainability, the government of Telangana has initiated several programs and schemes
aimed at restoring and rejuvenating tank systems. The Mission Kakatiya program,
launched in 2015, focuses on desilting, repairing, and restoring tanks across the state to
enhance their storage capacity and efficiency.
• Overall, tank irrigation continues to play a vital role in the agricultural landscape of
Telangana, serving as a resilient and time-tested water management system that
supports the livelihoods of millions of farmers in the region.
1. Why Tank Irrigation is prevalent in Telangana?
• Challenging terrain and hard rocks make digging canals and wells difficult.
• Limited water percolation and scarcity of groundwater due to the impermeable rock
structure.
• Seasonal rivers and torrential streams necessitate impounding water through bunds and
tanks for use.
• Rainwater collection is facilitated by the impermeable rock structure, allowing for
natural or artificial pit storage.
• Tank irrigation is favored because of the scattered population and agricultural fields.
2. Advantages of Tank Irrigation:
• Natural tanks are cost-effective to construct and have a prolonged lifespan.
• Tanks are often built on rocky foundations, contributing to their durability.
• Fishing activities in tanks provide additional food and income for farmers.
3. Disadvantages of Tank Irrigation:
• Tanks often dry up during the dry season, failing to provide necessary irrigation when
needed.
• Silting of tank beds is a significant issue, requiring regular desilting efforts.
• Evaporation from large, shallow water surfaces reduces water suitability for irrigation.
• Tanks occupy considerable arable land; many areas have switched to alternative
irrigation sources, reclaiming dry tank beds for agriculture.
• Water extraction and transportation from tanks to fields is a laborious and expensive
process, discouraging tank use for irrigation purposes.
Mission Kakatiya:
Mission Kakatiya is a tank restoration and rejuvenation program in Telangana aimed at
enhancing agricultural income for small and marginal farmers by developing minor irrigation
infrastructure and restoring tanks spread across all 31 districts.
• Launched on March 12, 2015, by Chief Minister Sri K. Chandrashekhar Rao in
Sadashiva Nagar Village, the program is named in honor of the Kakatiya rulers known
for developing numerous irrigation tanks.
• The objective is to restore 9,306 tanks annually (20% of total) with a goal of restoring
all 46,531 tanks within 5 years, aiming to bring 10 lakh acres of land under command
without further water allocation.
• Restoration efforts include desilting tank beds, repairing sluices and weirs,
strengthening tank bunds, and ensuring water flow through feeder channels.
• The ongoing third phase of Mission Kakatiya focuses on these restoration activities.
• Beneficiaries of the program include all citizens, with anticipated benefits such as
improved groundwater table, reduced power consumption in agriculture, higher crop
yields, livestock growth, and overall rural economic rejuvenation.
Canal Irrigation
• Canal irrigation in Telangana involves the distribution of water from rivers or reservoirs
through a network of canals to irrigate agricultural land. Here's an account of canal
irrigation in Telangana:
1. Major Canal Systems:
• Telangana has several major canal systems that serve as lifelines for agriculture in the
region. Some of the prominent canal systems include:
A. Nagarjuna Sagar Canal:
• This canal originates from the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam on the Krishna River and
serves the districts of Nalgonda, Khammam, and parts of Warangal. It is one of the
largest canal systems in Telangana, providing irrigation water to a vast agricultural
area.
B. Sriram Sagar Canal:

• The Sriram Sagar Project on the Godavari River has a network of canals that supply
water to agricultural lands in the northern districts of Telangana, including
Nizamabad, Adilabad, and parts of Karimnagar.
C. Lower Manair Dam Canal:
• The Lower Manair Dam on the Manair River in Karimnagar district has a canal
system that irrigates agricultural lands in the surrounding areas.
1. Types of Canal System:
• There are two types of canal systems: inundation canals and perennial canals.
• Inundation canals draw water directly from rivers without regulation and mainly
provide irrigation during the rainy season when the river floods and there is excess
water.
• Perennial canals are formed by constructing barrages across perennial rivers. Most of
India's canals fall into this category.
• Perennial canals offer continuous irrigation, delivering water as required throughout the
year, safeguarding crops against drought and enhancing agricultural productivity.
2. Distribution Network:
• Canal irrigation networks in Telangana consist of main canals, branch canals,
distributaries, and minors. Water is diverted from the main source, such as a river or
reservoir, into these canals, which then carry the water to agricultural fields through a
series of channels and outlets.
3. Command Area:
• The command area of canal irrigation systems in Telangana encompasses vast
agricultural lands that benefit from the water supplied through the canals. These lands
are typically located along the banks of the canals and their branches.
4. Crop Cultivation:
• Canal irrigation supports the cultivation of a wide variety of crops in Telangana,
including paddy, cotton, sugarcane, maize, pulses, and vegetables. The availability of
water through canal irrigation enables farmers to practice multiple cropping and
enhance agricultural productivity.
5. Maintenance and Management:
• The maintenance and management of canal systems in Telangana are overseen by the
state government's irrigation department. Regular maintenance activities include
desilting, repair of canal embankments, clearing of vegetation, and ensuring the smooth
flow of water to the command area.
6. Challenges:
• Canal irrigation in Telangana faces various challenges, including water scarcity during
dry periods, inefficient water distribution, siltation of canals, and encroachment of canal
rights-of-way. Additionally, climate change and erratic rainfall patterns pose long-term
challenges to the sustainability of canal-based irrigation systems.
7. Modernization Efforts:

• To address some of these challenges and improve the efficiency of canal irrigation, the
government of Telangana has initiated modernization projects. These projects may
include lining of canals to reduce water seepage, automation of water flow control, and
adoption of water-saving irrigation techniques.
• Overall, canal irrigation plays a significant role in supporting agriculture and rural
livelihoods in Telangana, providing a reliable source of water for crop cultivation and
contributing to the state's agricultural economy.
1. Advantages of Canal Irrigation:
• Canal irrigation enables the development of unirrigated lands, increasing crop
production in the area.
• It accelerates economic development by mitigating risks such as droughts, reducing
dependence on unpredictable rainfall.
• Canals utilize rainwater from rivers or reservoirs for irrigation, supporting crops that
require additional water.
• Once established, canal systems are permanent hydraulic structures requiring only
maintenance for long-term benefits.
• Compared to unirrigated soils, canal irrigation leads to higher productivity per hectare.
• Canals serve multiple purposes including irrigation, hydroelectricity generation,
navigation, drinking water supply, and fishery development.
• Groundwater levels rise rather than fall due to canal irrigation, facilitating easier well
drilling.
• Canals are increasingly becoming tourist attractions.
2. Disadvantages of Canal Irrigation:
• Soil fertility can be negatively impacted, leading to waterlogging and marshy
conditions due to the rise of harmful underground salts and alkalis.
• Stagnant water in canals can lead to infections from mosquitoes, worms, and insects.
• Uneven water distribution can result in water scarcity in some areas and waterlogging
in others.
• Inundation canals may cause crop damage due to insufficient irrigation water during
dry periods.
• Inadequate maintenance can lead to sediment accumulation, reducing canal capacity.
• Canal construction is time-consuming and expensive, limiting access to canal irrigation
in all regions.
• Canals may overflow during heavy rainfall, causing flooding in surrounding areas.
• Canal irrigation is suitable mainly for flat terrain.
Well Irrigation
• Well irrigation, also known as groundwater irrigation, is a common practice in
Telangana, particularly in areas where surface water sources are limited or unreliable.

• Wells are dug holes in the ground used to access water from the subsoil, typically
ranging from 3 to 5 meters in depth, although deeper wells can reach up to 15 meters.
• Various methods like the Persian wheel, Reht, Charas, or mot, dhingly are employed to
lift groundwater from wells.
• Well irrigation constitutes approximately 63% of the country's net irrigated area and
has grown significantly since 1950, expanding sixfold.
• Favorable regions with adequate sweet groundwater include the Northern Plains,
deltaic plains of major river valleys (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Narmada,
Tapi), weathered Deccan trap areas, and crystalline and sedimentary zones of peninsular
India.
• Large portions of peninsular India are unsuitable for well irrigation due to uneven
surfaces, rocky structures, and limited groundwater.
• Some areas in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and parts of Uttar Pradesh have
brackish underground water unsuitable for irrigation or human consumption.
• Uttar Pradesh has the highest proportion of well-irrigated land in the country at 28%,
followed by Rajasthan (10%), Punjab (8%), Madhya Pradesh (7.9%), Gujarat (7.3%),
and Bihar (6.2%).
Well Irrigation
Well irrigation, also known as groundwater irrigation, is a common practice in Telangana,
particularly in areas where surface water sources are limited or unreliable. Here's an account
of well irrigation in Telangana:
1. Types of Wells:
• Well irrigation in Telangana typically involves two main types of wells:
A. Open Wells:
• These are traditional wells dug manually or with the help of machinery to access
groundwater stored in aquifers. Open wells are typically shallow and may have stone
or concrete walls.
B. Bore Wells:
• Bore wells are drilled using specialized equipment to access groundwater from deeper
aquifers. Bore wells are deeper and may have casing pipes to prevent collapse and
contamination.
2. Groundwater Availability:
• Telangana is endowed with significant groundwater resources, with aquifers underlying
large parts of the state. The availability of groundwater varies across different regions
and depends on factors such as rainfall patterns, geology, and recharge rates.
3. Usage and Importance:
• Well irrigation is vital for agriculture in Telangana, especially in regions where surface
water sources are scarce or unreliable. Farmers rely on groundwater from wells to
irrigate a variety of crops, including paddy, cotton, sugarcane, fruits, and vegetables.
4. Pump Technology:

• Most well irrigation systems in Telangana are powered by electric or diesel pumps that
draw water from the wells and distribute it to agricultural fields through a network of
pipes and channels. The use of pump technology allows farmers to control the timing
and duration of irrigation, enabling efficient water management.
5. Advantages of Well and Tube Well Irrigation:
• Wells are the most basic and affordable source of irrigation, accessible even to the
poorest farmers in India.
• Wells provide independent irrigation that can be used on demand.
• Well water often contains beneficial chemicals like nitrate, chloride, and sulphate,
which enhance soil fertility when applied to agricultural fields.
• Well irrigation is more dependable during droughts when surface water sources are
scarce.
6. Disadvantages of Well and Tube Well Irrigation:
• These methods can only irrigate a small area; typically, a well can irrigate between 1 to
8 hectares of land.
• Overuse of wells can lead to their depletion and ineffectiveness for irrigation.
• During droughts, groundwater levels decrease, reducing water availability in wells
when needed most.
• Tube wells can deplete groundwater resources in surrounding areas, leaving the land
dry and unsuitable for agriculture.
• Salty groundwater renders well and tube well irrigation impractical in certain regions.
7. Challenges:
• Despite its importance, well irrigation in Telangana faces several challenges, including:
• Overexploitation: Excessive pumping of groundwater has led to depletion of aquifers
in some areas, leading to declining water levels and deteriorating water quality.
• Salinity and Water Quality: In certain regions, groundwater may contain high levels of
salts or other contaminants, affecting crop productivity and soil health.
• Energy Costs: The use of pumps for well irrigation incurs energy costs, which can be
significant for small and marginal farmers, especially during periods of high electricity
prices.
8. Regulation and Management:
• The government of Telangana regulates groundwater extraction through licensing and
monitoring of bore wells. Various schemes and programs aimed at promoting
sustainable groundwater management, recharge, and conservation are also
implemented to address the challenges associated with well irrigation.
9. Technological Interventions:
• The adoption of modern irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and sprinkler
irrigation can help improve water use efficiency and reduce groundwater depletion in
well-irrigated areas. Government subsidies and incentives are often provided to
encourage farmers to adopt these technologies.

• Overall, well irrigation plays a crucial role in sustaining agriculture and rural
livelihoods in Telangana, but sustainable management practices are essential to ensure
the long-term viability of groundwater resources in the state.
Groundwater Depletion
Groundwater depletion is a significant issue in Telangana, driven by various factors such as
excessive pumping for irrigation, industrial use, and urbanization. Here's an account of
groundwater depletion in Telangana:
1. Overexploitation for Agriculture:
• Agriculture is the primary consumer of groundwater in Telangana, accounting for a
substantial portion of total groundwater extraction. Farmers rely heavily on
groundwater for irrigation, particularly in areas with limited access to surface water
sources or unreliable rainfall.
2. Unregulated Extraction:
• Historically, groundwater extraction in Telangana has been largely unregulated, leading
to overexploitation of aquifers in many regions. The proliferation of bore wells and the
use of high-capacity pumps have contributed to the rapid depletion of groundwater
levels, especially in areas with intensive agricultural activity.
3. Declining Water Tables:
• Groundwater levels in Telangana have been declining steadily over the years due to
excessive pumping and inadequate recharge. In some areas, water tables have
plummeted to alarming depths, making it increasingly challenging for farmers to access
water for irrigation.
4. Impact on Agriculture:
• Groundwater depletion has adverse effects on agriculture, including reduced crop
yields, increased costs of pumping, and deterioration of soil health. Farmers often resort
to deeper and costlier borewells to access groundwater, exacerbating the problem
further.
5. Impact on Environment:
• Groundwater depletion can have serious environmental consequences, such as land
subsidence, saltwater intrusion in coastal areas, and degradation of aquatic ecosystems.
Depletion of groundwater also reduces baseflow to rivers and streams, affecting their
ecological health and biodiversity.
6. Urbanization and Industrialization:
• Rapid urbanization and industrialization in Telangana have increased the demand for
groundwater for drinking water supply, industrial processes, and construction activities.
This further exacerbates the strain on already stressed aquifers, leading to accelerated
groundwater depletion.
7. Government Initiatives:
• Recognizing the severity of the groundwater depletion problem, the government of
Telangana has initiated various measures to address the issue. These include:

• Regulation of bore well drilling and groundwater extraction through licensing and
permits.
• Promotion of water conservation and efficient irrigation practices, such as drip
irrigation and sprinkler systems.
• Implementation of rainwater harvesting and recharge measures to replenish aquifers
and enhance groundwater recharge.
8. Community Participation:
• Community-based initiatives, such as watershed management programs and
participatory groundwater management, involve local communities in the conservation
and sustainable management of groundwater resources.
• Despite these efforts, groundwater depletion remains a significant challenge in
Telangana, requiring concerted action by government agencies, stakeholders, and
communities to ensure the long-term sustainability of groundwater resources in the
state.
INDUSTRIES OF TELANGANA
• There are four key industrial economic sectors: the primary sector, largely raw material
extraction industries such as mining and farming; the secondary sector, involving
refining, construction, and manufacturing the tertiary sector, which deals with services
(such as law and medicine) and distribution of manufactured goods and the quaternary
sector, a relatively new type of knowledge industry focusing on technological research,
design and development such as computer programming, and biochemistry.
• Industrialization will be the key strategy followed for economic growth and
development for Telangana, the 29th State of the country. People of the new State have
very high expectations from the Telangana State Government for creating jobs for the
youth, promote development of backward areas, maximize growth opportunities by
optimum utilization of the available resources, harness the talents and skills of the
people and usher prosperity in every household. Industrialization holds the potential for
fulfilling all the dreams and aspirations of the people of Telangana.
• The vision for industrialization of Telangana is "Research to Innovation; Innovation to
Industry; Industry to Prosperity". The industrial policy framework will be driven by the
slogan "In Telangana—Innovate, Incubate, Incorporate". The policy framework intends
to provide a business regulatory environment where doing business would be as easy
as shaking hands. Innovation and technology will drive the industries of the State.
• Inspections will be streamlined to eliminate random checks without cause. Instead, a
structured system will be developed where each industrial unit is inspected once every
3 to 4 years, with the inspection cycle predetermined.
• Any random inspections will require explicit written permission from the department
head to ensure accountability.
• Maximum facilitation will involve an efficient system that goes beyond the typical
single-window approach. Self-certification will be encouraged, and automatic renewals
will be introduced.

• Services will include web-based helpline facilities and physical helpdesks located in
Hyderabad and districts for accessible support.
• Information and transactions with the industry department will be transparent and web-
enabled.
• Both the Office of the Commissioner of Industries and the Telangana State Industrial
Infrastructure Corporation will implement a Citizens Charter outlining their activities.
Thrust Areas and Core Sectors:
• The Telangana State Government has identified 14 key sectors based on detailed studies
and consultations with experts.
• These sectors were selected based on the state's competitive advantages, including
geography, available resources, skilled workforce, raw materials, and existing
manufacturing capabilities.
• Investments in these identified sectors will receive higher priority over others, with
each sector having its own specific policy and incentives structure.
• High-level advisory panels consisting of experts from the private sector and academia
will be established for each sector.
• Interdepartmental task forces, led by the Special Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary of
Industries and Commerce, will coordinate efforts within each sector.
• Regular investor meets focused on each thrust area will be organized to highlight the
state's advantages in those sectors.
• Sector-centric industrial parks will be developed with specialized infrastructure tailored
to the needs of each sector in strategic locations across the state.
Key Sectors:
• Life sciences - including bulk drugs, formulations, vaccines, nutraceuticals, biologicals,
incubation centers, R&D facilities, and medical equipment
• IT hardware - including biomedical, devices, electronics, cellular communications, and
FAB
• Precision Engineering – including Aviation, Aerospace, and Defence
• Food processing and nutrition products including dairy, poultry, meat, and fisheries
• Automobiles, transport vehicles, auto-components, tractors, and farm equipment
• Textiles and apparel, leather &leather value-added products like shoes, purses, bags,
artificial material-infused and coated textiles, paper, and paper products
• Plastics and Polymers, Chemicals and Petro-chemicals, Glass and Ceramics
• FMCG & Domestic Appliances
• Engineering and Capital Goods, including castings, foundry and Ferro-alloys and other
metallurgical industries
• Gems & Jewelry
• Waste Management & Green Technology
• Renewable Energy & Solar Parks
• Mineral & Wood-based industries
• Transportation – Logistics Hub, Inland Port, Container Depot
District-Wise Industry Locations:

Adilabad:
• Cement Industry
• Paper Industry
• Textile Industry
Medak:
• Chemical Industry
• Engineering Industry
• Automobile Industry
• Pharmaceutical Industry
Khammam:
• Mineral Industry (Granite)
• Paper Industry
• Power Industry
• Metallurgy Industry
Karimnagar:
• Fertilizer Industry
• Power Industry
• Cement Industry
Warangal:
• Mineral Industry
• Food Processing Industry
• Leather Industry
Ranga Reddy:
• IT & BT Industry
• Defence & Aerospace Industry
Nalgonda:
• Cement Industry
Nizamabad:

• Cement Industry
Mahboobnagar:
• Consumer Products Industry
• These district-wise industry locations highlight the specific sectors that are prominent
or planned for development within each district in Telangana, showcasing the diverse
industrial landscape across the state.
• The Industrial sector comprising sub sectors like Manufacturing, Electricity, Gas, Water
Supply other utility services, Construction and Mining & Quarrying has a share of
20.20% in the GVA of the state and provides employment opportunities to 18.23 % of
the total workforce in the state.
• Since 2016, Telangana has consistently ranked among the top 3 states in India in the
Ease of Doing Business ranking since its introduction
• Telangana stood at 2nd place in Ease of Doing Business rankings- 2020.
• Industrial sector in Telangana is primarily centered in 4 districts. They are- Sangareddy,
Medchal. Malkajgiri, Rangareddy, Hyderabad.
• The top three destinations of goods exported from the state include the: USA, China
and Russia. The state ranks 6th in export preparedness (2nd among landlocked states),
according to NITI Aayog's Export Performance Index Report 2020. It ranks Sth on the
Logistics Ease Across Different States (LEAD) index, and 2nd among landlocked
states.
Districts of Telangana with highest number of Industrial units-
1. Medchal- Malkajgiri
2. Rangareddy
Districts of Telangana with lowest number of Industrial units
1. Mulugu
2. Jayashankar Bhupalapally
The role of industries and current (recent) trends
• The industrial sector contributes 19%, to the state's Gross State Value Added (GSVA).
The manufacturing sector contributes 9.3% to the state's GSVA - accounting for about
half of the industrial sector GSVA
• Sub-sector wise CAGR of GVA at current prices within Industries for Telangana &
India (2014-15 to 2021-22).
Classification of Industries based on raw materials
1. Agro-based industries

• The industries that draw raw materials from agricultural products are called Agro-based
industries.Eg:
• Textile, Sugar, Oil production, Vegetables and food processing industries
a. Textile Industry
• Azam jahi Mills was established in Warangal in 1934 and was closed down in 1990S.
usties are mainly located in Hyderabad, Rangareddy and Kumuram Bheem Asifabad
districts.
• Suryavanshi Spinning Mill (1980) - Bhuvanagiri Penguin Textiles - Uppal (Medchal)
• Telangana Spinning Mill (1972) - Nirnmal
• Suryalakshmi Cotton Mill - Mahabubnagar
• Sanghi Textiles - Umarkhanguda (Rangareddy) • Priyadarshini Spinning Mill -
Sadashivpet
• Co-operative Cotton Mill - Karimnagar
• Suryalakshmi Cotton Mill - Sangareddy
• Cotton Growers' Co-operative Spinning Mill (1980) - Adilabad
• Note: Largest Cotton producing state in India- Gujarat (87.00), Maharashtra (77.00)
Gujarat is called as Cottonpolis of India and Manchester ofIndia.
Kakatiya Mega Textiles Park
• The government of India accorded environmental clearance for Kakatiya Mega Textiles
Park' between Chintalapalli and Sayampet in Warangal Rural district. The State
government allotted 2000 acres for this textile park. Chief Minister KCR laid
foundation for the mega textile park at Sayampet in Geesugonda mandal on 22 October
2017. So far, 22 investors have entered MoU for establishment of units with an
investment flow of Rs.3,400 crores. It is expected to generate employment to 28,800
members.
• Spread over 2,000 acres, the park has an investment potential of Rs. l1,586 crore. It is
being developed as a vertically integrated model that can cover the complete textile
value chain. Major national textile companies like Ganesha Ecosphere, Youngone
corporation and Kitex have proposed investments of Rs.2,000 crore in the park.
b. Silk Industry:
• Jogulamba Gadwal- Gadwal Silk Sarees
• Suryapet- Pochampally Handlooms
• Sircilla- Handlooms industry
• Tribal people in Asifabad (Komaram Bheem Asifabad district),Chalvai (Mulugu) and
Mahadevpur (Jayashankar Bhupalapally district) are producing Tussar silk.
• Largest Silk producing state in India - Karnataka
• Largest Silk producing Country in the World -China
Sugar Industry
• There are a total of 12 sugar industry factories in Telangana of which 7 industries all
privately own ed. they are
1. Madhucon Sugar and Power Industries Ltd Rajeswarapuram, Khammam
2. Gayatri Sugar Ltd - Yellareddy, Nizamabad
3. Gayatri Sugar Ltd - Nizamsagar Mandal
4. Trident Sugars Ltd - Zaheerabad Mandal , Sangareddy
5. NSL Krishnaveni Sugars Ltd - Ramakrishna Rao, Mahabubnagar
6. Kakatiya cement sugar & Industries Ltd - Perumancha, Kalluru
7. Ganapathi Sugar Industries Ltd - Pasalvadi, Sangareddy
Nizam Sugar Factory Limited:
• Nizam Sugar Factory was established by Mir Osman Ali Khan in 1937 at Bodhan in
Nirmal district.
• It was the largest sugar factory in Asia.
• Nearly half the sugar produced in Telangana is produced by Nizam Sugar Factory. In
addition to this, some more sugar factories have been set up in the state.
1. Zaheerabad- 1973 (Sangareddy)
2. Miryalaguda- 1977 (Nalgonda)
3. Muthyampet- 1981 (Jagtial)
4. Sarangapur (Nizamabad)
• First sugar mill in India was established in 1904 at Champaran in Bihar.
• Largest sugar producing state in India- Uttar Pradesh.
• Largest sugar producing country in the World- 1. Brazil 2. India
• Paper Industry
• The main raw materials for paper industry such as bamboo, subabul, Eucalyptus, coal,
water and power are abundant in Komaram Bheem Asifabad, Mancherial, Bhadradri
Kothagudem and Khammam districts Ihe
Sirpur Paper Mill :
• It was the first paper mill in Telangana.
• Sirpur naner mill was established in 1938 by Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan at Sirpur
Kagaznagar.
• It started production of paper in 1942. It produced color paper also.
• Sirpur paper mill had suspended production of paper rin September 2014 and after
unstinted efforts of Telangana Government, the unit was handed over to JK Paper
Limited in August 2018 for rejuvenation.
Sarapaka ITC- PSPD Paper Industry:
• Sarapaka ITC- PSPD Paper Industry located at Sarapaka, Burgampadu mandal in
Bhadradri Kothagudem district brought reputation to the district in the country.
• This heavy industry in the private sector has been producing Specialty paper,
Paperboard and pulp.
• Permission for the construction of the paper mill was given in 1975. Its construction
began in April 1977
• and was completed in 27 months to start production on 1 October 1979.
• Initially it was managed by Bhadrachalam Paperboards limited company.
• Later it was completely taken over by ITC Limited in 1999 and became ITC
Paperboards & Specialty Papers Division. Other Paper mills in Telangana
• A.P Rayon Unit- Kamalapur (Mulugu)
• Charminar Paper mill- Mathangi (Sangareddy)
• Nagarjuna Paper mill- Patancheru (Sangareddy)
• Bhadrachalam Paper mill (1982) - Bhadrachalam (Sarapaka)
• Telangana Paper mill- Kothagudem
• Srirama Strawboard limited- Nereducherla (Suryapet)
• First paper mill in India was set up in 1812 at Serampore in West Bengal.
• A modern paper mill was established in 1870 at Ballygunge in West Bengál.
• Largest Paper producing state in India- Maharashtra.
• Largest Paper producing country in the World- U.S.A.
Plywood Industry
• These industries are present at two locations in Telangana :
1. Novopan India Limited- Patancheru
2. Hyderabad Plywood Limited- Nacharam
3. Asbestos Industry
Asbestos industry is mainly centered at Sanath nagar (1948) in Hyderabad district.
Indian Hume Pipe Company is located at Azimabad in Hyderabad.
5. Leather Industry
• It depends on animals for raw materials.
• Leather parks are present in Telangana at the following locations: Jammikunta,
Rukmapur- Karimnagar
• Dandepally, Bhuvanagiri- Yadadri Bhuvanagiri
• Polepalli, Duddeda- Siddipet
• Jamkunta- Mahabubnagar
• H.S.Darga- Hyderabad
• Mallemadugu- Khammam
• Mandamarri- Mancherial Armoor-Nizamabad
• Station Ghanpur- Janagaon
• Leather clusters are also present along with parks in Telangana at the following places:
Mandamarri, Armoor, Rukmapur, Mallemadugu, Station Ghanpur and Jamkunta.
• Largest leather producing state in India- Tamilnadu (Central Leather Research Institute-
Chennai).
Cottage Industries

• The Union Ministry of Tourism identified some rural tourism projects in Telangana.
They are
1. Yadadri Bhuvanagiri district - Pochampally Rural Tourism Project
2. Siddipet district - Cheriyal Rural Tourism Project
3. Janagaon district - Pembarthi Rural Tourism Project
4. Nirmal district - Nirmal Rural Tourism project
Cement Industry
M.C.C Cement Company
• The Associated Cement Company (A.C.C) established at Mancherial town later became
Mancherial Cement Company (M.C.C).
• The management of ACC established the cement company in 1958-59 at Mancherial.
The raw materials were transported from a quarry located five kilometers away.
• The ACC Company for the first time in the State, set up a ropeway to transport
limestone to the fact Limestone is carried with buckets to the factory through the
ropeway.
• ACC Cement company became MCC in 2004 and continues the production of cement.
Ceramic Industry
• Mancherial is well known for the Ceramic industry. Ceramic industry was started here
due to the availakis of white clay for cement pipes máde in the surrounding areas of
Kaghaznagar. Many entrepreneurs start ceramic factories due the abundance of white
clay and coal.
Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL)
• The Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL) is a Government coal mining
company jointly owned by the Government of Telangana and Government of India on
a 51:49 equity basis. It is currently operating 18 opencast and 27 underground mines in
6 districts of Telangana with a man power of around 48,942. The spirit of Singareni...
one family, one vision... one mission Singareni Collieries produces coal that plays an
important role in many industries. The Singareni coal reserves stretch across 350 Km
of the Pranhita –Godavari Válley of Telan gana with a proven geological reserves
aggregating to 8791 million tonnes.
• The first reference to coal mining in India dates back to 1774, during the time of Warren
Hastings when permission to work coal mines in Bengal was granted to John Sumner
and Grant Heatly.
• Singareni coal field in Hyderabad state was discovered by Dr William King in 1871,
and the fist production took place after a long time later in 1889.
• The Hyderabad (Deccan) Company Limited incorporated in England acquired mining
rights in 1886 to exploit coal found in Yellandu area. The present Company was
incorporated on 23rd December 20 as a public limited company with the name The
Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL). The SCCL became a Government
Company in 1956. The controlling interest of the Company devolved to the
Government ofAndhra Pradesh in 1956 according to the reorganization of States.

• The headquarters of SCCL is located at Kothagudem. It is extended across 6 districts
in Telangana namely Bhadradri Kothagudem, Khammam, Jayashankar Bhupalpally,
Peddapalli, Mancherial, Komaram Bheem Asifabad. Earlier, it was spread in 4 districts
in erstwhile Andhra Pradesh state. Now the company operates from Bhadradri
Kothagudem which is considered as the birthplace of Singareni.
• Poddapalli and Bhadradri Kothagudem districts produce more coal than other four
districts because of the presence of opencast mines in those two districts.
• Peddapalli and Bhadradri Kothagudem districts have 5 open mines each. There are 4
opencast mines in Komaram Bheem Asifabad district, one in Jayashankar Bhupalpally,
One in Khammam district (Sathupalli Jalagam Vengala Rao) and one in Mancherial
district.
• Areas in Districts- Mandamarri area in Mancherial district; Bhupalpally area in
Jayashankar Bhupalpally district; Sathupalli Jalagam Vengala Rao area in Khammam;
Ramagundam-1, Ramagundam-2, Ramagun dam- 3, Srirampur areas in Peddapalli
district; Kothagudem, Yellandu, Manuguru area in Bhadradri Kothagudem district.
• SCCL took many initiatives like development of many green zones to mitigate the
damage of the environment due to coal mining and to increase quality of life.
• Singareni Company supplies cooking gas to its employees.
• It introduced the Eco Samman award to present to the employees who strive for the
development of the ecosystem.
• SCCLbagged Golden Peacock Environment Management Award in 2005 for the
development of eco parks.
• SCCL received The National Award for the Fly Ash Utilization-2005 for using the
highest number of fly ash bricks in the country in various construction activities.
• SCCL is making continuous efforts towards a sustainable environment by various Eco-
Friendly mining practices and released a book named Eco-friendly Coal Mining-The
Singareni Approach highlighting the various innovative practices initiated at SCCL.
Heavy Water Plant- Manuguru
• The construction ofHeavy Water Plant was started on 1 September 1982 and it was
commissioned in December 1991. It produces heavy water (D,0) that is used as a
moderator and coolant in nuclear power plants in India. Even though there are 12 heavy
water plants in India, Manuguru heavy water plant is unique of its kind, producing more
heavy water at lesser cost with complete
• Indigenous technology. It is the largest heavy water plant supporting the Indian nuclear
power program.
Nava Bharat Ventures Limited
• It produces Silico Manganese and Ferro
• Nava Bharat Ventures limited factory was established in J75. The Manganese which is
used for the production of different grades of steel.
• This factory requires Quartz, Coal and Hematite and other raw materials. They are
broken into small pieces, smelted at very high temperatures and are cooled into different
sizes.
• Nava Bharat Ventures factory was established at Paloncha due to vast availability of
water and coal
PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
• Hyderabad is renowned as the capital of bulk drugs and vaccines in India. Hyderabad
is the Pharma Capital of India, with over 600 life sciences companies having a
combined value ofUSD 50 billion and contributing SS% of India's pharmaceuticals
production.
• Hyderabad is also home to India's largest bio cluster, Genome valley, housing abóut
200 companies. Pharmaceutical Across Different States (LEADS) index, and 2nd
among landlockedstátes.
• Pharmaceutical products are the largest exported items from the state, accounting For
approximately one-third of all exports. The state is also successfully diversifying its
export basket, with rapid growth in sectors such as plastic and paper products.
• Pharmaceuticals comprise the largest commodity export off the state, averaging over
30% of the total merchandise exports since 2015-16. In Order to support the sector, the
Government has sanctioned the Hyderabad Pharma City Project.
• On completion, it is expected to be the world's largest pharmaceutical cluster, with a
potential investment of Rs.64,000 crore and employment to over 4.2 lakh individuals.
• The first Pharmaceutical Regulatory Academy in India is being established at Mucherla
village in Rangareddy district.
Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited ( I.D.P.L)
• IDPL has six plants across India. One among them was established at Balanagar,
Hyderabad. The IDPL was commissioned in 1967 and manufactured a wide range of
47 bulk synthetic drugs like Vitamins Sulphas, Chloroquine, Methyldopa, Analgesics
etc.
• Now, a National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (NIPER)' has been
set-up on 19th October, 2007 at IDPL Research Center.
Hetero Drugs (1993)
• Hetero is one of India's leading generic pharmaceutical companies and the world's
largest producer of antiretroviral drugs for the treatment of HIV/AIDS. The company
is globally recognized for its strengths in Research and Development, manufacturing
and commercialization of a wide range of products.
• It has more than 21,000 employees and annual revenue of more than 2000 crores.
• Hetero Drugs started its retail pharmacy chain named Hetero with its first store in
Hyderabad and established more than 300 stores within a short period.
Aurobindo Pharma
• This pharma company headquartered at Hitech city in Hyderabad was established by
P.V. Ramprasad Reddy and K. Nityananda Reddy in 1986.
• Aurobindo pharma commenced operations in 1988-89.

• Aurobindo Pharma became a public company in 1992 and listed its shares in the Indian
stock exchanges in 1995.
Dr Reddy's Laboratories
• Dr Kallam Anji Béddy founded Dr Reddy's Laboratory in 1984 at Hyderabad. It was
the first Indian pharma company listed at New York Stock exchange. It is a
multinational pharmaceutical company Genome Valley
• Genome Valley, spread over 600 sq kms was conceptualized in 99 at Shamirpet in
Medchal District in the vicinity of Hyderabad. The cluster synergizes a healthy mix of
companies in the realm of agri-biotech, Clinical Research Management, biopharma,
vaccine manufacturing, regulatory and testing, and other related areas.
• The cluster has over 150 life sciences companies, employing around 10,000 people. It
includes 6 of the world's top 10 R&D companies and three of India's largest vaccine
manufacturers, namely Bna Biotech, Biological E and Indian Immunologicals.
• Genome valley is India's first systematically developed R&D cluster, boasting world-
class infrastructure facilities in the form of Industrial / Knowledge Parks, Special
Economic Zones, Multi-tenanted wet laboratories and incubation facilities.
Shapoorji Pallonji Biotech Park
• This biotech park spread across 300 acres is located at Turkapally village in Shameerpet
mandal of Medchal- Málkajgiri district.
• It was developed in the first phase. It is being expanded in Lalgadi Malakpet in the
second phase.
• The third phase and fourth phase are under development at Karkapatla and Mulugu
respectively Pharma City
• Pharma City is being established at Mucherla in Rangareddy district on the outskirts of
Hyderabad.
• Kandukur and Yacharam mandals of Rangareddy district come under the Pharma city.
• The pharma city is named as Hyderabad Pharma City.
• Pharma University and Research Institute are also coming up in the Pharma City. It was
decided to set up a friendly pharma city with international standards.
• Many internationally reputed companies approached the State government seeking land
in Pharma City proposed in Kadthal village limits in Rangareddy district.
• This Pharma City would provide employment to 70,000 persons directly and indirectly.
• The Telangana State Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (TSIIC) has already acquired
about 8,500 acres for the Pharma City project.
• Hyderabad Pharma City, which is conceived as one of the biggest Pharmaceutical parks
in the world, spread over an area of 19,330 acres with an investıment potential of
Rs.64,000crores and employment potential of 4.20 lakh.
Medical Devices Park- Sultanpur
• The Medical Devices Park set up at Sultanpur village in Ameenpur mandal of
Sangareddy district was inaugurated by ministers Harish Rao and K.T.R on 17 June
2017.
• This park established by TSIIC is the largest of its kind in the Country. Minister K.TR
said, it provides employment to 4,000 persons directly and 8,000 persons indirectly.
• The establishment is spread over 302 acres and has over 50 companies with
manufacturing/ R&D capacity. The totąl investment in the park is close to Rs.1,424
crore, and it has generated over 7,000 jobs
Shantha Biotechnics
• Shantha Biotechnics Ltd was founded by Dr K.I. Varaprasad Reddy in 1993 at
Muppireddypally in Medchal Malkajgiri district.
• In 1997, Shantha Biotechnics developed and commercialized India's first r-DNA
Hepatitis-B vaccine named Shanvac- b.
I.T. INDUSTRY
• The IT exports from Hyderabad (Telangana) stood second in the country in FY 2019-
20. There are 1500 IT companies in Hyderabad.
Employment in IT Sector in Telangana
• Employment generated by the IT sector in the state grew at 7.2% compared to the all-
India average growth of 4.9%. The state's share in national IT employment grew from
13.1% in (2018-19) to 12- (2019-20),
• The state 's overall share of India's IT employment growth for 2019-20 was 19.1%.
• Second ICT Policy (2021-2026) of Telangana aims to scale the exports from this sector
from Rs. 1.45 lal crore in 2020-21 to Rs. 3 lakh crore by 2026. In doing so, it targets
increasing the employment in the IT sector from 6.3 lakh to 10 lakh by the year 2026.
• The IT Sector of Hyderabad has its origins in Mythrivanam in the 1990s. Later, IT Hub
was started in Madhane in 1992. IT parks are located at Madhapur, Gachibowli,
Nanakramguda and other places. The largest office of Google outside USA and
Microsoft India Development Center are located at Hyderabad Telangana government's
IT dept. won NASSCOM's 'AI Game changer' award' for implementing the "Crowd
Monitoring using Al".
ITIR (Information Technology Investment Region)
• The Government of India approved the Information Technology Investment Region
(ITIR) project for Hyderabad in/2013.
• It was designed for the development of the IT industry by attracting global investments.
ITIR was aimed at attracting an investment of Rs 2.19 trillion ($44 billion) in the IT,
ITES and electronics sectors and providing direct employment to 15 lakh persons and
indirect employment to 53 lakh persons. ITIR would boost direct revenue to Rs
3,10,849 crores, investment capacity in IT sector to Rs 2,19,440 crores and IT exports
to Rs 2,35,000 crores.
• Telangana IT & C minister K.T.R informed the Assembly on 21 Sep 2019 that the
central government had shelved the ITIR project.
Gaming and Animation

• Recognizing the importance of Gaming, Animation, Visual effects and Digital
entertainment asd promising fastest growing sector, the government of Telangana took
many initiatives for its development.
• 30 acres of land belonging to TSIIC in Rayadurgam was allotted to set up a Gaming
and Animation park.
• This park houses facilities such as studios, labs, media center, business center etc. A
Gaming and Animation Academy would be established with private partnership.
Hy-Fi
• In 2017, under the Digital Telangana umbrella, the Government of Telangana had
launched the pilot version of Hyderabad City Wi-Fi Project. The pilot project has seen
the Government partner with ISPs to provide free Wi-Fi at approximately 100 public
category locations across Hyderabad. These locations include malls, tourist locations,
public offices, police stations, government schools, and colleges, etc to provide better
connectivity to the citizens to access digital services like mobile governance, individual.
awareness, weather warnings and traffic updates.
Telangana State Data Centre
• A State Data Centre will work as a physical storehouse of public and private data which
will act as a centralized database for various e-Government applications.
• The government of Telangana set up a State Data Centre at Manikonda.
• It is spread over an area of 9000 sq ft. In the first phase, a server with 35 racks was
established with the funds of ITES department.
• Server with 24 racks would be established in the second phase that is funded by the
government of Telangana.
• Power, AC, UPS, Generator, infrastructure related to network security, computers
management, data storage and cooperation are always available to this center.
• This data center works continuously with 99.74% efficiency.
T- SCAN
• Telangana Secretariat Campus Area Network was set up to connect 500 nodes on the
network for data in the Secretariat.
• Every workstation is interconnected through a data port. At present, 3000 computers
are connected to the network in the Secretariat. Entire network is managed and
supervised from here.
• So FTNET- Society for Telangana State Network
• So FTNET earth station in Telangana region has been working from the year 2002. This
station has 5 video channels and one data channel. At present, 4 channels are
functioning. They are useful to promote distance education, Telemedicine, agriculture
extension activities, e-governance and awareness of human resources in the state.
• Society for Telangana State Network (So FTNET) is a not for profit organization
established under the Department of Information Technology, Electronics &
Communications (ITE&C).

• It is a SATCOM initiative for distance learning through television using satellite
communications. One of the primary channels of So FTNET, the S-SAT app, has
1,211,699 downloads to date. T-SAT Nipuna and T-SAT Vidya channels today reach
over 6 million homes in the state.
e- Procurement
• e Procurement system was started to conduct an online tendering process for purchasing
goods required by the government.
• This system reduces cost, corruption and the time taken to procure goods and increases
transparency and accountability in government contracts.
Telangana Academy for Skill and Knowledge (TASK)
• In 2014, Telangana Academy for Skill and Knowledge (TASK) was started by the
government of
• Telangana to increase the employability skills of the graduated youth by providing skill
offeringe
• TASK was established with the aim of creating a pool of trained and certified graduates
to the hiring industry both for internships and full-time positions.
• The Government involves academia, industry and the Government itself to transform
the youth state into valuable assets in the Indian and global workplace.
• Since its inception, TASK has facilitated training to 3,07,847 students and about 700
colleges are empanelled for the programmes offered by TASK. 2,918 engineering
students are enrolled in a Technology Entrepreneurship Programme (TEP) which aims
to foster entrepreneurship by guia. engineering students in creating technology-enabled
products and services. 1,329 healthcare employees under Telangana Vaidya Vidhana
Parishad (TVVP) have been trained by TASK to date.
TASK works on three primary areas :
1. Education: Educating students on the latest technologies that do not feature in the
current academic curriculum.
2. Entrepreneurship: Building an entrepreneurial temperament among students and
guiding buddine entrepreneurs
3. Employability: Enhancing employability by enhancing the professional, organizational
and personal skills of the youth in the state.
Awards
• TASK received the Outstanding Youth Transformation Initiative Award in the India
Global Education and Skills Summit 2021
• The Global Ignite Excellence Award in 2021.
• TASK achieved a place in the Asia Book of Records for simultaneously training the
maximum number of students across the state through the F-Tech 2.0 programme.
State Wide Area Network (SWAN)
• SWAN was set up to provide connectivity between State Head Quarter (SHO) at
Secretariat to District Head Quarter (DHQs) and Mandal Head Quarter (MHQS) for

Voice, Video & Data applications lor Government applications. Government of India is
providing funds to implement TSWAN up to Manda HeadQuarters.
Hardware Park
• It is located at Raviryal Village in Maheshwaram mandal of Rangareddy district.
Research and Innovation Circle of Hyderabad (RICH)
• Research and Innovation Circle of Hyderabad (RICH) is an initiative of the government
of Telang to promote innovative technologies and improve collaboration between
startups and service providers RICH is the platform that will link research institutions,
academia and industry along with venture capitalists, angel investors and incubators.
The activities of RICH
• Introducing entrepreneurs to investors and funders for various stages of their growth,
thus helping raise funds. Providing policy inputs to the government for Creating an
innovation-led entreprete culture in the State.
• Coordinating training inputs in design thinking, business management & project
execution for scientists & entrepreneurs. Supporting educational institutions to ensure
practical training for technical graduates, making them employable once out of college.
Partners of RICH:
• ARCI, CCMB, ICMR, ICRISAT, IICT, IIMR. NRDC. TIFR, Apollo, Dr. Reddy's,
Aurobindo, PICCI, ALEAP, BITS Pilani, IIT, ISB, NALSAR, NIPER, Caspian, Endiya,
Indian Angel Network, Avid Invent, R&A Associates, SAMVAD etc.
• The Government of Telangana invested substantially in RICH so that it can become a
self-sustaining organization.
e- Office Management
• GHMC has been using the modern technology of e-office for the paperless electronic
file management. GHMC is the first municipal corporation in the country to use such a
system. It makes file tracking easy. It facilitates faster management of files, improves
accountability and transparency.
T- Bridge
• The government of Telangana aims at making Hyderabad one of the top 10 startup cities
in the world. The state government launched T-Bridge, T-Hub outpost at Silicon Valley
in USA on 15 October 2016. T-Bridge will enable startup communities in India and
around the world to exchange ideas, innovate and create channels for knowledge
transfer.
T - PRIDE
• The government of Telangana launched T-PRIDE (Telangana State Program for Rapid
Incubation Dalit Entrepreneurs) incentive scheme on 29 November 2014 to provide a
special incentive package for SC/ST Entrepreneurs. Under the New Industrial Policy
Framework for The State of Telangana 2014, the State Government approved various
fiscal benefits under the T-PRIDE incentive scheme.
• The total amount released under TS-PRIDE to eligible social groups. Between 2016-
17 and 2020-2 1, the disbursements had increased almost 234%. 12,602 SC applicants,

and 11,694 ST applicants have received subsidies to the tune of Rs. 1,150.5 crore till
January 2022.
T-IDEA
• The T-IDEA (Telangana State Industrial Development and Entrepreneur Advancement)
scheme provides various incentives to the micro, small and medium enterprises
(MSME), large enterprises, Mega Projects and to the women entrepreneurs. The
government of Telangana passed orders regarding T-IDEA on 29 November 2014.
• The Telangana State Government has considered providing incentives to the
entrepreneurs in the following areas under its T-IDEA scheme:
1. Micro/ Small industries
2. Large, Medium enterprises
3. Industries by Women entrepreneurs
4. Mega projects
5. Existing micro, small and medium enterprises
6. Infrastructure support 8.Textile sector
7. Other incentives (All Categories)
• Cumulatively, the Government has sanctioned Rs.2,965. 10 crore under this scheme up
to January, 203%
T-HART
• A large number of internationally recognized traditional arts and handicrafts sector is
present in Telangana. They include Nirmal, Dokra metal works, Bidriware, Pembarti
Brassware, Pochampally Ikat Gadwal sarees, Warangal carpets and textiles.
• The government of Telangana launched T-HARP(Telangana State Handicraft and
Artisans Revival with Technology) program to enhance the income and productivity of
this sector. It includes the following initiatives.
1. Cluster approach for specific arts and crafts
2. Technology upgradation and Design support centers
3. Common Facility centers
4. IP & GP Registration support
5. Skill up gradation and quality improvement
6. Appropriate Productivity development
7. Marketing assistance and Marketing events partnership
Skill Development
• The skill development programmes targeted at industrial sector jobs will be supported
by the government under the ambit of the Telangana State's Skill Development Mission
in general and the Telangana State Accelerated SSI Skills Training (T-ASȘIŠT)
program of the Industries and Commerce Department. Skill development programmes
would aim to train the youth in getting entry-level jobs, and also upgrade the skills of
the existing employees.

• The Telangana State Government took up appropriate skill development programmes
so that technically qualified youth can find employment in the industry.
• The Industrial Area Societies are being encouraged to participate in design and
implementing skill development programs.
T-WORKS
• T-Works is an initiative of the Government of Telangana that aims to create and
celebrate a culture of hobbyists, makers and innovators who explore and experiment
without the fear of failure.
• T-Works is the India's largest prototyping center for electronics, electromechanical and
mechanical startups. The government of Telangana launched T-WORKS with the
objective of facilitating entrepreneurs to design, develop, and test innovative hardware
products in the areas of electronics, mechanical mechatronics through active
collaboration with industry, academia, investors, experts, and other stakeholders.
• Phase 1 will be India's largest prototyping center, at 78,000 square feet.
Telangana Fiber Grid Project
• The Government of Telan gana initiated the Telangana Fiber Grid (T-Fiber) project in
2015. T-Fiber's vision is to establish state-of-the-art network infrastructure that would
facilitate the realization of Digital Telangana to 10 Zones (33 Districts).
• The network will be capable of delivering 16-20 Mbps to households and a minimum
of 100 Mbps to all government institutions, and will be scalable to 1Gbps per
institution.
• As part of BHARATNET Phase II, India, T-Fiber has signed an MoU to establish the
network to connect mandals to gram panchayats, and is expected to complete the
network by the end of 2021. Digital Telangana Centers or Village Integrated Service
Centers
• The 'Digital Telangana Centres' or 'ePanchayats' programme of the state government
was launched on 2 October 2015 in Nalgonda district. It offers e-governance facilities
to villagers.
• It is the first of its kind in the Country.
• Citizen services, government services, payments of social welfare pensions and wages
for rural employment (MGNREGS) will be made available through these Centers,
which can also be converted into banking and insurance centers.
T-Wallet
• T-Wallet is the official digital wallet of Telangana, launched on IstJune 2017.
• It is the first digital wallet owned by any state government in India. T-Wallet was
introduced to help citizens to make cashless payments effortlessly and avail both
government and private services. It is available as an Anytime Anywhere digital
payment option for everyone.
• Citizens without a phone can use T-Wallet through many of the 4S00+ MeeSeva centers
using their Aadhar number with biometric authentication.
• T- Wallet has been made available in three languages: English, Telugu,and Uzdu.

• Over the last year, T-Wallet has been integrated with multiple departments such as
Labour, Traffic Police, TSRTC, and Civil Supplies And with various services-such as
disbursement of Rs.2 Cr SCDD Scholarships, Streenidhi, Vijaya Dairy, etc.
• Cash withdrawal using T-Wallet is another option available to citizens.
• As a special case, RBI has provided permission to T-Wallet to carry out the cash out
process in MeeSeva centers on a pilot basis for 3 months across 5 districts.
T-Hub
• Since its incorporation in 2015, it has provided assistance to more than 1,100 national
and international startups in accessing better technology, talent, mentors, customers,
corporations, investors and government agencies.
• The 70,000 square feet T-Hub Catalyst building is an official landmark in Hyderabad.
It has been hon. to over 300 startups since its inception, 52 of which have gone on to
raise funds and register 36 patents and trademarks.
• On 26th November 2019, T-Hubin partnership with Department of Science and
Technology an4 NPCIlaunched its FinTech Accelerator program to coach FinTech
startups.
• T-Hub is hosting several innovation hubs of corporations at its premises, with the latest
being NPC:. Ist Innovation Hubtxnnxt", for many startups to use NPCI products and
resources with ease. 4 ofT. Hub Lab's 32 startups were awarded HDFC Bank CSR
Grants. 5 startups (AllizHealth, Click & Pa Intelli-Vision, AuthMe, and VaDR) of the
70+ startups that graduated from Corporate Innovation programs since 2016 were
acquired in the last financial year.
• In addition, T-Hub, as one of the partner incubators, has been engaging with the
Ministry of Defence and Bharat Dynamics Limited on the Defence India Startup
Challenge.
T-Hub Phase II
• After achieving phenomenal success in the establishment of T-Hub, T-Hub Phase II is
being constructed on 3 acres of land with a total built up space of 3,50,000 square feet.
• It will provide IT incubation space for 4,000 IT Entrepreneurs/Professionals.
• T-Hub Phase-II will be operational by April 2020.
• Telangana State Innovation Cell (TSIC)
• Telangana State Innovation Cell (TSIC) was established in 2017, under the state's
Innovation Policy, to nurture early-stage startups and foster an innovation -driven
economy in the state.
• It is a single window for administering all incentives announced in the innovation policy
for startups and incubators.
• Priority is given to the early-stage startup ecosystem. So far, TSIC has helped around
100 innovators, many from rural Telangana.
• The focus of TSICis to expand its activities to all 33 districts and to create a model of
recognition for innovators as well as mentors.
Three New Zones in TSIIC

• Three new zones were set up in Telangana State Industrial Infrastructure Corporation
The State government issued orders on 15 February 20 17 establishing the new zones
centered at Nizamabad, Khamyam and Yadadri.
• A Sub- Zone was established with Siddipet as its center.
• The number of TSIIC zones increased to 9.
Special Economic Zones
• A Special economic zone (SEZ) is an area in a Country that is subject to different
economic regulations than other regions within the same Country. SEZs are typically
created in order to facilitate rapid economic growth by leveraging tax incentives to
attract foreign investment and spark technological advancement.
• The Government ofIndia granted 67 SEZs to Telangana state, but had given permission
only to 7 SEZs. As the Government of India proposed an electronics manufacturing
cluster at Maheshwaram, the proposal for SEZ was dropped.
• TSIIC acts as nodal agency for setting of SEZs in Telangana.
• IT SEZ is proposed in Rayadurgam Knowledge Hubin 3,6 acres with an investment of
Rs. 823 crore.
Telangana State Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (TSIIC)
• Telangana State Industrial Infrastructure Corporation Ltd is the premier organization in
the state of Telangana., vested with the objective of providing industrial infrastructure
through the development of industrial areas.
• Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation Ltd. (APIIC) was incorporated on
26h September, 1973 to provide industrial infrastructure through the development of
industrial areas. After the bifurcation of the State, TSIIC was established in 2014.
Objectives :
• It acts as a nodal agency for the development of industrial parks in Telangana state. To
formulate, promote, finance, aid, assist, establish, manage and control schemes,
projects or programmers, to provide and develop infrastructure facilities, including
factory sites, factory sheds, godowns, marketing facilities, warehouses facilities of
communications, power, water drainage, housing, hospitals and other medical and
health and educational institutions and other services of any description in order to
promote and assist the rapid and orderly establishment, growth and development of
industries and commerce.
HANDICRAFTS OF TELANGANA
• Handicrafts of Telangana include Silver cross Dyeing, Bidar handlooms, Laces- Braids,
toys, playing items, Bronze, Brass and Copper crafts and Beads and Pearls
industries.Telangana handicrafts have a unique place in handicrafts of India. Some of
them have been explained below:
Pembarthi Metal Crafts
• Metalworking has been a practiced art in India since the time of the Indus Valley
Civilization. The discovery of artefacts like the Dancing Girl statue illustrates the

advanced metalworking skills of ancient inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent. This
finding underscores the deep-rooted tradition of metal craftsmanship in the region,
showcasing the sophisticated techniques developed by early civilizations for molding
and casting metals.
• It's fascinating how early civilizations developed metalworking techniques, especially
with materials like copper and iron. Bronze, a pivotal advancement, brought significant
benefits due to its strength and versatility. The mention of these processes in ancient
texts like the Matsya Purana and later works highlights the value placed on metallurgy
across various cultures. The refining of metals and the creation of new alloys were
essential steps in advancing technology and craftsmanship in those eras.
• Pembarthi is well known for the making of sheet metal from bronze, brass and copper.
• The Brass metal workmanship of Pembarthi is popular throughout the world.
• The metal craft reached the pinnacle of perfection during the Kakatiya rule. It declined
after Kakatıya period and regained glory in Asaf Jahi period.
• Pembarthi brass craft stands as a synonym of Telangana's artistic heritage. Its craftsman
ship was influenced by Hindu- Muslim culture and developed as a secular craft form.
• The exquisite metal art work was born in Pembarthi village of Jangaon district. It
adorned the statues and chariots of several Hindu temples during the Kakatiya period.
It was also used in the historic Kakatıya arch.
• The Union Ministry of Tourism identified Penmbarthi as one of the rural tourism
projects.
• Pembarthi crafts can be seen at Goddess Tulja Bhavani Matha Temple located in
Maharashtra. The craft form received the prestigious Geographical Indication in 2010.
Ayla Achari
• He was the craftsman who made Pembarthi metal craft famous at International level.
• Ayla Achari founded Vishwakarma Brass Copper and Silver Cooperative Society in
1956.
• Logos and shields for the First World Telugu Maha Sabha Held at Hyderabad in 1975
were made under his supervision.
• The statue of Nandi presented to the winners of the prestigious Nandi award was
designed by Ayla Achari.
• National Institute for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises plays a vital role in the
development of MSMEs through the implementation of cluster development schemes.
• SFURTI (Scheme of Fund for Regeneration of Traditional Industries) scheme has
benefitted many clusters in fulfi)ing their infrastructure and training needs. Pembarthi
Brass crafts cluster got a funding of Rs 1.8 crores under this scheme.
Nirmal Artware (Nirmal Wooden toys and Paintings)
• The earliest evidence of toy carts dates back to the Harappan civilization and extends
through the early historic period. Archaeological sites like Alamgirpur, Ambkheri,
Kalibangan, and Lothal have yielded models for toy carts made from copper, bronze,
and terracotta. Similarly, sites from the early historic period like Atranjikhera,
Nagarjunakonda, Sambhar, Sonapur, Ujjain, and Brahmpuri also feature similar cart
models. Toys crafted from a variety of materials, including clay, paper, papier-mâché,
and painted or lacquered wood, were common during ancient and medieval times.
• EnugulyVeergswami (a travel historian) mentioned about Nirmal region and Nirmal
toys and Panchapa in his book Yayati Charitra. Artistic toys, paintings and utility itéms
are made at Nirmal town. The art and oe community of cra ismen living in Nirmal is
also called as 'Nagásh'. Items in three forms namely Nirmal Toe Utility items, Nirmal
Furniture and Nirmal Paintings are collectively called as Nirmal Artware.
• Nirmal toys, paintings and furniture are renowned throughout the world. Nimmanaidu,
who ruled Nirmot 400 years ago (1 7h Century) brought Naqash artisans to Nirmal and
provided employment to them. Nirmal foe was named after him. He built houses for
the Naqash artisans at Kasuba.
Nirmal Toys- Utility items
• Nirmal wooden toys are widely popular at national level. They are lively and natural
and made of soA whitewood (Poniki wood).
• This wood is mainly available in the forest located between Khanapur and Manchera
and in the forests near Bellampalli, Jannaram, Mancherial, Neradigonda, Bodh and
other places. Nirmal toys are being exported to other countries through Golkonda
emporia in Hyderabad.
• Nirmal toys also include the images of various deities like Radhakrishna, Ganesh,
Buddha and tribal women. Utility items include Nirmal bangle boxes, Jewelry boxes,
Envelope racks, Pencil boxes, Cigar cases, Paper- Pen stands etc.
Nirmal Paintings
• Nirmal paintings and toys formed a cottage industry and got worldwide fame. Its unique
feature is, the plaque is given a coat of Duco paint using the desired baçkground color
which is generally black.
• Natural colors were used before the Duco paint. Shells were used for white, turmeric
for yellow and Butea flowers for red color.
• Lamp black collected from oil lamps was used for black color. The talent of Nirmal
artisans in synthesizing the Indian and Mughal schools of art is admired very much. Oil
paintings and Wooden paintings depicting the epics like Ramayana and Mahbharata are
famous throughout the world.
Nirmal Furniture
• Nirmal furniture include imany items like Sofa sets, Chairs, Dining table screens
(Wooden), Stools, Diwan cots, Trays, Ashtrays, Lamp shades, Executive office sets,
Low level Sofa sets, Rajasthani Sofa sets, Trolleys, Dressing tables, Rajasthani Pen
tables, French pen tables and others.
• Nirmal Arts and crafts, Furniture and Paintings got GI tag in 2008.
• Nirmal Toys Industrial Co-operative Society was established in 1955.
• Pochampally Sarees
• Pochampally sarees became world famous from the year 1800 AD. They are the first
products from Telangana region to receive GI status in the year 2005. Pochampally is
renowned as a handloom production center and rural tourism spot.
• Pochampally village is popular for cotton, silk and sico (a mix of silk and cotton)
fabrics. Pochampaly sarees come in many elegant patterns which speak of both ing by
grandeur and style. So Pochampally is called the Silk city of Telangana.
• The tie and dye process got patent at international level for two decades. Swamy
Ramananda Tirtha Rural Institute (SRTRI) provides computer based weaving designs.
Bhoodan Pochampally is well known as the birthplace of the Bhoodan movement and
a weaving center. But it became a rural tourism cluster and a shooting spot for Telugu
film industry.
• Film shooting started at Pochampally with the shooting of the film Susman by Syam
Benegal and the number of film shootings increased. The handloom industry, rural
culture and greenery around Pohampally have been attracting many filmmakers.
Cheriyal Scroll Paintings
• Telangana is well known for Cheriyal scroll paintings that depict stories from Indian
mythology as well as the shorter stories related to the puranas and Epics.
• The artists of Cheriyal paintings are called Nakashi artists. Cheriyal I scroll paintings
are also called Theme paintings.
• Cheriyal village in Siddipet district is famous for world renowned Scroll paintings.
• Cheriyal scroll painting received the Geographical Indication (GI) tag in the year 20io
The subjects of the scroll paintings are mostly drawn from mythological, ancient
literary and folk traditions.
• Siddipet Gollabhama Sarees
• The major handloom variety of Siddipet is Gollabhama sarees. The handlooms of
Siddipet are hand- woven, and the frame looms are mostly used for weaving.
Siddipet Gollabhama sarees obtaingGI tag in 2011.

• A Telangana weaver who weaved a saree that can be kept in a matchbox is-
Parandhamulu
Silver Filigree
• Filigree is a delicate form of jewellery metal work that involves the conversion of
metals into fine threads and soldering them together. The English word filigree is
derived from the Latin word filum' which means thread and 'granum' means grain that
signifies a small bead.
• This craft originated 200 years ago at Elagandal region in Karimnagar. Silver filigree
work was introduced by Kadarla Ramaiah. It is an age ołd traditional handicraft skill
practiced by Viswabrahmans, Filigree art is locally called as Jaali work'.
• Karimnagar is famous for delicate silver filigree work. The filigree artisans of
Karimnagar are skilled in creating many articles through Silver Filigree such as spoons,
cigarette cases, buttons boxes, ashtrays, jewelry and buttons pill boxes, paandans and
also perfume containers.
• Karimnagar Silver Filigree received the Intellectual property rights protection or
Geographical Indication (G) status in 2007.

• The filigree technique entered India through Odisha state from Indonesia.
• The first city famous for filigree work in India is- Cuttack (Odisha).
• The second city famous for filigree work in India is- Karimnagar (Telangana).
Narayanpet
• Narayanpet is famous for gold jewelry and handloom fabrics. Sarees with golden
borders are produced here.
• Narayanpet handloom woven sarees received GI status in 2012.
Gadwal- Kothakota Sarees
• Gadwal is also known as the Cotton seed bowl of Telangana. The world famous Gadwal
sarees s are made
• with a mix of silk and cotton threads. Gadwal silk clothes have been presented to Lord
Venkateswara for & four decades. Hundreds of families in Kothakota region of
Jogulamba Gadwal district weave these fabri handlooms. The sarees are woven using
silk, zari, silk zari, laces and Kalankaris with great skill. Gadwal sarees received GI
status in 2012.
Bidriware
• Bidriware of Hyderabad got worldwide fame. This metal handicraft form was
developed in Bidar reoi erstwhile Hyderabad state. So it got the name 'Bidriware'. The
artisans of Bidriware were migrated from l Sultan Ahmed Shah brought this art from
Persia to India. The articles manufactured from gun metal (an alls.e Copper and Zinc)
are initially painted black and designs are hammered on them with silver or golden fine
wires flattened strips.
• The makers ofBidriware create designs like flowers, leaves and also geometric designs,
stylized poppy plants, human figures etc.
• Bidriware is used for making paandars, hookahs, and vases as well as boi ornament
boxes, earrings, trays and other jewelry and showpiece items. Bidriware also practiced
in North India's cities of Murshidabad, LuckpóNw and Pye.
Banjara Needle Craft
• Banjara needle craft primarily belongs to North India. It entered Telangana in 17"
century. The craft has evolved through centuries across generations. It is an embroidery
and mirror work on tapestry. Generally various colors such as brown, pink, white,
yellow and blue coloured clothes are used.
• The colorful threads used on the basic cloth along with tiny mirrors, beads and cowrie
shells impart a vibrant look to the piece of cloth. Banjara needle craft presents a range
of embroidery such as bags, kurtas, cushions, gift articles, women's garment fabric, bed
sheets, and other home furnishing cloths.
Bronze Statues
• Telangana is renowned for the manufacture of bronze statues. Statues of deities,
Nataraja and decorative articles are made at Hyderabad. Shilparamam is a platform for
bronze articles.
Asia (Telia) Rumal

• Pochampally in Yadadri Bhuvanagiri district is famous for them. Telia Rumal is a
double Ikat weave. Going by the name, the yarn is treated for four days with oil and the
products used for the treatment of the yarn include sheep dung, castor pod ashes and
oil.
• The treated yarn, which is used for the warp and weft is tied and dyed by predetermined
geometrical designs such as small blocks, stars, dots, lines and diamonds.
• Traditionally only three colors-red, black and white are used in geometrical designs.
The makers of telia rumal are now creating dress materials, dupattas, saris, dhotis and
other pieces.
• Puttapaka Telia Rumal was given status on 10 May 2020. Mr Gajam Govárdhan filed
the application in 2015 on behalf of Puttapaka handloom cluster, Nalgonda.
Dokra Metal Craft
• Dokra metal craft is also known as bell metal craft. The method of making Dhokra is
done by combining the metallurgical skills with that of the lost wax casting technique.
• Dokra is a form of ancient triby metal craft practiced in Ushegagn village of Jainoor
Mandal in Adilabad district. Dokra artifacts are made in brass using the lost waK
method finished pieces do not have any form of joints.
• Clay, wax and brass are used to make metal figurines, The technique of lost wax casting
has been practiced in India for more than 4000 years. Dancing girl of Mohenjodaro
image is an example of Dokra metal craft. This tribal metal craft is practiced in
Komaram BheemÁsiabad district, Kerimeri mandal, Kesalagooda and Jamgaon
(Jainoor Mandal), Ushagaon and Chittalbari agency areas in Adilabad District of
Telangana.
• The designs made are folk motifs, Dokra horses, elephants, peacocks, metal figurines,
and also household articles such as lamp caskets, images of deities and measuring
bowls. The pieces of Dokra artifacts do not have any form of joints.
Lace Art
• Dummugudem in Bhadradri Kothagudem district ofTelangana is well known for the
lace industry. It was introduced in India by the Christian missionaries.
• The making of laces by hand weaving is known as Creatia needle work. Lace-making
is undertaken by women during leisure time from home. Lace making has been an
avocation for generations in the region.
Carpets
• The carpets made in Warangal are called Durries. Kothawada in Warangal urban district
of Telangana is famous for its carpets. These carpets are locally called as Jampaķhanas.
The nobles of the Nizam period named these carpets Deccan Razayi. The carpet
industry reached its zenith during the Mughal period.
• The Warangal durrie weavers made their mark across the world owing to their fine
craftsmanship. Bright colors, geometrically repetitive patterns and interlocking zigzag
motifs in cotton and jute are the signature styles of the carpets. A Warangal carpet with
400 zigzags in a square inch was exhibited at a London exhibition in 1857. It is still
preserved at South Kensington Museum.

• Marcopolo, an Italian traveler, mentioned these carpets in his book Travels.
Wood Carvings
• Yadadri Bruvanagiri district of Telangana is famous for Wood carvings. The art of wood
carving produces beautiful articles. They include wooden panels, decorative items, God
images, arches and chairs.
Problems faced by handicrafts and household industries
• Household industries in Telangana face several challenges that hinder their growth and
sustainability. Here's an account of some of the problems faced by household industries
in the state:
1. Lack of Access to Finance:
• One of the significant challenges faced by household industries in Telangana is the
limited access to finance. Many small-scale entrepreneurs lack access to formal banking
services and find it challenging to secure loans or credit facilities to start or expand their
businesses.
2. Infrastructure Deficiencies:
• Infrastructure deficiencies, such as inadequate transportation facilities, unreliable
power supply, and poor access to water and sanitation facilities, pose significant
challenges for household industries. Lack of proper infrastructure increases production
costs and affects the competitiveness of these businesses.
3. Limited Market Access:
• Household industries often struggle to access markets beyond their immediate vicinity.
Limited market access restricts their ability to reach a broader customer base and
hampers their potential for growth and expansion. Lack of marketing skills and
resources further exacerbates this problem.
4. Technological Obsolescence:
• Many household industries in Telangana still rely on traditional methods of production
and outdated technologies. The lack of technological innovation and modernization
limits their productivity, efficiency, and competitiveness in the market.
5. Quality Control and Compliance:
• Ensuring quality control and compliance with regulatory requirements can be
challenging for household industries, particularly those operating on a small scale.
Compliance with health, safety, and environmental regulations often requires resources
and expertise that small-scale entrepreneurs may lack.
6. Skill Shortages:
• Household industries often face challenges related to the availability of skilled labor.
The lack of skilled workers with relevant technical and vocational training hampers the
productivity and growth potential of these businesses.
7. Competition from Larger Industries:
• Household industries in Telangana often face stiff competition from larger industries
and multinational corporations that have greater financial resources, economies of

scale, and marketing capabilities. Competing with larger players can be daunting for
small-scale entrepreneurs.
8. Policy and Regulatory Challenges:
• Inconsistent policies, complex regulations, and bureaucratic red tape can pose
significant challenges for household industries. Streamlining regulatory processes and
creating a conducive policy environment for small-scale businesses can help address
these challenges.
9. Vulnerability to Economic Shocks:
• Household industries, particularly those operating in sectors sensitive to economic
fluctuations, are vulnerable to external shocks such as changes in market demand,
fluctuations in raw material prices, and economic downturns.
• Addressing these challenges requires a concerted effort from the government,
policymakers, industry associations, financial institutions, and other stakeholders to
create an enabling environment for the growth and sustainability of household
industries in Telangana.
RAIL NETWORK OF TELANGANA

• Telangana is the 29th (the newest) state of India, coming into existence on June 2, 2014.
Earlier it was a part of the state of Andhra Pradesh. It comprises of an area carved out
of the ten north-western districts of the former state of Andhra Pradesh, which are
Adilabad, Nizamabad, Karimnagar, Medak, Warangal, Khammam, Rangareddy,
Hyderabad, Nalgonda and Mahabubnagar.
• The region shares its border in the North and North-West with that of Maharashtra.
• To its West lies Karnataka, while Chhattisgarh occupies its North-East side.
• To the East, it is surrounded by Odisha.
• Situated on the Deccan Plateau, the region has a total area of 1,14,840 square
kilometers, the largest of the three regions of Andhra Pradesh. The most important
rivers here are Musi, Krishna, Godavari and Manjira.
• Before India became independent, the now-carved state was a part of Hyderabad which
had two divisions, namely Warangal and Medak. The bifurcation of the state of Andhra
Pradesh has been opposed on the grounds of territorial integrity. As per 2011 census,
the region has a population of 35,286,757 which is 41.6% of the total population of
Andhra Pradesh.

Rail Network in Telangana
• Telangana comprises districts that are well connected by rails that run all across the
state. The map of Telangana shows various stations and railway routes that connect
various places in the state. These routes are helpful in guiding a traveler to his
destination. The state is not only well connected inter state but also intra state. As the
state has been carved out of Andhra Pradesh which was already well connected with
other states in the country, Telangana stands to benefit from it. People residing in the
state can also enjoy better rail connectivity for other states, which means that they can
visit other states without any hassle.
• The already well laid out rail connectivity in the state is surely going to play a
significant role in propagating commerce and tourism in the state. Telangana rail
network connects all its major districts namely Adilabad, Nizamabad, Karimnagar,
Medak, Warangal, Khammam, Rangareddy, Hyderabad, Nalgonda and Mahabubnagar.
The major railway stations in the state are Adilabad, Nizamabad, Karimnagar,
Mancherial, Warangal, Janampeta, Hyderabad, Khammam, Nalgonda, Mahabubnagar
and Kurnool.
• The rail network in Telangana is an essential part of its transportation infrastructure,
providing connectivity within the state as well as to other parts of the country. Here's a
detailed account of the rail network in Telangana:

1. History:
• The history of railways in Telangana dates back to the British colonial era when the
Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway (NGSR) operated in the region. After independence,
the Indian Railways took over the operations, and the rail network expanded
significantly over the years.
2. Zones and Divisions:
• Telangana falls under the jurisdiction of two railway zones:
South Central Railway (SCR):
• The majority of the rail network in Telangana is under SCR, with its headquarters in
Secunderabad. The Secunderabad division and the Hyderabad division are the two
divisions responsible for managing railway operations in most parts of Telangana.
East Coast Railway (ECoR):
• A small portion of Telangana, including Kazipet and Jangaon, falls under the
jurisdiction of ECoR.
3. Major Railway Stations:
• Telangana is home to several major railway stations, including:
1. Secunderabad Junction: One of the busiest railway stations in India, serving as a major
hub for both passenger and freight trains.
2. Hyderabad Deccan (Nampally) and Kacheguda: These are other important railway
stations in Hyderabad, serving as major terminals for both local and long-distance
trains.
3. Kazipet Junction: A significant railway junction connecting various routes and serving
as a crucial freight-handling point.
4. Connectivity:
• The rail network in Telangana connects the state with major cities and towns across the
country. Some of the important rail routes include:
• - Hyderabad to Mumbai via Secunderabad
• - Hyderabad to Chennai via Secunderabad
• - Hyderabad to New Delhi via Secunderabad
• - Secunderabad to Bengaluru
• - Secunderabad to Vijayawada
• - Kazipet to Visakhapatnam
5. Expansion and Modernization:
• The Indian Railways has undertaken various projects for the expansion and
modernization of the rail network in Telangana. This includes electrification of rail
lines, doubling and tripling of tracks, introduction of high-speed trains, and upgrading
station infrastructure to enhance passenger amenities and safety.
6. Cargo and Freight:

• Apart from passenger trains, the rail network in Telangana also plays a crucial role in
transporting cargo and freight. Freight terminals and goods sheds at various railway
stations facilitate the movement of goods, raw materials, and industrial products.
• Overall, the rail network in Telangana is a vital mode of transportation, providing
efficient connectivity for passengers and goods within the state and beyond. Continued
investment in infrastructure and modernization efforts are essential to further enhance
the efficiency and capacity of the rail network in the region.
South Central Railway Zone
The South Central Railway (SCR) zone, headquartered in Secunderabad, plays a crucial role
in the transportation infrastructure of Telangana and neighboring states. Here's an account of
the South Central Railways with a focus on Secunderabad:
1. Headquarters:
• The headquarters of the South Central Railway zone is located in Secunderabad, which
is a twin city of Hyderabad. Secunderabad serves as a major railway hub in the region,
with extensive connectivity to various parts of the country.
2. Divisions:
• The South Central Railway zone is divided into six divisions, and the Secunderabad
division is one of the most prominent ones. The other divisions under SCR are
Hyderabad, Vijayawada, Guntakal, Guntur, and Nanded.
3. Connectivity:
• Secunderabad is well-connected by rail to major cities and towns across India. It serves
as a crucial junction for both passenger and freight trains. Secunderabad Junction and
Hyderabad Deccan (Nampally) are two major railway stations in the city, catering to a
large volume of passenger traffic.
4. Passenger Services:
• Secunderabad division operates a wide range of passenger services, including long-
distance express trains, superfast trains, intercity trains, and suburban services. These
trains connect Secunderabad with cities like Mumbai, Chennai, New Delhi, Bengaluru,
Kolkata, and many others.
5. Freight Operations:
• Secunderabad division handles a significant volume of freight traffic, including bulk
commodities, industrial goods, and containerized cargo. It has dedicated freight
terminals and goods sheds to facilitate the movement of freight trains.
6. Modernization and Upgradation:
• The South Central Railway zone, including the Secunderabad division, is focused on
modernization and upgradation of infrastructure to enhance safety, efficiency, and
passenger amenities. This includes electrification of rail lines, doubling and tripling of
tracks, installation of modern signaling systems, and upgrading station facilities.
7. Initiatives:
• SCR undertakes various initiatives to improve customer service and operational
efficiency. This includes the introduction of mobile ticketing services, online
reservation systems, cleanliness drives at stations, and passenger awareness campaigns.
8. Safety Measures:
• Safety is a top priority for SCR, and the division implements various measures to ensure
the safety of passengers and railway staff. This includes regular inspections,
maintenance of tracks and rolling stock, and awareness programs on railway safety.
• Overall, the South Central Railway zone, headquartered in Secunderabad, plays a
significant role in the rail transportation network of Telangana and neighbouring states.
Its operations are vital for both passenger and freight movement, contributing to the
socio-economic development of the region
Increase capital investments

INCREASED CAPITAL INVESTMENTS
Annual budget grant of Railways in Current Year (2022-23) budget allocation is
Telangana has increased by more than 11 92% more than the average budget allocation
times in 2022-23 as compared with the grant for the last 8 years (2014-22)
in 2014-15
It may be noted that the allocated to various projects are not apportioned state wise but
reflect the cost of the project
Works completed in last 8 years

• 285 km new Railway lines completed
• 221 km Doubling/Tripling/Quadrupling works done
• Average new Railway lines completed during 2014-22 is 36 kms per year as compared
to 15 kms per year during 2009-14
• Average Doubling / Tripling/Quadrupling of Railway lines completed during 2014-22
is 28 km per year as compared to Nil kms during 2009-14.
Electrification of Railway Lines
• Average electrification of Railway routes per year increased from 41 km in 2009-14 to
80 km per year in 2014-22
• 733 RKms electrified since 2014
• In addition, 398 Track Kms (Doubling & Thirdline etc.) electrified since 2014.
Important projects completed since 2014
• New Railway lines
• Nizamabad - Lingampet Jagityal
• Mellacheruvu - Mattampalli - Janpahad
• Devarkadra - Makthal (part of Munirabad - Mahbubnagar project)
• Telapur - Ramachandrapuram (Part of MMTS Phase-II project)
• Manoharabad - Kodakandla (Part of Manoharabad - Kothapalli project)
• Bhadrachalam Road - Chandrugonda (Part of Bhadrachalam Road - Sattupalli)
• Akanapet - Medak
• Doubling/Tripling/Quadrupling of Railway lines
• Bolarum - Medchal Doubling
• Falaknuma - Mahbubnagar Doubling
• Potkapalli - Peddampet - Manchiryal - Mandamarri Tripling
• Moula Ali - Ghatkesar Quadrupling
• Wirur - Manikgarh
Freight initiatives during Covid-19
• Uninterrupted movement of freight trains during lockdown to ensure the supply of
essential commodities across the Nation
• 10 million tonnes of food grains transported from Telangana to different parts of the
country to balance the food supply since April 2020
• 13 rakes of essential commodities like turmeric and dry chillies transported from
Nizamabad and Warangal to Bangladesh Railways
• Unique concept of 'Jai Kisan' trains introduced from Telangana by clubbing two freight
trains to ensure fast delivery of food grains
• 44 rakes of 'Jai Kisan' special trains operated from Telangana
• Food grains transported to Tamil Nadu from two private freight terminals of Telangana
• For the first time in Indian Railways, a unique concept of "Cargo Express" introduced
from Telangana to aid small and medium sized freight customers
• As part of it, a time tabled freight train has been operated from Sanathnagar in
Telangana to Adarsh Nagar in New Delhi
• Automobiles transported from Zaheerabad to Jirania Station in Tripura, farthest
distance covered by SCR for the First time
Digital Rail - Digital India
• Fast and Free Wi-Fi
• Free high speed Wi-Fi network provided at all Railway stations in Telangana state,
except halt stations
• 174 stations in Telangana provided with free Wi-Fi facility in the last 8 years.
• DiGiPAY Stations

• 4 stations viz., Kacheguda, Hyderabad, Secunderabad and Basar are now completely
DiGIPAY Stations
• Cashless transactions can be made through BHIM/RuPay/Debit Cards/ e-wallets, etc.
at all ticket counters
• UTS on Mobile
 UTS on Mobile App is extended on Pan India level for purchase of paperless
unreserved ticket from any station to any station including platform ticket and
season tickets
• QR Code Payments at Automatic Ticket Vending Machine (ATVMs)
• Enabled payments through QR Code for tickets purchased through ATVMs
Swachh Rail - Swachh Bharat
• On-board house keeping services available on 34 pairs of trains
• Mechanised cleaning arrangements available at 14 stations.
• Clean train station (CTS) concept is available at Secunderabad station
• Mechanised cleaning of coaches is made available at 3 coaching depots
• All the identified 16 stations, pertaining to Telangana, identified by National Green
Tribunal have received ISO 14001 certifications for implementing Environmental
Management System
• Plastic Bottle Crushing Machines installed at 22 stations
Harvesting Solar Energy
• 4.7 MWP solar panels are provided at around 284 locations
• Solar Initiatives
 Innovative solar roof for booking office building at Kamareddi station and solar
COP at Lingampalli
• LED Fittings
 All the Railway stations, Railway colonies, Street lights, LC gates in Telangana
State are LED lit
• Daylight Pipe Technology
 286 locations provided with state-of-the-art day light pipes
• Energy Neutral stations
 4 stations viz., Ghatkesar, Raghunathapalli, Dharur and Mellacheruvu made energy
neutral
• Sewage treatment
 At Kazipet and Zahirabad
• Effluent Treatment plants
• At Lallaguda Workshop and Diesel Loco Shed, Kazipet
• Water Recycling Plant

 Recycling plants are installed at the following locations - Secunderabad,
Kacheguda, Hyderabad, Central Hospital, Lallaguda, Rail Nilayam and Lallaguda
Workshop
• Waste to compost plants
 Commissioned at Hyderabad, Kacheguda and Kazipet stations
ROAD NETWORK OF TELANGANA

Roads and road transport system in India
• India has the second-largest road network in the world, Total Road Length – – 6.4
million km (comprises of national & state highways and urban & rural roads).
• Transportation of goods – 64.5% by road.
• Passenger traffic – 90% by road.
• National highways account for 2% of the total road network and carry over 40% of total
traffic. Highway construction in India increased at 17.00% CAGR between FY16-
FY21. Despite pandemic and lockdown, India has constructed 13,298 km of highways
in FY21. In FY21, 13,298 kms of highway was constructed across India.
• Government push towards Road Infrastructure
• National Infrastructure pipeline – Rs. 111 lakh crore allocated for FY 2019-25 The roads
sector is likely to account for 18% capital expenditure over FY 2019-25.
• India has a well-developed framework for Public-Private-Partnerships (PPP) in the
highway sector. Asian Development Bank ranked India at the first spot in PPP
operational maturity and also designated India as a developed market for PPPs.
• Bharatmala Pariyojana, – aims to build 66,100 km of economic corridors, border and
coastal roads, and expressways to boost the highway network.
• The market for roads and highways is projected to exhibit a CAGR of 36.16% during
2016-2025
• Almost 40% (824) of the 1,824 PPP projects awarded in India until December 2019
were related to roads.
• The highways sector in India has been at the forefront of performance and innovation.
The government has successfully rolled out over 60 projects worth over $10 bn based
on the Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM). HAM has balanced risk appropriately between
private and public partners and boosted PPP activity in the sector.
• Data Lake and Project Management Software – NHAI has become ‘Fully Digital’, with
the launch of unique cloud based and Artificial Intelligence powered Big Data Analytics
platform. The entire project management work flow of NHAI is transformed from
manual to online portal based, wherein the complete project execution operations
including ‘workflow with time lines’ and ‘alert mechanism’ have been configured. All
project documentation, contractual decisions and approvals are now being done through
portal only.
• 2021-22 Budget recognises this need with a significant budgetary outlay for the road
transport and highways sector of ₹1,18,101 crore
• Roads and road transport system in Telangana
• Roads are the life-line of nation providing transportation facility over the length and
breadth of country. Systematic development of road is one of the important pre-
requisites for development and acceleration of Socio-economic growth of the Country.
Among the different modes of transportation systems, road transport carries more than
80 percent of the Goods and Passenger traffic. The network of roads, particularly from
villages to town/cities facilitates speedy movement of goods and services and ensures
higher growth trends, social integrity and well-being of the society. The productivity
and efficiency of Road transport is directly linked with the availability and quality of
Road network.
• Telangana Road Network
• Roads and Buildings Department, Telangana State, came into existence on 02-06-2014,
on formation of Telangana State. The Operations of the department are conducted, in
the name and authority of the Governor of Telangana.
• The Minister for Roads & Buildings in the State Cabinet is responsible to the State
Legislature relating to the works of the Department.
• The Department strives to provide efficient, affordable, customer-focused,
environmentally sustainable integrated transportation solutions, connecting villages,
towns, cities and centers of industry, commerce, tourism and pilgrimage across the
State. The department constructs and maintains roads and bridges on all roads under its
control
Transport Department of Telangana

● The Transport Department of Telangana is set up for enforcement of the provisions
of the Motor Vehicle Act, 1988 and Telangana Motor Vehicles Taxation Act, 1963
and the rules under it.
● Though Telangana has a good rail and air transport system, yet road transport is the
most important one. It helps the people especially in rural areas to travel from one
place to another with much ease.
● The Transport Department of Telangana is controlled by the Transport
Commissioner who is the Head of the Transport Department and is helped by an
Additional Commissioner and four Joint Commissioners, three Regional Transport
Officers and one Regional Transport officer
• In Telangana State, the road assets of R&B Dept. comprises of 24,245 kms of road
length with 3,152 kms of State Highways, 12,079 kms of Major District Roads, and
9,014 kms of Other District Roads. 16 National Highways are passing through the State
of Telangana covering a length of 2,690 kms, out of which 868 kms are with National
Highways Authority of India (NHAI).
• Ministry of Road Transport, Highways and Shipping, Government of India provides
complete financial support for the development and maintenance of National Highways
under the control of the department.

• R&B Department, Telangana is also responsible for construction and maintenance of
Government Buildings of various State Government Departments aggregating to 54.50
lakhs square feet area (Non-Residential Buildings – 13.13 lakhs Sq.fts and Residential
Buildings – 41.37 lakhs Sq.fts) and acts as the custodian of State Government Buildings
and the appurtenant lands.
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS IN TELANGANA

• Around 6 national highways form a large network of roads in the state. These highways
interconnect every district, making the journey from one town to another a smooth
affair. The longest national highway that crosses Telangana is NH7, which enters the
state from its North, starting from Adilabad and going on to Mahbubnagar before
exiting the state on its South. Along the way it touches the important districts of
Nizamabad, Medak, Ranga Reddy and Hyderabad, the capital of the state.
• The Hyderabad city would serve as the joint capital of both Telangana and the rest of
Andhra Pradesh for ten years.
• NH9 crosses the state, surpassing Hyderabad, Medak, Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy
along its way. In Andhra Pradesh it passes through Zahirabad, Suryapet, Narketpally,
Vijayawada, Kodad and Machilipatnam.
• NH16 in the state passes through the important towns of Karimnagar, Adilabad and
Nizamabad. This national highway crosses NH7 at Nizamabad before ending at the
district HQ. NH222 is the shortest of all the national highways in the state which
touches only Adilabad district of the state. NH202 stretches from Hyderabad to
Warangal. NH221 is another important national highway that passes through
Khammam.

List of National Highways In Telangana
• The southern Indian state of Telangana shares its borders with the neighbouring states
of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka. Its limits are crossed by
several National Highways (NHs), which are part of a well-established road network.
These roads serve as vital connectors between Telangana and neighbouring states,
offering effective connections for trade and transportation. These highways are
maintained by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), ensuring they are fit
for safe and enjoyable travel.
• National Highway 63
• National Highway 161AA
• National Highway 161B
• National Highway 161 BB
• National Highway 353C
• National Highway 365A
• National Highway 365 BB
• National Highway 765D
• Prominent National Highways In Telangana
• National highways are the lifeline of the state economy. It supports not only the
transportation of people but also the movement of goods across the state. Prominent
roads of any locality are equipped with the best facilities and built with great care.

Name of road No. Length Length
(mi) (km)
Maharashtra Border- Nirmal, Khanapur, NH 61 35.6 57.3

Mallapuram, Raikal -junction with NH-63 near
Jagtial
Sangareddy-Jogipet - Pitlam-Madnoor - NH 161 87.3 140.5

(Maharashtra Border)
Chhattisgarh Border- Warangal - Jangaon - NH 163 185 298

Bhuvanagiri - Hyderabad
Vijayawada - Jagdalpur Road NH 30 62.4 100.4
Junction with NH-161 near Nizampet - Moodguntal, NH 161B 37 60

Narayanakhed, Manoor, Belapur, Pulkurthi,
Ibrahimpur, Athnoor, Dappur Telangana/Karnataka
border
Jagdalpur road -Nizamabad - Bodhan - Maharashtra NH 63 164.4 264.5

border
Nagpur - Hyderabad - Bangalore NH 44 318.55 512.65
Nakrekal-Thungathurthi - Mahbubabad-Mallampalli NH 365 116 187

Road
Mancherial-Wankidi NH 363 56 90
Jagityal - Karimnagar - Warangal - Khammam NH 563 154.6 248.8
Suryapet-Thirumalagiri-Jangaon-Siddipet-Siricilla NH 365B 114 184
Pune - Hyderabad - Suryapet - Vijayawada NH 65 172.0 276.8
Suryapet - Mothey- Khammam- Wyra-Sattupalli- NH 104 168

Aswaraopeta- Andhra Pradesh Border- 365BB
Rajamahendravaram
Nakrekal - Nagarjuna Sagar Road NH 565 53.5 86.1
Haggari - Raichur -Mahabubnagar -Jadcherla Road - NH 167 193.8 311.9

Mirialaguda - Kodad

Adilabad - Bela - Vansadi road NH 365B 21 33
Hyderabad - Amangal - Kalwakurthy - Achampeta - NH 765 116.1 186.8

AP border
Kalaburgi - Yadgir - Krishna Road NH 150 7.61 12.24
Sironcha- Atmakur NH 353C 61.6 99.2
Hyderabad (junction at outer ring road) - Narsapur- NH 765D 34 54

Rampur, - Medak
Junction with NH 161 near Madnoor -Sonala, Thadi NH 97.9 157.5

Hipperga, Limboor, Sirpur, Kotagiri, Rudrur - 161BB
junction at NH-63 near Bodhan
Junction with NH No. 161 near Sangareddy(NH 65) NH 97.9 157.5

- Narsapur, Toopran(NH 44), Gajwel(SH 1), 161AA
Jagdevpur, Bhuvanagiri(NH 163)-junction with NH-
65 near Choutuppal
Kodad - Khammam - Kurvai Road NH 365A 47 76
STATE HIGHWAYS OF TELANGANA

• Telangana has an extensive network of state highways that play a crucial role in
connecting various cities, towns, and rural areas within the state. Here's a more detailed
overview of some of the major state highways in Telangana:
1. State Highway 1 (SH-1):
• - Route: Hyderabad – Nizamabad – Adilabad
• - Length: Approximately 306 kilometers
• - Importance: SH-1 is one of the longest state highways in Telangana, connecting the
capital city Hyderabad with the northern districts of Nizamabad and Adilabad. It serves
as a vital link for transportation of goods and people between these regions.
• - Route: Hyderabad – Karimnagar – Mancherial
• - Importance: SH-7 connects Hyderabad with the eastern districts of Karimnagar and
Mancherial. It serves as a major transportation artery, facilitating the movement of
agricultural produce, industrial goods, and commuters between these areas.
• - Route: Hyderabad – Vikarabad – Raichur (Karnataka Border)

• - Importance: SH-9 links Hyderabad with the southern districts of Vikarabad and
extends up to the Karnataka border near Raichur. It plays a significant role in connecting
Telangana with neighboring states and facilitating trade and travel.
• - Route: Hyderabad – Sangareddy – Medak
• - Importance: SH-10 connects Hyderabad with the northwestern districts of Sangareddy
and Medak. It serves as a vital transportation corridor, particularly for agricultural
products and industrial goods.
• - Route: Hyderabad – Siddipet – Karimnagar
• - Importance: SH-24 links Hyderabad with the districts of Siddipet and Karimnagar in
the northern part of the state. It facilitates the movement of people and goods,
contributing to the economic development of these regions.
• - Route: Hyderabad – Suryapet – Khammam
• - Importance: SH-18 connects Hyderabad with the districts of Suryapet and Khammam
in the southern part of Telangana. It serves as a key transportation route, supporting
trade, commerce, and tourism activities in the region.
DISTRICT ROADS
• District roads in Telangana play a crucial role in connecting various towns, villages,
and remote areas within each district.
• These roads are maintained by the respective district administrations and serve as vital
links for transportation, commerce, and access to essential services. Here's an overview
of the district roads system in Telangana:
1. Administration:
• District roads in Telangana are managed and maintained by the District Rural
Development Agency (DRDA) and the respective district administrations. These roads
are essential for rural development and connectivity.
2. Connectivity:
• District roads connect major towns, villages, agricultural areas, markets, educational
institutions, healthcare facilities, and other important destinations within each district.
They provide access to essential services and promote socio-economic development in
rural areas.
3. Length and Classification:

• District roads vary in length and classification based on their importance and usage.
They may range from smaller village roads to larger arterial roads connecting multiple
towns within the district.
4. Maintenance:
• The maintenance of district roads includes activities such as construction, repair,
widening, and regular upkeep to ensure safe and smooth transportation for vehicles and
pedestrians.
5. Importance:
• District roads serve as lifelines for rural communities, facilitating the movement of
people, goods, and agricultural produce. They play a crucial role in enhancing access
to markets, education, healthcare, and government services in remote areas.
6. Development Initiatives:
• The Government of Telangana, through various rural development schemes and
programs, focuses on improving the condition and connectivity of district roads.
Initiatives such as the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) and state-funded
projects aim to upgrade and strengthen the district road network to boost rural
development and enhance livelihood opportunities.
• Overall, district roads form an integral part of Telangana's transportation infrastructure,
contributing to the socio-economic development and well-being of rural communities
across the state. Their maintenance and improvement remain a priority for the state
government to ensure enhanced connectivity and accessibility in rural areas.
Roadways in Adilabad
• National Highway-44, which is the largest National Highway in India, passes through
Adilabad. Transportation is easy to and from Adilabad and this explains why there are
so many industrial units based in and around this place.
• Distance from Hyderabad: 310 kms.
• Distance from Nagpur: 196 kms.
Roadways in Karimnagar
• The main bus stand in Karimnagar is B.R.Ambedkar Bus Station.It is a very busy bus
station as buses to Adilabad, Nizamabad, Warangal, Khammam districts among others.
The Zonal headquarters of TSRTC (Telangana State Road Transport Corporation) is in
Karimnagar.
• Distance from Warangal: 70 kms.
• Distance from Nizamabad: 150 kms.
• Road Transport in Medak
• Important cities of this district such as Sadasivpet, Zahirabad, Medak, Siddipet and
Sangareddy are well connected with villages and towns. Sangareddy is the district
Headquarters. There are buses to different places, including villages near Medak.
• Road Transport in Nizamabad

• National Highway-7 passes through Nizamabad, connecting Varanasi–Kanyakumari.
Another National Highway NH-16 starting from Nizamabad, passes through
Karimnagar to Jagadalpur (in Chattisgarh). Buses connect various cities such as
Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur, Warangal, Tirupathi and Vijayawada to Nizamabad.There is a
proposal for building an airport in Jakranpally near Nizamabad.
• Road Transport in Warangal
• Buses connect cities located near Warangal. These include Bhoopalpally, Parkal,
Narsampet, Torrur and Jangaon etc.
• Road Transport in Nalgonda
• National Highway 65 passes through Nalgonda district from Hyderabad to Vijayawada.
It also passes through Choutuppal, Chityal, Narketpally, Nakrekal, Suryapet and Kodad.
• Road Transport in Mahbubnagar
• There are bus services by TSRTC to Hyderabad, Bangalore, Gulbarga, Kurnool,
Raichur, Thirupathi, Kodada, Guntur and Mumbai. You can reach Mahbubnagar from
National Highway 44 connecting KanyaKumari and Varanasi.
• Road Transport in Khammam
• Telangana state transport operates buses to various towns and cities in Khammam.
Khammam is situated on a link Highway - NH-9 and NH-5 that connects Hyderabad
City and Rajamundry Town.There is a bus station at Indira Nagar too.
• Road Transport in Hyderabad
• Hyderabad, being an economic centre and capital city of Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh, has buses to all major cities in India. These include Bangalore, Mumbai, Delhi,
Kolkata, Nagpur, Chennai, Pune, Vishakapatnam and Vijayawada.
• Three national Highways pass through Hyderabad -
• National Highway-7
• National Highway-9
• National Highway-202.
• The State Highways (SH-1, SH-2, SH-4, SH-5 and SH-6) also begin from Hyderabad.
There is the Inner Ring Road, Outer Ring Road, flyovers etc. for commuting easy in
Hyderabad and avoiding traffic congestion.
• Some roads also have three lanes in Hyderabad. There are also multi-storeyed parking
spaces in Hyderabad apart from Intelligent Transportation System (ITS). The roads are
well laid and planned out as per requirements of the city traffic.
• The new Jawaharlal Nehru Hyderabad Outer Ring Road is about 160 kms! The longest
flyover in India is the PV Narasimha Rao Elevated Expressway Corridor from Sarojini
Devi Eye Hospital to Aramgarh Junction in Hyderabad. It is 11.5 kms. in length and
allows high speed access to the Hyderabad International Airport.
• Bus Station in Hyderabad Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station is also known as Imlibun bus
station by the local people. It is one of the largest bus stations in Asia.
• Other Bus Stations in Hyderabad are ---
• Jubilee bus station (JBS)
• Dilsukhnagar bus station
• The TSRTC buses help people to commute with the city and also to far and near cities.
More than 4,000 buses ply on Hyderabad streets for the convenience of commuters.
Double-decker buses were introduced in the city in 1963.

QUESTION & ANSWERS
Q.1) Examine the key features of the physiography of Telangana and discuss how it
influences the region’s climate, agriculture, and socio-economic development?
Introduction Telangana, located on the Deccan Plateau in the Indian Peninsula, is

characterized by its unique physiography which significantly
influences the region’s climate, agriculture, and socio-economic
development
Body The physiography is divided into three main regions based on

surface elevation: Telangana plateau, Godavari basin, and
Krishna piedmont.
Telangana plateau
 Telangana is predominantly located on an elevated portion
of the Deccan Plateau. This plateau is made up of ancient
rocks like gneisses, horn blendes, and biotites.
 The western and southwestern areas of the plateau are higher
in elevation, gradually sloping down towards the east and
northeast. This sloping terrain influences the direction of
rivers, causing them to flow primarily from west to east.
The region comprises various geographic features, including
 Hill tracts: Satmala, Nirmal, Bhainsa-Nirmal
 Plateaus: Bhainsa-Nirmal, Devarakonda, Kodangal-Koilkonda
 Plains: Bheemgal, Narayankhed-Andole
 Hills: Sirnapalli ranges, Rachakonda Hills (Hyderabad), Shabad
hills, and Koil hills
The primary rivers in the region flowing through Hyderabad are the
Musi and Manjira. Additionally, the area is characterized by diverse
soil types, including deep black soil, red sandy soil, and laterite soil.
Several districts are located within this region, including Adilabad,
Nizamabad, Medak, Hyderabad, Rangareddy, and
Mahabubnagar.
Godavari Basin
 The Godavari River Basin region is characterized by a
unique geological composition. It is primarily made up of
Carboniferous rocks, ancient Archean Gneisses, and
Gondwana rocks. These geological features contribute to the
formation of vast, fertile plains like the Karimnagar-
Peddapalli plain, Metpalli-Jagtial plain, Parkal plain, and the
expansive Khammam-Madira-Kalluru-Kothagudem plain.
These plains, with their fertile soils, are highly suitable for
agriculture.

 The eastern boundary of the region is marked by the Eastern
Ghats mountain range. This range includes features like the
Rekapalle Hills and the Eastern Ghat Granulite Belt,
visible in Bhadradri Kothagudem and Khammam
districts.
 However, the region is prone to flooding due to the presence
of numerous rivers flowing through it. Major rivers like the
Godavari, Sabari, Munneru, Palair, Wira, and Aleru
contribute to this vulnerability.
 Godavari Basin region is home to several districts, including
Jagtial, Rajanna Sircilla, Karimnagar, Peddapalli,
Warangal, Khammam, and Hanmakonda.
 The landscape is further enriched by the presence of various
hills like Hasnaparthi, Chandragiri Hills, the
Papikondalu range, RakiGuttalu, Ramagiriguttalu, and
Kandikalguttalu. These hills add to the diverse and scenic
character of the Godavari River Basin region.
Krishna Piedmont :
The Krishna River and its tributaries and distributaries make this
area ideal for farming.
 This area's primary soil type is red sandy soil.
 It is madeup of Archean Gneisses and Granites
 This region includes the Krishna-Dindi Forest Tract, the
Nalgonda-Miryalaguda Plateau, and the Bhongir-
Ramanapet Plateau
 This area is home to hills like Yadadri's Ramagiri Hills and
Nandagiri Hills near Nalgonda
 This area is covered with dry deciduous scrub woods
 Krishna piedmont includes the regions of Wanaparthy,
Suryapet, Yadadri, Miryalaguda, Devarakonda, and
Nalgonda.
Climate Influence
 The physiography of Telangana contributes to its semi-arid
climate, with hot and dry conditions prevailing for most of
the year. The plateau experiences high temperatures during
summers, with the average maximum reaching 40 to 43°C in
May. Winters are relatively mild, and the region receives an
average annual rainfall of about 906 mm, primarily from the
Southwest monsoon23. This climate pattern affects water
availability and agricultural cycles.
Agricultural Influence

 Agriculture in Telangana is largely dependent on the
monsoon rains and river irrigation. The presence of major
rivers and their tributaries allows for irrigation, which
supports agriculture, particularly in the fertile river valleys.
However, the arid zones and variability in rainfall lead to
reliance on irrigation projects and affect the choice of crops,
with a focus on drought-resistant varieties and crops suitable
for black cotton soils
Socio-Economic Influence
 The physiography and climate of Telangana have a direct
impact on the socio-economic development of the region.
The availability of water resources from rivers has led to the
establishment of hydroelectric power plants and irrigation
projects, which in turn support industrial and agricultural
development. Urbanization patterns are also influenced,
with cities like Hyderabad becoming hubs for technology
and industry due to their strategic location on the plateau
Conclusion Physiographic characteristics of Telangana significantly impact the

region's agriculture, climate patterns, and socio-economic
development. Understanding and effectively managing these
geographical features are essential for sustainable development and
improving the livelihoods of people in Telangana.
Q.2) Give an account of agro- climatic zones of Telangana?
Introduction The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
defines agro-climatic regions as land units that are climatically
suitable for specific crops and cultivars.
These regions are based on geographical characteristics such as
rainfall, temperature, soil type, and water availability.
Body Northern Telangana agro climatic zone: (Headquarter : Jagtial)

 Area : 81.7 lakh acres (29.5% )
 Temperature : Maximum temperature ranges from 31°C to
39°C, while the minimum temperature varies between 14°C
and 25°C
 Rainfall: The annual precipitation in this area ranges from
867mm to 1189mm, primarily received during the southwest
monsoon season.
 Soil: Red soils of various textures dominate this region,
although black soils and calcareous soils are also present,
totaling 16 different soil types.
 Major crops: Rice, maize, Soyabeen ,Redgram, Turmeric
,cotton, and sugarcane.

 Distribution: This zone encompasses Adilabad, Kumuram
Bheem, Mancherial, Nirmal, Peddapally, Jagtial, Rajanna
Sircilla, Karimnagar, Kamareddy and Nizamabad
Central Telangana Agro-climatic Zone: (Headquarters -

Warangal)
 Area: 95.4 lakh acres (34.5 %)
 Temperature : Maximum temperature ranges between 29°C
and 39°C, with minimum temperatures ranging from 16°C
to 25°C.
southwest monsoon.
 Soil : Over half of this region is characterized by red soils,
with the presence of black soils and calcareous soils as well.
 Crops : The predominant crops grown in this zone include
cotton, rice, maize, green gram, mangoes, and chilies.
Distribution:
 This zone includes districts like Medak, Sangareddy,
Siddipet, Jayashankar, Jangoan, Warangal, Mahabubabad,
Bhadradri and Khammam
Southern Telangana Agro Climatic Zone : (Head quarter:

Palem)
 Area : 99.8 lakh acres
 Temperature :Maximum : Ranges between 28°C to 38°C
 Minimum : Ranges between 16°C to 25°C
southwest monsoon
 Soil: Over half of this region is occupied by different texture
of red soils (chulka soils,). Other Soils like alluvio- colluvial
soils and calcareous soils can be seen
 Major Crops: Cotton, Rice, Redgram, Maize and
Greengram
 Districts : Rangareddy, Vikarabad, Medchal, Yadadri,
Jogulamba, Narayanpet, Wanaparthy, Suryapet , Nalgond
Impact on Agriculture and Land Use:

 The distribution of soil types significantly influences crop
selection and agricultural practices. Black soils in NTZ are
ideal for cotton, while red soils in CTZ and STZ require
careful management to retain moisture and prevent erosion.

 Rainfall patterns also play a crucial role. Higher rainfall in
NTZ allows for a wider variety of crops compared to the
drier STZ, which relies more on drought-resistant crops.
 Land-use patterns reflect these variations. Areas with fertile
black soils and assured irrigation see intensive agriculture,
while regions with red soils and lower rainfall might have a
mix of agriculture, forestry, and fallow land.
Conclusion Understanding Telangana's agro-climatic zones is essential for

promoting sustainable agriculture. By tailoring crop choices,
irrigation methods, and soil management practices to specific zones,
agricultural productivity can be optimized while minimizing
negative environmental impacts. Diversification of crops,
promoting water conservation techniques, and utilizing
technological advancements are crucial steps towards a resilient and
prosperous agricultural sector in Telangana
Q.3) Analyse the objectives and impact of Mission Kakatiya, a tank restoration and
rejuvenation program in Telangana, on the state's agricultural sector and water
management practices."
Introduction Mission Kakatiya, launched by the Telangana government in 2015,

is a large-scale initiative aimed at restoring and rejuvenating minor
irrigation tanks across the state. This program addresses a vital need
in a semi-arid region where water security is crucial for agricultural
development.
Body Objectives of Mission Kakatiya:

 Enhance agricultural income: By restoring tank capacity and
improving irrigation potential, the mission aims to increase
agricultural productivity and income for small and marginal
farmers.
 Strengthen community-based water management: The
program promotes community participation in tank
management, fostering a sense of ownership and ensuring
sustainable water usage.
 Adopt comprehensive tank restoration: This involves
desilting, strengthening bunds (embankments), repairing weirs
and sluices, and raising tank water levels where possible.

Impact on Agriculture:
 Increased irrigation potential: Restored tanks have
significantly increased the area under assured irrigation, leading
to higher crop yields and diversification. Cultivation of water-
intensive crops like paddy has become more feasible in some
regions.
 Improved income for farmers: : The rejuvenation of tanks has
led to a significant increase in the agricultural income, with
reports indicating a rise of 78.50% in the tank ayacut areas
 Reduced dependence on ground water: Rejuvenated tanks
provide a reliable source of surface water, reducing pressure on
depleting groundwater reserves. This ensures long-term water
security for agriculture.
Impact on Water Management Practices:

 Community participation: Mission Kakatiya has fostered a
sense of ownership and responsibility among local communities
for water management. This collaborative approach encourages
sustainable water use.
 Improved water conservation: Desilting and proper
maintenance of tanks reduce water evaporation and seepage
losses, leading to more efficient water utilization.
 Groundwater recharge: The project has contributed to an
increase in the groundwater table, which has gone up from 6.9%
to 9.2%, ensuring better water availability for agriculture
Conclusion Mission Kakatiya has emerged as a successful initiative in

Telangana, transforming the agricultural landscape and promoting
sustainable water management practices. By ensuring continued
efforts for maintenance, community engagement, and adapting to

evolving challenges, this program can play a vital role in Telangana's
long-term agricultural prosperity and water security.
Q.4) Examine the various initiatives undertaken by the Government of Telangana to

enhance the irrigation infrastructure and water resource management in the state
Introduction Water resource management and irrigation infrastructure

development are critical for agricultural sustainability and overall
socio-economic development, particularly in a state like Telangana
with predominantly agrarian economy.
Body The Government of Telangana has undertaken several initiatives to

improve irrigation infrastructure and enhance water resource
management to address the challenges of water scarcity and ensure
sustainable agricultural growth
Mission Kakatiya :
 Aims at restoring and rejuvenating minor irrigation tanks
across the state.
 Activities include desilting, strengthening bunds
(embankments), repairing weirs and sluices, and raising tank
water levels.
Impact: Increased irrigated area, improved water storage capacity,
and groundwater recharge.
Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Scheme (KLIS)

 A large-scale inter-basin water transfer project diverting
water from the Godavari River to irrigate arid regions.
 Involves lifting water through multiple pumping stations to
designated canals.
 Impact: Potential for irrigating a vast area, particularly in
drought-prone districts.
 Challenges: High construction costs, potential
environmental concerns regarding inter-basin water transfer,
and interstate water disputes.
 Palamoor-Ranga Reddy Lift Irrigation Scheme: This

project aims to divert water from Krishna River to irrigate
lands in Ranga Reddy, Nalgonda and Palamuru districts.
 Sitarama Lift Irrigation Project: It is a barrage across
Godavari River with run-of-river hydroelectric power
project at Dummugudem village, Bhadradri Kothagudem
district in Telangana
 Devadula Lift Irrigation Scheme: J. Chokka Rao Devadula
Lift Irrigation Scheme is a significant lift irrigation project
in Telangana, India. It’s designed to lift water from the River

Godavari to irrigate over 600,000 acres (2,400 km²) in the
drought-prone areas of the state
 Groundwater Irrigation Development: Efforts include
forming Water User Associations (WUAs) at the
watershed/village level, changing cropping patterns to less
water-intensive crops, and implementing regulatory
measures for sustainable water use
Check Dam Construction:

 The government has undertaken initiatives to construct
check dams across rivers and streams to conserve rainwater
and recharge groundwater.
 Check dams help in reducing soil erosion, increasing soil
moisture, and augmenting groundwater levels, thereby
enhancing water availability for agriculture.
Micro-Irrigation Promotion:
 The government promotes micro-irrigation techniques such
as drip and sprinkler irrigation to improve water use
efficiency in agriculture.
 Subsidies and incentives are provided to farmers to adopt
micro-irrigation practices, thereby reducing water wastage
and increasing crop yields
Conclusion The Government of Telangana has implemented various initiatives

to enhance irrigation infrastructure and water resource management
in the state. These initiatives, ranging from tank restoration to large-
scale lift irrigation projects, aim to improve water availability for
agriculture, promote sustainable water use practices, and address the
challenges of water scarcity. Continued efforts and investments in
irrigation infrastructure and water management are essential for
ensuring the socio-economic development and agricultural
sustainability of Telangana.
Q.5) What factors influence the siting of industries? Provide a concise overview of the
industrial distribution in Telangana and the state's efforts to promote industrial
development."
Introduction The siting of industries is influenced by various factors that

encompass economic, geographical, infrastructural, and regulatory
considerations. These factors play a crucial role in determining the
location of industries and have significant implications for regional
development and economic growth.
Body Factors Influencing Industrial Location and Telangana's

Industrial Landscape

Industrial location is a strategic decision influenced by a multitude
of factors
Factors Influencing Industrial Siting:
 Raw Materials: Proximity to raw materials like minerals,
agricultural products, or forest resources reduces
transportation costs and ensures a steady supply chain.
 Land and Infrastructure: Availability of affordable land,
reliable power supply, and well-developed transportation
networks (roads, railways) are crucial for establishing and
operating industries efficiently.
 Labor: Access to a skilled workforce with the necessary
expertise for the specific industry is vital for efficient
production and technological advancements.
 Market Proximity: Being close to consumer markets
reduces transportation costs and allows industries to respond
quickly to market demands and preferences.
 Government Incentives: States and countries often offer
tax breaks, subsidies, and other incentives to attract
industries, making their location more cost-effective.
 Environmental Regulations: Industries need to comply
with environmental regulations, which can influence their
location choices based on waste disposal and pollution
control considerations
Industrial Distribution in Telangana:

Telangana's industrial landscape exhibits a regional variation:
 Hyderabad (Capital Region): Dominated by information
technology (IT), pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and food
processing industries. This region benefits from well-
developed infrastructure, a skilled workforce, and proximity
to national research institutions.
 Northern Telangana: Known for its mineral resources, this
region houses industries related to cement, coal, and textiles.
 Central Telangana: Focuses on agro-based industries, with
a significant presence of cotton ginning and oilseed
processing units.
 Southern Telangana: Has a mix of industries, including
thermal power plants and sugar mills.
Telangana's Industrial Development Initiatives:

The state government is actively promoting industrial development:
Making Business Easier in Telangana:
 TS-iPASS: This system simplifies the process of setting up
industries in Telangana by offering online approvals and

self-certification mechanisms, reducing administrative
hurdles
Supporting Entrepreneurs:
 T-PRIDE: This flagship program empowers historically
marginalized communities by encouraging entrepreneurship
and providing them with the tools they need to succeed.
 T-IDEA: The state offers incentives and support through T-
IDEA to help entrepreneurs launch and grow their
businesses.
 We-Hub : It is a state-led incubator established to help
women entrepreneurship in Telangana
Building Infrastructure:
 TSIIC: The Telangana State Industrial Infrastructure
Corporation (TSIIC) plays a key role in developing
industrial parks across the state. With 28 parks already
operational and 80 more underway, TSIIC is creating a
strong foundation for industrial growth.
Revitalizing Businesses:
 TIHCL: The Telangana Industrial Health Clinic Limited
(TIHCL) is a non-banking financial institution established
by the state government. It provides financial assistance and
support specifically for the revival of struggling micro and
small enterprises (MSEs).
Fostering Innovation:
 T-HUB: This initiative aims to empower Telangana's
innovation ecosystem by fostering collaboration between
startups and corporations. T-HUB creates a platform for
creative ideas to flourish and generate impactful solutions.
Promoting Local Products:
 One District One Product (ODOP): This joint initiative by
the state and central governments identifies a unique product
from each district with export potential. ODOP aims to
empower local artisans and promote Telangana's diverse
offerings on the global market.
Supporting Traditional Crafts:
 Nethanna ku cheyutha & Chenetha mitra: These
government schemes provide crucial support for the state's
handloom industry. By offering financial assistance and
marketing initiatives, these programs help preserve this
traditional craft and empower handloom weavers.
Conclusion The siting of industries is influenced by a combination of factors,

including access to resources, market demand, infrastructure, labor
availability, and government policies. In Telangana, the state
government's efforts to promote industrial development have led to

the establishment of a diverse industrial base, contributing to
economic growth, employment generation, and overall
development. However, continuous efforts are required to address
challenges and sustain the momentum of industrial growth in the
state.
Q.6) Examine the significance of agro-based industries in the economic development of

Telangana, highlighting the role of the Kakatiya Mega Textiles Park.
Introduction Agro-based industries represent a pivotal component of Telangana's
economy, utilizing the state's abundant agricultural products as raw
materials. These industries not only contribute to the socio-economic
development of the region but also enhance the value of agricultural
products, thereby increasing the income of farmers.
Body Diversity of Agro-Based Industries:

 Textile Industry: Telangana has a rich heritage in textile
production, with mills like Suryavamshi Spinning Mill and
the historic Azam Jahi Mills in Warangal, which operated
from 1914 to 1994. The state's cotton production is
significant, contributing to the textile industry's growth.
 Silk Industry: The state is known for its exquisite Gadwal
Silk Sarees and Pochampalli Handlooms. Tussar silk
production in districts like Adilabad and Jayashankar
Bhupalapally adds to the state's diverse silk industry.
 Sugar Industry: With 12 sugar factories, including the
notable Nizam Sugar Factory in Bodhan, the sugar industry
plays a critical role in utilizing agricultural produce for sugar
production.
 Paper and Plywood Industries: These industries leverage
local raw materials like bamboo and eucalyptus, with the
Sirpur Paper Mill being the first paper mill established in
1938.
 Leather Industry: The leather industry in Telangana depends
on animals for raw materials, with leather parks located across
various districts.
Significance of Agro-Based Industries:
 Economic Development: Agro-based industries contribute
significantly to Telangana's GDP, providing employment
opportunities and enhancing the agricultural sector's value
chain.
 Employment Generation: These industries create numerous
direct and indirect job opportunities, thus reducing rural
unemployment and migration.
 Rural Development: By fostering rural industries like
cottage industries, Telangana promotes rural tourism and

preserves traditional crafts, contributing to balanced regional
development.
Role of the Kakatiya Mega Textiles Park:
 Located in Warangal Rural district, the Kakatiya Mega
Textiles Park is envisioned to be a game-changer for the
state's textile industry.
 Expected to create employment for 28,800 individuals, the
park aims to attract investments, promote exports, and
provide state-of-the-art infrastructure for textile
manufacturers.
 This initiative not only supports the textile industry but
also has a multiplier effect on the agricultural sector by
increasing demand for cotton and other raw materials.
Conclusion By leveraging agricultural raw materials and fostering industrial

growth, these industries not only contribute to the state's GDP and
employment but also play a crucial role in rural development and
poverty alleviation. As Telangana continues to invest in these sectors,
the symbiotic relationship between agriculture and industry promises
to propel the state towards greater economic prosperity and
sustainability.
Q.7) Elaborate on the evolution of Telangana’s indigenous small-scale industries,

highlighting the significance of the region’s numerous Geographical Indication
(GI) Tagged products .”
Introduction Telangana's traditional cottage industries have a rich history, with

many products dating back centuries. These industries are
characterized by their unique craftsmanship, traditional techniques,
and local materials. The region's numerous GI tags highlight the
distinctiveness and quality of these products, providing legal
protection and economic prosperity to their traders.
Body Handloom and Textiles

 Pochampally Ikat Sarees (2005): Pochampally Ikat sarees,
characterized by their vibrant colors and geometric patterns,
have earned a GI tag, signifying their authenticity and origin.
 Siddipet Gollabhama Sarees (2012): Gollabhama sarees,
produced in Siddipet district, are known for their unique
motifs and traditional designs. These sarees, woven by
skilled artisans, carry a GI tag, ensuring their quality and
craftsmanship.
 Warangal Durries (2018): Warangal district is famous for
its durries, or cotton rugs, which are woven using traditional
handloom techniques. Warangal Durries, recognized with a

GI tag, are prized for their durability, intricate designs, and
vibrant colors.
Metal Handicrafts:
 Pembarthi Metal Craft (2010) is known for its exquisite
brassware, which includes beautifully crafted plates, bowls,
and other decorative items. This craft has a rich history and
is traditionally known for its intricate designs and patterns
 Karimnagar Silver Filigree (2007) is a delicate form of
metalwork made with silver. Artisans in Karimnagar create
intricate designs by twisting thin silver wire into delicate
loops, which are then soldered together to form various
objects like jewelry, utensils, and decorative items
Crafts and Artisans

 Nirmal Toys and Craft (2009): Nirmal Toys and Craft,
characterized by their intricate designs and vibrant colors,
have been granted a GI tag, recognizing their traditional
craftsmanship and cultural significance.
Lac Bangles of Hyderabad (2024) :
 The lac bangles, crafted from lacquer derived from resin,
undergo a meticulous process like being melted in furnaces
before being embellished with crystals, beads or
mirrors.This recognition highlights their unique
craftsmanship and historical significance, dating back to the
Qutub Shahi period
Challenges and Revival Efforts:

 Post-Independence Struggles: After independence, the rise
of mass-produced goods and changing consumer
preferences posed challenges to these traditional industries.
Many faced the risk of fading into oblivion.
 Government Initiatives and Skill Development:
Recognizing the importance of preserving these cultural
gems, the government launched initiatives like Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) and self-help groups. These
programs provided artisans with essential skills to adapt to
changing market demands.
Conclusion With continued government support, a focus on sustainable

practices, and the strategic use of GI tags, Telangana's cottage
industries are poised for a flourishing future. By empowering
artisans, preserving cultural heritage, and offering unique, high-
quality products, these industries can contribute significantly to the
state's economic and social development.

Q.8) Explain the distribution of Road network in Telangana and its role in economic
development.
First step is to  The question is about Road network in Telangana.

understand the  The directive word is Explain.
demand of the
question So, describe various types of roads and their distribution in the
State and their role in economic development.
Introduction Telangana is a landlocked state, hence, land transportation

infrastructure is essential to spatially connect the resources across
this wide area span in the state. Additionally, it is also an important
component of the state’s total economic product.
Body The road network in Telangana comprises (i)National Highways

(NH), (ii) roads managed by the Roads and Buildings
Department (R&B), (iii) rural roads managed by the Panchayat
Raj Engineering Department (PRED) and (iv) roads managed
by the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC).
 The state has more than 1 lakh km-long road network of
which 62.37% are rural roads, 25.65% are state highways
and district roads, 3.62% are National Highways and
8.36% are GHMC roads.
o Telangana rural roads are playing a key role for
transporting agricultural produce to the market
centres.
 The total road network in the state other than NHs is
1,03,961 km in length of which more than half are
blacktop roads. Nearly one-tenth of the total state roads
(except NHs) are cement-concrete roads. Around 9% of
the total state roads (except NHs) are metalled.
 Among the districts, being a metropolitan area, Hyderabad
has the longest road network in the state. The Greater
Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) has a total
road network of 9,013 km of which 2,846 km (31.58%)
are blacktop roads and 6,187 km (68.42%) are cement
concrete roads. Nalgonda with a total road network of
7,511 km is the district with the second-longest road
network.
o Road network and transportation is one of the
biggest factors for burgeoning trade in Hyderabad
which provides huge employment.
 All-weather roads are the roads that are trafficable in all
weather conditions. Cement-Concrete roads, Black Top
roads and Metalled roads are considered all-weather roads.
The total length of all-weather roads in the state is 72,609
km, nearly 70% of the total road network (except NHs). All

GHMC roads and nearly 97% of the R&B roads are all-
weather roads. Nearly 55% of the rural roads are all-
weather roads.
As of 2020-21, Telangana has a total road density of 96 km per
100 square km. The road density of Hyderabad district is the
maximum at 4,154 km per 100 square km. Warangal Rural and
Karimnagar are the districts (other than Hyderabad) with the
highest road density at 130.3 km per 100 sq km and 121.1 km per
100 sq km respectively.
Conclusion Thus, roads make a crucial contribution to economic development

and growth and bring important social benefits. They are of vital
importance in order to make a nation grow and develop. In
addition, providing access to employment, social, health and
education services makes a road network crucial in fighting against
poverty.
Q.9) The Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation System (KLIS) is considered to be one of the
world’s largest multi-purpose projects. Explain the design of the project and its
significance in the development of Telangana.
First step is to  The question is about the design of KLIS and its
understand the significance in development.
demand of the  The directive word is Explain.
question
Clearly describe the various components of the project and write
about its importance.
Introduction The Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project is a multi-purpose

irrigation project on the Godavari River in Kaleshwaram,
Bhupalpally District, Telangana, India. The 3 main purposes of
this project are irrigation, transport, and power.
Body The Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project is divided into 7

links and 28 packages spanning a distance of approximately 500
km (310 mi) through 13 districts and utilizing a canal network of
more than 1,800 km (1,100 mi).
 The project aims to produce a total of 240 TMC (195 from
Medigadda Barrage, 20 from Sripada Yellampalli project
and 25 from groundwater), of which 169 has been allocated
for irrigation, 30 for Hyderabad municipal water, 16 for
miscellaneous industrial uses and 10 for drinking water in
nearby villages, with the remainder being estimated
evaporation loss.
Links & Irrigated Command Area/Ayacut (Acres)

 Link-I: From Medigadda Barrage on Godavari River to
Sripada Yellampalli Project (30,000 acres)
 Link-II: From Sripada Yellampalli Project to Mid Manair
Dam
 Link-III: From Mid Manair Dam to Upper Manair
Reservoir (86,150 acres)
 Link-IV: From upper Manair Dam to Konda Pochamma
Reservoir (595,754 acres)
 Link-V: From Anicut to Chityala (243,500 acres)
 Link-VI: From Sri Komaravelli Mallanna Sagar to Singur
Dam (280,296 acres)
 Link-VII: From SRSP Foreshore to Nizam Sagar Canals
and to Dilawarpur and Hangarga village for Nirmal and
Mudhole Constituency (590,000 acres)
Total: 1,65,700 acres (New ayacut) Apart from: 1,875,00+ acres
(Stabilisation of existing ayacut)
Significance:
 Telangana is at an elevation of 300 metres to 650 metres
above mean sea level. River Godavari flows at an elevation
of 100 metres below mean sea level. Hence gigantic pumps
have to be used for pumping water.
 A barrage is constructed at Medigadda in Jayshankar
Bhupalpally district and reverse pump the water into the
main Godavari river and divert it through lifts and pumps
into a huge and complex system of reservoirs, water tunnels,
pipelines, and canals.
 By the time the water reaches Kondapochamma Sagar, the
last reservoir in the system about 227 km away in Gajwel
district, the Godavari water would have been lifted to a
height of 618 metres from its source at Medigadda.
 This project will have the longest underground irrigation
tunnel in the world (14.09 Km).
 The pumps would be operating at a cavern and surge pool
which also holds a record for being the biggest in the
world with a capacity to hold 2 crore litres of water.
Apart from the obvious benefits like irrigation, drinking water and
transportation, it will also help in other aspects which are mentioned
below
 Kaleshwaram will transform Telangana into an
agricultural powerhouse. The project will enable farmers
in Telangana to reap multiple crops with a year-round supply
of water wherein earlier they were dependent on rains
resulting in frequent crop failures. This year, Telangana
farmers have already delivered bumper rabi crops of paddy

and maize due to better irrigation facilities and an extended
monsoon.
 This project will help the fishing industry. There is a
burgeoning fresh water fishing industry in the state as the
numerous water bodies created under the project are also
being used to grow fish and locals are given rights to fish
and sell.
 KLIS covers several districts which used to face rainfall
deficit and the groundwater is fluoride-contaminated.
Apart from providing water for irrigation to 45 lakh acres, a
main component of the project is supply of drinking water
to several towns and villages and also to twin cities of
Hyderabad and Secunderabad.
 Development of Water sports
 Improve the tourism industry. State Governments of
Telangana and Maharashtra have signed water-sharing
agreement from this project, thus putting an end to the
decades-old disagreement between the 2 states.
Conclusion Also Mission Bhagiratha, the Rs 43,000-crore project to supply

drinking water to every household in villages, draws a large
quantity of water from the KLIS and some quantity from projects on
River Krishna.
Q.10) Recently, India has emerged as the world’s largest producer and consumer of sugar
and the world’s 2nd largest exporter, due to the record production of more than
5000 Lakh Metric Tons (LMT) of sugarcane. In this context, examine the
distribution, prospects and challenges of sugar industry in Telangana.
First step is to  The question is about sugar industry in Telangana.

understand the  The directive word is Examine.
demand of the
question Here a candidate is expected to investigate and establish the key
facts and issues related to the question.
Introduction Sugar industry is an important agro-based industry that impacts the

rural livelihood of about 50 million sugarcane farmers and around
5 lakh workers directly employed in sugar mills. The sugar industry
is the second largest agro-based industry in India after cotton.
Body Telangana’s tropical climate is suitable for producing sugarcane

with higher sucrose content giving a higher yield per unit area
Geographical Conditions for the Growth of Sugar:
 Temperature: Between 21-27°C with hot and humid climate.

 Rainfall: Around 75-100 cm.
 Soil Type: Deep rich loamy soil.
 Top Sugarcane Producing States: Maharashtra, Karnataka in
south and Uttar Pradesh in North India.
Distribution In Telangana:
 Kamareddy region of Telangana is known for its
sugarcane production and around 70 per cent of the
farmers cultivate this crop. Sugarcane is grown in
Kamareddy, Sadashiva Nagur, Machareddy and Domakonda
areas.
 The sugarcane plantation is one of the major crops of this
district. In view of this Sugar factories like Indira Sugars
and Gayathri Sugar factories are established. They play
an important role in the economy of the district of
Kamareddy District. Sugarcane plays an important role in the
economy of the district.
 Nizam Sugar Factory also known as Nizam Deccan
Sugars Limited (NDSL) is a sugar factory situated in
Bodhan town of Nizamabad district, NSF is known for
being the largest sugar factory in Asia, when it was
commissioned. In 2002, the factory was privatised and it
began incurring heavy losses. As it was set up by the Nizams
about 80 years ago and was earning profits till it fell on hard
times leading to its privatisation in public – private
participation.
Madhucon sugar and power Induatries Ltd, khammam, Trident
sugars ltd- Zaheerabad, Ganapathi Sugar Industries ltd-
Pasavadi, Sangareddy are other important sugar industries.
Challenges:
 Uncertain Production Output: Sugarcane has to compete
with several other food and cash crops like cotton, oil seeds,
rice, etc. This affects the supply of sugarcane to the mills and
the production of sugar also varies from year to year
causing fluctuations in prices leading to losses in times of
excess production due to low prices.
 Low Yield of Sugarcane: India's yield per hectare is
extremely low as compared to some of the major sugarcane
producing countries of the world. For example, India’s yield
is only 64.5 tonnes/hectare as compared to 90 tonnes in Java
and 121 tonnes in Hawaii.
 Short Crushing Season: Sugar production is a seasonal
industry with a short crushing season varying normally
from 4 to 7 months in a year.
 It causes financial loss and seasonal employment for workers
and lack of full utilization of sugar mills.

 Low Sugar Recovery Rate: The average rate of recovery of
sugar from sugarcane in India is less than 10% which is quite
low as compared to other major sugar producing countries.
 High Production Cost: High cost of sugarcane, inefficient
technology, the uneconomic process of production and heavy
excise duty result in high cost of manufacturing.
Most of the sugar mills in India are of small size with a capacity of
1,000 to 1,500 tonnes per day thus fail to take advantage of
economies of scale.
Conclusion There is a need to deploy remote sensing technologies to map

sugarcane areas. Despite the importance of sugarcane in the water,
food and energy sectors in India, there are no reliable sugarcane maps
for recent years and in time series. Research and development in
sugarcane can help address issues like low yield and low sugar
recovery rates.

Population of Telangana
Population of Telangana
State profile
• Formed as the 29th State of India, Telangana came into being on the 2nd of June, 2014.
The State has an area of 1,12,077 sq. Km. and has a population of 3,50,03,674 (2011
Census).
• The Telangana region was part of the Hyderabad state from 17th September 1948 to 1st
November 1956, until it was merged with Andhra State to form Andhra Pradesh.
• After decades of movement for a separate State, Telangana was created by passing the
AP State Reorganization Bill in both houses of Parliament.
• Telangana is surrounded by Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh in the North, Karnataka in
the West and Andhra Pradesh in the South and East directions. Major cities of the State
include Hyderabad, Warangal, Nizamabad, Nalgonda, Khammam and Karimnagar.
• Demography refers to the statistical study of human populations – their size,
composition and distribution across space – and the process through which populations
change.
• Knowledge on the demographic patterns of the state provides insights to the
Government to develop effective programmes and policies.
• It also helps the Government design strategic and targeted policy interventions to
address the persistent challenges faced by the vulnerable social groups in the state.
Telangana Statistics
Items Quantity
Capital City Hyderabad
Area 112,077 Sq. Kms.
Districts 33
Revenue Divisions 74
Towns 141
Municipal Corporations 13

Municipalities 129
Zilla Praja Parishads 32
Mandal Praja Parishads 540
Gram Panchayats 12,769
Revenue Mandals 612
Revenue Villages (as per Census, 2011) 10,434
Inhabited Villages (as per Census, 2011) 9,834
Un-inhabited Villages (as per Census, 2011) 600
Households 83.04 Lakhs
Household size 4
Population 350.04 Lakhs
Male 176.12 Lakhs
Female 173.92 Lakhs
Sex Ratio (Female per 1000 Males) 988 Ratio
Density of Population 312 per Sq. Km
Decadal Growth Rate (2001-2011) 13.58 Rate
Rural Population 213.95 Lakhs
Rural Population Male 107.05 Lakhs
Rural Population Female 106.90 Lakhs
Rural Population Sex Ratio (Female per 1000

999 Ratio
Males)

Rural to Total Population 61.12 %
Urban Population 136.09 Lakhs
Urban Population Male 69.07 Lakhs
Urban Population Female 67.02 Lakhs
Urban Population Sex Ratio (Female per 1000

970 Ratio
Males)
Urban to Total Population 38.88 %
SC Population 54.09 Lakhs
SC Population Male 26.93 Lakhs
SC Population Female 27.16 Lakhs
ST Population 31.78 Lakhs
ST Population Male 16.08 Lakhs
ST Population Female 15.70 Lakhs
Child Population (0-6 years) 38.99 Lakhs
Child Population (0-6 years) Male 20.18Lakhs
Child Population (0-6 years) Female 18.81 Lakhs
Child to Total Population 11.14 %
Child Sex Ratio (Female per 1000 Males) 932 Ratio
Literates 206.97 Lakhs
Literates Male 117.02 Lakhs
Literates Female 89.05 Lakhs

Literacy Rate 66.54 %
Literacy Rate Male 75.04 %
Literacy Rate Female 57.99 %
Total Workers 163.42 Lakhs
Main Workers 137.20 Lakhs
Marginal Workers 26.22 Lakhs
Members of Parliament (MPs) 17
Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs) 120
Member of Legislative Council (MLCs) 40
Towns (Statutory) 136
Key Highlights
Total Population
The total population of Telangana as of 2011 was 3,50,03,674. This was nearly 2.89%
of the population of India in 2011.

• According to the projections of the National Commission on Population, Ministry of
Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the population of Telangana in the
years 2021 and 2031 would be 3,77,25,000 and 3,92,07,000 respectively.
• This is 2.77% and 2.66% of the total population of the country in 2021 and 2031
respectively.
• The state’s share in the national population is estimated to decrease by 0.23 percentage
points between 2011 and 2031.
Density of Population:

• The density of population is defined, in general, as the average number of persons
residing per square kilometer of area.
• The density of population in the State ranges from 170 to 18,172 per square kilometer.
• Adilabad district has the lowest density of 170 per sq. kilometer and Hyderabad district
with highest density of 18,172 per sq. kilometer.
• The districts of Adilabad, Khammam and Mahabubnagar have lower density with 170,
197 and 220 per sq. kilometer respectively, as compared with the State average of 312
per sq. kilometer.
Gender-wise population
• Of the total population in Telangana in 2011, 1,73,92,041 are females and 1,76,11,633
are males.
• The share of females and males in the total population of the state is 49.69% and 50.31%
respectively.
• The sex ratio (the number of females per thousand males) of the state is 988.
• The sex ratio among the districts varies from 950 to 1046 with a median value of 996.
Three districts; Suryapet, Mahabubabad and Hanumakonda, have a sex ratio of 996.
• Rangareddy, with a sex ratio of 950, has the lowest sex ratio in the state.

• Nirmal, with a sex ratio of 1046, ranks highest among the districts in terms of the sex
ratio.
Urban and Rural Population

• The urban and rural population of Telangana are 1,36,08,665 and 2,13,95,009
respectively.
• The share of the urban and rural population out of the total population in the state is
38.88% and 61.12% respectively.
• Hyderabad and Medchal Malkajgiri are the most urbanized districts in the state, with
100% and 91.47% of their populations, respectively, residing in urban areas.
• Mulugu has the highest share of rural population at 96.10% followed by Narayanpet at
92.63%.
Social Groups
• The total SC and ST populations of Telangana are 54,08,800 and 31,77,940
respectively. The two social groups account for 15.45% and 9.08% of the state’s total
population respectively.
• Mancherial has the highest share of SC population out of the total district population at
24.72% followed by Jayashankar Bhupalpally at 22.08%.
• The districts with the least share of SCs out of the total district population are
Hyderabad and Medchal- Malkajgiri at 6.28% and 9.42% respectively.
• In the entire state, the maximum number of persons from the SC community reside in
Rangareddy district, and the least number in Mulugu district.
Literacy

• 2,06,96,778 persons (> 6 years of age) in the state are literate of which 89,95,049 are
females and 1,17,01,729 are males.
• The total literacy rate of the state is 66.54%.
• The literacy rate among females and males respectively 57.99% and 75.04%.
• The literacy rate among the rural population is 57.30% whereas among the urban
population this is 81.09%
Child Sex Ratio

• There are 38,99,166 children (0-6 years) in the state of which 18,81,231 are females
and 20,17,935 are males.
• The child sex ratio (0-6 years) in the state is 932. The child sex ratio (CSR) among the
districts varies from 903 to 971 with a median value of 934.
• Wanaparthy and Mahbubabad, with a CSR of 903, have the lowest child sex ratio in the
state, whereas Mulugu, with a CSR of 971, has the highest child sex ratio in the state.
Population Density
Tribal population and issues
• The tribal population in Telangana is an integral part of the state's demographic

landscape, with distinct cultural, social, and economic characteristics.
About Tribes
 According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India, a tribe is a collection of families
bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, and occupying or professing
to occupy a common territory. India is known as a Melting pot of tribes and races.
 After Africa, India has the second largest concentration of tribal population in the
world. As per the 2011 Census, the tribal population constitutes about 8.9% of the
total population in India.
Scheduled Tribes (STs)
 The term 'Scheduled Tribes' first appeared in the Constitution of India. Article 366
(25) defined scheduled tribes as "such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or
groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to

be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this constitution".
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)
1. PVTGs stands for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups. They are considered the
most disadvantaged and marginalized among the tribal communities.
2. On the recommendation of the Dhebar Commission (1973), in 1975 Government of
India created a sub-category called Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs), later renamed
as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). Now there are total of 75
PVTGs spread over 17 states and one Union Territory (UT).
3. Characteristics of PVTGS: They are mostly homogenous, with a small population,
relatively physically isolated, social institutes cast in a simple mold, absence of
written language, relatively simple technology, and a slower rate of change etc.
Tribes in Telangana
• As per Census 2011, Tribal Population in Telangana is 31.78 Lakhs and constitutes 9%
of the total population of the state Considering the importance of tribal development
and related matters the Government of India set up a separate Ministry of Tribal Affairs
in 1999.
• In 2021, Government of India declared 15th November as Janjatiya Gaurav Divas to
honour the tribal freedom fighters and for commemorating their contribution to India's
freedom struggle and cultural heritage.
Here's an account of the distribution of tribal population in Telangana:
1. Tribal Groups:
• Telangana is home to several tribal communities, each with its own unique culture,
language, and traditions. Some of the prominent tribal groups in Telangana include the
Gonds, Lambadas (Banjaras), Kolams, Thotis, Yerukalas, Koyas, and Chenchus.
2. Geographical Distribution:
• Tribal communities in Telangana are primarily concentrated in the hilly and forested
regions of the state, particularly in districts bordering Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, and
Andhra Pradesh. Adilabad, Khammam, Bhadradri Kothagudem, and Mahabubabad are
among the districts with significant tribal populations.
3. Adilabad District:
• Adilabad district in northern Telangana has the highest concentration of tribal
population in the state. The district is home to various tribal communities, including the
Gonds, Kolams, and Thotis. Many tribal villages in Adilabad are located in remote and
inaccessible areas, contributing to their socio-economic marginalization.
4. Khammam District:

• Khammam district, located in southern Telangana, also has a significant tribal
population, particularly in the agency areas of the district. The Koya and Lambada
tribes are among the prominent tribal groups in Khammam.
5. Socio-Economic Status:
• Tribal communities in Telangana often face socio-economic challenges such as poverty,
illiteracy, lack of access to healthcare and basic amenities, and marginalization. Limited
access to education and employment opportunities further exacerbates their socio-
economic disparities.
6. Livelihood Patterns:
• Traditional livelihoods of tribal communities in Telangana include agriculture, forest-
based activities such as collection of minor forest produce, hunting, fishing, and
handicrafts. However, with increasing pressure on natural resources and changes in land
use patterns, many tribal communities are facing livelihood challenges.
• The government of Telangana has implemented various welfare and development
programs aimed at improving the socio-economic status of tribal communities. These
include initiatives such as the Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA), which
focuses on holistic development of tribal areas through infrastructure development,
education, healthcare, skill development, and empowerment of tribal communities.
8. Land Alienation and Displacement:
• Land alienation and displacement due to development projects, industrialization, and
urbanization are significant challenges faced by tribal communities in Telangana. Many
tribal communities have lost their traditional lands and livelihoods, leading to social
unrest and displacement.
• Understanding the distribution and socio-economic status of tribal populations in
Telangana is essential for formulating effective policies and programs aimed at
addressing their unique needs and promoting inclusive development in the state.
Problems faced by tribes in Telangana
Tribal areas in Telangana face a myriad of challenges that impact the socio-economic
development and well-being of tribal communities. Here's an account of some of the key
problems faced by tribal areas in Telangana:
1. Poverty and Marginalization:
• Tribal communities in Telangana often experience high levels of poverty and
marginalization. Limited access to education, healthcare, and employment
opportunities exacerbates their socio-economic vulnerabilities.
2. Lack of Basic Amenities:

• Many tribal areas in Telangana lack access to basic amenities such as clean drinking
water, electricity, sanitation facilities, and roads. The absence of these essential services
hampers the quality of life and hinders development in tribal communities.
3. Land Alienation and Displacement:
• Land alienation and displacement are significant issues faced by tribal communities in
Telangana. Development projects, industrialization, and urbanization often lead to the
loss of traditional lands and livelihoods, leading to social unrest and displacement.
4. Healthcare Challenges:
• Tribal areas in Telangana often lack adequate healthcare infrastructure and services.
Access to healthcare facilities, trained medical personnel, and essential medicines is
limited, resulting in poor health outcomes and high morbidity rates among tribal
populations.
5. Education Disparities:
• Education disparities persist in tribal areas of Telangana, with low enrollment rates,
high dropout rates, and poor quality of education. Lack of proper infrastructure, trained
teachers, and educational resources hinder educational attainment among tribal
children.
6. Exploitation and Vulnerability:
• Tribal communities in Telangana are vulnerable to exploitation by outside forces,
including land grabbers, middlemen, and moneylenders. Lack of awareness of their
rights, limited access to legal aid, and weak enforcement of protective laws contribute
to their vulnerability.
7. Forest Rights and Conservation:
• Many tribal communities in Telangana depend on forests for their livelihoods, but their
traditional rights over forest resources are often not recognized or protected.
Conservation policies and restrictions on forest access further marginalize tribal
communities and disrupt their way of life.
8. Gender Inequality:
• Gender disparities persist in tribal areas, with women facing discrimination and limited
opportunities for education and employment. Traditional gender norms and practices
often perpetuate inequality and restrict women's empowerment and participation in
decision-making processes.
9. Climate Change Impacts:
• Tribal communities in Telangana are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change,
including erratic rainfall, droughts, and floods. These environmental stresses further
exacerbate their socio-economic vulnerabilities and undermine their resilience.
• Addressing the problems faced by tribal areas in Telangana requires a comprehensive
approach that involves empowering tribal communities, ensuring their participation in

decision-making processes, and implementing targeted policies and programs that
address their specific needs and challenges.
Steps taken by the government
• The government of Telangana has implemented several policies and programs aimed at
promoting the socio-economic development and welfare of tribal communities in the
state. Here's an account of some of the key policies for Tribal Area Development in
Telangana:
Education
Eklavya Model Residential School (EMRS)

Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme
Post Matric Scholarship Scheme Universal for eligible Candidates
National Scholarship Scheme (Top Class)
National Fellowship Scheme
By Selection
National Overseas Scholarship Scheme
Multi Sectoral Schemes: Grants to States

Grants under Article 275(1)
Scheme for Development of PVTGs
Pradhan Mantri Adi Adarsh Gram Yojana (PM-
AAGY)
Research Monitoring & Evaluation

Support to Tribal Research Institute (TRIs) and
Centres for Excellence (CoEs)
Monitoring & Evaluation, Events, Surveys and Social
Audits
Livelihood
Pradhan Mantri Janjatiya Vikas Mission (PM-JJVM)
Venture Capital Fund for STs
Logistics and Marketing of tribal products in North
East Support to NSTFDC
1. Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA):

• The ITDA is a specialized agency established by the government of Telangana to
oversee the development of tribal areas in the state. It implements various development
programs and schemes targeting tribal communities, focusing on areas such as
education, healthcare, infrastructure, livelihoods, and empowerment.
2. Tribal Welfare Department:
• The Tribal Welfare Department of Telangana is responsible for formulating and
implementing welfare policies and programs for tribal communities. It provides various
services and benefits to tribal individuals and communities, including scholarships,
healthcare services, housing, and skill development programs.
3. Forest Rights Act (FRA) Implementation:
• The government of Telangana has initiated efforts to implement the provisions of the
Forest Rights Act (FRA) to recognize and secure the land and forest rights of tribal
communities. This includes the distribution of individual and community forest rights
titles to eligible tribal households and communities.
FOREST RIGHTS ACT (2006)
• Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India administers The Scheduled Tribes And
Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition Of Forest Rights) Act, (in short FRA),
2006.
• The FRA, 2006 has provisions for recognition and vesting of forest rights and
occupation in forest land in forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDSTs) and other
traditional forest dwellers (OTFDs).
• As per FRA and rules made thereunder, the responsibility for implementation of the
Act lies with State Governments/UT Administrations.
• As on June, 2023, a total of 45,54,603 claims 43,68,025 individual and 1,86,578
community) have been filed under FRA 2006 and 23,12,041 titles (22,01,842 individual
and 1,10,199 community) have been distributed to the extent of 1,77,90,056 acres
(47,56,040 acres for individual and 1,30,34,016 acres for community) of forest land.
• Ministry of Tribal Affairs provides necessary support to the States / UTs for
implementation of FRA as and when asked for. Joint Communication has been issued
by Secretaries of Ministry of Tribal Affairs and Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change for implementation of the FRA, 2006 .
4. Special Development Funds:
• The government allocates special funds and budgetary provisions for the development
of tribal areas in Telangana. These funds are utilized for infrastructure development,
provision of basic amenities, livelihood support, and other development initiatives in
tribal communities.
5. Education Initiatives:
• Several initiatives are undertaken to improve educational outcomes among tribal
children and youth. These include the establishment of residential schools (Gurukul
schools) for tribal students, scholarships and stipends for students from tribal
communities, and efforts to enhance the quality of education in tribal areas.
6. Healthcare Services:

• The government provides healthcare services and facilities tailored to the needs of tribal
communities, including mobile health units, primary health centers, and community
health workers. Efforts are made to improve access to healthcare, reduce maternal and
child mortality rates, and address health disparities among tribal populations.
7. Livelihood Support:
• Various livelihood support programs are implemented to enhance the economic well-
being of tribal communities in Telangana. These programs include skill development
training, agricultural extension services, livestock development initiatives, and
promotion of non-farm livelihood options such as handicrafts and small-scale
enterprises.
8. Empowerment and Participation:
• Efforts are made to empower tribal communities and ensure their participation in
decision-making processes that affect their lives and livelihoods. This includes
promoting self-governance and community institutions, strengthening traditional
governance systems, and enhancing the capacity of tribal leaders and representatives.
• Overall, these policies and programs for Tribal Area Development in Telangana aim to
address the socio-economic disparities and improve the well-being of tribal
communities, promoting inclusive and sustainable development in the state.
JANJATIYA GAURAV DIVAS
• With the declaration ( of 15th November as Janjatiya Gaurav Divas ) the birth
anniversary of Bhagwan Birsa Munda as Janjatiya Gaurav Divas on 15th November,
iconic week celebrations from 15th to 22nd November took place throughout the nation
• Hon'ble President Smt. Droupadi Murmu, paid floral tributes at the statue of Bhagwan
Birsa Munda in Ulihatu, Jharkhand, his birthplace
• Hon'ble Vice President Shri Jagdeep Dhankar offered floral tributes to the statue of
Bhagwan Birsa Munda in the Parliament premises
• Hon'ble Prime Minister in a special video message said that the nation is moving with
the energy of ‘Panch Praan’ to realize the dreams of Bhagwan Birsa Munda
• Hon'ble Union Minister of Tribal Affairs, Shri Arjun Munda, Minister of State for Tribal
Affairs, Smt. Renuka Singh & Minister of State for Tribal Affairs and Jal Shakti, Shri
Bishweswar Tudu, Parliamentarians and other dignitaries participated in the Jan Jatiya
Gaurav Divas celebrations.
Urbanization in Telangana
• Urbanization is a global phenomenon. It is increasing continuously in the last two

hundred years throughout the world.
• Most of the developed countries are pretty well urbanized and the developing world is
also catching up. Though urbanization is undoubtedly happening, it is throwing many
challenges to the government and the society.
About Urbanization
A. Thus, the primary criteria for deciding whether a particular place is a town or not
was the administrative set-up rather than the size of the population.
B. Because of this definition many of the towns in reality were nothing more than
over-grown villages.
C. In 1961 ‘town’ was redefined and determined on the basis of a number of empirical
tests:
D. A. a minimum population of 5,000,
E. B. a density of not less than 1,000 per square mile,
F. C. three-fourths of the occupations of the working population should be outside of
agriculture, and
G. D. place should have a few characteristics and amenities such as newly founded
industrial areas, large housing settlements, and places of tourist importance and
civic amenities.
H. As a result of the new definition of ‘town’ was a reduction in the total number of
towns in India between 1951 and 1961. The 1961 basis was adopted in the 1971,
1981 and 1991 censuses too for defining towns.
• Different strategies have had India after independence rapidly urbanizing and many
cities, towns have come into existence and everyday new areas are coming under the
grasp of urbanization.
• Urbanization has been an engine of inclusive economic growth. Urban agglomerations
propel economic growth by bringing together interrelated industries in one
geographical area, promoting positive externalities and reducing transaction costs,
leading to new vistas of opportunities, especially for rural migrates.
• With this urbanization India is also facing different challenges which are of diverse
nature.
• The state of Telangana is one of the fast-urbanizing states in the country, along with the
rapid economic transformation.
• The urban centers have become epicenters for industrial and services-oriented business
activity, robust transportation, civic facilities and availability of skilled workforce.
• Hyderabad alone accounts for a lion’s share of the state’s urban population which has
become a growth center for the state.
• The city of Hyderabad is being recognised as a true cosmopolitan city for being an
accommodating city despite the existence of varied cultures.

• This greatness has resulted in the city hosting a number of national and international
events.
• In addition, cities like Warangal, Nizamabad and Karimnagar are fast changing the
urban landscape of the state. This paper is an attempt to find out the challenges that this
town is facing.
• Telangana is the 29th state of India, where urban development is centered in and on
Hyderabad. Over the last few decades has eclipsed the growth of other small and
medium towns in Telangana, leading to “intra-sub-regional disparities”. This paper is
an analysis in the context of the birth of the new state.
• It chronicles the developments over the last six decades in the field of urban
development in Telangana.
• In the last 60 years, Hyderabad has grabbed all attention, and most growth centers
identified have recorded little or no growth. Hyderabad had a population of 12.51 lakhs
in 1961.
• In the next four decades (1961-2001), Hyderabad emerged as one of the fastest-growing
metros in India. Over two decades 1991- 2011, the population growth rate of most of
the 27 Telangana towns declined.
• Vijayapuri and Bellampally recorded a fall in population even in absolute terms.
Sangareddy, Siddipet, Mahbubnagar, and Zahirabad—towns within proximity of
Hyderabad alone recorded some growth.
• Within Telangana, growth happened only in areas close to Hyderabad. For
comprehensive planning and development of Telangana, it is proposed alternative
patterns of regional urban development for the future network of towns in the state.
• Firstly, a Three Tier Pattern based on the concept of urban hierarchy.
• Secondly, the Multiple Urban-Industrial Nuclei Pattern of Development, and
• lastly, the Metropolitan Region, which was centered on the city of Hyderabad. It may
be concluded within the Telangana; Hyderabad Metropolitan region grew at the cost of
smaller towns.
• Urbanization in Telangana refers to the process of rapid growth and expansion of urban
areas, characterized by the increasing concentration of population, economic activities,
and infrastructure development in urban centers.
Here's an account of urbanization in Telangana:
1. Historical Context:
• Urbanization in Telangana has been influenced by various historical, geographical, and
socio-economic factors. The region has a rich history of urban settlements, including
ancient cities such as Warangal, Hyderabad, and Karimnagar, which served as centers
of commerce, culture, and governance.
2. Population Growth:

• Telangana has experienced significant population growth in recent decades, driven by
factors such as natural increase, rural-urban migration, and the expansion of economic
opportunities in urban areas. The population density is higher in urban areas compared
to rural areas, reflecting the trend of urbanization.
3. Expansion of Urban Centers:
• Urbanization in Telangana has led to the expansion and consolidation of urban centers,
including the state capital Hyderabad. Other major cities and towns in Telangana, such
as Warangal, Nizamabad, Karimnagar, and Khammam, have also witnessed rapid urban
growth and development.
4. Infrastructure Development:
• Urbanization has spurred the development of infrastructure in Telangana's urban areas,
including transportation networks, housing, healthcare facilities, educational
institutions, commercial complexes, and recreational spaces. Investments in
infrastructure aim to accommodate the growing urban population and enhance the
quality of urban living.
5. Economic Opportunities:
• Urbanization in Telangana has created new economic opportunities in sectors such as
manufacturing, services, trade, information technology, and real estate. Urban areas
serve as hubs of economic activity, attracting investments, skilled labor, and
entrepreneurship.
6. Challenges:
• Despite its benefits, urbanization in Telangana also poses several challenges, including:
Infrastructure Deficiencies:
• Rapid urbanization has strained existing infrastructure, leading to issues such as traffic
congestion, inadequate water supply, sanitation problems, and environmental
degradation.
Housing Shortage:
• Urban areas in Telangana face a shortage of affordable housing, leading to the
proliferation of informal settlements and slums. Access to decent housing remains a
challenge for many urban residents, particularly low-income groups.
Social Inequality:
• Urbanization has exacerbated social inequalities in Telangana, with disparities in access
to education, healthcare, employment opportunities, and basic services between
different socio-economic groups.
Environmental Degradation:
• The rapid expansion of urban areas has resulted in environmental degradation,
including air and water pollution, loss of green spaces, and depletion of natural

resources. Addressing environmental concerns is essential for sustainable urban
development.
• The government of Telangana has initiated various policies and programs to address the
challenges of urbanization and promote sustainable urban development. These include
investments in infrastructure, urban renewal projects, housing schemes, slum
redevelopment initiatives, and efforts to improve urban governance and planning.
• Overall, urbanization in Telangana is a complex phenomenon with both opportunities
and challenges. Effective planning, infrastructure development, and inclusive policies
are essential for managing urban growth and ensuring equitable and sustainable
development in the state's urban areas.
Steps by government
The Government of Telangana has undertaken various initiatives for strengthening the
infrastructure and to make cities and towns more inclusive.
1. The state government has initiated the ‘Telangana Municipal Development Project’
(TMDP) with an objective of preparing the Master Plan for 20 Urban Local Bodies
(ULBs) with the financial assistance of the World Bank. The preparation of GIS Base
Maps for 37 ULBs in Phase-I and 22 ULBs in Phase-II are in process.
2. The government has initiated the Support to Urban Street Vendors (SUSV) scheme for
identification, issue of ID cards, vending certificates, financial inclusion, and social
security for street vendors. Until now, 67,294 street vendors have been identified, out
of whom 63,361 have been issued identity cards. The survey has been completed in 66
ULBs.
3. With an objective to provide shelters for the urban homeless, the government initiated
the Shelter for Urban Homeless programme. Till now, 25 shelters are functioning in the
state providing accommodation to 1,163 homeless people. It is proposed to construct
such shelters in 50 government hospitals for patient attendants and recovering patients.
4. The Mission for Elimination of Poverty in Municipal Areas (MEPMA) has been
actively involved in implementation of poverty alleviation programmes through
programmes like Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana--National Urban Livelihood Mission
(DAY-NULM), employment through skills training and placement, self-employment
programmes, Vaddi Leni Runalu, (Loans without any interest) etc. Until 2017 end, 1.46
lakh SHGs were formed in urban areas under the aegis of MEPMA. During the year
2017- 18, Rs. 716.41 crore were provided to 18,132 Self Help Groups (SHGs).
5. In order to ensure that cities and towns in Telangana become totally clean, sanitized,
healthy and livable for all citizens, Swachh Telangana Vajrostavam was observed from
25 September to 2 October, 2014. The special focus of the campaign was on hygienic
and affordable sanitation for the urban poor and women. One of the key initiatives of
the Government of Telangana is to achieve 100 percent sanitation in urban areas.
Massive public awareness through an intensive campaign on cleanliness was conducted
during the Swachh Telangana Vajrostavam.

Spatial-Temporal Changes
Spatio-temporal changes in urban areas in Telangana refer to the evolution and transformation
of urban landscapes over time, both in terms of spatial expansion and temporal dynamics.
• Here's an account of the spatio-temporal changes in urban areas in Telangana:
1. Historical Urban Centers:
• Telangana has a rich history of urban settlements dating back to ancient times. Cities
like Hyderabad, Warangal, and Karimnagar have been important urban centers for
centuries, serving as political, economic, and cultural hubs.
2. Colonial Influence:
• During the colonial period, urbanization in Telangana was influenced by British
colonial policies and administrative structures. Cities like Hyderabad saw the
development of colonial-era infrastructure, including railways, roads, and
administrative buildings.
3. Post-Independence Development:
• After independence, Telangana witnessed rapid urbanization, driven by factors such as
population growth, rural-urban migration, industrialization, and economic
development. The government implemented various policies and programs to promote
urban growth and infrastructure development.
4. Spatial Expansion:
• Urban areas in Telangana have expanded spatially over time, with the outward growth
of cities and towns into surrounding rural areas. This expansion is characterized by the
conversion of agricultural land into urban settlements, the development of peri-urban
areas, and the emergence of satellite towns.
5. Population Dynamics:
• The population of urban areas in Telangana has grown significantly over the years,
fueled by natural increase and migration. The influx of people from rural areas seeking
better employment opportunities and amenities has contributed to the demographic
changes in urban areas.
6. Economic Transformation:
• Urban areas in Telangana have undergone significant economic transformation, with
the transition from agrarian economies to diversified urban economies. The growth of
industries, services, trade, and commerce has reshaped the economic landscape of urban
areas.
7. Infrastructure Development:
• Spatio-temporal changes in urban areas are reflected in the development of
infrastructure such as transportation networks, housing, utilities, educational
institutions, healthcare facilities, and commercial complexes. Investments in

infrastructure aim to accommodate the growing urban population and support economic
growth.
8. Environmental Impact:
• The expansion and development of urban areas in Telangana have had environmental
implications, including increased pressure on natural resources, habitat loss, air and
water pollution, and degradation of ecosystems. Sustainable urban planning and
environmental management are essential to mitigate these impacts.
9. Future Challenges:
• Despite the progress made, urban areas in Telangana face several challenges, including
congestion, inadequate infrastructure, housing shortages, social inequality,
environmental degradation, and governance issues. Addressing these challenges
requires comprehensive urban planning, investment in infrastructure, and inclusive
policies that promote sustainable urban development.
• Overall, the spatio-temporal changes in urban areas in Telangana reflect the dynamic
nature of urbanization and its impact on the socio-economic and environmental fabric
of the state. Understanding these changes is essential for informed decision-making and
planning for sustainable urban development in the future.
Urban growth and Migration

Urban growth and migration play significant roles in shaping the urban landscape of Telangana.
• Here's an account of urban growth and migration in the state:
 Population Growth:
• Telangana has experienced significant population growth over the years, driven by
factors such as natural increase, rural-urban migration, and the expansion of economic
opportunities in urban areas. This population growth has contributed to the expansion
and development of urban centers in the state.
 Rural-Urban Migration:
• Rural-urban migration is a major driver of urban growth in Telangana. People migrate
from rural areas to urban centers in search of better employment opportunities,
improved living standards, access to education and healthcare, and other amenities. The
influx of migrants contributes to the demographic, social, and economic diversity of
urban areas.
 Industrialization and Economic Opportunities:
• Urban areas in Telangana offer a range of economic opportunities, including
employment in industries, services, trade, and commerce. The growth of industries such
as information technology, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and manufacturing has attracted
migrants from both within the state and from other parts of the country.
 Infrastructure Development:
• The government has invested in infrastructure development in urban areas to
accommodate the growing population and support economic growth. This includes the
construction of roads, highways, public transportation systems, housing complexes,
educational institutions, healthcare facilities, and commercial centers.
 Housing and Real Estate:
• The demand for housing in urban areas has led to the expansion of residential areas and
the development of new housing projects. The real estate sector in Telangana has
witnessed rapid growth, with the construction of apartments, gated communities, and
commercial complexes to cater to the housing needs of the growing urban population.
 Social and Cultural Dynamics:
• Urbanization and migration have contributed to the social and cultural diversity of
urban areas in Telangana. Migrants bring with them their own languages, traditions,
and customs, enriching the cultural fabric of urban centers. However, migration also
poses challenges related to social integration, identity, and cohesion.
 Challenges:
• Urban growth and migration in Telangana also pose several challenges, including:
Infrastructure Deficiencies:
• Rapid urbanization strains existing infrastructure, leading to issues such as traffic
congestion, inadequate water supply, sanitation problems, and environmental
degradation.
Housing Shortages:
• The influx of migrants creates a demand for affordable housing, leading to shortages
and the proliferation of informal settlements and slums in urban areas.
Social Inequality:
• Urbanization exacerbates social inequalities, with disparities in access to education,
healthcare, employment opportunities, and basic services between different socio-
economic groups.
Environmental Impact:
• The expansion of urban areas has environmental implications, including air and water
pollution, loss of green spaces, and depletion of natural resources.
 Government Initiatives:
• The government of Telangana has implemented various policies and programs to
address the challenges of urban growth and migration, including investments in
infrastructure, housing schemes, slum redevelopment initiatives, and efforts to improve
urban governance and planning.
• Overall, urban growth and migration are dynamic processes that shape the socio-
economic and spatial characteristics of urban areas in Telangana. Understanding these

processes is essential for planning and managing sustainable urban development in the
state.
Evolution and phases of Urban Growth of

Hyderabad
Hyderabad City
• Hyderabad, once known as Bhagyanagar' was established around A.D 1591 by
Mohammad Quli-Quth- Shah the 5h ruler ofQutb- Shahi dynasty. The city was
established at eight (8) kilometers distance to the East of Golconda fort and South of
Musi River. Since then, the city of Hyderabad, witnessed the rule of subsequent rulers
of Qutb- Shahis', the Mughals and successive heirs of Asaf Jha reign till the accession
of Hyderabad state into the independent Indian Union in the year 1948.
• Hyderabad, also known as the City of Pearis'. functioned as the civil capital during the
Qutb- Shahi Ruler. The city had rich resemblances of survey- ing capital since from the
tenure of Nizam Ali Khan Asaf Jah II for Asaf Jahi dynasty (1763 1948), through the
independent Indian state of Hyderabad (1948 to 1956). to the erstwhile-state of Andhra
Pradesh (1956 to 2014) to the newly formed state of Telangana (Since 2014). The city,
indeed, consists of two cities in it, Hyderabad and its twin Secunderabad together
known as twin cities,offer a fascinating panorama of the past with richly blended
geography that include physical, cultural, industrial and economic landscape with
historic-spatio-temporal changes spanning over 425 years.
Nomenclature of Hyderabad
• The nomenclature of the city attracts a wide ranging speculations as some believed the
city was established by the name of ruler s beloved wife, Bhagyamathi, some would
argue that it is not Bhagynagar but to imply that the e city of Bhags meaningt gardens.
However the name Hyderabad', larly known at global level for its multifaceted of then
Qutb-Shahi was Bhagyanagar outlook.
Evolution of Hyderabad City
• Though the city of Hyderabad was formally established around A.D. 1591, during the
reign of Outb-Shahis, the historical city takes its origins in the famous Golconda
fortress which, once was a citadel constructed by Kakatiya rulers during 13th century'.
Since then it has undergone various changes and developments in a distinct phase wise
manner while it transformed from a citadel to fortress town, from fortress to a walled
city, modem city, Metropolis, and finally as an emerging Global Mega City.
HYDERABAD GROWTH PHASES
• The historical growth phases of Hyderabad city, Characterized by distinct historical,

political and administrative changes, can be classified in to

SIX major phases
1. The Fort City of Golconda Phase/the Early Qutb- Shahi Phase (Extending from 13th
Century to A.D. 1591)
2. The Later Qutub Shahi Phase/the Parly Twin Pity (Hvrleraharh Phase (A.D. 1 1591 to
1687)
3. The Tarly Asat Jahi Phase/The Second Twin City (Secunderabad) Phase (A.D. 1724 to
1874)
4. Emergence of Modern City/Later A saf Jahi Phase (A.D, 1874-1948)
5. The Pre-Economic Reforms Phase/ the Metropolitan Phase (A.D. 1948-1991)
6. The Post Globalisation Phase/Contemporary Megapolis Phase (From A.D. 1991
onwards)
Fort City of Golconda Phase/ The Early Qutb-Shahi Phase (From 13" Century to
A.D.1591)
• It is imperative to know about the origin and early history of fortress city. Golconda
which paved the way for its future form that is 'the City of Pearls'. Hyderabad. It was
during the famous Kakatiya Emperor Ganapatideva's rule a mud fort was built for the
first time over a hill called 'Mankal' now known as Golconda, a towering granitic rock
that measures about 150-300 meters above the vale. Hence, in fact, the present
cOsmopolitan city of Hyderabad started its journey as a citadel from 13mCentuiy of
Medieval period in the Indian History.
• Later, during the reign of Mahmood Shah III (around A.D. 1463) the thirteenth king of
the Bahmani dynasty (of Ahmednagar), Baharul Turk of Hemadan, Sultan Quli was
appointed to quell an internal struggle that erupted in Telangana region and to govern
the area from the fortress. During the rule of Mahmood Shah IV (around A.D. 1482)
Sultan Quli assumed as Amir of the Bahmani Empire and, was awarded with thẹ title
of Qutb-ul-Mulk and the Jagir of Golconda. In A.D. 1512 Qutb-ul-Mulk declared
independence from the disintegrated & already weakened Bahmani kingdom, started
Qutb- Shahi rule, and made Golconda fort as capital city because of its defense strategic
location and it stood on the trade route from the port of Masulipatnam /of the eastern
coast to Aurangabad, a great military & trade center.
• By A.D. 1576, the fortress town became very congested and there was no scope for
further expansion within its expanse. Hence Nobles and higher officials started
constructing their palaces on the banks of the river Musi. Anticipating the future growth
of the city eastwards or to the South of River Musi, Sultan Tbrahim Qutb-Shah has laid
a milestone in the history of Hyderabad when he had abridge (Purana Phul) constructed
in A.D. 1573 over the river where it flows to a narrow length and the bridge paved way
for the future city of Hyderabad. Therefore this phase may be also treated as pre-
Hyderabad phase.

The Later Qutub Shahi Phase or the Early Twin City (Hyderabad) Phase
(A.D.1512 -1687)
• Due to the remarkable increase of population within the walled city, to ease pressure on
the fortress city (Golconda), Mohammad Quli-Qutb-Shah, in A.D. 1591, laid the
foundation for the city of Hyderabad, south of the River Musi. The area at that time
consisted of seven villages, the most well known among them was Chichlam.
• The city of Hyderabad was planned on a grid pattern with two main intersecting roads,
60 feet wide, running east-west. north-south and the Charminar at their intersection.
Construction of the Charminar was completed in 1591 A.D.
• Hussaini Álam, Daruslhifa and Sultan Shahi were the three densely populated areas or
mohallas within the walled city of Hyderabad. On the outskirts of the city the densely
populated suburb was Karwan near Puranapool. Other suburbs in the emerging stage
were namely; Khairatabad. Naubat Pahad etc. Chief source of drinking water during
the rule of Qutub Shahi was Mir Jumla tank and Jalpally reservoir nearby Golconda
fort. Water was supplied to the city through underground earthen pipes.
• The growing splendor and prosperity of Hyderabad city was brought to a grinding halt
by the Mughal invasion in A.D. 1683. The Mughal army plundered the city
ofHyderabad and razed most of its palaces to the ground. The Sultan and his nobles
were forced to take shelter in Golconda fort and The rule of Qutub Shahi dynasty came
to an end in the year 1687A.D.
The Transitional Phase (A.D. 1687-1724)
• With the end of the Great Qutb-Shahis era Hyderabad city had undergone a darkphase
in its history as the importance of Hyderabad declined and the city fell into partial ruins.
This period, between A.D. 1687 and 1724. has been termed as a transitional phase
because it was marked by political instability and there was no developmental activity
within the city of Hyderabad except for the building of parts of the city wall from
Chaderghat to Dabirpura gate demarcating boundaries of Hyderabad city. The
Golconda kingdom that was conquered by Aurangazeb was merged into his Mughal
Empire and" made Aurangabad as capital for the newly accessioned Deccan Subha.
This lean phase continued with the establishment of the Asaf Jahi dynasty in the Deccan
region.
The Early Asaf Jahi Phase/ The Second Twin City (Secunderabad) Phase (A.D.
1724 to 1874)
• By 1761, the Mughal empire existed in name only due to its vulnerabilities that allowed
local powers to become independent. Despite this, the Mughal emperor retained
symbolic authority and was seen as a source of political legitimacy.
• The newly formed states did not openly challenge the emperor's authority but instead
sought his approval to validate their rule. The rise of these states during the eighteenth
century marked a shift rather than the downfall of the political structure. It reflected a
decentralization of power rather than a power vacuum or political disorder.

• Nizam-ul-Mulk, bearing the title ofA Asaf Jah established his own kingdom in A.D.
1724 thereby started the rule of Asaf Jahi dynasty also known as Nizams which lasted
till the Police Action (by Indian Union) in 1948. The Asaf Jahi dynasty ruled Deccan
areas or the Nizam dominions of the princely state of Hyderabad for around 215 years
(A.D. 1724 to 1948). Under the phenomenal Nizams ruled Hyderabad forged a
remarkable progress that the fortress city had been transformed into a modern city first,
and then the stage was set for the next phase of metropolis. During the reign of Nizams
the city was developed in key aspects impor- tantly; the Infrastructure, Trade &
Commerce, Culture, Planning, and Administration etc.
• The period between A.D. 1724 and 1763, was labeled as Inhibition period' in the history
of Hyderabad because it was one of the great economic stress, and due to the retention
of Aurangabad as capital city during the rule of Nizam-ul-MulkAsaf Jah I. This forced
many wealthy feudal landholders to leave Hyderabad and to migrate to the then capital
city, Aurangabad.
• The succession of Nizam Ali Khan Asaf Jah in A.D. 1763 started the glorious period of
Accelerated growth for Hyderabad city (A.D. 1763-1798) who shifted his headquarters
from Aurangabad to Hyderabad. This was one of the historical, landmark decisions
pertaining to the Hyderabad with which tho city took a re-birth as 'the-chief city of
Deccan region" after a lapse of about seventy six years. As a result nobles of the court
and their retainers also returned to Hyderabad from Aurangabad, commerce and land
revenue were remarkably increased which, in return, greatly stimulated urban growth
in Hyderabad city.
• Till A.D. 1761, the city had only four bazaars and one grand bazaar called Chowk. but
by A.D. 1798 there were twelve bazaars, three grand bazaars and a large wholesale
business center of Begum Bazaar. From A.D. 1770-98, Hyderabad city regained its past
glory and political stature.
• Though Hyderabad city's major axis of growth ran in the East-West direction, by the
end of 18h century the main road North of Charminar or present Afzalgunj road
emerged as an important business Street New settlements also came up in the mohallas
like Darushifa, Moghalpura. Hussaini Alam, Shaalıbanda, etc., and small villages and
hamlets appeared around Yakutpura, Uppuuuda, Jahanuma and Asaf-nagar.
• The Nizams subsidiary alliance treaty with British East India Company in A.D. 1798
and construction of British Residency on the northern banks of river Musi, in A.D.
1806, had two major effects on the growth of Hyderabad city. First, it led to the
formation of Secunderabad; secondly, it ushered in the 2d twin city growth of
residential areas on the Northern bank of the river Musi and hence it changed the axis
of city's after the then Nizam. Sikandar Jah, because of its military functions and
business opportunities, growth towards the Northern direction, The British cantonment
was namcd as Secunderabad in A.D. 1806 Secunderabad drew large numbers of people
from surrounding areas, leading to a compact settlement called the General Bazaar.
• Secunderabad being a British cantonment, developed a cultural pattern quite distinct
from that of the St. John's Church and St. Mary's cathedral dominated its urban profile.
The center of native settlement was the Hindu Mahakali temple.
• A grain market was constructed on the north of river Musi known as Afzal gunj. Till
A.D. 1869 there was scarcely yabuilding between the places of Afzalgunj -Begum
Bazaar, and Nampally and the area was full of paddy fields. The introduction of the
railway in A.D. 1874 led to the increase in the built up area with settlements extending
towards Nampally. The increasing built up area within the walled city of Hyderabad
and, the urban sprawl in the northern half of the city because of the Residency and the
Secunderabad cantonment.
Emergence of Modern City/Later Asaf Jahi Phase (A.D. 1874-1948)

• The Hyderabad city growth phase from the commencement of the Railways in 1874 to
till the accession of Hyderabad into Indian Union in A.D. 1948 may be termed as the
Emergence of Modern City/Later Asaf Jahi Phase.
• With the advent of railways, urban growth was oriented towards the railway stations,
goods yards, associated warehouse areas and industrial regions. Rapid extension of
settlements north of the river occurred around Begum Bazaar. Chaderghat and the
Residency bazaar.
• The location of another railway station at Kachiguda led to the establishment of
localities such as Kachiguda. Nimbolika Adda, Barkatpura and Chappal Bazaar. New
colonies came up at Amberpet, Adikmet and Malakpet.
• The continued urban growth persuaded the ruler to take a number of steps. A department
of Municipal and Road maintenance had already been formed in A.D. 1869 with a
Municipal Commissioner as its head. The city water works' scheme for filtered water
from Mir Alam tank was prepared in A.D. 1888 thus. In 1889 a Hyderabad Water Works
Department was also formed. In the year 1896. The Chaderghat Municipality was
separately constituted because of its enhanced large built up area with which the Smith
city assumed two distinct titles, Andrun' and 'Babrun' i.e., inside and outside the city
wall.
• Such were the conditions in Hyderabad which suddenly changed its course when
disastrous floods in the river Musi, in A.D. 1908, severely affected parts of the city near
the river banks. The floods, consequently hastened the stagnation in the walled city.
• The devastation caused by floods also made the ruler (Nizam) to realize the pitfalls of
unplanned growth. A planning body called City Improvement Board was Setup in A.D
1912 to look after the problem of city development. This planning body worked under
the able guidance of Sir M. Vishveshwarayya, an eminent engineer from Mysore.
• The Board controlled the grant of building permits on main roads and in areas where
improvement schemes were to be undertaken. As a post-flood measure, rebuilding was
prohibited within a certain distance of the river. This project achieved the twin purpose
of not only beautifying the river front but also removing chances of such a disaster from
occurring ever again. The river was dammed at two locations to tame river water; one
in the year 1917/(Osman Sagar Lake), and the other one in 1927 (Himayat Sagar Lake).
These lakes have helped not only in taming the river but were the sole source for supply
of drinking water to twin cities.

• The introduction of suburban train services in the year 1928 and the suburban bus
services in 1932 helped to further unite the cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad into
one great conurbation and also saved the southern half of the city from disintegration
and depopulation. Although the intra-city bus and train services saved the southern half
from depopulation, it did not result in any industrial growth or any economic function
being centered there, as it (walled city) remained essentially a residential area for all
classes of people.
• The most important political event that had a tremendous effect on the growth of the
city, especially the Southern half of the city, was the Police Action launched by the
Government of India in September, 1948. to liberate the state of Hyderabad from the
Nizam's control and integrate it with the Indian Union. This event was preceded by
other related events which played a role in the instability and economic depression.
The partition of India (in A.D. 1947) and the communal riots in northern India saw a
mass exodus of Muslim population into Hyderabad State, especially its capital.
• Operation Polo in 1948 marked a significant shift in the history of the Hyderabad
Kingdom. The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khan, governed a largely Hindu
populace as a Muslim ruler.
• Tensions between Hyderabad and the Republic of India increased, resulting in Indian
military intervention. The Indian government viewed the Nizam's hesitation to integrate
with India as a threat to national sovereignty, leading to the launch of Operation Polo
in September 1948.
• Indian forces swiftly defeated Hyderabad's military, incorporating the state into India
and terminating the Nizam's reign. Various factors, including religious divisions,
delayed decision-making, and the termination of British alliances, contributed to
Hyderabad's decline.
• Today, Hyderabad stands as a prominent city, serving as the capital of Telangana,
renowned for its technology, commerce, and rich cultural heritage.
• Hyderabad city population increased from 448,466 in the year 190l to 739, 1 59 in 1941.
Hyderabad population, during the period (1901-1941), increased at a very less pace.
As the Nizam's state ofHyderabad was predominantly an agrarian state could attract
few people from the rural areas that manifested in the low urban growth of Hyderabad.
The second decade of the 20h century (1911- 1921) witnessed a negative growth (-
19,21 %) in the city, which can be observed even at all India levels, during the same
period. With the development of modem transportation, education and business services
in the city, urban growth started to increase from the 4th decade of 20th century (1931
-1941), in which the city witnessed a remarkable 58% of growth in population.
The Pre-Economic Reforms Phase/Metropolitan Phase (1948-1991)

• After a short period of time under the statehood of Hyderabad, the take-off to
Metropolitan phase for Hyderabad city started with the formation of the State of
(erstwhile) Andhra Pradesh, in A.D. 1956. In fact it was during this phase Hyderabad
city crossed the 1 million mark (in A.D, 195l) and, thus, started a new era of
Metropolitan phase for the city.

• Many Indian premier public enterprises, during this period, BHEL, NMDC, HMT,
BEL, IDPL, ECIL, DRDO and HAL were established in Hyderabad, changing the
economical pattern of the city from a traditional manufacturing to a cosmopolitan
industrial service sector.
• The industrial estate of Sanathnagar which had come up in 1940 but was almost
deserted by 1955 was rejuvenated and together with Musheerabad, became two main
industrial nuclei of large and medium industries of die twin cities. This industrial sector
has grown enormously and, during this period, these were four distinct clusters of large
and medium scale industrial units in Hyderabad. They were;
a. The Azamabad Industrial Area, the oldest in the city.
b. The Balanagar-Sanath Nagar- Kukatpally industrial cluster which had a variety of
industrial and consumer units like refrigerators, pharmaceutical products, machine
components, soft drinks, etc, the important ones being Allwyn, H.M.T., LD.PL.,
H.A.L. and others
c. The Moula-Ali-Nacharam-Uppal industrial area had important industrial units like
the EC Warner Hindustan Limited, N.EC., etc.
d. The Ramachandrapuram - Patancheru Industrial cluster which had B.H.E.L. (one of
the biggest public sector units located in Hyderabad), I.C.R.LS.A.L., etc.
The Chandulal Baradari industrial estate did come up in 1963 in the southern half,
outside Fateh Darwaza. But this industrial estate consisted mostly of small scale
industries and only a few medium scale industries manufacturing steel & metal sheets,
chemicals & pigments, utility articles, etc., could employ only a few hundred people.
The municipal corporation boundary (erstwhile MCH limits) of twin cities, by the year
1991, covered an area of 194.25 km. The traditional trend of Hyderabad city growth
either in East-West or South-North was changed to four new directions towards;
i. The North- West i.e., from the Sanath Nagar-Balanagar-Kukatpally area towards
Ramachandrapuram Patancheru industrial nucleus.
i. The North-East i.e., from Bolarum to Moula Ali and Nacharam.
ii. The South-East i.e., from Dilsukhnagar to Hayathnagar along the Vijayawada
highway.
iv. The South-West i.e., towards Rajendranagar
• Apart from IT industry, Pharmaceutical industry, which largely concentrated in the
North-Western part of the city, also enhanced its economic share and soon became the
prime region in India for pharmaceuticals production and exports. With the inflow of
investment into software development projects and IT enabled Services (ITES), the
allied industries such as the Hotel, Transport, Construction, Communication, Tourism
and Modem Services also caught the momentum which ignited the real estate boom in
Hyderabad city.

• Later on (after 2004-05), the erstwhile state administrators also made some significant
efforts in the aspect Of city administration and infrastructure development. It was
during this period the GHMC (in 2007), a governing body of Hyderabad in place of
erstwhile MCH, and HMDA (in 2008), a planning body replacing erstwhile HUDA,
were constituted. Construction of Rajiv Gandhi International Airport (RGIA) near
Shamshabad, towards the South of the city was completed in 2008. Some of the mega
Infrastructure projects in and around Hyderabad such as Jawaharlal Nehru Outer Ring
Road (JN-ORR), Sri P.V. Narasimha Expressway (PVNREW) was undertaken.
Numerous Special Economic Zones (SEZs) also were constituted in and around
Hyderabad which also played a key role on the city's economy as well asPost
Globalization phase/Global Megapolis Phase (A.D. 1991 onwards)
• With a landmark decision to bring economic reforms in India, which saw major
economic policy shifts towards Liberalization, Privatisation and Globalization
formulated during the period directly or indirectly. Transforming Hyderabad into a
global city. As a result of new policy of economic globalization, Hyderabad received
maximum benefit which in turn, restructured the total shape of the city both in terms of
its economy and urban structure.
• Administrators of the erstwhile A.P. state grabbed the opportunity at early stages, and
realized Hyderabad as an alternative destination, after Bengaluru for Information
Technology (IT) industry. Hyderabad's modern replica, Cyber towers (the first phase of
HITEC City) at Madhapur, one of the major IT clusters of India, was inaugurated with
a foundation stone laid, in A.D, 1991. Development of transport infrastructure, espe-
cially Inner Ring Road (TRR) well supported with flyovers at various locations,
significantly contributed for the growth of the city.
• morphology The Special Economic Zones (SEZS) which were intended for providing
required infrastructure along with sizeable land space and tax incentives for the
Manufacturing Corporates to set up their units in a particular area also have their part
on the city in a number of ways.
• Hyderabad UA population which stood at 43,44,437 in the year 1991 increased to
57,42,036 in 2001 with a growth rate of 32% and, by the year 201 l it further increased
to 77,49,334, with a decadal growth rate of35 percent. It implies, though there was an
increase during 2001-11, the urban growth rate of the city reached its stabilization stage
and current trend suggest the pace of urban growth in and around Hyderabad is in sync
with the national standard urban growth rate which stood at 31 % as per 2011 census.
• With an increase of I3.97.599 populations from 1991 to 2001 the city attracted
population mainly into the surrounding outgrowth areas of 1991, making them densely
populated.
• Hyderabad has seen a huge urban population increase during 2001 -11 in which
20,07,298 persons were added (the highest throughout the census history of
Hyderabad),
• After a long gap, the southern part of the city could significantly extend its geographical
limits during the period (2001-11) which witnessed stagnation during previous phases,
significantly growing especially along the National highway, NH-44. This may be
largely attributed to the newly established international airport (2007) at Shamshabad
which lies towards the south of the city and also due to the newly allotted industrial
corridor in this region extending in the areas of Maheshwaram, Shamshabad, Kothur,
Adibatla etc. The growth rate between 2001 and 2011 also hint at traces of new
expansion of the city Growth beyond GHMC boundaries i.e., in the rest ofHyderabad
Metropolitan Development Authority (HMDA) areas.
• It is estimated that the projected population ofHyderabad Metropolitan area crossed 10
million (ferore) mark in 2014 and Hyderabad UA would increase its population to 12
crores by the year 2030 which also indicates the stage was set for Megapolis or Mega
City' phase for Hyderabad.
• The newly formed Telangana state government took no time to review the progress of
Hyderabad city as it already announced the government's policy and vision for making
Hyderabad a top class global city. The actions taken in this regards by the new
government are at various stages of their implementation that include,
1. Development of Transport infrastructure - expansion of Metro Rail networks in
Twin cities (first phase nearly completed), construction of multi-level flyovers/sky
way/transit corridors (at planning stage) around Hyderabad to ease traffic pressure
and smooth flow of vehicles in the city.
2. Development of Industrial Infrastructure - with a global vision, to match the needs
of world & domestic markets, the T.S. government has introduced a unique
industrial policy which offers an online single window system (T-iPASS) for the
investors
3. Effective Monitoring and Policing - a visionary urban policing system was already
introduced with provision of high tech/speed vehicles to the city police of
Hyderabad. A never before surveillance with 1 lakh CC cameras is being
implemented for which a central command station in the mammoth multi-storeyed
twin towers, at Banjara Hills, is under construction.
4. Supply of Electricity on Continuous Basis- for decades under erstwhile A.P.
administration, supply of electricity to the city both for residential and industrial
sector, had been a big problem which often resulted in factory lock-outs during the
peak demand hours. This situation was completely changed .Genius Publications
within one year under the new T. S. government. Now, since 2015, the city is being
supplied with electricity for both the sectors on a continuous basis.
5. Supply of Safe Drinking Water- one of the major problems of Hyderabad, prior to
formation of Telangana, was provision of drinking water on continuous basis. The
new government has already started ample measures to provide drinking water for
twin cities on a daily basis for which water from Godavari and Krishna rivers is
being brought in a phase wise manner.
6. Development of Green Infrastructure - in addition to the already existing green
infrastructure that includes City Level Parks, Colony, Parks, Theme Parks, Central
& Road Medians- developed under various urban authorities of Hyderabad viz.,
MCH(erstwhile), GHMC, HMDA etc. The state government undertook massive
tree plantation programs, to raise the standards of city environment, through Haritha
Haram' and Green Curtain' programs through which 50 lakh seedlings are to be
planted and around 1000 Km² of green cover to be developed in Hyderabad
metropolitan area.
Governance and Demographics in Hyderabad
• Hyderabad city may be studied on a variety of urban categories and at present there are
at least three such urban bodies pertaining to the city, viz., the Hyderabad Urban
Agglomeration (HUA), Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) and
Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority (HMDA).
Transformation from historical to modern cosmopolitan Megapolis
Growth of the IT Sector

• Ever since the 1990s, Andhra Pradesh had been promoting itself as a world class IT
location and Hyderabad City, as a result, has managed to attract investment from
companies such as IBM, Oracle and Microsoft. The Hyderabad Technology Park has
seen hundreds of IT companies registering themselves as soon as spaces are available.
• The first IT tower in Hyderabad, known as Intergraph, was established in Begumpet in
1986.
• N. Chandrababu Naidu spearheaded the initiation of the Software Industry in
Hyderabad in 1995.
• HITEC City, also called Cyberabad, was developed in collaboration with Larsen &
Toubro under Naidu's leadership.
• Naidu coined the slogans "Bye Bye Bangalore" and "Hello Hyderabad" during his
tenure, aiming to attract international companies like Microsoft, CA Technologies, and
Deloitte.
• Naidu successfully persuaded Bill Gates to establish a Microsoft development center in
Hyderabad, the first such center set up by Microsoft outside the USA.
• Naidu focused on bringing biotechnology companies to Hyderabad and established
Genome Valley, a high-tech park launched in 1999 through a public-private partnership.
• The infrastructure for an international airport and an outer ring road was planned under
Naidu's leadership.
• D. E. Shaw & Co. became the first multinational company to open its office in
Hyderabad in 1996.
• The objective of this elaborate promotional program has been to attract the right number
of companies which together would form a critical mass for the city to develop as a
high tech city which would rub shoulders with Silicon Valley and Malaysia’s
MultiMedia Super Corridor.

• During the nineties, several initiatives were taken up by the state government towards
promotion of the IT sector. These included setting up of IT training institutes, initiatives
in e-governance, development of a Hi-Tech city and promoting the Software
Technology Park as a preferred destination for private sector companies.
• Steps were then taken even further to allow the development of a Hardware Park,
creation of a Knowledge Park, and establishment of a financial district. The state
government started tapping resources to invest in the biotechnology sector and, as a
first step towards making the region specialized, a Biotech Park was introduced.
The Tourism Thrust
• Having understood the vast potential of the biotech sector, the Government of
Telangana has started to focus on tourism. The city is being promoted aggressively to
Indians and non-Indians alike and is touted to become a major tourist destination owing
to its location and traditional resources.
• The government intends it to become a major transit hub between Europe and the Far
East. According to the tourism policy of the state, Andhra Pradesh was predicted to “be
a leading tourism destination in India attracting over 2.5 million international tourists
and around 70 million domestic tourists” by 2020.
• The present state government plans to achieve this goal by building upon the inherent
strengths of the state and developing high quality tourist infrastructure.
Ongoing Infrastructure Development
• In the aid of industrial development, the city of Hyderabad has also started to develop
infrastructure to support it. The infrastructure development is being focused on all
important areas including roads, flyovers and cityscape, and improving water supply.
Since 2007, eight major projects have been completed in the Hyderabad development
plan.
• These include the completion of flyovers at Rajiv Gandhi Circle, Green Lands Junction
and Chandrayanagutta. The water supply has further been enhanced by the diversion of
Krishna water to Secunderabad, construction of additional storage facilities and
completion of Krishna Drinking Water Supply Project Phase II.
Development of Supporting Infrastructure
• To accommodate increased traffic and population inflow, the state government has
taken many steps to improve infrastructure.
• The Infrastructure Corporation of Andhra Pradesh Limited (INCAP) was set up in 2005
to oversee the development of Andhra Pradesh as a whole.
• The state government had a 40% stake in it and it had been established to oversee the
development of airports, roads, buildings, medical health and all urban infrastructures
in a phased manner.

• The Government of Telangana has initiated the development of the Hyderabad Growth
Corridor Limited, aiming at the “beautification of traffic islands on Outer Ring Road
Project” in Hyderabad City.
• Once fully developed, this project will render Hyderabad one of the most modern cities
in terms of infrastructure.
• Where connectivity is concerned, one of the notable projects is the Nehru Outer Ring
Road or ORR of Hyderabad, which is an eight-lane ring road expressway with a
perimeter of one hundred and fifty eight kilometers. It connects Hi-Tech City,
Nanakramguda Financial district, Hyderabad International Airport, Knowledge Park,
Hardware Park, Games Village, Singapore Financial District and State Police Academy.
The road has been designed to allow vehicles to travel at higher speeds and has vastly
improved connectivity and reduced traffic congestion in the arterial roads of the Greater
Hyderabad Region. Plans to improve the Inner Ring Road are in place and they would
decongest the traffic even further. The longest flyover in the country is currently
constructed to allow high speed access to the airport.
• The Hyderabad Urban Development Authority is pushing the city to become the next
Silicon Valley. The State Government of Telangana, and the Government of Andhra
Pradesh before it, have put in remarkable efforts to develop the city’s existing
infrastructure. The govt. has planned considerable growth of the Greater Hyderabad
region and is set to leave Pune and Bangalore far behind in a few years. With eyes both
on environmental protection and development, the government is juggling its way past
one hurdle after another. If plans are adhered to, Hyderabad is set to become the next
big industrial phenomenon of the country.
HYDERABAD AS A GLOBAL CITY
• The city of Hyderabad, founded in the year 1591 by Mohammed Quli Qutub Shah,
offers a fascinating panorama of the past, with a rich mix of cultural and historical
traditions spanning over 400 years. It is one of the fastest-growing cities of India and
emerged as a strong industrial, commercial and technology center, and at the same time
it gives glimpses of past splendor and the legacy of its old history.
• Hyderabad is also known as the City of Pearls and one of the IT power hubs of the
country. The city is known for world-class educational institutions, hospitals, a highly
skilled workforce, historical monuments, ancient religious places, museums, art
galleries, cinema halls, concert venues, convention centers, restaurants, shopping
centers, sports facilities, amusement facilities, organized events, parks, green areas, etc.
Hyderabad has now become one of the global IT centers in the world, with the presence
of a large number of Multinational Companies (MNCs) such as Google, Microsoft,
TCS, etc., and is emerging as the pharma capital of India. The city is also known as an
educational and medical hub, with the presence of reputed institutions, engineering
colleges and affordable hospital networks.
• This paradigm of development has opened up investment, employment and livelihood
opportunities to people across the country. This city has an efficient and reliable
physical infrastructure with a strong public transport network like the Hyderabad
Metro, Outer Ring Road (ORR) and a large fleet of Green Buses. The growth and
development of Hyderabad as a global city is contributing significantly to the prosperity
of the State and to the overall economy of the country.
Outer Ring Road
• The Outer Ring Road, officially as, Jawaharlal Nehru Outer Ring Road and abbreviated
as, O.R.R., is a 158-kilometer (98 mi), eight-lane ring road expressway encircling
Hyderabad, capital of the Indian state of Telangana. The expressway is designed for
speeds up to 100 kilometers per hour (62 mph), which later increased to 120 kilometers
per hour (75 mph).
• A large part, 124 kilometers (77 mi) (covering urban nodes viz. Hi- Tech city,
Nanakramguda Financial District, Rajiv Gandhi International Airport, IKP Knowledge
park, Hardware Park, Telangana State Police Academy, Singapore Financial District,
and Games village) of the 158 kilometers (98 mi) was opened by December 2012.
• It gives easy connectivity between NH 44, NH 65, NH 161, NH 765 and NH 163 from
Hyderabad to Vijayawada and Warangal as well as state highways leading to
VikarabadNagarjuna Sagar and Karimnagar /Mancherial.
• The Outer Ring Road also helps in reducing the travel time from Rajiv Gandhi
International Airport to cities like Nizamabad & Adilabad as it connects to NH44. The
expressway is fenced and 33 radial roads connect it with the Inner Ring Road,and the
upcoming Regional Ring Road.
• Initially this project was taken up by HUDA (Hyderabad Urban Development
Authority), through its internal funding without political intervention of the state
government. In December 2022, Government of Telangana Planned to monetise the
outer ring road through the toll-operate-transfer (TOT) model and generate revenues
and called for tenders.
Land acquisition
• The First Phase land required was 750 acres (3.0 km2), out of which the private land
acquired was 500 acres (2.0 km2). The land required for Second Phase is about 5,500
acres (22 km2), of which the Govt. land is about 1,000 acres (4.0 km2). The estimated
Cost of Acquisition was ₹250 Crores.
Traffic studies

• The traffic studies on NH 44 and NH 65 concluded that a four- or six-lane road is due.
The traffic movement on the existing inner ring road proved that the existing four-lane
road was inadequate.
• Due to the anticipated growth in the region and the development of proposed satellite
townships around the ring road and beyond, an eight-lane carriageway was planned
with a design life of 20 years.
• The conclusion was to develop a highway with access control that provides highway
grade separations or interchanges for all intersecting highways.
• Once it had been decided to develop the route as an expressway, all intersecting
highways should be terminated, rerouted or provided with a grade separation.
• The proposed corridor was access-controlled and limited access was to be provided at
National Highway/SHI Major road crossings. A two-lane service road designed to carry
two-way traffic, was proposed on both sides of the corridor.
• Low level underpasses were to be provided for connecting both the service roads at
every 1–2 kilometers (0.62–1.24 mi), where the terrain permits.
Cycling track
• The Government of Telangana is constructing a 23-kilometer-long (14 mi) cycle track
on the Outer Ring Road (ORR) between the main carriageway and service road.
• The foundation stone was laid by the Minister for Municipal Administration and Urban
Development (MAUD) K. T. Rama Rao in September 2022.
• The cycle track is 8.5 kilometers (5.3 mi) long from Nanakramguda Junction to the
Telangana State Police Academy (TSPA) and 14.50 kilometers (9.01 mi) from Narsingi
to Kollur covered with solar panel rooftops along the stretch with a capacity of 16 MW.
• The width of the cycle track is 4.5 meters with one-meter green space on either side.
• The cycle track is the improved version of the South Korean model, which provides
more facilities like lighting, protection from rain, parking and other amenities such as
food stalls.
• A team of officials from HMDA and HGCL had visited South Korea and studied the
Cycle Track Project between Daejeon and Sejong.
Hyderabad Metro
• Citizen mobility plays an important role in the development of a metropolis and
Hyderabad is no exception. Hyderabad Metro Rail (HMR) is an initiative to meet the
growing needs of transportation in Hyderabad.
• Based on the Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS), the Metro Rail Project will reduce
traffic congestion across Hyderabad, lower pollution levels and improve the ‘livability
index’ of Hyderabad.
• This ambitious Project was awarded to Larsen & Toubro (L&T).

• A special purpose vehicle, L&T Metro Rail Hyderabad Limited (LTMRHL), was
incorporated as “the concessionaire” to enter into an agreement with the then
Government of Andhra Pradesh on 4th September, 2010, for implementation of the
Project under Design-Build-Finance-Operate-Transfer (DBFOT) basis.
• A dazzling example of an efficient public transport system, HMR is a marvel of modern
engineering that will add a new dimension to the city of Hyderabad.
• Hyderabad Metro Rail (HMR) is the world’s largest Public-Private Partnership (PPP)
project in the Metro rail sector.
• Metro rail and other forms of Mass Rapid Transport System (MRTS) are emerging as
prominent infrastructure requirements offering a viable solution to the transportation
woes that accompany urban expansion.
• Hyderabad Metro Rail (HMR) Project is an integrated urban transport development
project with intermodal connectivity and convenient sky walks that will mark the
beginning of an era of seamless commuting across Hyderabad.
The Hyderabad Metro Rail Network will cover a total distance of around 69.2 Km
across three corridors:
• Corridor I : Miyapur to LB Nagar
• Corridor II : JBS to MGBS
• Corridor III : Nagole to Raidurgam
Green Metro
• Hyderabad Metro Rail (HMR) is a ‘green’ transportation system which will reduce
carbon footprint through efficient power consumption, rainwater harvesting and other
processes.
• Every time you ride with us, you contribute to the development of an eco-friendly
environment.
• Some of the positive aspects of the ‘green’ Metro project are listed below:
• Rain water harvesting in our premises for charging ground water. One hundred
thousand liters of water per day is recycled by us.
• It is estimated that ten thousand tons of CO2 will be eliminated from the environment
as people adopt Metro rail as their preferred mode of transportation. This is also
expected to reduce two hundred tons of volatile organic compounds from the
environment, including twelve tons of particulate matter.
• Innovative rolling stock used in HMR Project is expected to reduce five thousand tons
of CO2 equivalent from the surrounding. Five million dollars of additional
environmental damage costs due to emissions of harmful gasses is estimated to be
eliminated.
• Solar energy project will further make Metro rail an eco-friendly mode of transport.

• More than thousand trees, in and around Metro rail depots, will add to the natural
ambience and also improve the landscape. An estimated one ton of waste paper per year
is recycled and reused by us, which saves approximately twenty three trees in a year.
• Eco-friendly chemicals are used in house-keeping and maintaining artworks at Metro
stations to ensure minimum energy consumption.
SOME WELFARE INITIATIVES OF GHMC
• There are two government organizations working towards strengthening of existing

infrastructure and expanding to its outgrowths, viz, Greater Hyderabad Municipal
Corporation (GHMC) and Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority (HMDA).
Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation was formed in 2007 by merging the
surrounding 12 municipalities with the existing Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad
area. Presently, GHMC is spread over an area of 625 sq. kms and spread over in four
districts, i.e., Hyderabad, Rangareddy, Medchal-Malkajgiri and a part of Sangareddy.
• The HMDA was formed in 2008 and it has an area of 7,257 sq. km under its purview.
The HMDA’s jurisdiction covers seven districts, 70 mandals and 1,032 villages,
including Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation consisting of 175 villages and 12
municipalities / Nagar panchayats consisting of 31 villages, and the remaining 826
villages under jurisdiction of the HMDA.
• The Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority was set up for the purpose of
planning, coordination, supervising, promoting and securing the planned development
of the Hyderabad Metropolitan Region. It coordinates the developmental activities of
the municipal corporations, municipalities and other local authorities, the Hyderabad
Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board, the Telangana Transmission
Corporation, the Telangana Industrial Infrastructure Corporation, the Telangana State
Road Transport Corporation, and other such bodies.
Annapurna Meals:
• To provide hygienic and safe food to the poor and the downtrodden, the GHMC started
an Annapurna Meals scheme.
• Under the scheme, a meal with a menu consisting of 400 gr. rice, 100 gr. dal, 100 gr.
curry and one spoonful of pickle is provided at Rs. 5/-. At present 150 such Annapurna
Meals centers have been identified and shortlisted from high-density labor addas
(centrers) and urban poor locations.
• Presently, about 40,000 persons are getting meals once a day – for which the GHMC
collects Rs. 5/- from each beneficiary and Rs. 24.25 is borne by the GHMC. The scheme
is in partnership with the ‘Hare Krishna Mission Charitable Foundation’.
Rehabilitation of Beggars:
• It is a Joint Action Team formed with the Traffic Police Department, UCD staff and the
volunteers of Amma Nanna Ananda Ashramam, where 42 child beggars and 59 adult
beggars have been rescued and sheltered at Amma Nanna Anada Ashramam,
Choutuppal for about a month and reunited with their families.

• From 13th December 2017, 1,204 females and 2,317 males, altogether 3,521 beggars,
have been rescued and 3,260 persons are reunited with their families and 261 persons
are being sheltered at Ananda Ashram.
Swachh Dooths:
• The Self-Help Group (SHG) members with good communication skills have been
designated as Swachh Dooths and positioned to spread awareness about Swachh
Hyderabad through door-to-door visits towards effective implementation of solid waste
management.
• Till 12th December 2017 the Swachh Dooths facilitated 9,32,520 households towards
segregation of waste at the doorstep. (iv) Aasara: The GHMC has taken up a new
initiative named Aasara, a welfare programme for senior citizens, with a view to extend
services, to facilitate forming sustainable organizations to meet their needs, to face
challenges and to create a platform.
• The senior citizens are provided with aids and appliances, medical camps are organized
and day care centers are established to meet their recreational needs.
Vikasam:
• The GHMC has established a separate cell called Vikasam to provide support and
welfare to persons with disabilities (PWDs) through distributing aids and appliances,
free surgery camps and supporting the PWDs to form SHGs and to avail financial
benefits through banks towards better livelihoods and better standards of living.
KEY PROJECTS TARGETED TOWARDS HYDERABAD CITY

INFRASTRUCTURE:
• Strategic Road Development Plan (SRDP):

• To provide excellent transport facilities, the Strategic Road Development Plan (SRDP)
has been taken up as a high-priority project, which comprises skyways, major corridors,
major roads and grade separators/fly overs, at a cost of Rs. 25,000 crores.
• For providing continuous traffic movement, the SRDP provides a conflict-free road
network which minimizes travel time, increases the average journey speed and also
reduces the air pollution levels.
• Other infrastructural development related to junction improvements, Fly Over Bridges
(FOBs), Road Under Bridges (RUBs), fish markets, sports complexes, swimming pools
and stadia are being constructed at various places.
Conservation and protection of prioritized lakes in HMDA area
• HMDA has taken up initiatives towards conservation and protection of prioritized lakes
in the HMDA area. A survey on 3,132 lakes is being carried out for fixing the Full Tank
Levels (FTLs) boundaries by fixing the coordinates latitude- longitude. So far, a survey
has been completed in respect of 2,546 lakes.
Development of Musi River Front Development

• The Musi River Conservation and River Front Development at Uppal Bhagat is being
developed by the government.
• The layout is fully developed in all respects with roads, external drainage, water-supply
distribution, network, electrification, avenue plantation, etc.
• An area of 9.50 acres on the eastern side of Uppal Bhagath, abutting the Musi River,
was identified for development of Shilparamam.
Inter City Bus Terminal at Miyapur:
• The bus terminal will provide one-stop integrated facilities to passengers, public and
private bus operators and their staff.
• The state-of-the-art Inter City Bus Terminal (ICBT) at Miyapur, Hyderabad, has been
initiated on a public-private partnership (PPP) basis, which will also cater to interstate
bus services with better infrastructure and modern facilities for commuters and bus
operators.
Hussain Sagar Lake and Catchment Area Improvement Project
• The project has been taken up in partnership with JICA ODA with a loan of 7729 million
Japanese Yen (equivalent Rs. 310 crore) and Rs. 60 crores from the state government,
with an objective to improve the quality of lake water by preventing entry of pollutants,
removal of nutrient rich sediments, etc.
Development of Eco-Park at Kothwalguda:
• The government has proposed to develop an Eco-park at Kothwalguda near Himayat
Sagar, in an area of 85 acres.
• The salient features of the park are an aquatic bird park, aviary, butterfly park,
amphitheater, rural huts, sculpture park and mountain biking tracks, with landscape and
greenery.
Safety and security:
• The government has increased the safety and security of Hyderabad through various
initiatives. It has acquired modernized vehicles which maintain round-the-clock
surveillance in the city.
• Under the CCTV project, CCTV cameras were installed in various public places and
connected with the Command and Control Centre.
• ‘SHE Teams’ have been introduced with an objective to provide safety and security to
women and to make Hyderabad a safe and smart city.
• Hyderabad Metro Rail is a rapid mode of transportation system for the city of
Hyderabad. This commuting system follows the Secant Operational model. Inaugurated
by PM Narendra Modi, the first phase of the project is being conceived and controlled
completely on public-private partnership (PPP) pattern, with the state government
holding a minority equity stake. The 30-km long stretch of this metro rail is sure to ease
congestion on roads and is expected to cost nearly Rs 15,000 crores. The 30 km-long

first phase of the metro, which will run between Miyapur and Nagole, was launched by
the Prime Minister at Miyapur station. Built by L&T and Hyderabad Metro Rail
Limited, the project is said to be the country’s biggest public private partnership.
Heritage structures of Hyderabad
Mecca Masjid
• Makkah Masjid or Mecca Masjid, is a congregational mosque in Hyderabad, India. It
is the largest mosque in the city, and one of the largest mosques in the country, with a
capacity of 10,000 people. The mosque was built during the 17th century, and is a state-
protected monument. It serves as the primary mosque for the Old City of
Hyderabad,and is located close to the historic landmarks of Charminar, Chowmahalla
Palace and Laad Bazaar.
• Muhammad Qutb Shah, the sixth ruler of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, commissioned bricks
to be made from the soil brought from Mecca, the holiest site of Islam, and used them
in the construction of the central arch of the mosque, thus giving the mosque its name.
• The complex was put by UNESCO on its "tentative list" to become a World Heritage
Site in 2014, with others in the region, under the name Monuments and Forts of the
Deccan Sultanate (despite there being a number of different sultanates)
Hyderabad Culture
The culture of Hyderabad is a diverse one. Not only does it have an amalgamation of different
cultures, Hyderabad boasts of a rich cultural heritage too. Being ruled by the Asaf Jahi
dynasty, it came to be known as the “city of Nizams”. As this dynasty crumpled, the Mughals
took over and brought about a sea change in the cultural outlook of the people. Today
Hyderabad flourishes in its rich cultural history.
• The contemporary world sees this city as a blend of unique cultures with a touch of
modern lifestyle. In general, Hyderabadi people are regarded as very friendly and
hospitable. As a matter of fact, generosity is the other name of the Hyderabadis. They
take immense pleasure and pride in conversing in their local, characteristic and
vibrant Hyderabadi language, which is a mix of Urdu, Hindi, and Telugu. The

Hyderabadi Urdu is more like the city’s vernacular of Hindi language. It thrives in a
world of its own. Like the Mumbai ‘tapori’ language, Hyderabadi lingo too has its
own dissimilar resonance and flavour. It is more assorted as it has its own dialects in
different parts of the city. If the actual Hyderabadi has a manifestation of Urdu
language and is archetypal to the old city, the new city has a fair mix of English and
Telugu to it. In Secunderabad Cantonment region, there is a typical Tamil touch to it,
due to the proximity of Tamil Nadu to it.
• You will find a very surprising element in these people. They wear the latest branded
stuff, flaunt attitude and drink gallons of beer in the most happening bar. But when it
comes to culture, no one can beat them nor question their traditional beliefs. You will
find the most pretty women wearing shorts and tank-tops one day and at a temple in
a nice traditional saree the other day! So be prepared to contact the blend of tradition
and modernity in the unique city of Hyderabad.
Charminar
• The Charminar is a monument located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India. Constructed in
1591, the landmark is a symbol of Hyderabad and officially incorporated in the emblem
of Telangana.
• The Charminar's long history includes the existence of a mosque on its top floor for
more than 425 years. While both historically and religiously significant, it is also known
for its popular and busy local markets surrounding the structure, and has become one
of the most frequented tourist attractions in Hyderabad.
• Charminar is also a site of numerous festival celebrations, such as Eid-ul-adha and Eid
al-Fitr,as it is adjacent to the city's main mosque, the Makkah Masjid.
• The Charminar is situated on the east bank of Musi River.To the west lies the Laad
Bazaar, and to the southwest lies the richly ornamented Makkah Masjid.It is listed as
an archaeological and architectural treasure on the official list of monuments prepared
by the Archaeological Survey of India.
• The English name is a translation and combination of the Urdu words chār and minar
or meenar, translating to "Four Pillars"; the towers are ornate minarets attached and
supported by four grand arches.
High Court
• The High Court stands on the south bank of the River Musi. This is one of the finest
buildings in the city, built in red and white stones in Saracenic style, by Nizam VII Mir
Osman Ali Khan the ruler of the princely state of Hyderabad.
• The plan of the High Court was drawn up by Shankar Lal of Jaipur and the local
engineer who executed the design was Mehar Ali Fazil. Its chief engineer was Nawab
Khan Bahadur Mirza Akbar Baig. The construction started on 15 April 1915 and was
completed on 31 March 1919. On 20 April 1920, the High Court building was
inaugurated by the seventh Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan.
• While digging the foundation for the High Court, ruins of the Qutb Shahi Palaces,
namely Hina Mahal and Nadi Mahal were unearthed. The High Court looks beautiful
and impressive from the Naya Pul Bridge at sunset.
• After its construction, a silver model of the High Court with a silver key was presented
to the Nizam VII Mir Osman Ali Khan by the Judiciary during the Silver Jubilee
Celebrations in 1936. The facsimile of the buildings was perfectly carved in a thick
sheet of silver weighing about 300 kg. The model is now in the Nizam's Museum in
Purani Haveli.
• The main building of the High Court was constructed in the year 1919 by the then
Nizam's Government accommodating six judges besides accommodation for the office
staff, record rooms, and Advocates' Hall.
• Nizamia Observatory
• Nizamia observatory is an optical observatory built by Nawab Zafar Jung Bahadur
member of the House of Paigah and Amir of the Khurshid Jahi estate and established
by Mahbub Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VI - the 6th Nizam of Kingdom of Hyderabad in 1901.
It participated in the Carte du Ciel making 463,542 observations. It boasted of an 8"
Cooke Astrograph and a 15" Grubb refractor telescope.
FESTIVALS
• Hyderabad emerged as the foremost centre of culture in India with the decline of the
Mughal Empire. After the fall of Delhi in 1857, the migration of performing artists
to the city particularly from the north and west of the Indian subcontinent, under the
patronage of the Nizam, enriched the cultural milieu. This migration resulted in a
mingling of North and South Indian languages, cultures and religions, which has
since led to a co-existence of Hindu and Muslim traditions, for which the city has
become noted. A further consequence of this north-south mix is that both Telugu and
Urdu are official languages of Telangana.
• The mixing of religions has also resulted in many festivals being celebrated in
Hyderabad such as Ganesh Chaturthi ( Khairtabad Ganesh is one of the tallest Lord
Ganesh Idol installed at Khairtabad, Hyderabad, India ), Diwali and Bonalu of Hindu
tradition and Eid ul-Fitr and Eid al-Adha by Muslims. Traditional Hyderabadi garb
also reveals a mix of Muslim and South Asian influences with men wearing sherwani
and kurta– paijama and women wearing khara dupatta and salwar kameez. Muslim
women also commonly wear burqas and hijabs in public. In addition to the traditional
Indian and Muslim garments, increasing exposure to western cultures has led to a rise
in the wearing of western style clothing among youths.
• It was founded by Nawab Zafar Yar JungBahadur, a rich Nobleman member of the
Paigah Nobility and an astronomer and the Amir of the Khursheed Jahi Paigah in
Hyderabad in 1901 when he bought a 6-inch telescope from England. He installed it in
Phisal Banda Palace, Hyderabad (Now Deccan Medical College and Owaisi Hospital).

• He requested that it be called Nizamiah Observatory after the sixth Nizam of
Hyderabad, Mir Mahboob Ali Khan. Bahadur died in 1907 and requested that Nizam's
Government take over the Observatory. In accordance with his wishes, the
administration of the Observatory was taken over by the Finance Department of the
Nizam Government in 1908.
Hyderabad State Bank
• The bank was the central bank of the erstwhile Nizam state under the name Hyderabad
State Bank. It was established on 8 August 1941 under the Hyderabad State Bank Act,
during the reign of the last Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khan.
• The bank managed the Osmania Sicca, the currency of Hyderabad state, which covered
the present-day Telangana, some districts later known as Hyderabad-Karnataka of
Karnataka and Marathwada of Maharashtra. (At the time a number of the princely states
had their own currencies.) The bank also carried out commercial banking.
• The bank opened its first branch at Gunfoundry, Hyderabad on 5 April 1942. The
Imperial Bank of India, which had established a branch in Hyderabad in 1868 and
another in Secunderabad in 1906, provided officers and clerical staff in the initial
stages, and later provided training for new recruits.
• The first secretary of Hyderabad State Bank was Muhammad Saleh Akbar Hydari, son
of Sir Akbar Hydari. The gunfoundry building was designed by Mohammad
Fayazuddin, an alumnus of Architectural Association School of Architecture, London.
Osmania University
• Osmania University is a collegiate public state university located in Hyderabad,
Telangana, India. Mir Osman Ali Khan, the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad, issued a firman
calling for its creation on 29 August 1917.
• It is the third oldest university in southern India, and the first to be established in the
erstwhile Kingdom of Hyderabad.
• It was the first Indian university to use Urdu as a language of instruction,although with
English as a compulsory subject. As of 2012, the university hosts 3,700 international
students from more than 80 nations.
• Osmania is one of the largest university systems in the world with over 300,000 students
on its campuses and affiliated colleges.
• The Osmania Medical College was once a part of the Osmania University System.
• However, it is now under the supervision of Kaloji Narayana Rao University of Health
Sciences.
Darul Shifa
• Dar-ul-Shifa is one part of the Old City of Hyderabad, India,named after the 16th-
century hospital it once housed.

• The location was founded in AD 1591, more than 400 years ago, by Mohammed Quli
Qutub Shah, the founder of Hyderabad city.
• Today it houses a large population of Shia Muslims and comes alive on the days of
Muharram and Shia festivals.
• Most of the households have family members settled abroad, and whose remittances
increase the quality of life.
• In Arabic, and derived from it in Urdu, Turkish and Persian, dar al-shifa means "house
of health", i.e. "hospital".
• The name of the location is derived from the fact that initially the area was popularly
known for its hospital. Dar-ul-Shifa Hospital and Jama Masjid were built in the same
period as the Charminar monument-cum-mosque and the huge Makkah Masjid (Mecca
Mosque).
• Geographically, Dar-ul-Shifa lies in the south of Hyderabad city, on the banks of River
Musi. It lies under the Charminar Assembly Constituency. Historically it is one of the
old urban areas of Hyderabad; now it is part of the Old City of Hyderabad.
Jagannath Temple, Hyderabad
• The Jagannath Temple in Hyderabad, India,Telangana, is a modern temple built by the
Odia community of the city of Hyderabad dedicated to the Hindu God Jagannath.
• The temple located near Banjara hills Road no.12 (twelve) in Hyderabad is famous for
its annual Rath Yatra festival attended by thousands of devotees.
• Jagannath means Lord of the Universe.
• The temple which was constructed during 2009 recently lies in the Center of Hyderabad
City.
• It is said that this is a replica of the original Jagannath Temple of Puri (Odisha) in
context of design. The most attractive portion of this temple is its "Shikhara" (the
peak/top) measuring around 70 feet in height.
ARTS
• Hyderabad has continued with these traditions in its annual Hyderabad Literary
Festival, held since 2010, showcasing the city’s literary and cultural creativity.
Organisations engaged in the advancement of literature include the Sahitya Akademi,
the Urdu Academy, the Telugu Academy, the National Council for Promotion of Urdu
Language, the Comparative Literature Association of India, and the Andhra
Saraswata Parishad. Literary development is further aided by state institutions such
as the State Central Library, the largest public library in the state which was
established in 1891, and other major libraries including the Sri Krishna Devaraya
Andhra Bhasha Nilayam, the British Library and the Sundarayya Vignana Kendram.
South Indian music and dances such as the Kuchipudi and Kathakali styles are

popular in the Deccan region. As a result of their culture policies, North Indian music
and dance gained popularity during the rule of the Mughals and Nizams, and it was
also during their reign that it became a tradition among the nobility to associate
themselves with Tawaif (courtesans). These courtesans were revered as the epitome
of etiquette and culture and were appointed to teach singing, poetry and classical
dance to many children of the aristocracy. This gave rise to certain styles of court
music, dance and poetry. Besides western and Indian popular music genres such as
film music, the residents of Hyderabad play city-based Marfa music, dholak ke geet
(household songs based on local Folklore), and qawwali, especially at weddings,
festivals and other celebratory events. The state government organises the Golconda
Music and Dance Festival, the Taramati Music Festival and the Premavathi Dance
Festival to further encourage the development of music.
• Films in the local Hyderabadi dialect are also produced and have been gaining
popularity since 2005.The city has also hosted international film festivals such as the
International Children’s Film Festival and the Hyderabad International Film Festival
In 2005, Guinness World Records declared Ramoji Film City to be the world’s largest
film studio
• The red color of the temple is due to the usage of sandstone (around 600 tonnes were
brought from Odisha which is being used to build this whole architecture) and around
60 stone carvers got the blessing to carve this temple.
• There are shrines dedicated to Lakshmi, along with Shiva, Ganesh, Hanuman and
Navagrahas. The amorous sculptures are also found outside the temple to ward off evil
spirits. The sanctum sanctorum houses Lord Jagannath along with his siblings, Lord
Balabhadra and Devi Subhadra.
Raymond's tomb
• Raymond's tomb is the tomb of Michel Joachim Marie Raymond, a French general in
the army of 2nd Nizam - Nizam Ali Khan, Asaf Jah II.
• The tomb, located in Hyderabad, India is a black granite tombstone, conical, about 7
meters high and it has the initials JR on it. The pavilion was built by the Nizam and
collapsed in October 2001 in heavy rain.
Rashtrapati Nilayam
• Rashtrapati Nilayam (literally the "President's House") formerly known as Residency
House is the official winter retreat of the President of India located in Hyderabad,
Telangana.
• Rashtrapati Nilayam was officially opened to the public in March 2023, allowing
visitors to explore its vast grounds, thematic gardens, and architectural marvels.
• The President stays here for at least two weeks during their winter sojourn visit and
conducts official business.
• It is also used as a guest house for visiting dignitaries. It is located in Bollaram in
Secunderabad, a neighborhood of Hyderabad.
• Originally called the Residency House, it was constructed in 1860 by Nizam Nazir-ud-
Dowla.It became the country house of the British Resident at Secunderabad. After the
Hyderabad state's integration into the Indian Union (Read Operation Polo) in 1948, it
became the President's retreat and used as the Southern Sojourn.
• The decision to open the estate to the general public marked a significant step in making
India's presidential history more accessible and engaging for a wider audience.
Salarjung Museum
• The Salar Jung Museum is an art museum located at Dar-ul-Shifa, on the southern bank
of the Musi River in the city of Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
• It is one of the notable National Museums of India.
• Originally a private art collection of the Salar Jung family, it was endowed to the nation
after the death of Salar Jung III.
• It was inaugurated on 16 December 1951.
• It has a collection of sculptures, paintings, carvings, textiles, manuscripts, ceramics,
metallic artifacts, carpets, clocks, and furniture from Japan, China, Burma, Nepal, India,
Persia, Egypt, Europe, and North America.
• It is one of the largest museums in the world.
Handicrafts
• The region is well known for its Golconda and Hyderabad painting styles which are
branches of Deccani painting. Developed during the 16th century, the Golconda style
is a native style blending foreign techniques and bears some similarity to the
Vijayanagara paintings of neighbouring Mysore. Significant use of luminous gold
and white colours is generally found in the Golconda style. The Hyderabad style
originated in the 17th century under the Nizams. Highly influenced by Mughal
painting, this style makes use of bright colours and mostly depicts regional landscape,
culture, costumes and jewellery.
• Cuisine Hyderabadi cuisine comprises a broad repertoire of rice, wheat and meat
dishes and theskilled use of various spices. Hyderabadi biryani and Hyderabadi
haleem, with their blend of Mughlai and Arab cuisines,have become iconic dishes of
India. Hyderabadi cuisine is highly influenced by Mughlai and to some extent by
French, Arabic, Turkish, Iranian and native Telugu and Marathwada cuisines. Other
popular native dishes include nihari, chakna, baghara baingan and the desserts qubani
ka meetha, double ka meetha and kaddu ki kheer (a sweet porridge made with sweet
gourd).
Telangana State Archaeological Museum

• Telangana State Archaeology Museum or Hyderabad Museum is a museum located in
Hyderabad, India. It is the oldest museum in Hyderabad.
• Archaeologist Henry Cousens first explored the site in the beginning of the 19th
century, and around 1940 the mound was excavated under the supervision of Nizam of
Hyderabad.
• The excavated items were placed in a museum built on the ancient site. In 1952, the
museum's contents were moved to the current building, under the administrative control
of the Archaeological Survey of India.
• In 1930, (Nizam VII) Mir Osman Ali Khan, who wanted to preserve Hyderabad's state's
heritage, had named the museum as Hyderabad Museum.
• It was named as Andhra Pradesh State Archaeology Museum in 1960.
• In 2008, a sword belonging to the Nizam and other artifacts were stolen from the
museum.
• After the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana in 2014, the museum was
renamed Telangana State Archeology Museum.
PALACES IN HYDERABAD
Purani Haveli Palace

• Purani Haveli, also known as Masarrat Mahal palace, is a palace located in Hyderabad,
Telangana, India. It was the official residence of the Nizam. It was also known as Haveli
Khadeem, which means old mansion, was constructed for Sikander Jah, Asaf Jah III by
his father Ali Khan Bahadur, Asaf Jah II.
• The second Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Nizam Ali Khan had taken over this from
Rukunudhaulah of the Momin dynasty, in 1717. The main building is a symbol of 18th-
century European architecture.
• His successor Sikander Jah lived here for some time and later shifted to Chowmahalla
Palace. Due to this, these buildings are called Purani Haveli.
• In this building complex, Ayina Khaana madam (Mirror House) and Chini Khaana
(Chinese Glass House) were constructed.
• The sixth and seventh Nizams were born at this palace, and did spend a part of their life
at this palace.
• Now the South Zone Deputy Commissioner of Police (Hyderabad) and South Zone
Task Force Police Addl DCP offices are being functioned here.
Falaknuma Palace
• Falaknuma is a palace in Hyderabad, Telangana, India. It originally belonged to the
Paigah family, and was later owned by the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• It is on a hillock and covers a 13-hectare (32-acre) area in Falaknuma, 5 kilometers (3.1
mi) from Charminar.

• Built by Nawab Sir Viqar-ul-Umra, Prime Minister of Hyderabad and the uncle &
brother-in-law of the sixth Nizam. Falak-numa means "Like the Sky" or "Mirror of Sky"
in Urdu.
• In 2000, Taj Hotels started renovating and restoring the palace. The renovated hotel was
opened in November 2010.
Chowmahalla Palace
• Chowmahalla Palace or Chowmahallat is the palace of the Nizams of Hyderabad State
located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
• It was the seat of power of the Asaf Jahi dynasty (1720-1948) and was the official
residence of the Nizams of Hyderabad during their reign.
• Presently the palace is converted into a museum but the ownership still lies with the
family.
• The palace is constructed at the location of earlier existing palaces of the Qutb Shahi
Dynasty and Asaf Jahi Dynasty close to the Charminar. Construction of the palace as it
stands today was started by Nizam Ali Khan Asaf Jah II in 1769.
• He ordered to build four palaces from which the nomenclature of Chau Mahalla was
acquired.The word chār or chahār, and its variation chow, means "four" and the word
mahal means "palace" in Urdu, Hindi and Persian.
• While Salabat Jung initiated its construction in 1750, it was completed by the period of
Afzal ad-Dawlah, Asaf Jah V between 1857 and 1869.
• The palace is unique for its style and elegance. Construction of the palace began in the
late 18th century and over the decades a synthesis of many architectural styles and
influences emerged.
• The palace consists of two courtyards as well as the grand Khilwat (the Darbar Hall),
fountains and gardens.
• The palace originally covered 45 acres (180,000 m2), but only 12 acres (49,000 m2)
remain today.
Bella Vista
• Bella Vista is a royal palace of the Nizam during the existence of Hyderabad State, now
located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India.It is an Indo-European building standing on a
10-acre (40,000 m2) verdant campus.
• The building's French architect named it Bella Vista, meaning beautiful sight, since it
overlooks the Hussain sagar lake. It is located in the Saifabad suburb and is modeled
on the Henley-on-Thames of England.
• Muslehuddin Mohammed, bar-at-law, became Chief Justice of the High Court of
Hyderabad and was given the title Hakim-ud-Dowla. He constructed the palace as his
residence in 1905.

• He lived there from 1905 to 1914 when he fell victim to plague at the age of 57. On his
death in 1916, the family decided to sell the palace.
• The last Nizam purchased it, along with furniture, for Rs 60,000 in 1917.
• It was in this palace that the elder son of the Seventh Nizam-Mir Osman Ali Khan who
was heir apparent to the throne of Hyderabad - Prince of Berar, Azam Jah lived with his
wife, Princess Durru Shehvar.

QUESTION & ANSWERS
Q.1) Examine the dynamics of migration trends in Telangana, with a special emphasis
on the city of Hyderabad
Introduction Migration trends in Telangana, particularly in the city of Hyderabad,

reflect a complex interplay of economic, social, and demographic
factors that shape the urban landscape of the region. Hyderabad, as
a major urban center, attracts a diverse migrant population from
within the state and across the country, influencing various aspects
of urbanization and social dynamics
Body Migration Patterns in Telangana

 The 2011 census revealed a significant number of migrants
in Telangana, with over 16.9 million people having moved
within the state. Interestingly, marriage is a major driver of
migration, accounting for nearly 32% of all internal
movement. Employment opportunities are another
significant factor, attracting 10.8% of migrants.
Destinations for Migrants:
 Rangareddy and Hyderabad districts are the top magnets for
migrants seeking a better life. Other districts like
Mahabubnagar, Karimnagar, Nalgonda, and Warangal also
see a good influx of people. Conversely, Nizamabad,
Adilabad, and Khammam districts have witnessed lower
levels of migration.
Hyderabad: A City on the Rise
 Since becoming the capital of Andhra Pradesh in 1956,
Hyderabad has experienced a population boom driven by
internal migration. The city's population grew from a mere 3
lakh in 1921 to a staggering 3 million by 1981, primarily due
to people seeking better opportunities and a higher standard
of living. By 2001, this figure had further risen to 5.7 million,
and today, Hyderabad's estimated population due to
migration and other factors stands at around 10 million.
Reasons for Migration to Hyderabad

Several factors contribute to Hyderabad's dominance as a migration
magnet
 Rich History and Legacy: Boasting a rich history spanning
over 400 years, Hyderabad was once India's largest princely
state. This heritage continues to attract people.
 Economic Hub: The city serves as a hub for numerous
global software companies, pharmaceutical industries, and
various other sectors. This economic dynamism is a major
pull factor, particularly for rural-to-urban migration.

 Education and Knowledge Center: Numerous educational
institutions and coaching centers attract students not only
from Telangana but also from across the country to
Hyderabad.
 Social Mobility: Compared to many rural areas in the state,
Hyderabad offers a relatively more open and progressive
social environment.
 Thriving Film Industry: The presence of a flourishing film
industry also contributes to Hyderabad's allure.
 Top-Class Healthcare: The city boasts world-class
hospitals with affordable medical care, attracting patients not
just from within India but also internationally
Challenges and Opportunities:

 Urban challenges such as housing shortages, traffic
congestion, and pressure on public amenities arise due to the
rapid influx of migrants into Hyderabad.
 However, this migration also presents opportunities for
economic growth, innovation, and cultural exchange,
fostering a dynamic environment that drives urban
development.
Conclusion The dynamics of migration trends in Telangana, particularly in

Hyderabad, underscore the transformative impact of migration on
urbanization, economy, and society. Understanding these dynamics
is crucial for policymakers to formulate sustainable development
strategies that leverage the opportunities presented by migration
while addressing its associated challenges effectively.
Q.2) Elucidate the geographical factors responsible for variation in population density
in Telangana
Introduction Population density, the number of people per unit area, varies across
Telangana due to several geographical factors that influence
settlement patterns, economic activities, and resource availability.
Body Factors Responsible for Variation in Population Density in

Telangana
 Terrain and Topography: The state's diverse terrain,
ranging from the Deccan Plateau in the west to the Eastern
Ghats in the east, influences population density. Flatter
regions with better agricultural land tend to have higher
population densities, while hilly and forested areas have
lower densities.
 Climate and Natural Resources: The climate and
availability of natural resources play a role in determining
population density. Areas with favorable climate and
abundant natural resources, such as water bodies, support
higher population densities.
 Accessibility and Infrastructure: The availability of
transportation infrastructure and urbanization levels also
impact population density. Areas with better accessibility
and infrastructure tend to have higher population densities.
 Social and Economic Factors: Cultural practices,
economic opportunities, and historical settlement patterns
can influence population density. For example, areas with a
high concentration of agricultural land or industrial centers
may have higher population densities
 District-wise Variation: The population density in
Telangana varies significantly across its districts. For
instance, Mulugu district has the lowest density of 71 per
square kilometer, while Hyderabad, the state capital, has a
density of 18,161 per square kilometre
Urbanization and Industrialization:
 Hyderabad Metropolitan Region (HMR): Hyderabad, the
capital city, and its surrounding areas experience a high
population density due to its status as a major administrative,
commercial, and industrial center. This region attracts
people seeking employment opportunities, educational
institutions, and better living standards.
 Emerging Industrial Hubs: Other industrial hubs like
Warangal, Ramagundam, and Karimnagar are witnessing
population growth due to job creation and associated
economic activities.

Conclusion Telangana's population distribution reflects the complex interplay of
geographical factors. A combination of topography, climate, water
resources, and the presence of urban and industrial centers shapes
the population density across the state. Understanding these
variations is crucial for policymakers to address regional disparities
and promote balanced development across Telangana.
Q.3) Discuss the impact of coal-based power plants on the environment of Telangana
and its mitigative measures
Introduction Coal-based power plants play a significant role in meeting the

energy demands of Telangana, but they also have adverse
environmental impacts. Understanding these impacts and
implementing mitigative measures is crucial for sustainable
development and environmental conservation in the region.
Body Environmental Impacts:

 Air Pollution: Coal combustion releases harmful pollutants
like sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter
(PM). These pollutants contribute to acid rain, smog
formation, and respiratory illnesses in surrounding
communities.
 Water Pollution: Power plants require large amounts of
water for cooling purposes. This water can become
contaminated with thermal pollution (increased temperature)
and chemicals used in the cooling process. Discharge of this
polluted water can harm aquatic life and downstream water
quality.
 Land Degradation: Coal mining for fuel creates significant
environmental damage. It leads to deforestation, soil erosion,
and loss of biodiversity. Additionally, coal ash disposal
creates land pollution and can leach harmful chemicals into
groundwater.
 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Coal is a major source of
greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide
(CO2). These emissions contribute to climate change, global
warming, and associated environmental issues like extreme
weather events
Mitigative Measures:
 Adopting Cleaner Technologies: Investing in cleaner coal
technologies, such as fluidized bed combustion and high-
efficiency plants, can reduce air pollutant emissions.
Additionally, implementing flue-gas desulfurization (FGD)
systems can capture sulfur oxides from emissions.
 Promoting Renewable Energy Sources: Transitioning
towards renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and

geothermal can significantly reduce reliance on coal and its
associated environmental impacts.
 Improving Water Management: Implementing closed-
loop cooling systems or using recycled water can minimize
water consumption and reduce thermal pollution.
Additionally, treating wastewater before discharge can
ensure compliance with environmental regulations.
 Sustainable Coal Mining Practices: Adopting responsible
mining practices such as land reclamation and revegetation
can mitigate the environmental damage caused by coal
extraction. Effective coal ash management strategies are also
crucial to prevent land and water contamination.
 Emission Standards and Monitoring: Enforcing stricter
emission standards for coal-based power plants and
implementing continuous monitoring systems is essential to
ensure compliance.
 Promoting Energy Efficiency: Encouraging energy
conservation measures in industries and households can
reduce overall energy demand, leading to a lower reliance on
coal-based power generation.
Conclusion Coal-based power plants in Telangana have significant

environmental impacts, but mitigative measures can help minimize
these impacts and promote sustainable development. By adopting
cleaner technologies, promoting renewable energy, efficient water
management, afforestation, stringent regulations, and community
engagement, Telangana can mitigate the environmental impacts of
coal-based power plants and move towards a greener and more
sustainable energy future.
Q.4) Elaborate on the evolution of Telangana’s indigenous small-scale industries,

highlighting the significance of the region’s numerous Geographical Indication
(GI) Tagged products .”
Introduction Telangana's traditional cottage industries have a rich history, with

many products dating back centuries. These industries are
characterized by their unique craftsmanship, traditional techniques,
and local materials. The region's numerous GI tags highlight the
distinctiveness and quality of these products, providing legal
protection and economic prosperity to their traders.
Body Handloom and Textiles

 Pochampally Ikat Sarees (2005): Pochampally Ikat sarees,
characterized by their vibrant colors and geometric patterns,
have earned a GI tag, signifying their authenticity and origin.
 Siddipet Gollabhama Sarees (2012): Gollabhama sarees,
produced in Siddipet district, are known for their unique
motifs and traditional designs. These sarees, woven by
skilled artisans, carry a GI tag, ensuring their quality and
craftsmanship.
 Warangal Durries (2018): Warangal district is famous for
its durries, or cotton rugs, which are woven using traditional
handloom techniques. Warangal Durries, recognized with a
GI tag, are prized for their durability, intricate designs, and
vibrant colors.
Metal Handicrafts:
 Pembarthi Metal Craft (2010) is known for its exquisite
brassware, which includes beautifully crafted plates, bowls,
and other decorative items. This craft has a rich history and
is traditionally known for its intricate designs and patterns
 Karimnagar Silver Filigree (2007) is a delicate form of
metalwork made with silver. Artisans in Karimnagar create
intricate designs by twisting thin silver wire into delicate
loops, which are then soldered together to form various
objects like jewelry, utensils, and decorative items
Crafts and Artisans

 Nirmal Toys and Craft (2009): Nirmal Toys and Craft,
characterized by their intricate designs and vibrant colors,
have been granted a GI tag, recognizing their traditional
craftsmanship and cultural significance.
Lac Bangles of Hyderabad (2024) :
 The lac bangles, crafted from lacquer derived from resin,
undergo a meticulous process like being melted in furnaces
before being embellished with crystals, beads or
mirrors.This recognition highlights their unique
craftsmanship and historical significance, dating back to the
Qutub Shahi period
Challenges and Revival Efforts:

 Post-Independence Struggles: After independence, the rise
of mass-produced goods and changing consumer
preferences posed challenges to these traditional industries.
Many faced the risk of fading into oblivion.
 Government Initiatives and Skill Development:
Recognizing the importance of preserving these cultural
gems, the government launched initiatives like Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) and self-help groups. These
programs provided artisans with essential skills to adapt to
changing market demands.
Conclusion With continued government support, a focus on sustainable

practices, and the strategic use of GI tags, Telangana's cottage

industries are poised for a flourishing future. By empowering
artisans, preserving cultural heritage, and offering unique, high-
quality products, these industries can contribute significantly to the
state's economic and social development.
Q.5) Explore the current state of tourism in Telangana and analyze the efforts
undertaken to develop this sector in the state.
Introduction The tourism sector in Telangana is vibrant, offering a rich cultural

heritage, historical sites, and diverse natural beauty to visitors. The
state boasts a variety of tourist destinations, including waterfalls,
hills, forts, pilgrimage centers, handcrafts, festivals, wildlife
sanctuaries, zoological parks, and more. Hyderabad, the state
capital, remains a major attraction for tourists. Efforts have been
made to develop and promote tourism in Telangana through various
initiatives.
Body Current State of Tourism:

Strengths:
 Historical and Cultural Sites: Telangana is home to iconic
monuments like the Charminar and Golconda Fort, attracting
history and architecture enthusiasts. Religious sites like
Warangal Kakatiya Temple and Bhadrachalam Temple draw
pilgrims and spiritual seekers.
 Natural Beauty: The state boasts scenic landscapes,
including the Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjuna Sagar
Dam, and Papi Hills, offering opportunities for nature
enthusiasts and adventure seekers.
 Religious Tourism: The state is home to several renowned
religious sites, including the Bhadrachalam Temple,
Yadagirigutta Temple, and the historic temples of Warangal.
Religious tourism plays a vital role in attracting pilgrims and
tourists, contributing to the state's tourism revenue.
 Cultural Tourism: Telangana's vibrant culture, music,
dance forms like Kuchipudi and Perini, and festivals like
Bonalu and Bathukamma attract cultural enthusiasts and
tourists interested in experiencing the region's unique
traditions and customs
 Developing Infrastructure: Improved transportation
networks, including the Rajiv Gandhi International Airport
in Hyderabad, and the development of hospitality facilities
are making Telangana more accessible and comfortable for
tourists.

Weaknesses:
 Lack of Diversification: Tourism is heavily concentrated on
Hyderabad, neglecting the potential of other historical and
cultural sites across the state.
 Limited Marketing and Promotion: Telangana's tourism
potential requires more aggressive marketing and
promotional campaigns to attract domestic and international
tourists.
 Inadequate Infrastructure in Secondary Destinations:
Developing tourist infrastructure, including proper
accommodation, sanitation facilities, and signage, at lesser-
known destinations is crucial for a holistic tourism
experience.
 Skilled Manpower Shortage: A lack of adequately trained
manpower in the hospitality sector can hinder the quality of
services offered to tourists.
Efforts for Development:

The Telangana State Tourism Development Corporation (TSTDC)
plays a pivotal role in developing tourist infrastructure and
promoting tourism in the state
 Focus on Heritage Tourism: Efforts are underway to
restore and promote lesser-known historical and cultural
sites like Warangal Fort and Ramappa Temple, aiming to
diversify tourist destinations.
 Adventure Tourism Initiatives: The government is
promoting adventure tourism activities like rock climbing,
trekking, and water sports in areas like Pakhal Wildlife
Sanctuary and Nagarjuna Sagar, catering to a wider range of
tourists.

 Developing Eco-Tourism: Promoting eco-tourism projects
and sustainable practices in natural areas like Papi Hills and
Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary can attract nature lovers
and promote environmental awareness.
Conclusion Telangana's tourism sector possesses immense potential for growth.

By addressing existing weaknesses, focusing on infrastructure
development in emerging destinations, and promoting the state's
diverse offerings through effective marketing, Telangana can attract
a wider range of tourists and contribute significantly to its economic
development.
Q.6) Evaluate the transformation of Hyderabad from a traditional manufacturing city

to a global metropolis post-economic reform of 1991, emphasizing the role of IT
and pharmaceutical industries in reshaping its urban and economic landscape.
Introduction The post-economic reforms era, initiated in 1991, marked a

significant turning point, ushering in an age of liberalization,
privatization, and globalization that redefined the city's industrial
and urban landscape. Central to this transformation have been the IT
and pharmaceutical industries, which have played pivotal roles in
reshaping Hyderabad into a global city.
Body Pre-Economic Reforms Phase:

 Industrial Foundations: Prior to 1991, Hyderabad's
economy was characterized by the presence of major public
enterprises and industrial clusters in areas such as
Azamabad, Balanagar-Sanathnagar-Kukatpally, and
Ramachandrapuram-Patancheru. These laid the
groundwork for the city's industrial base.
 Urban Expansion: The city witnessed significant urban
growth, extending towards new industrial nuclei and
reaching a population milestone of over 1 million.
Post-Economic Reforms Phase:
 IT and Pharmaceutical Industries: The liberalization
policies catalyzed the growth of the IT and pharmaceutical
sectors. Hyderabad's strategic embrace of the IT revolution,
marked by the establishment of Cyber Towers in HITEC
City, positioned the city as a major IT hub. Similarly, the
pharmaceutical industry, concentrated in the North-Western
part of Hyderabad, emerged as India's prime region for
pharmaceutical production and exports.
 Infrastructure Development: The development of
infrastructure, including the Rajiv Gandhi International
Airport, Jawaharlal Nehru Outer Ring Road, and Special
Economic Zones (SEZs), facilitated the city's economic
growth and urban expansion. These developments attracted

investments, enhancing the real estate sector and
contributing to the urban sprawl.
Role of IT and Pharmaceutical Industries:
 Economic Contributions: The IT industry, alongside
pharmaceuticals, significantly contributed to Hyderabad's
GDP, export revenue, and employment generation. This
diversification of the economy from traditional
manufacturing to high-tech industries stimulated robust
economic growth.
 Urban Transformation: The rise of IT parks and
pharmaceutical campuses influenced the spatial dynamics of
Hyderabad, leading to the development of satellite towns and
residential areas catering to the workforce in these sectors.
This contributed to a more cosmopolitan urban fabric,
marked by modern amenities, gated communities, and
improved quality of life.
 Global Recognition: Hyderabad's emergence as a "Pharma
City" and an IT hub garnered international recognition,
attracting multinational corporations, fostering global
partnerships, and positioning the city as a destination for
talent and investment on the world stage.
Conclusion The economic reforms of 1991 served as a catalyst for Hyderabad's

transformation from a traditional manufacturing stronghold to a
global metropolis, emphasized by the flourishing IT and
pharmaceutical industries. As Hyderabad continues to evolve, the
foundational role of these sectors in propelling the city onto the
global stage remains a testament to the transformative power of
economic liberalization and strategic urban planning.
Q.7) Explain the impact of the Hyderabad Metro Rail Project on urban mobility and
environmental sustainability in Hyderabad, with a focus on its unique features and
advantages.
Introduction The Hyderabad Metro Rail Project, embarked upon as the world's
largest mass transit endeavor in a Public-Private Partnership (PPP)
model, epitomizes a monumental shift in urban mobility and
environmental sustainability in Hyderabad. This project not only
facilitates efficient urban transportation but also significantly
contributes to the reduction of the city's carbon footprint through its
eco-friendly operations.
Body Project Overview and Unique Features:

 Launched on 26 April 2012, the Hyderabad Metro Rail
(HMR) project, with an estimated cost of Rs. 14,132 crore,
showcases state-of-the-art infrastructure including the

Design, Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer (DBFOT)
model.
 The HMR system, built by L&T (Larsen & Toubro),
features three corridors and 66 stations, implementing the
Communication Based Train Control (CBTC)
technology for the first time in India, ensuring high safety
and operational efficiency.
 Unique aspects like video surveillance in coaches, CCTV at
stations, elegant air-conditioned coaches, and sophisticated
smart card access underscore its commitment to safety,
comfort, and security.
Impact on Urban Mobility:
 HMR has transformed the urban landscape by offering a
high-capacity, efficient alternative to conventional road
transport, capable of transporting about 50,000 passengers in
one direction per hour, thereby decongesting city roads.
 The strategic placement of stations and integration with
existing transport systems like MMTS enhances connectivity
and accessibility, significantly reducing travel time for
commuters.
 The project's focus on accessibility and user-friendly
features, such as the largest elevated station at Ameerpet,
highlights its role in making urban transit more inclusive and
efficient.
Environmental Sustainability:
 By prioritizing eco-friendly operations, HMR contributes to
the reduction of air and noise pollution in Hyderabad. The
use of electric-powered trains drastically cuts down on the
emission of greenhouse gases compared to the city's road-
based transportation.
 The project promotes a shift from private vehicle use to
public transit, further aiding in the reduction of the city's
overall carbon footprint and promoting sustainable urban
living.
 The establishment of green infrastructure around metro
stations and the implementation of energy-efficient systems
within the metro rail operations align with global
sustainability goals.
Advantages and Achievements:
 HMR has been recognized with over 200 national and
international awards, including the "Best Urban Mass
Transit Project," highlighting its excellence in design,
operation, and contribution to urban development.
 The introduction of features like dedicated women's
stations and the largest elevated station in India at

Ameerpet demonstrates HMR's innovative approach to
urban mass transit.
Conclusion The Hyderabad Metro Rail Project stands as a beacon of modern

urban mobility and environmental stewardship, dramatically
reshaping Hyderabad's urban and economic landscape. Its
innovative features, coupled with its significant environmental
advantages, set a benchmark for sustainable urban transit solutions
worldwide. As the city moves towards a greener and more connected
future, the Hyderabad Metro Rail Project will continue to play a
pivotal role in defining the contours of sustainable urban
development.
Q.8) Evaluate the effectiveness of the Telangana Electric Vehicle Policy (2020-2030) in
promoting sustainable transportation and reducing carbon emissions in the state.
Introduction The Telangana Electric Vehicle Policy (2020-2030) represents a

significant step forward in the state's commitment to sustainable
transportation and environmental conservation. This policy is
designed to transition Telangana towards electric mobility, aiming to
reduce carbon emissions, promote electric vehicle (EV)
manufacturing, and establish a comprehensive EV ecosystem.
Body Policy Framework and Objectives:

 The policy envisions transforming Telangana into a hub for
Electric Vehicles and Energy Storage Systems (EV&ESS)
by facilitating private investments, encouraging Research &
Development, and bolstering manufacturing capabilities.
 Aiming for a holistic approach, it not only focuses on
promoting EV manufacturing but also emphasizes demand
creation through incentives for both individuals and
businesses, aiming to decrease the total cost of personal and
commercial transportation.
Incentives and Support:
 On the supply side, the policy extends benefits from the
Electronics Policy 2016 to EV&ESS sectors, offering
subsidies and incentives. Tailor-made benefits are available
for mega and strategic projects, demonstrating the
government's flexibility in attracting significant investments.
 Demand-side incentives include attractive schemes for
electric two-wheelers, three-seaters, electric four-wheelers,
buses, and tractors, making EV adoption financially
appealing for consumers.
Charging Infrastructure Development:
 Recognizing the critical need for accessible EV-charging
infrastructure, the policy outlines support measures for the
development of charging stations in Hyderabad and other

urban centers, ensuring EV users have convenient access to
charging facilities.
Environmental Impact:
 By encouraging a shift from Internal Combustion Engine
(ICE) vehicles to EVs, the policy aims to significantly reduce
the emission of greenhouse gases and pollutants,
contributing to cleaner air and a healthier environment.
 The emphasis on EVs aligns with global trends towards
reducing reliance on fossil fuels, positioning Telangana as a
leader in sustainable urban mobility in India.
Conclusion The Telangana Electric Vehicle Policy (2020-2030) is a forward-

thinking initiative that positions the state as a pioneer in the adoption
of electric mobility and sustainable transportation. If effectively
implemented, this policy will not only contribute to environmental
sustainability but also spur economic growth and innovation in the
EV sector, setting a commendable example for other states to follow.

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TGPSC - Group-1 (Material)

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 1 )

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 5 )

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 6 )

2. The Northern Plains

3. The Peninsular Plateau

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 8 )

(ii) The Central Highlands

(iii) The Northeastern Plateau

4. The Indian Desert

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2. The Eastern Coastal Plains

6. The Islands of India

● Andaman Islands: Located in

Himalayan Drainage System

Main Tributaries of Indus River

Beas ● Origin – Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass (Himachal Pradesh).

Ravi ● Origin – West of Rohtang Pass, Killu Hills (Himachal Pradesh).

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 16 )

Chenab ● Origin – Baralacha Pass (Himachal Pradesh).

Right and Left bank tributaries of the Indus River

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 17 )

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 18 )

Left Bank Tributaries

Ghaghara River ● It is a perennial transboundary river. The Ghaghara originates in the

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 19 )

Kosi River ● The Kosi is an antecedent river.

3. The Brahmaputra River System

● Major left-bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra river – Burhi-Dihing and Dhansiri.

Peninsular Drainage System

A. Major West Flowing Peninsular Rivers

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 21 )

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 22 )

B. Major East Flowing Peninsular Rivers

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 23 )

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 24 )

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 25 )

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 26 )

Mechanism of weather in the winter season

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 28 )

2. Jet streams and upper air circulation

3. Easterly jet streams and tropical cyclones

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 29 )

Monsoons [Onset and Withdrawal]

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 31 )

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 32 )

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 33 )

2. The Hot Weather Season(Summer)

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 34 )

3. South-West Monsoon Season(Rainy Season)

1. The Arabian sea branch

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 35 )

4. Retreating Monsoon Season

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 36 )

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

Koppen’s classification of the Indian climate

Call: 9392957733 KPSIR UPSC Universe - ( 37 )

Code Climate type Regions of India

Aw Tropical Savanna Most of the peninsular plateaus, south of

As Tropical moist Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu