for the synthesis of new complementary

DNA REPLICATION strands.

❖ DNA polymerase. An enzyme that
Replication. A duplication process that is
catalyzes the synthesis of DNA.
accomplished by copying from a template (for example,
❖ Leading strand. The strand of DNA that is
reproduction at the level of DNA).
synthesized continuously during replication.
❖ Lagging strand. The strand of DNA that is
• The synthesis of DNA) involves three steps:
synthesized discontinuously during
a. chain initiation,
replication.
b. chain extension or elongation, and
❖ DNA ligase. An enzyme that catalyzes
c. chain termination.
covalent closure of nicks in DNA double
• Semiconservative Replication
helices.
→ Watson and Crick first proposed this
❖ RNA primer. A short (10 to 60 nucleotides)
mechanism of DNA replication based
segment of RNA that is used to initiate the
on complementary base pairing
synthesis of a new strand of DNA;
between the two strands of the double
synthesized by the enzyme DNA primase.
helix. Note that each of the parental
❖ DNA primase. An enzyme that catalyzes
strands is conserved and serves as a
the synthesis of short strands of RNA that
template for the synthesis of a new
initiate the synthesis of DNA strands.
complementary strand; that is, the
❖ In E. coli, the enzyme that catalyzes the
base sequence in each progeny strand
semiconservative replication of the
is determined by the hydrogen bonding
chromosome is a polymerase called DNA
potentials of the bases in the parental
polymerase III
strand.
❖ DNA helicase. An enzyme that catalyzes
• INITIATION:
the unwinding of the complementary
→ DNA replicates by a semiconservative
mechanism: as the two complementary strands strands of a DNA double helix.
of a parental double helix unwind and separate, ❖ Single-strand DNA-binding protein. A
each serves as a template for the synthesis of protein that coats DNA single strands,
a new complementary strand. keeping them in an extended state.
→ The hydrogen-bonding potentials of the bases ❖ DNA topoisomerase. An enzyme that
in the template strands specify complementary catalyzes the introduction or removal of
base sequences in the nascent DNA strands. supercoils from DNA.
→ Replication is initiated at unique origins and ❖ DNA gyrase. An enzyme in bacteria that
usually proceeds bidirectionally from each catalyzes the formation of negative
origin. supercoils in DNA.
❖ Origin of replication. The site or ❖ Template. A pattern or mold. DNA stores
nucleotide sequence on a chromosome or coded information and acts as a model or
DNA molecule at which replication is template from which information is copied
initiated. into complementary strands of DNA or
❖ Replication bubble. The localized region transcribed into messenger RNA.
of complementary strand separation ❖ Template strand. In transcription, the
that occurs at the origin of replication DNA strand that is copied to produce a
during the initiation of DNA replication. complementary strand of RNA.
❖ Replication fork. The Y-shaped ❖ Proofreading. The enzymatic scanning
structure where the two parental of DNA for structural defects such as
strands of a DNA double helix are mismatched base pairs
unwound and are being used as templates
DNA replication is complex, requiring the participation Transfer of Genetic Information: The Central
of a large number of proteins. Dogma

DNA synthesis is continuous on the progeny strand ❖ The central dogma of biology is that
that is being extended in the overall 5→ 3 direction, information stored in DNA is transferred to
but is discontinuous on the strand growing in the RNA molecules during
overall 3→ 5 direction. transcription and to proteins during
translation
New DNA chains are initiated by short RNA primers → According to the central dogma of
synthesized by DNA primase. molecular biology, genetic information
usually flows:
DNA synthesis is catalyzed by enzymes called DNA
• from DNA to DNA during its
polymerases.
transmission from generation to
generation and
All DNA polymerases require a primer strand, which is
• from DNA to protein during its
extended, and a template strand, which is copied.
phenotypic expression in an organism
All DNA polymerases have an absolute requirement for → During the replication of RNA viruses,
a free 3-OH on the primer strand, and all DNA information is also transmitted from RNA
synthesis occurs in the 5 to 3 directions. to RNA. The transfer of genetic
information from DNA to protein
The 3→ 5 exonuclease activities of DNA polymerases involves two steps:
proofread nascent strands as they are synthesized, • transcription, the transfer of the
removing any mis paired nucleotides at the 3 termini genetic information from DNA
of primer strands. to RNA, and
• translation, the transfer of
The enzymes and DNA-binding proteins involved in information from RNA to protein.
replication assemble into a replisome at each
replication fork and act in concert as the fork moves TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION
along the parental DNA molecule.
• Transcript. The RNA molecule produced by
❖ Telomerase. An enzyme that adds telomere transcription of a gene.
sequences to the ends of eukaryotic • Genetic code. The set of 64 nucleotide
chromosomes. triplets that specify the 20 amino acids and
❖ Progerias. Inherited diseases characterized polypeptide chain initiation and termination.
by premature aging • Codon. A set of three adjacent nucleotides in
an mRNA molecule that specifies the
The large DNA molecules in eukaryotic chromosomes
incorporation of an amino acid into a
replicate bidirectionally from multiple
polypeptide chain or that signals the end of
origins.
polypeptide synthesis. Codons with the latter
Three DNA polymerases are present at each function are called termination codons.
replication fork in eukaryotes. • Ribosome. Cytoplasmic organelle on which
proteins are synthesized.
Telomeres, the unique sequences at the ends of • Messenger RNA (mRNA). RNA that carries
chromosomes, are added to chromosomes by a unique information necessary for protein synthesis
enzyme called telomerase. from the DNA to the ribosomes.
• Primary transcript. The RNA molecule
produced by transcription prior to any
 posttranscriptional modifications; also called a acids in the polypeptide gene product,
pre mRNA in eukaryotes. according to the specifications of the genetic
• Pre-mRNA. The primary transcript of a code.
eukaryotic gene prior to processing to produce
an mRNA. GENERAL FEATURES OF RNA SYNTHESIS

FIVE TYPES OF RNA MOLECULES • Template strand. In transcription, the DNA

strand that is copied to produce a
All five types of RNA—mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, snRNA, complementary strand of RNA.
and miRNA—are produced by transcription. • Non-template strand. In transcription, the
non-transcribed strand of DNA. It will have
Unlike mRNAs, which specify polypeptides, the final the same sequence as the RNA transcript,
products of tRNA, rRNA, snRNA, and miRNA genes are except that T is present at positions where U
RNA molecules is present in the RNA transcript.
• Sense strand (of RNA). See Sense RNA. -20
1. Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are small RNA
Sequence. See TATAAT sequence. -35
molecules that function as adaptors
Sequence. See Recognition sequence.
between amino acids and the codons in
→ If the RNA molecule is an mRNA, it will
mRNA during translation.
specify amino acids in the protein gene
2. Ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) are structural
product. Therefore, mRNA molecules are
and Gene expression involves two steps:
coding strands of RNA. They are also
transcription and translation, in both
called sense strands of RNA because their
prokaryotes (a) and eukaryotes (b).
nucleotide sequences “make sense” in that
3. Small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) are
they specify sequences of amino acids in
structural components of spliceosomes,
the protein gene products.
the nuclear organelles that excise introns
• Antisense RNA. RNA that is complementary
from gene transcripts.
to the pre-mRNA or mRNA produced from a
4. Micro RNAs (miRNAs) are short 20- to
gene.
22-nucleotide single-stranded RNAs that
→ An RNA molecule that is complementary to
are cleaved from small hairpin-shaped an mRNA is referred to as antisense RNA.
precursors and block the expression of • RNA polymerase. An enzyme that catalyzes
complementary or partially complementary the synthesis of RNA.
mRNAs by either causing their • Promoter. A nucleotide sequence to which
degradation or repressing their RNA polymerase binds and initiates
translation. transcription; also, a chemical substance that
enhances the transformation of benign cells
Summary: into cancerous cells.
• Transcription bubble. A locally unwound
a. The central dogma of molecular biology is that segment of DNA in which an RNA transcript is
genetic information flows from DNA to DNA being synthesized.
during chromosome replication, from DNA to •
RNA during transcription, and from RNA to Transcription in Prokaryotes
protein during translation. • Transcription—the first step in gene
b. Transcription involves the synthesis of an RNA expression—transfers the genetic information
transcript complementary to one strand of stored in DNA (genes) into messenger RNA
DNA of a gene. molecules that carry the information to the
ribosomes—the sites of protein
c. Translation is the conversion of information
synthesis—in the cytoplasm
stored in the sequence of nucleotides in the
RNA transcript into the sequence of amino
A segment of DNA that is transcribed to produce one ELONGATION OF RNA CHAINS
RNA molecule is called a transcription unit. • Elongation of an RNA chain catalyzed by RNA
polymerase in E. coli.
→ Transcription units may be equivalent to
individual genes, or they may include TERMINATION OF RNA CHAINS
several contiguous genes. Large • Termination signal. In transcription, a
transcripts that carry the coding nucleotide sequence that specifies RNA chain
sequences of several genes are common in termination.
bacteria. • TATA box. A conserved promoter sequence
→ The process of transcription can be that determines the transcription start site.
divided into three stages: • CAAT box. A conserved nucleotide sequence
(1) initiation of a new RNA chain, in eukaryotic promoters involved in the
(2) elongation of the chain, and initiation of transcription.
(3) termination of transcription and release of the • RNA editing. Posttranscriptional processes
nascent RNA molecule that alter the information encoded in gene
transcripts (RNAs).
RNA POLYMERASES: COMPLEX ENZYMES • Guide RNAs. RNA molecules that contain
• Holoenzyme. The form of a multimeric enzyme sequences that function as templates
in which all of the component polypeptides are during RNA editing.
present.
Interrupted Genes in Eukaryotes: Exons
• Sigma factor. The subunit of prokaryotic RNA
polymerases that is responsible for the and Introns
initiation of transcription at specific initiation • Most eukaryotic genes contain noncoding
sequences. sequences called introns that interrupt the
coding sequences, or exons. The introns are
INITIATION OF RNA CHAINS excised from RNA transcripts prior to their
• Upstream sequence. A sequence in a unit of transport to the cytoplasm.
transcription that precedes (is located 5 to) • Exons. The segments of a eukaryotic gene that
the transcription start site. correspond to the sequences in the final
• Downstream sequence. A sequence in a unit of processed RNA transcript of that gene.
transcription that follows (is located 3to) the • Introns. Intervening sequences of DNA bases
transcription start site. within eukaryotic genes that are not
• The midpoints of the two conserved sequences represented in the mature RNA transcript
occur at about 10 and 35 nucleotide pairs, because they are spliced out of the primary
respectively, called the 10 sequence and the 35 RNA transcript.
sequence, respectively. Summary:
• Noncoding intron sequences are excised from RNA
• TATAAT sequence (-10 sequence). An AT-
transcripts in the nucleus prior to their transport
rich sequence in prokaryotic promoters that
to the cytoplasm.
facilitates the localized unwinding of DNA and • Introns in tRNA precursors are removed by the
the initiation of RNA synthesis. concerted action of a splicing endonuclease and
• Consensus sequence. The nucleotide sequence ligase, whereas introns in some rRNA precursors are
that is present in the majority of genetic spliced out autocatalytically—with no catalytic
signals or elements that perform a specific protein involved.
function • The introns in nuclear pre-mRNAs are excised on
• Recognition sequence (-35 sequence). A complex ribonucleoprotein structures called
spliceosomes.
nucleotide sequence (consensus TTGACA) in
• The intron excision process must be precise, with
prokaryotic promoters to which the sigma
accuracy to the nucleotide level, to ensure that
factor of RNA polymerase binds during the codons in exons distal to introns are read correctly
initiation of transcription. during translation.