Charting and Diagramming

Techniques for Operations

Analysis

1 Overview of Charting and Diagramming Techniques

2 Network Diagrams
3 Traditional Industrial Engineering Charting and Diagramming Techniques
3.1 Operation Charts
3.2 Process Charts
3.3 Flow Diagrams
3.4 Activity Charts
4 Block Diagrams and Process Maps
4.1 Block Diagrams
4.2 Process Maps

Charting and diagramming techniques are useful for analyzing a work process because
they graphically illustrate and summarize the activities in that process. Several charting
and diagramming techniques include:

• Network diagrams for depicting work flow in sequential operations

• From-To charts for indicating material flows and/or distances among workstations
or departments
• Precedence diagrams for assembly line balancing
• Gantt charts and network diagrams for scheduling projects

This chapter discusses the important charting and diagramming techniques used in meth-
ods engineering and operations analysis.

From Chapter 9 of Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work, First Edition.
Mikell P. Groover. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All
rights reserved.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

1 OVERVIEW OF CHARTING AND DIAGRAMMING TECHNIQUES

Charting and diagramming techniques are intended to graphically display relationships
among the various entities included in the graphic. Objectives in using charts and dia-
grams to study work include the following:
1. To permit work processes to be communicated and comprehended more readily
2. To allow the use of algorithms specifically designed for the particular diagram-
ming technique
3. To divide a given work process into its constituent elements for analysis purposes
4. To provide a structure in the search for improvements
5. To represent a proposed new work process or method
In this chapter, the charting and diagramming techniques for operations analysis
are classified into three categories: (1) network diagrams, (2) traditional industrial engi-
neering charts and diagrams, and (3) block diagrams and process maps.
How does the analyst create the chart or diagram for the process of interest? Any
of four methods or combinations thereof can be used to develop a description of the work
process that is ultimately used to create the graphic:
• The analyst is intimately familiar with the process. In this case, the analyst works in
the area and already knows how the process works. The analyst develops a graphic
of the process and asks others who are also familiar with it to review it.
• The analyst observes and records information about the process. The analyst spends
the time necessary to observe and understand the process, develops a chart or dia-
gram of the process, and asks others familiar with it to react to it.
• One-on-one interviews of those familiar with the process. The analyst conducts a
series of one-on-one interviews of the people who are intimately familiar with the
process.A graphical depiction of the process is developed based on the interviews
and subjected to review by the interviewees.
• Group interviews of those familiar with the process. The analyst asks those who
understand the process to participate in a group meeting and describe it. A
skilled facilitator may be used to elicit input from the participants. The analyst
records the discussion of the meeting and develops a graphical model of the
process. The analyst then asks the participants to review it. The advantage of a
group meeting is that the participants can challenge each other, thus ultimately
developing a more accurate picture of the actual process.
Once the chart or diagram is created, how is it analyzed? Again, there is more than
one approach:
• Algorithmic. The specific algorithm for the particular diagram is used. Examples
include line balancing algorithms for assembly lines and critical path methods for
project scheduling.
• Checklists. In this case, the analyst reviews a series of general questions to assess
whether they can be applied to the particular problem of interest.We offer a num-
ber of these checklist questions in Section 3.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

• Brainstorming. This is a group or team activity in which participants contribute

recommendations about potential improvements in the process.
• Separating value-added and non-value-added operations. This approach attempts
to distinguish between those steps in the process that actually add value to the
product or service from the customer’s viewpoint and those that do not. Value-
added steps are operations that (1) the customer considers important and
(2) physically change the product or service. Potential non-value-added opera-
tions include rework, delays, unnecessary inspections, and unnecessary moves.

2 NETWORK DIAGRAMS
A network diagram consists of (1) nodes representing operations, work elements, or
other entities and (2) arrows connecting the nodes indicating relationships among the
nodes. When used in the context of work systems analysis, the arrows usually indicate
either direction of work flow between nodes or precedence order among them, and the
nodes represent work activities (e.g., operations, work elements, tasks).
The network diagram is used to model work flow between operations. In this case,
the nodes are processing operations and the arrows indicate the sequence in which the
operations are performed and the direction of work transport. A network diagram is
used to model the precedence order in which work elements must be performed in
assembly operations. Called a precedence diagram, nodes represent the assembly work
elements, and arrows indicate the sequence in which the elements must be performed.
Critical path method (CPM) and program evaluation and review technique (PERT) dia-
grams are network diagrams used to schedule the work activities in a project. The meth-
ods for analyzing the various network diagrams differ for the different applications,
but the same basic format is used in constructing the diagrams.
For network diagrams with two-way flows between nodes (e.g., materials moving in
both directions between two departments), the maximum number of arrows is given by

Maximum number of arrows possible ⫽ n 1 n ⫺ 1 2 (1)

where n ⫽ number of nodes in the diagram. For network diagrams containing only
one-way arrows (e.g., arrows indicating precedence order of work elements or activi-
ties), the maximum possible number of arrows between nodes in the network is given
by the following:

n1n ⫺ 1 2
Maximum number of arrows possible ⫽ (2)
2
Most network diagrams have fewer than the maximum values given by these equations.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

3 TRADITIONAL INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING CHARTING

AND DIAGRAMMING TECHNIQUES
The charts and diagrams discussed in this section are commonly used to analyze an exist-
ing operation, sequence of operations, or other work activity for the purpose of making
improvements. The underlying assumption is that by examining the work situation in
detail, and subjecting the details to critical scrutiny, improvements can be found more
readily than through macroscopic examination. The possible improvements include
reducing cycle time and cost, eliminating unnecessary steps, mitigating safety hazards,
and improving product quality. In addition to analyzing existing operations, the charts
and diagrams can also be used to present proposals for new ways of accomplishing the
same operations, or to design new operations that have never been implemented before.
There are many charting and diagramming techniques that have been developed
over the years within the discipline of industrial engineering. For purposes of organization,
we classify them into the following four major categories: (1) operation charts,
(2) process charts, (3) flow diagrams, and (4) activity charts.1 Each of these techniques
provides a graphical and symbolic means of visualizing the work situation for better under-
standing of its scope and details. The differences relate to the levels of detail and how the
work situation is represented graphically.Also, within a given category there may be vari-
ations in format and symbols depending on the subject of the analysis, for example, whether
the purpose of the analysis is to study a material or to study a human worker.
In addition to these four categories of charting and diagramming techniques, the
Gantt chart is a charting tool associated with traditional industrial engineering that is
used in production control and project scheduling.

3.1 Operation Charts

The operation chart is a graphical and symbolic representation of the operations used
to produce a product. There are two types of operations in an operation chart: (1) pro-
cessing and assembly operations, and (2) inspection operations.The operation chart can
also be used to analyze the steps involved in the delivery of a service, but this applica-
tion of the chart is far less common. As shown in Figure 1, the operation chart consists
of a series of vertical stems, each one depicting the sequence of operations and inspec-
tions performed on a given component of the product.The operation chart uses only two
symbols (for operation and inspection), which are defined in Table 1. At the top of each
stem is the starting material or purchased part, and the steps performed on it are indi-
cated by symbol and brief description. The time to accomplish the operation (e.g., stan-
dard time) is also sometimes included.As each component is completed, it is assembled
to other components toward the right. The column at the far right usually represents
the base part or chassis of the assembly. It is the component to which all other parts in
the chart are joined.
Developing the detailed listing of operations for the components and their assem-
bly into the final entity (e.g., product, subassembly) is only the first step in the opera-
tion chart analysis.The second step involves examination of the chart to discover possible

1
There is considerable variation in some of the terminology among different authors, and we have attempted
to rationalize and abbreviate the terms. Where appropriate, we identify the alternative names of the charts.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

Bracket Frame Motor Power cord

Sheet metal Sheet metal Purchased Purchased

Blank Blank Unpack Unpack

Pierce Pierce Inspect Inspect

Bend Notch Separate leads

Nickel plate Bend

Assemble leads to motor

Nickel plate

Assemble

Assemble motor to bracket

Inspect and test

Figure 1 An operation chart for the subassembly of a product.

TABLE 1 Symbols Used in Operation Charts

Symbol Letter Description

䊊 O Processing or assembly operation. Processing operations consist of changing the

shape, properties, or surface of a material or workpart. Assembly operations join
two or more parts to form an assembly.
䊐 I Inspection operation. An inspector checks the material, workpart, or
assembly for quality or quantity.

improvements. Because the focus of the operation chart is on the materials of a prod-
uct and the operations performed on them, the examination step consists of a ques-
tioning procedure aimed at the materials and operations.A systematic approach includes
questions such as those offered in the checklist of Table 2. The third step in the use of
the operation chart for an existing work situation is to develop proposals for improve-
ment based on the results of the questioning procedure.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

TABLE 2 Checklist of Questions Used to Analyze an Operation Chart

Questions related to material

What alternative starting material could be used (e.g., plastic rather than metal)?
Would a design change allow the part to be purchased as a standard commercially available item?
Could the functions of several separate components be combined into one component through a design change?
Make or buy decision: should this part be produced in our own factory or purchased from an outside vendor?
Question related to processing or assembly operations
What is the purpose of each processing operation?
Is the processing operation necessary?
Can operations be eliminated, combined, or simplified?
Is the operation time too high?
Could the processing operation be automated?
Could a different joining method be used for assembly (e.g., snap fit rather than threaded fasteners to save time)?
Questions related to inspection operations
What is the purpose of the inspection operation?
Is the inspection operation necessary?
Can the inspection operation be combined with the preceding processing or assembly operation?
If the operation is performed 100%, could it be performed on a sampling basis to reduce inspection time?
Could the inspection operation be automated?

3.2 Process Charts

A process chart is a graphical and symbolic representation of the processing activities
performed on something or by somebody.The chart consists of a vertical list of the steps
performed on or by the work entity using various symbols to represent operations,
inspections, moves, delays, and other activities. The principal types of process chart are:
(1) the flow process chart, used to analyze a material or workpiece being processed, (2)
the worker process chart, used to analyze a worker performing a process, and (3) the form
process chart, used to analyze the processing of paperwork forms. These charts are
described in the following sections.

Flow Process Chart. The flow process chart uses five symbols, as defined in
Table 3 to detail the work performed on a material or work part as it is being processed
through a sequence of operations and other activities.2 Either iconic symbols or letter
symbols can be used in constructing the chart, depending on the analyst’s preference.
The characteristic features of the flow process chart are shown in Figure 2. Alternative
formats are possible, such as the standardized form shown in Figure 3.
The operation and inspection symbols are sometimes combined if the processing step
includes a processing operation combined with an inspection at the same workstation—
for example, a worker buffing a part and periodically checking its luster. In this case, the
symbol consists of a circle inside a square, with the diameter of the circle equal to the
side of the square.3 Significantly more detail about the steps required to process a material

2
Other names for the flow process chart include process chart-product analysis [7].
3
The reverse of this format is also used in the charting literature, in which a square is positioned inside a cir-
cle to represent the combination of operation and inspection.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

TABLE 3 Symbols Used in the Flow Process Chart

Symbola Letter Description

䊊 O Operation, usually a processing operation performed on the material at one

location or workstation in which the physical shape or chemical characteristics of the
material are changed. Assembly operations are unusual in a flow process chart.
䊐 I Inspection, either to check for quality or quantity, performed at a single location
or workstation.
→ M Move that involves transport of the material from one location to another, but
not including moves within an operation at a workstation.
D D Delay that occurs when the material does not or cannot proceed to the next
activity—for example, a material waiting to be processed at a workstation, but
other materials are ahead of it.
䉮 S Storage in which the material is kept in a protected location to prevent
unauthorized removal. Storage usually involves the use of a requisition to withdraw
from storage, whereas a delay does not involve such a transaction.
a
Based on symbols developed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). A simple arrow (→) has been
substituted for the ASME move symbol (⇒) for ease of drawing.

is provided in the flow process chart than in the operation chart. Consequently, this chart-
ing technique is used to study only a single material or work part rather than the multiple
components of an assembly. For each symbol, a brief description of the work activity is
listed in the flow process chart. In addition, the chart also indicates the distances for move
activities and times for the other activities. The time values may be especially relevant for
operations, inspections, delays, and storages.
As in the operation chart, the flow process chart is examined for possible improve-
ments and savings. However, the emphasis in the questioning procedure is expanded
beyond the coverage of the operation chart because the details in the flow process chart
include more types of activities. In addition to the questions shown in Table 2, current
questions focus on moves, delays, and storages. Table 4 indicates the types of question
that the methods analyst would want to ask. (For completeness, we have included ques-
tions from Table 2 in this checklist for the flow process chart.)

Worker Process Chart. The worker process chart is used to analyze the activities
of a human worker as he or she performs a task that requires movement around a faci-
lity.4 The symbols are virtually the same as those appearing in Table 3, but they are inter-
preted in terms of what the human worker does rather than what is done to a material.
Table 5 summarizes the interpretations.The storage activity is difficult to interpret in the
context of human work activity, so it is omitted. Analysis of the worker process chart in
the search for improvements involves the same kinds of questions as in the flow process
chart, only in the context of the worker performing the task of interest.

Form Process Chart. The form process chart is used to analyze the flow of paper-
work forms and office procedures that normally involve the processing of documents.

4
Alternative names for the worker process chart include process chart-person analysis [7].

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Flow Process Chart

Part No. 459011 Material: Steel C1045 forging Description: Forgings processed in batches of 20
Seq. Activity Description Symbol Time Distance Analysis Notes
1 Forgings transported from forge shop 300 m Forklift truck
2 Inspection of incoming forgings 1 hr
3 Forgings moved and placed in storage 75 m Hand truck
4 Storage ⵜ 7 days Factory warehouse
5 Forgings retrieved from storage 75 m Hand truck
6 Transport to machine shop 180 m Forklift truck
7 Move to milling machine 20 m Hand truck
8 Delay in queue for milling machine 5 hr
9 Milling operation (roughing and finishing) 8 min/pc Milling Machine No. 573
10 Move to drill press 20 m Hand truck
11 Delay in queue for drill press 2 hr
12 Drilling and tapping operations (6 holes) 3 min/pc CNC Drill Press No. 226
13 Delay waiting for inspection 4 hr
14 Inspection for machining operations 0.2 hr
15 Delay waiting for transport to cleaning 3 hr
16 Transport to finishing department 75 m Forklift truck
17 Move to cleaning operation 10 m Hand truck
18 Delay in queue for cleaning operation 30 min
19 Cleaning operation (all parts in batch) 10 min Solvent clean tank
20 Move to nickel plate operation 15 m Hand truck
21 Delay in queue for nickel plate operation 45 min
22 Nickel plate operation (all parts in batch) 20 min Electroplating tank
23 Delay waiting for transport to storage 30 min
24 Transport to storage 200 m Forklift truck
25 Storage awaiting assembly ⵜ Factory warehouse

Figure 2 A flow process chart used to detail the steps in the processing of a material. In the example
shown, the material is a forging, and its processing consists of several machining operations,
cleaning, and electroplating, but much of its time is spent in transport, delays, and storage.

Activities that occur in form processing require a change in the interpretation of the
symbol.Additional symbols are also sometimes used to cover activities that are not asso-
ciated with process charts for materials and workers. Symbols that can be used for the
form process chart are presented and defined in Table 6.

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Date: Flow Process Chart Page of

Analyst: Approval: Summary of Activities
Job: Part No: Activity (symbols) Count Time Distances
Material: Operations ( , O)
Description: Inspections ( , I)
Moves ( , M)
Delays ( , D)
Storages (ⵜ, S)
Seq. Activity Description Symbol Time Distance Analysis Notes
1
2
3
4
5
6

Figure 3 A standardized form for the flow process chart that can be readily created using word
processing software.

3.3 Flow Diagrams

The flow diagram is a drawing of the facility layout but with the addition of lines
representing movement of materials or workers to specific locations in the facility.
Arrows are used on the lines to indicate the direction of movement. The flow diagram
is often used in conjunction with a process chart, especially when movement of the
material, worker, or form is a major factor in the analysis. An example of a flow dia-
gram for a setup worker is presented in Figure 4. When used in connection with a
process chart, the operations, inspections, delays, and storages at specific locations in
the layout can be identified by numbers that are referenced to the activity numbers
in the process chart.
The flow diagram reveals problems in the work flow that may not readily be iden-
tified using the process chart alone. For example, if the work flow involves considerable
backtracking, this can be seen in the flow diagram whereas it is indicated only as dis-
tances in the process chart. Other work flow problems may include excessive travel, pos-
sible traffic congestion, points where delays typically occur, and inefficient layout of
workstations.

3.4 Activity Charts

An activity chart is a listing of the work activities of one or more subjects (e.g., work-
ers, machines) plotted against a time scale to indicate graphically how much time is

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

TABLE 4 Checklist of Questions Used to Analyze a Flow Process Chart

Questions related to material

What alternative starting material could be used (e.g., plastic rather than metal)?
Would a design change allow the part to be purchased as a standard commercially available item?
Could the functions of several separate components be combined into one component through a design change?
Make or buy decision: should this part be produced in our own factory or purchased from an outside vendor?

Question related to processing operations

What is the purpose of each processing operation?

Is the processing operation necessary?
Can operations be eliminated, combined, or simplified?
Is the operation time too high?
Could the processing operation be automated?
Where else could this operation be performed to reduce move distances?

Questions related to inspection operations

What is the purpose of the inspection operation?

Is the inspection operation necessary?
Can the inspection operation be combined with the preceding processing operation?
If the operation is performed 100%, could it be performed on a sampling basis to reduce inspection time?
Could the inspection operation be automated?

Questions relating to moves

How can moves be shortened or eliminated by combining or eliminating operations?

Can the parts or materials be collected into larger unit loads to increase efficiency in material
handling?
What material handling equipment is used to transport materials? Can the level of mechanization be
increased (e.g., using forklift trucks rather than manually pushed dollies)?
Can the operation sequence be modified to reduce distances traveled?

Questions relating to delays

What is the reason for the delay? Can the reason be eliminated?
Is the delay avoidable?
Why can’t the material be started immediately at the next operation?

Questions relating to storage

Is the storage necessary?

Why can’t the material be moved immediately to the next operation?
Can just-in-time delivery be used to eliminate the storage (e.g., can the material received from the supplier be
moved immediately to the first operation after delivery rather than into storage)?

spent on each activity. The usual format is to provide brief descriptions of the activities
against a vertical time scale, as shown in Figure 5 for a single worker performing a
repetitive work cycle. Instead of using symbols for the work activities, as in the other
charting and diagramming techniques described previously, the activities are indicated
by vertical lines or bars. When bars are used, they are shaded or colored to indicate

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TABLE 5 Symbols Used in the Worker Process Chart

Symbol Letter Description

䊊 O Operation performed by a worker at a single location or workstation. The operation

may involve movements of materials within the workstation.
䊐 I Inspection, either to check for quality or quantity, performed by a worker at a single
location or workstation.
→ M Move in which the worker moves from one location to another as a regular element
required in the task. It does not include moves within a workstation.
D D Delay of the worker. Worker is forced by the situation to wait (e.g., waiting for an
elevator). The waiting may involve moving, but the move is not a regular element
required in the task (e.g., worker goes to the coffee machine while waiting for the elevator).

TABLE 6 Symbols Used in the Form Process Chart

Symbol Letter Description

ⴰ
䊊 C Creation of the form (circle in a circle). This symbol is used for the origination of the
form, when the form is first initiated.
䊊 O Operation performed on the form at a single location or workstation. The operation
may involve calculations, data entries, filling out forms, folding, photocopying, stapling,
assembling multiple forms into one document, etc.
䊐 I Inspection to read information from the form or check for correctness performed at a single
location or workstation.
→ M Movement of the form from one location to another by mail or human carrier.
D D Delay of the form. Form is waiting to be worked on, located in an in-basket or similar location
other than a storage file.
䉮 S Storage in a file, normally in a file cabinet or other organized filing system. This usually involves
storage for a considerable time period, rather than a temporary delay.
X X Disposal of the form. The form or a copy is destroyed.

the kind of activity being performed. Figure 6 indicates some possible shading and color
conventions.5
Activity charts usually have more than one time scale. In Figure 5 two time scales
are used, one for cumulative time during the work cycle and the second to indicate the
time taken for each work activity. When activity charts are used to track several partic-
ipants working together, the general name of the chart is a multiple-activity chart, which
consists of multiple columns, one for each participant. In this case, one time scale marks
cumulative time during the cycle and a separate time scale indicates activity times for
each of the columns.
There are a number of work situations in which the multiple-activity chart is useful
for analysis purposes. Because the situations involve multiple entities working together, a
common objective of using the chart is to analyze how the workload is coordinated and

5
There seems to be significant variation in shading and color conventions among different experts and authors,
and users are at liberty to develop their own conventions or color schemes to suit the purposes of their
respective studies.

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Milling machines

Work in
Tool crib process storage

Counter

Vending machines

Figure 4 Flow diagram for a worker setting up a milling machine in the milling
department. Note the large number of trips back and forth between
the milling machine and the tool crib, which suggests that the setup
worker’s task might be made more efficient if all of the items needed
for the setup were collected in one trip.

shared among them. The following is a listing of the major types of multiple-activity
charts:
• Right-hand/left-hand activity chart. This chart details the contributions of the
right and left hands of one worker performing a task that is highly repetitive. The
task is usually performed at a single workplace, and so the chart is sometimes re-
ferred to as a workplace activity chart. Figure 7 illustrates a right-hand/left-hand
activity chart for a task in which the worker is using his left hand as a workholder
while his right hand performs nearly all of the activities. A methods analyst would
seek to install a fixture to hold the work unit during the operation

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

Activity Description Chart Activity Time (min) Cumulative time (min)

Pick up plate from tote pan. 0.05
0.05
Carry plate to drill press and load. 0.07
0.10

Activate press. 0.03 0.15

Semiautomatic machine cycle. 0.20
0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35
Remove plate. 0.03
Carry to pallet container. 0.05 0.40

Place in pallet container. 0.02 0.45

Walk to tote pan. 0.05
0.50

Figure 5 Activity chart for one worker performing a repetitive task.

Shading Color Activity

Black Blue Operation: Performing an operation. Worker operating on or

handling material at workplace. Machine performing an
operation on automatic or mechanized cycle.

Gray Yellow Inspection: Worker performing an inspection, to check for

either quantity or quality.
White White (blank) Idle time: Worker or machine is idle, waiting, or stopped.
(blank)

Diagonal Green Moving: Worker walking outside immediate workplace

lines (e.g., to fetch tools or materials).

Horizontal Red Holding: Worker holding an object in fixed position without

lines performing any work on it.

Figure 6 Shading formats for activity charts.

and to achieve a more even balance of the workload between the right and left
hands.
• Worker-machine activity chart. As the name indicates, this chart shows how the
work elements and associated times are allocated between a worker and a machine
for the repetitive cycle of a worker-machine system. Like the right-hand/left-hand
activity chart, it consists of two main columns, one for the worker and the other
for the machine.The worker-machine activity chart can often help to identify oppor-
tunities for cycle time improvement, such as the replacement of external work ele-
ments by internal elements, where the worker and machine perform parallel rather
than sequential activities.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

Left Hand Time (min) Right Hand Cumulative time (min)

Pick up board 0.08 0.08
Hold board 0.06 Pick up peg and insert 0.14
Hold board 0.06 Pick up peg and insert 0.20
Hold board 0.06 Pick up peg and insert 0.26
Hold board 0.06 Pick up peg and insert 0.32
Hold board 0.06 Pick up peg and insert 0.38
Hold board 0.06 Pick up peg and insert 0.44
Hold board 0.06 Pick up peg and insert 0.50
Hold board 0.06 Pick up peg and insert 0.56
Put assembly in tote pan 0.06 0.62

Figure 7 Right-hand/left-hand activity chart.

Worker Time (min) Machine 1 Time Machine 2 Time Cumulative time (min)
Walks to machine 1 0.2
Services machine 1 0.3 Idle 0.3 0.5
Walks to machine 2 0.2 Automatic cycle
Services machine 2 Idle
0.3 0.3 1.0
Automatic cycle
0.5 1.5
Walks to machine 1 0.2 1.2
Services machine 1 Idle
0.3 0.3 2.0
Walks to machine 2 0.2 Automatic cycle 1.2
Services machine 2 Idle
0.3 0.3 2.5
Idle Automatic cycle
0.5 3.0
Walks to machine 1 0.2 1.2
Services machine 1 0.3 Idle 0.3 3.5
Walks to machine 2 0.2 Automatic cycle 1.2
Services machine 2 Idle
0.3 0.3 4.0

Figure 8 Worker-multimachine activity chart.

• Worker-multimachine activity chart. This chart is similar to the preceding except

that the worker is responsible for more than one machine, and a work cycle must
be developed that minimizes or eliminates machine interference (when one machine
must wait for service because the worker is currently servicing another machine).
Figure 8 illustrates the worker-multimachine activity chart for two machines. We
have previously referred to this worker-multimachine arrangement as a machine
cluster.
• Gang activity chart. Other names include gang chart and multiworker activity
chart. This chart tracks the activities of two or more workers performing together
as a team. Work situations involving the activities of a team or crew are often
somewhat complex. The purpose of the activity chart analysis is to better coordi-
nate the activities and balance the workload among the workers.

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4 BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND PROCESS MAPS

Several additional diagramming techniques are available to show the detailed steps and
work flow in a given process. They utilize labeled blocks and other objects, connected
by arrows, to indicate processes and their interrelationships. In this section, we describe
two types of diagramming techniques: block diagrams and process maps.

4.1 Block Diagrams

Block diagrams are commonly applied in linear control theory to portray the relation-
ships among components of a physical system or process. A simple example is illustrated
in Figure 9. In control system applications, arrows represent the flow of signals or vari-
ables between blocks, and blocks contain transfer functions that define how the input
signals are mathematically transformed into output signals. A transfer function is the
ratio of the output signal to the input signal.6 For example, the variable y in Figure 9
equals the variable x3 multiplied by the transfer function B.
In addition to blocks and arrows, two other operations are possible in block
diagrams. First, two or more separate variables can be summed algebraically using a
summing node, indicated by the circle enclosing a summation symbol in Figure 9. Thus,
the variable x2 is equal to x1 minus z. Second, any given signal can be used as an input
to more than one block. In Figure 9, the variable x3 is used as an input to blocks B and C.
The operation is called a takeoff point, shown in the diagram as a large dot between
blocks A and B.
In linear control theory and other physical system applications, a form of algebra
(called “block diagram algebra”) can be used to reduce a complex block diagram to a single
block containing the input/output relationship for the entire system.Thus, a block diagram
is useful for developing the input/output functions of the individual components of a control
system and then analyzing the diagram to determine overall system performance.
Our applications of block diagrams in this book deal with systems that tend to be more
subjective and operations oriented. In general, our systems do not lend themselves to the
mathematical treatment by which physical systems can be analyzed. Nevertheless, the block
diagram format is a powerful means of depicting the signal flows and interrelationships

x1 ⫹ x2 x3 y
⌺ A B
⫺

z
C

Figure 9 Block diagram of a feedback control system.

6
To be more precise, the transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the
Laplace transform of the input variable, given that all initial conditions are zero.

240
 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

among components in complex systems that are related to work. We use them frequently
throughout this text.7 In addition, block diagrams have clearly influenced the development
of other diagramming techniques in operations analysis, such as process maps.

4.2 Process Maps

Process mapping techniques have been widely applied to business processes. They are
also applicable to production, logistics, and service operations.As in other diagramming
and charting techniques, process maps provide a detailed picture of the process or sys-
tem of interest that is helpful for communicating and understanding by those involved
in the operations analysis study.
There are several forms of process maps.The basic process map is a block diagram
that shows the steps in the process of interest.A process is defined as a sequence of tasks
or activities that add value to one or more inputs to produce outputs.The inputs and out-
puts may be materials, products, information, services, or other form. The process must
consist of more than one step, and the steps are linked together in a logical way. The
process has a beginning point and an ending point, and its purpose in the organization
is to provide something of value to its customers.
Block symbols used in the basic process map are shown in Figure 10, and an
example of their arrangement in a process map is illustrated in Figure 11. The block for

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10 Symbols in the basic process map:

(a) beginning/ending point of the process, (b)
task or activity step, and (c) decision point.
Brief labels or names are written in the
various blocks to identify them.

Sales order

Verify Yes Retrieve Deliver

Check
availability from to
order
inventory customer

No

Back Collect End of

order payment transaction

Figure 11 An example of a basic process map.

7
The author’s preference for block diagrams may derive from his educational origins in mechanical engineering.

241
 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

the beginning point of the process is a racetrack oval. It is the boundary between the
process under study and the activities that occur outside the process under study. The
same symbol and interpretation apply to the end of the process. Rectangular blocks are
used to symbolize tasks or activity steps in the process. Decision points are diamond-
shaped blocks. Labels in the blocks identify what each step and decision point does, as
suggested in Figure 11. Arrows are used to indicate the sequence of the steps and the
flow of the work.
Process mapping can be accomplished at various levels of detail. A high-level
process map depicts a macroscopic view of the process of interest and includes only the
most important steps in the process. Each step in the high-level map consists of tasks or
work elements, which can be examined in greater detail to create a low-level process map
for that step, also called a detailed process map. When this is done, the blocks in the
high-level map are shadowed or otherwise highlighted to indicate that the lower-level
process map exists. In some cases, more than two levels of process maps may be developed
for processes requiring such detail.
Alternative forms of process maps include relationship maps and cross-functional
process maps [4]. A relationship map is a block diagram that shows the input-output
connections among the departments or other functional components of an organiza-
tion. The map consists of blocks that represent the departments and arrows to show the
flow of work.A relationship map illustrates the pairs of supplier-customer relationships
throughout the organization. Every department is a customer of another department,
and it is also a supplier to some other department. Arrows indicate the flow of inputs
that are processed and outputs that are produced in these supplier-customer relation-
ships.The relationship map often includes the connections with external suppliers and/or
customers of the organization, as well as the associated inputs and outputs. Figure 12 illus-
trates a relationship map for a custom workshop.
A cross-functional process map is a block diagram that shows how the steps of a
process are accomplished by the various departments or other functional groups that con-
tribute to it. As shown in Figure 13, the departments are listed in rows separated by
dashed lines. This format causes the cross-functional process map to also be known as

Custom workshop

Materials
Storeroom

Materials

Materials Materials Product

Receiving Workshop Inspection

Reports Specifications Product

Suppliers Customers
ship notice
Purchase Specifications Sales
Purchasing Engineering Sales
order order

Figure 12 Relationship map for a custom workshop.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

Customer Place Customer

order receipt

Sales Order
received

Engineering Review Specify

Design
order materials

Purchasing Order
materials

Inspection Inspect Ship to

product customer

Workshop Make
product

Storeroom Materials
to stores

Receiving Receive
materials

Suppliers Order Supply

received materials

Figure 13 A cross-functional process map for a custom workshop.

the swim-lane chart. Rectangular blocks represent activity steps in the process, and
diamond-shaped blocks represent decision points.Arrows indicate the inputs and outputs
for each block, as well as the sequence of steps.
The cross-functional process map differs from the relationship map by showing
the blocks as process steps (work activities), whereas the relationship map uses blocks
to represent departments.The difference between the cross-functional process map and
the basic process map is the use of rows (swim lanes) to show where the process steps
are accomplished. In the basic process map, the process steps do not indicate in what
department the work is done.

REFERENCES
[1] Aft, L. S. Work Measurement and Methods Improvement. New York: Wiley, 2000.
[2] ANSI Standard Z94.0-1989. Industrial Engineering Terminology. Norcross, GA: Industrial
Engineering and Management Press, Institute of Industrial Engineers, 1989.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

[3] Barnes, R. M. Motion and Time Study: Design and Measurement of Work. 7th ed. New York:
Wiley 1980.
[4] Damelio, R. The Basics of Process Mapping. Portland, OR: Productivity, Inc., 1996.
[5] Harbour, J. L. Cycle Time Reduction: Designing and Streamlining Work for High
Performance. New York: Quality Resources, 1996.
[6] Meyers, F. E., and J. R. Stewart. Motion and Time Study for Lean Manufacturing. 3rd ed.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002.
[7] Mundel, M. E., and D. L. Danner. Motion and Time Study: Improving Productivity. 7th ed.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994.
[8] Niebel, B. W., and A. Freivalds. Methods, Standards, and Work Design. 11th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2003.
[9] Paradiso, J. “The Essential Process.” Industrial Engineering (April 2003): 46–48.
[10] Raymond, G. F. “Charting Procedures.” Pp. 3.3–3.22 in Maynard’s Industrial Engineering
Handbook. 4th ed., edited by W. K. Hodson. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992.
[11] Sharp, A., and P. McDermott. Workflow Modeling: Tools for Process Improvement and
Application Development. Boston: Artech House, 2001.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What are the objectives of using charts and diagrams to study work?
2 What are the four methods indicated in the text by which the analyst develops a descrip-
tion of the work process that is ultimately used to create the graphic?
3 What are the two characteristics of value-added steps in a given process?
4 Name some examples of network diagrams.
5 What are the two types of operations diagrammed in an operation chart?
6 Identify the five types of symbols used in a flow process chart.
7 Name the three types of process chart described in the text, and identify the application
area for each.
8 What is a flow diagram?
9 What are some of the problem areas that can be identified using a flow diagram?
10 What is an activity chart?
11 Identify some of the types of multiple activity charts.
12 What are the three block symbols used in a basic process map?

PROBLEMS
Traditional Industrial Engineering Charting and Diagramming Techniques
1 A motorist experienced a flat tire on the driver side rear wheel of his car and went through
the following procedure to replace the flat tire with the spare.The tire change occurred in the
middle of the day in his own driveway about 20 ft in front of his garage. He first secured
the other three wheels of the car with six bricks from his garage to prevent the vehicle from
rolling (two trips back and forth to the garage). He then took out the jack, crank, and lug
nut wrench from the trunk of the car, and read over the attached instructions for operating
the jack. He removed the spare tire from the trunk and placed it near the rear left wheel.

244
 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

Next, he proceeded to position the jack under the car at the recommended support beam
on the car frame. He began to turn the crank to elevate the car. After the left rear portion
of the car was lifted a few inches, but before the flat tire was lifted from the driveway sur-
face, he used the lug nut wrench to loosen the five lug nuts securing the tire to the wheel
hub. He then returned to the task of elevating the car, turning the jack crank until the flat
tire was completely off the driveway surface. The next step was to remove the loosened lug
nuts, placing them in a nearby position within reach. The flat tire was then removed and lifted
into the trunk. The motorist moved the spare tire into position and lifted it onto the five
studs protruding from the wheel hub. He reached for the five lug nuts, one at a time, plac-
ing them onto the studs and rotating them until finger tight. The lug nut wrench was used
to tighten the five nuts. With the tire secure, he proceeded to lower the car by cranking the
jack down slowly until the spare tire supported the car. For good measure, he again tight-
ened the five lug nuts now that the car was securely on the ground. He collected the hard-
ware, put it back into the trunk, and removed the bricks from the other three wheels and
put them back into his garage. Document this tire changing procedure using a worker process
chart.
2 With reference to the tire changing procedure of the previous problem, develop the steps
of changing a tire, as they would be accomplished in an automotive tire center, where the
worker has access to a hydraulic car lift and pneumatic lug nut wrench instead of the man-
ual tools used by the motorist in his driveway. Document your improved tire changing pro-
cedure using a worker process chart.
3 A foundry uses the following steps in its procedure for high production of investment cast-
ing process: (1) Produce wax patterns by injection molding. (2) Transport wax patterns to
an assembly work area where they are manually assembled to a wax sprue forming a pattern
tree. The entire tree is made of wax. (3) Move pattern tree to a separate room where the
tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material. (4) In the same room, coat tree with
successive layers of refractory material to make it a rigid structure that will become the
mold for casting. (5) Move tree to a furnace room, where it should be held in an inverted posi-
tion and heated to melt the wax out of the mold cavities. With the wax removed, the rigid
structure is now a multiple-cavity mold with runners leading to each cavity from the sprue
cavity. (6) In the same furnace room, heat the mold to a high temperature to ensure that
all contaminants are removed from the mold. (7) With the mold still heated at an elevated
temperature and in an upright orientation pour the molten metal into the sprue; metal will
flow through the runners to each cavity. (8) After the metal cools and solidifies move the
assemblage to a finishing room; the mold can be broken away from the cast metal and the
parts separated from the runners and sprue.Assignment: (a) Develop the flow process chart
for this casting process. (b) Based on your flow process chart, what are some changes in the
investment casting procedure that you would recommend?
4 A supplier of machined components for industrial machinery (e.g., power tools, pumps,
motors, compressors) operates a factory that includes a forge shop, machine shop, and fin-
ishing department. Many of the parts produced by the company are fabricated through
these three departments. Because of this, the factory is laid out as three large square rooms,
arranged in-line to form a rectangle with an aspect ratio of three-to-one. Each room is
200 ft by 200 ft. The rectangle runs from north to south, with the forge shop on the south
end and the finishing department on the north end. Large doors are located on the
south wall for work entering the factory and on the north wall for finished products exiting
the factory. For one part of particular interest here, the raw material is a steel billet that
is purchased from a steel wholesale supplier. The billets arrive in pallet loads of 100 billets
at the shipping and receiving department, which is a building that is 35 ft by 50 ft located

245
 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

25 ft from the south wall door of the factory. The shipping and receiving department
inspects the parts and sends them by forklift truck to be stored in the company’s warehouse
that is located in another building 500 ft away from the factory in a southerly direction.
The warehouse is 200 ft by 200 ft with its entrance door on the north wall. When a pro-
duction order for the part is received, a factory forklift truck is dispatched to the ware-
house to retrieve the billets.The forklift truck must wait while the warehouse crew locates
the billets in storage, takes a pallet out of storage using the same type of forklift truck, and
delivers the pallet to the dock where it is transferred to the factory forklift. The pallet is
then brought back to the factory and delivered to the forge shop.The billets must wait their
turn in the production schedule before being pressed into the desired shape by one of the
forge presses. From the forge shop, the parts are moved to the machine shop where they
are machined on two different machine tools, a milling machine and a drill press. From the
machine shop, the parts travel to the finishing department for painting and baking (to cure
the paint). From the finishing department, the parts are moved back to the machine shop,
where additional milling is accomplished to provide two machined metal surfaces that will
mate with other components in the final product. The parts are then moved to the ship-
ping and receiving department for shipment to the customer. Develop the (a) flow process
chart and (b) flow diagram for the process, using the centroid of each department to esti-
mate distances between departments. (c) Based on your flow process chart, what are some
changes in the production process that you would recommend? (d) Develop a revised
procedure for the production process, documenting your revision in the form of a new
flow process chart.
5 The Calm Seas Cruise Ship Line wants to analyze its passenger laundry operation. A typ-
ical cruise ship of the line is 850 ft in length and has 600 passenger cabins located on four
decks. For every occupied cabin during a cruise, the cabin stewards retrieve the bed linens
(sheets and pillowcases) and towels (washcloths, hand towels, and bath towels) when they
make up the rooms each day. Each steward is responsible for 15 cabins. The steward sep-
arates the bed linens from the towels, putting them into two separate laundry bags. Because
of the large size of each bag, the two bags are separately hand-carried to the laundry
department, which is located on one of the lower decks. Depending on which deck and deck
section a steward serves, the travel distance ranges from several hundred feet to more
than a thousand feet, plus several flights of stairs. In the laundry department, the bags are
emptied, making sure that the bed linens are not mixed with the towels during launder-
ing. The two categories of laundry are washed separately in large washing machines, using
a different wash cycle for each category. After washing, the linens and towels are dried in
tumble dryers located on the same deck about 100 ft away, and then they are folded and
stacked. They are then moved in stacks to the ironing department, which is located on the
deck immediately above the laundry department, where they are separated and individ-
ually ironed in large flat ironers.After ironing, they are folded and stacked. From the iron-
ing department they are transported to either of two main storerooms, located fore and
aft on one of the main passenger decks for access on the following day by the cabin stew-
ards in making up the rooms. (a) Construct a flow process chart of the laundry operation,
using the bed linens and towels as the subject material in the analysis. Estimate distances
moved but ignore operation times. (b) Based on your flow process chart, what are some
changes in the laundry operation that you would recommend? (c) Develop a revised pro-
cedure for the laundry operation, documenting your revision in the form of a new flow
process chart.
6 Given the information and data in previous problem, the cruise ship line wants to analyze
the work activities of a cabin steward in its passenger laundry operation. Do not consider
all of the activities that are performed in cleaning and making over a passenger cabin

246
 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

(vacuuming, making beds, collecting towels and linens, etc.) as separate operations. Instead,
consider making up a room and collecting the laundry in each room as one operation. The
focus of the analysis is on the work activities of a cabin steward that relate to the laundry
operation. (a) Construct a worker process chart to analyze the duties of the steward that
are related to the ship’s laundry operation. (b) Based on your worker process chart, what
are some changes that you would recommend? (c) Develop a revised procedure for the laun-
dry operation, documenting your revision in the form of a new worker process chart.
7 The Purchasing Department is required to use the following paperwork procedure for each
purchase order (PO) related to a company production order. The purchase order is the
legal document used by the company to order raw materials and parts from vendors in
specified quantities and to guarantee payment to the vendors upon delivery of the items
ordered. The purchase order procedure is triggered by the release of a production order
that has been authorized by top management for one of the company’s regular products.
The production order indicates what product is to be produced, how many units, and when
it is to be completed.To produce the product, the raw materials and component parts must
be ordered in the correct quantities from suppliers (vendors).To initiate the purchase order
procedure, a purchasing agent in the Purchasing Department fills out a blank purchase req-
uisition form for each raw material or component part, obtaining the quantity information
from the bill of materials for the product. The purchase requisition is an internal company
document used to obtain approvals by several departments that are responsible for the
product and/or its production. The purchase requisition is sent first to the Design
Engineering Department where it is checked for any engineering changes that may have
been made to the item ordered. The requisition is then sent from Design Engineering to
the Manufacturing Engineering Department, which checks to make sure that a valid route
sheet exists for the item. The route sheet is the process plan that indicates how the item is
to be processed in the factory. From Manufacturing Engineering, the requisition is sent to
the Production Control Department, which checks the requisition to make sure the quan-
tity information and delivery date agrees with the production order.At each of these depart-
ments, the signature of the department manager is required in addition to the regular
department employee who performed the check. It takes an average of three days in each
department to obtain the necessary checks and approvals. After approval by Production
Control, the purchase requisition is returned to the Purchasing Department, where it is
used as the authorization to prepare the actual purchase order that will be sent to the ven-
dor.The information on the purchase requisition is transcribed onto a blank purchase order
form by the originating purchasing agent, and the PO is then signed by the manager of the
Purchasing Department and mailed to the vendor. Each PO is sent in a separate envelope
by first class mail, even though there are many vendors receiving more than one purchase
order from the company. (a) Construct a form process chart for the current purchase order
procedure. (b) Based on your form process chart, what are some changes that you would
recommend? (c) Develop a revised purchase order procedure, documenting your revision
in a new form process chart.
8 Consider the allocation of time between the right hand and left hand in the activity chart
shown in Figure 7 in the text. (a) If the workplace were redesigned using a workholding
fixture, and the worker were trained to use both hands simultaneously to perform the task,
construct a right-hand/left-hand activity chart for the revised method, estimating the
amounts of time for each step in the method. (b) What is the percent reduction in cycle time?
9 The repetitive work cycle in a worker-machine system consists of the work elements and
associated times given in the table below.As the table shows, all of the operator’s elements
are external to the machine time. (a) Construct a worker-machine activity chart for this

247
 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

work cycle. (b) Can some of the worker’s elements be made internal to the machine cycle?
If so, construct a worker-machine activity chart for the revised work cycle. What is the
approximate cycle time for the revised cycle?

Sequence Work Element Description Worker Time Machine Time

(min) (min)

1 Worker walks to tote pan containing 0.13 (idle)

raw stock
2 Worker picks up raw work part and 0.23 (idle)
transports it to machine
3 Worker loads part into machine and 0.12 (idle)
engages machine semiautomatic cycle
4 Machine semiautomatic cycle (idle) 0.75
5 Worker unloads finished part 0.10 (idle)
from machine
6 Worker transports finished part and 0.15 (idle)
deposits into tote pan
Totals 0.73 0.75

Case Problem: Flow Process Chart and Flow Diagram

10 A company produces machinery for industry. Many of the company’s products are made
in large quantities. This case problem deals with the mechanism plate for one of these
machinery products, shown in Figure P10(a). The mechanism plate is a major part in the
machine, serving as the backbone of the product. Most of the internal components and sub-
assemblies are fastened to this plate. In the finished product, the plate is completely enclosed
within the machine. The mechanism plate is the most expensive part in the product and is
the source of numerous quality problems as well. Similar mechanism plates are used on
many of the products, and their methods of production are similar, so any improvements
made to the subject plate will apply to the other plates as well.
As is typical in batch production, the manufacturing lead time of the mechanism
plate (time between release of the order and its completion) is quite long. Since other parts
are being processed at the same time in the plant, there are delays in front of each production
station as batches of mechanism plates wait their turn in the queues at these stations.
Mechanism plates take an average of 18 weeks to complete, once a production order has
been released. No information is available about how this time is distributed among the dif-
ferent production steps. In addition, the castings may remain in the warehouse prior to pro-
duction for as much as 4 months.The following description summarizes the sequence of steps
used to fabricate the mechanism plate. Figure P10(b) and (c) show floor layouts for the
two stories of the factory building. Key areas and departments relating to the mechanism
plate production are indicated in the description and on the floor layouts by numbers in
parentheses.
The mechanism plate is a sand casting, supplied by a foundry located 20 miles away.
It is made of cast iron and is very heavy, constituting fully one-third the total weight of the
product. The designer selected cast iron because of its inherent rigidity and vibration
damping characteristics. However, because it is a large flat part, the casting is subject to
warping.
The castings are shipped to the company in batches of 50 to 100 units and inspected
twice:(1) prior to being stored in the plant warehouse and (2) when an order is placed for

248
 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

Edges milled

16.00 in.

25.00 in. Holes drilled

(4 hole sizes,
some holes drilled)

Flat area milled

0.50 in.

Part name: Mechanism Plate Casting tol: ⫹/⫺0.075 in. Drawn by: M.P.G.

Material: Cast Iron sand casting Machining tol: ⫹/⫺0.010 in. Date: Jan21/99

Figure p10a Exhibits for Problem 10: mechanism plate.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

First floor

Freight elevator
Aisle

(2) Warehouse Sheet metal stamping (5) Drilling

Aisle
111 ft

140 ft (3) Milling

Turning
Receiving (8) Heat treatment
(1)
Inspection

Shipping

Aisle

70 ft 198 ft

Figure p10(b) Exhibits for Problem 10: first floor layout of the factory building

Freight elevator Stairs to office

Aisle
Second floor
(6) Temporary
storage

(9) Assembly
Each square superimposed Office
on layout ⫽ 20 ft by 20 ft
Aisle

(4) Cleaning (7) Painting

Figure p10(c) Exhibits for Problem 10: second floor layout.

their release to production. Production lot sizes are usually 5 to 10 parts. When the cast-
ings are picked from the warehouse for an order, the first step is to send them to a local
firm (5 miles away) that specializes in sand blasting (which the company is not currently
set up to do). This treatment dislodges any sand imbedded in the surface that is left over
from the mold, removes rust that has occurred during storage, and smoothes the surface.
The plates are then returned to the company warehouse.

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

The parts are then processed through a series of machining operations, the first and
second of which are in the milling department (3).The first milling operation is face milling
to make one side of the plate flat and smooth to accept the components that are to be
attached. This is accomplished in one setup on a large milling machine in the mill depart-
ment. The second milling requires a separate setup, and this operation makes the edges
of the casting smooth and straight.
As the second milling operation is completed on each part, it is moved individually
to the chemical cleaning department (4) to be cleaned and pickled. The cleaning is per-
formed by human workers using cloth wipers soaked with chemical solvents. The purpose
of the cleaning is to remove cutting fluids from machining. Pickling is then performed in
open tanks filled with relatively dilute acid which etches the cast iron. The pickling bright-
ens the surface texture of the machined surface of the casting. Owing to the size of the cast-
ing, each part must be separately dipped into the tank. The parts are then individually
returned back to the machining area (drilling department) to reconstitute the batch.
The next step involves a series of hole drilling operations in the drilling department (5).
These holes are used to attach the various brackets and components to the plate. This is
performed on four different upright drill presses, organized according to drill size.There are
four different hole sizes in the plate. After drilling, two of the hole sizes are tapped in the
same department (5), using two additional drill presses.After drilling and tapping, the plates
are returned to the cleaning department (4) for cleaning and pickling. Again, they
must be dipped separately and moved individually to a temporary storage area (6) near the
assembly department (9).
The plates are stored in the temporary storage area (6) until the other components
that are to be assembled have been collected. When all of the components have been col-
lected, the mechanism plate is sent to the painting department (7). The painting is need-
ed to provide a protective coating and for appearance reasons.The operation is performed
by human workers using paintbrushes to work the paint into the rough texture of the
sand cast surface. Two coats are applied in this way, with a five hour low temperature
baking operation following each coating. The baking ovens are located in the heat treat-
ment department (8) at the rear of the factory. As many as five plates can be baked at
one time.
After the final bake, the mechanism plates rejoin the other components in the
temporary storage area (6). A “kit” of components is then made up, which consists of one
mechanism plate and a set of all the components that are to be assembled to it. The kit is
then sent to the assembly department (9), where the subassembly is completed. A total of
75 parts, including fasteners, are attached to the plate. Each mechanism plate subassembly
is put together at a single workstation.When finished, it is put back into temporary storage
(6) to await final assembly into the machinery product.
Assignment: (a) Prepare a flow process chart showing the operations, moves, delays,
etc., in the current process. (b) Summarize the flow process chart by determining the number
of operations and moves, the total distances moved, and delays, etc. (c) Construct a flow
diagram of the path followed by the mechanism plate during its manufacture. (d) Develop
a list of possible improvements that might be made in the production of the mechanism plate.
(e) Develop a proposed improved method based on your answers to (a), (b), (c), and (d),
and document your proposed new method by means of a flow process chart. (f) Summarize
the flow process chart for the proposed method, indicating the number of operations and
moves, the total distances traveled, and delays, etc. Show how this method is an improve-
ment over the current method in terms of these statistics. (g) Consider the issue of plant
layout in more detail. What changes in the overall layout of the plant would you make to
improve the efficiency of mechanism plate production?

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 Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis

Process Mapping
11 Develop a basic process map for the cruise ship laundry operation described in Problem 5.
What recommendations can you make for improving the operation?
12 Develop a relationship map for the machinery components factory described in Problem 4.
13 Develop a cross-functional process map for the Purchasing Department and other depart-
ments described in Problem 7. What recommendations can you make for improving the
paperwork flow?

252