What is Corrosion?

- **Definition**: Corrosion is the chemical or electrochemical interaction of a

material (usually metal) with its environment, resulting in the alteration of its physical
integrity and properties such as strength and ductility.
- **Examples**: Tarnishing of silver, blackening of nickel, rusting of iron.
- **Importance in Engineering**: Notable in civil engineering for the rusting of steel
reinforcement bars in concrete structures.
- **Causes**: Moisture, oxygen, acids, bases, salts, temperature, galvanic corrosion,
microbial activity.

III. Types of Corrosion Behavior

- **Immune Behavior**: Metals like gold, silver, and platinum that show no
corrosion in certain environments.
- **Active Behavior**: Continuous corrosion without protective corrosion products,
leading to significant weight loss over time.
- **Passive Behavior**: Initial corrosion followed by the formation of a protective
film that slows further corrosion.

IV. Classification of Corrosion

- **By Nature of the Corrodent**:
- **Wet Corrosion**: Requires liquid or moisture.
- **Dry Corrosion**: Involves high-temperature gases.
- **By Mechanism**: Electrochemical or direct chemical reactions.
- **By Appearance**:
- **Uniform Corrosion**: Even corrosion across the entire surface.
- **Local Corrosion**: Specific spots affected, such as pitting or crevices.

V. Mechanism of Corrosion
- **Dry Corrosion**: Occurs in the absence of liquid, involving gases like oxygen
and sulfur.
- **Wet Corrosion**: Involves chemical reactions in the presence of a liquid
electrolyte, explained by the Mixed Potential Theory.

VI. Rate of Corrosion

- **Factors Affecting Rate**:
- Type of metal
- Environmental conditions (humidity, temperature, pH levels, presence of
pollutants)
- Exposure to electrolytes (saltwater or acids)
- Surface area exposed
- Presence of oxygen
- **Methods to Measure Rate**:
- Weight loss method
- Linear polarization resistance
- Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
- Corrosion coupons

VII. Prevention or Control of Corrosion

- **Design Considerations**:
- Avoid sharp bends and corners
 - Avoid galvanic coupling (use insulation or select metals close in electrochemical
series)
- Closed fluid systems
- Avoid crevices and small anodic areas
- Improve wall thickness
- Careful fabrication and inspection
- **Materials Selection and Treatment**:
- Choose corrosion-resistant materials
- Heat treatment and alloying
- Use compatible metals to prevent galvanic corrosion
- **Environment and Operating Variables**:
- Remove corrosive constituents (dehumidification, deaeration)
- Adjust temperature and pH
- Regular cleaning and preventive maintenance
- Minimize stress (mechanical, thermal, vibrational)
- **Use of Inhibitors**:
- Cathodic inhibitors (e.g., amines, mercaptans)
- Anodic inhibitors (e.g., chromates, phosphates)
- **Protective Coating**:
- Organic coatings (paints, varnishes)
- Inorganic coatings (phosphate, chromate)
- Metallic coatings (sacrificial and noble)
- Apply coatings with caution to avoid accelerated corrosion at imperfections
- **Cathodic Protection**:
- Use of sacrificial anodes to protect the material by forming an electrochemical
circuit

Conclusion
- Understanding corrosion and its mechanisms is crucial for developing strategies to
prevent or mitigate its effects.
- Effective strategies include the use of corrosion-resistant materials, protective
coatings, proper design, environmental control, and regular maintenance.

The presentation titled "Environmental Chemistry" is divided into several sections,

each focusing on different aspects of environmental chemistry. Here's an outline of
the presentation along with definitions, descriptions, and explanations for each part:

I. The Chemistry of the Atmosphere

#### A. Definition and Importance

- **The Atmosphere**: The atmosphere is a vital mechanism that helps regulate and
sustain the Earth's temperature and the transfer of heat globally. It also shields the
Earth from harmful radiation by reflecting a significant portion of the sun's
electromagnetic radiation.

#### B. Composition
- **Nitrogen (78%)**
- **Oxygen (21%)**
- **Argon (0.93%)**
- **Carbon Dioxide (0.04%)**

#### C. Layers of the Atmosphere

1. **Troposphere**
- Closest to the Earth's surface.
- Contains half of the Earth's atmosphere by mass.
- Warmer near the ground and gets colder with altitude.
- Contains nearly all water vapor and dust.

2. **Stratosphere**
- Very dry air, about a thousand times thinner than at sea level.
- Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters ultraviolet solar radiation.

3. **Mesosphere**
- Hard to study due to its altitude.
- Jets and weather balloons cannot reach it, and satellites orbit above it.

4. **Thermosphere**
- Uppermost part of the Earth's atmosphere.
- Where space shuttles and the International Space Station orbit.
- Auroras occur in this layer.

5. **Exosphere**
- Outer space.
- Very high temperatures due to radiation.

#### D. Earth's Radiation/Energy Balance

- **Energy Balance**: The balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing
terrestrial radiation. About 70% of solar energy is utilized by the Earth, while 30% is
released back into space, allowing the Earth to cool.

#### E. Greenhouse Effect

- **Definition**: The absorption of heat by atmospheric gases, particularly carbon
dioxide, above the Earth's surface. Greenhouse gases are essential for temperature
control of the planet.

- **Greenhouse Gases and Their Sources**

- **CO₂ (49%)**: Fossil fuel combustion, respiration, deforestation.
- **CH₄ (18%)**: Wetlands, anaerobic decomposition.
- **CFCs (17%)**: Refrigerants, aerosol propellants.
- **N₂O (6%)**: Natural soils, combustion of fossil fuels and biomass.
- **O₃ (8%)**: Photochemical reactions in the stratosphere.
- **H₂O (2%)**: Vaporization reactions.

### II. The Chemistry of Water

(Not detailed in the provided text but expected to cover the chemical properties of
water, water pollution, and water treatment.)
### III. Soil Chemistry

(Not detailed in the provided text but expected to cover the composition of soil, soil
pollution, and soil conservation.)

### IV. Acid Rain

#### A. Definition and Causes

- **Acid Rain**: Rainfall made acidic by atmospheric pollution, primarily due to
sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) which react with water to form acids.
- **Sources**: Volcanic eruptions, fossil fuel combustion, metal smelting.

### V. Photochemical Smog

#### A. Definition and Formation

- **Smog**: A type of intense air pollution composed of smoke and fog.
- **Photochemical Smog**: Results from the reactions of vehicle emissions in the
presence of sunlight, producing various chemical intermediates such as alcohols and
carboxylic acids.

#### B. Mechanism of Formation

- **Hydrocarbon Oxidation**: Produces less volatile intermediates which form tiny
droplets. These droplets disperse sunlight, decreasing visibility and causing a hazy
environment.
- **Reduction Efforts**: Catalytic converters in cars oxidize CO and unburned
hydrocarbons to CO₂ and H₂O and convert NO and NO₂ to N and O₂.

### Ozone Layer Depletion

#### A. Definition and Importance

- **Ozone Layer**: A layer in the stratosphere where ozone is concentrated,
protecting the Earth from harmful UV radiation.

#### B. Formation
- **Ozone Formation**: Occurs naturally in the stratosphere through UV radiation.

#### C. Thinning of the Ozone Layer

- **Causes**: Emission of NO by supersonic transport, use of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), and increased use of nitrogenous fertilizers.

#### D. Mechanism of Depletion

1. **NO**: Converts ozone to O₂ and NO₂.
2. **CFCs**: Under UV radiation, form chloride radicals which break down ozone
molecules.

#### E. Global Actions Against Ozone Depletion

- **Vienna Convention (1985)**: Framework for global cooperation on arresting
ozone depletion.
- **Montreal Protocol (1987)**: Agreement to phase out ozone-depleting substances,
replacing them with hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
### I. Introduction to Water
A. Definition and Importance
- **Water**: A vital resource covering 71% of Earth's surface, essential for drinking,
agriculture, industry, and ecosystems.
- **Importance**: Water is crucial for sustaining life, supporting economic activities,
and maintaining environmental balance.

### II. Properties of Water

A. Polarity of Water
- **Definition**: Water molecules have a partial positive charge on one side and a
partial negative charge on the other due to the electronegativity difference between
oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
- **Description**: This polarity allows water to form hydrogen bonds, which are
responsible for many of its unique properties.
- **Explanation**: Polarity makes water an excellent solvent, enabling it to dissolve a
wide variety of substances necessary for biological processes.

B. Water as a Universal Solvent

- **Definition**: Water’s ability to dissolve more substances than any other liquid.
- **Description**: Water can dissolve salts, sugars, acids, and gases due to its
polarity and hydrogen bonding.
- **Explanation**: This property is critical for nutrient transport, chemical reactions,
and waste removal in living organisms.

C. Transparency of Water
- **Definition**: Water allows light to pass through it.
- **Description**: Sunlight can penetrate water, supporting photosynthesis in aquatic
plants.
- **Explanation**: Transparency is essential for aquatic ecosystems, enabling plants
to grow and provide oxygen and habitat for marine life.

D. Density and Temperature Relationship

- **Definition**: Water reaches its maximum density at 4°C and expands when it
freezes.
- **Description**: This unique property prevents water bodies from freezing solid,
protecting aquatic life during cold periods.
- **Explanation**: Ice forms on the surface, insulating the water below and allowing
life to survive in cold environments.

E. Surface Tension and Cohesion

- **Definition**: Water molecules attract each other strongly due to hydrogen bonds.
- **Description**: High surface tension allows small objects to float and water to
form droplets.
- **Explanation**: Surface tension is important for capillary action in plants and
various biological functions.
F. Heat of Evaporation
- **Definition**: The amount of energy required to convert water from liquid to gas.
- **Description**: Water has a high heat of evaporation due to strong hydrogen
bonds.
- **Explanation**: This property helps regulate temperature in organisms and
environments, providing cooling through processes like sweating and transpiration.

### III. Bodies of Water and Alkalinity

A. Bodies of Water
- **Definition**: Includes lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater, each with distinct
characteristics.
- **Description**: Varying in size, depth, and ecological significance.
- **Explanation**: Bodies of water are crucial for biodiversity, climate regulation,
and human activities.

B. Alkalinity
- **Definition**: The capacity of water to neutralize acids, measured by the
concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate ions.
- **Description**: Alkalinity is an important parameter in assessing water quality.
- **Explanation**: Helps buffer against pH changes, maintaining a stable
environment for aquatic life.

### IV. Water Hardness

A. Definition and Types
- **Definition**: Concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in water.
- **Types**:
- **Temporary Hardness**: Caused by dissolved bicarbonate minerals.
- **Permanent Hardness**: Caused by sulfates and chlorides of calcium and
magnesium.
- **Explanation**: Hard water can cause scaling in pipes and appliances, requiring
treatment to manage hardness levels.

### V. Complexation
A. Definition and Importance
- **Definition**: The process where molecules or ions form a complex by binding to
metal ions.
- **Description**: Involves chelating agents that stabilize metal ions.
- **Explanation**: Important for reducing water toxicity, wastewater treatment, and
biological processes.

### VI. Water Interaction with Other Phases

A. Interaction with Gases
- **Definition**: Water's ability to dissolve gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- **Description**: Dissolved gases are crucial for aquatic life and chemical
equilibria.
- **Explanation**: These interactions impact water quality, photosynthesis, and
respiration in aquatic environments.

B. Interaction with Solids and Immiscible Liquids

- **Definition**: Water’s ability to interact with and dissolve various solids and
immiscible liquids.
- **Description**: Includes sediment transport and pollutant dissolution.
- **Explanation**: These interactions affect the clarity, quality, and health of water
bodies.

### VII. Conclusion

A. Summary
- **Recap**: Water's unique properties, its role in supporting life, and the challenges
in managing water resources.
- **Call to Action**: Emphasis on sustainable water management practices to ensure
the availability and quality of water for future generations.

### I. Introduction
- **Definition of Soil**: Soil is fundamental for agriculture, composed of minerals
and organic matter, and home to various microorganisms and animals.
- **Desertification**: The process by which fertile land becomes desert due to
drought and loss of fertility. Caused by climatic variations and human activities such
as excessive fuel wood harvesting and inappropriate agricultural practices.
- **Effects of Desertification**: Includes loss of vegetation, food sources for
livestock and humans, increased zoonotic diseases, deforestation, and depletion of
water reserves.

### II. Nature and Importance of Soils

- **Composition**: Soil is a mixture of organic matter (about 5%) and inorganic
matter (about 95%). Some soils contain as little as 1% organic matter.
- **Soil Structure**: Defined by the arrangement of sand, silt, and clay particles into
aggregates. Different structures include granular, crumb, blocky, subangular blocky,
prismatic, and columnar, each affecting water circulation and drainage.
- **Soil Horizons**: Soils have distinct layers called horizons formed through
weathering, erosion, and biological decay processes.

### III. Soil Composition and Structure

- **Inorganic Components**: Sand, silt, and clay are the primary mineral components
of soil. These particles combine to form aggregates which determine the soil’s texture
and structure.
- **Organic Matter**: Includes decomposed plant and animal residues, which
improve soil fertility and structure.
- **Soil Structure Types**:
- **Granular and Crumb**: Found in the A-horizon, allowing easy water circulation.
- **Blocky and Subangular Blocky**: Found in the B-horizon, where clay
accumulates, forming nearly square or angular blocks.
- **Prismatic and Columnar**: Also found in the B-horizon, forming vertical
columns or pillars with poor drainage.
### IV. Water and Air in Soil
- **Water Retention**: Soil’s ability to retain water affects plant growth and soil
health. Different soil structures influence water retention and drainage.
- **Soil Aeration**: The presence of air in soil is crucial for the respiration of plant
roots and microorganisms. Well-aerated soils support healthy plant growth.

### V. Soil in Civil Engineering

- **Foundations**: Soil properties are critical in determining the stability and
suitability of foundations for buildings and other structures.
- **Construction Materials**: Soil is used in the construction of roads, bricks, and
other materials. The composition and characteristics of soil influence its suitability for
various construction purposes.

### VI. Ion-Exchange and Soil pH

- **Ion-Exchange**: The process by which soil particles exchange cations with the
soil solution, influencing soil fertility and plant nutrition.
- **Soil pH**: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of soil, which affects nutrient
availability and microbial activity. Soil pH can be adjusted through the application of
lime or sulfur.

### VII. Macro and Micronutrients

- **Macronutrients**: Essential nutrients required in large quantities, including
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. They are vital for plant growth and
development.
- **Micronutrients**: Essential nutrients required in smaller quantities, such as iron,
manganese, and zinc. They play crucial roles in various plant physiological processes.

### VIII. Fertilizers

- **Types of Fertilizers**: Organic and inorganic fertilizers used to supply essential
nutrients to the soil. They enhance soil fertility and promote plant growth.
- **Application Methods**: Techniques for applying fertilizers to maximize their
effectiveness and minimize environmental impact.

### IX. Sources of Soil Contaminants

- **Industrial Activities**: Release of heavy metals and chemicals into the soil.
- **Agricultural Practices**: Use of pesticides and fertilizers that can contaminate
soil and water.
- **Urbanization**: Construction and waste disposal activities that introduce
pollutants into the soil.

### X. Degradation of Organic Contaminants

- **Biodegradation**: The breakdown of organic contaminants by soil
microorganisms, a natural process that reduces pollution.
- **Remediation Techniques**: Methods such as bioremediation and
phytoremediation used to clean contaminated soils.

This outline provides a comprehensive view of the topics covered in the document,
with detailed descriptions based on the content.