Abstract:

Cement industrial emissions contribute significantly to air pollution in Cambodia,

accounting for 32% of total emissions. A study was conducted to assess the
environmental impact of the country’s cement industry and explore strategies to
reduce air pollution. Focusing on raw material extraction, calcination, and cement
preparation, data was sourced from the Kampot Cement Plant, with air emissions
analyzed using EMEP/EEA and IPCC standards, and impact assessed via ReCiPe
(2016).
The findings indicated that calcination was the primary source of air pollutants.
Various mitigation scenarios were proposed, primarily altering fuel use during
calcination:
1. 100% coal (S1)
2. 93% coal, 7% biomass (S2)
3. 85% coal, 15% biomass (S3)
4. 70% coal, 30% biomass (S4)
5. 50% coal, 50% biomass (S5)
The results showed that the fifth scenario (S5) significantly reduced CO2 (49.97%),
NOx (2.233%), and SO2 (49.333%). However, it also led to increases in PM2.5
(19.60%) and total heavy metal emissions (28.113%). Overall, the study found
reductions in serious health and environmental impacts, including a 48.83%
decrease in climate change effects and a 9.62% reduction in ozone generation.
However, there was a notable increase in carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic human
toxicity by 35.66%. Despite the mixed results, the mitigation strategies offer
potential benefits for achieving Cambodia's carbon reduction targets.

Intro:
 Cement Production Growth: Cambodia's annual cement output increased from
3 million tons in 2016 to a projected 10 million tons by 2023.
 Environmental Concerns: Cement production is energy-intensive, producing
harmful emissions (CO2, NOx, SO2, PM2.5) due to the conversion of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) to calcium oxide (CaO).
 Alternative Fuels: Using agricultural waste biomass as fuel can improve energy
efficiency by 3% and reduce CO2 emissions by 3.5%.
 Impact Reduction: Substituting traditional fuels with alternatives like dried
sludge and fly ash can decrease human health impacts (27%), ecosystem quality
(10%), resource consumption (11%), and climate change effects (1.4%) per ton of
clinker.
 Best Practices: A study found that replacing 30% of thermal energy with refuse-
derived fuel (RDF) provided the best environmental outcomes.
 Emissions Contribution: The cement industry accounts for about 32% of
Cambodia's anthropogenic emissions.
 Climate Commitments: To achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, Cambodia
needs to adopt co-processing technologies that utilize alternative raw materials and
fuels.
 Research Focus: The study aims to use biomass (wood chips and rice husks) in
cement production to minimize environmental impacts and includes a life-cycle
impact assessment for evaluating performance and mitigation scenarios.

CEMENT PRODUCTION PROCESS

 Raw Material Extraction: Limestone, clay, laterite, chert, and gypsum are mined using
explosives and transported to the production plant via conveyor belts, trucks, ships, or trains.

 Raw Meal Preparation: Limestone is crushed and clay is pulverized, then mixed in a
vertical raw mill. Hot gas from the kiln dries the mixture, which is then stored in a silo for
further mixing.

 Calcination: The raw meal is preheated in a cyclone pre-heater and then burned in kilns at
1400˚C to 1500˚C to produce clinker. This process is energy-efficient, with significant
calcination occurring in the pre-calciner.

 Cement Preparation: Clinker is blended with gypsum and ground into a fine powder in a
cement mill. The final product is stored in silos before being packaged for distribution.

Life Cycle Inventory (Kampot Cement Plant between April

and June 2022)
 Waste Overview: The majority of waste from cement production is gas, with the
only solid waste being cement kiln dust.
 Emissions Sources: Significant emissions occur during the calcination stage,
including particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
 NOx Formation: NOx emissions are produced during fuel-air combustion,
resulting from the oxidation of nitrogen in fossil fuels.
 SO2 Emissions: The level of SO2 released depends on the sulfur content in the
fuel used during calcination.
 Other Pollutants: Lower quantities of volatile organic compounds are emitted
during combustion, along with less common pollutants such as PCDD, PCBs, and
various heavy metals (e.g., Cd, Hg, As, Pb, Cr).
 Dust Emissions: Activities such as quarrying, grinding, and storing raw materials
contribute to dust emissions.
 Cement Dust Recycling: Since cement dust is reused in the production process,
it was not included as an output in the study.

2.4. Impact Assessment Analysis

 Methodology: The ReCiPe (H) technique was used for mid-point impact
evaluation.
 Impact Categories:
o Climate Change (CC)

o Ozone Formation (OF)

o Particulate Matter Formation (PMF)

o Carcinogenic and Non-carcinogenic Human Toxicity

 Effect Classification: Impacts are categorized into local, regional, and

global effects, with resource depletion and gas emissions as primary local
consequences and climate change as the main global effect.
2.5. Alternative Scenarios for Energy Use in Kiln System
 Current Fuel Mix: The kiln system currently uses 99% coal and 1% biomass.
 Proposed Scenarios:
o S1: 100% coal

o S2: 93% coal, 7% biomass

o S3: 85% coal, 15% biomass

o S4: 70% coal, 30% biomass

o S5: 50% coal, 50% biomass

 Rationale: These scenarios were developed based on successful biomass

gasification systems implemented by Kampot, reflecting a shift towards
integrating biomass into the energy mix, which has a lower environmental
impact compared to coal.
3.1. Hotspot Analysis for Major Environmental Impact
 Assessment Method: ReCiPe (H) technique was used to evaluate
environmental impacts through midpoint indicators.
 Key Findings:
o The calcination stage is the major contributor to environmental
impacts, accounting for over 98% in several categories.
o Climate Change Impact:

 Calcination: 98.93% (327.87 kg CO2-eq)

 Raw Material Preparation: 0.48%
 Cement Preparation: 0.43%
 Raw Material Extraction: 0.16%
o Human Toxicity: Calcination stage accounts for 99.98% of the overall
effect.
o Particulate Matter Generation: Calcination contributes 99.67%.

o Ozone Formation: Calcination accounts for 96.28%.

o The combined contribution from raw material extraction, preparation,

and cement preparation is 4% for human toxicity, particulate matter
formation, and ozone formation.
3.2. Impact Using Alternative Fuels in Cement Production
 Overview: Total air emissions for each of the five fuel scenarios are detailed
in Appendix Table A2, focusing on emissions of CO2, NOx, SO2, PM2.5, and
heavy metals (Cd, Hg, As, Sn, Pb, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni), as well as impacts on
climate change and human toxicity.
 Emission Reduction:
o Transitioning from 100% coal (Scenario 1) to 93% coal and 7%
biomass (Scenario 2) significantly reduced emissions.
o CO2 Emissions Reduction:

 Scenario 2: 9.19%
 Scenario 3: 17%
 Scenario 4: 31.64%
 Scenario 5: 51.17%
 o Corresponding CO2 emissions ranged from 0.33 to 0.161 tCO2/t
clinker, comparable to other studies (0.51 - 1.10 tCO2/t clinker).
 Emission Increases:

o PM2.5 emissions increased from 0.135 × 10⁻⁷ to 0.167 × 10⁻⁷ kg/t

clinker when moving from Scenario 1 to Scenario 5.
 Human Toxicity:
o Carcinogenic human toxicity increased by 31.4% and non-
carcinogenic human toxicity by 1.95% from Scenario 1 to Scenario 5.
 Mitigating Effects:
o Notable reductions in:

 Climate Change: −9% to −50.1%

 Ozone Formation: −9.27% to −18.48%
 Particulate Matter Formation: −4.86% to −30.36%
 Visual Representation: Emissions and major environmental midpoint
impacts for each scenario are depicted in Figures 3 and 4, respectively.

4.2. Policies Implication and Recommendations

 Current Practices:
o Cambodian cement factories primarily use a traditional process, relying
heavily on coal (99%).
o Some companies are exploring increasing the biomass fraction in their
fuel mix and incorporating refuse-derived fuels (RDF) and industrial
waste.
 Environmental Benefits:
o Switching fuels is linked to reduced environmental damage in various
impact categories and should be carefully evaluated.
 Investment Needs:
o Additional funding is necessary for pollution-reduction technologies
and continuous emission monitoring (CEM) equipment.
o The Kampot cement factory plans to expand its current emission
control systems and construct a CEM system.
 Government Role:
 o The government must assess the environmental impacts of cement
manufacturing and implement regulations to mitigate damage.
o Cambodia is working on a coordinated policy framework to promote
low-carbon, renewable energy industries, which includes improving
energy efficiency in cement manufacturing.
 Future Emissions:
o National cement production is projected to contribute 0.64 Mt CO2-eq
emissions, impacting 2030 low-carbon growth targets.
 Regulatory Measures:
o The government should enforce regulations to address environmental
consequences, create incentives for pollution-reduction technologies,
and enhance the Environmental Impact Assessment process.
 Economic Incentives:
o Provide economic incentives to encourage plant owners to adopt
pollution-reduction measures and use recycled-derived fuels.
 Alternative Fuels:
o Transitioning from fossil fuels to alternative and renewable fuels (e.g.,
biomass, solid waste) can improve energy efficiency and reduce
emissions.
 Considerations for Waste Use:
o Using waste in cement production depends on waste availability,
logistics, operational costs, and technology.
o Chemical characteristics of waste must be analyzed to minimize toxic
emissions (e.g., chlorine, mercury, cadmium).
o Further research is needed on waste-heat recovery and the impact of
waste-derived fuels on cement quality.
 Conclusion:
o Additional research is essential to evaluate the feasibility of these
solutions and their effects on cement product quality.
5. CONCLUSIONS
 Study Overview: This research used a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
approach to evaluate the environmental impacts of emissions from a cement
manufacturer in Kampot, Cambodia, and assessed alternative fuel scenarios
for thermal energy in the kiln system.
 Key Findings:
o Current cement production contributes to various environmental
issues, including climate change, human toxicity, particulate matter
formation, and ozone formation.
o The calcination stage is the primary contributor, responsible for
approximately 98% of the climate change impact.
 Alternative Fuel Impact:
o Replacing 50% of coal with biomass for thermal energy during
calcination could significantly reduce emissions of CO2, NOx, and SO2.
o However, this change may also increase other pollutants, such as
PM2.5 and heavy metals (e.g., Cd, Cr, Zn).
o Despite the increase in certain pollutants, the overall human toxicity
could be mitigated, supporting Cambodia's goal of transitioning to a
green economy and achieving carbon neutrality.
 Future Research Directions:
o Investigate the large-scale and national implications of cement
manufacturing.
o Explore the feasibility of increasing biomass use in cement production.

o Assess the potential of using municipal solid and industrial waste as

alternative thermal energy sources.
o Examine the effects of using different materials to reduce the clinker
ratio.