Foundation ODL 1

FST 1 The concept of outcome-based education and
curriculum (3 hrs)
Introduction
In this unit student teachers will learn about education, curriculum, outcome-based
education (OBE) and curriculum. The unit covers meaning, purposes, components and
characteristics of OBE and curriculum. Outcome-based education and curriculum enables all
learners to be successful and provide a flexible process for meeting their needs.
Assessment standard
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate an understanding of education, curriculum,
outcome-based education and curriculum.
Suggested teaching, learning and assessment resources

• student teacher’s handbook
• charts
• markers
• PCAR framework and curriculum
• specialist teacher/braillist
• timetable
• charcoal
• cartons
Education and curriculum

In general terms, education refers to what happens to us from the day we are born to the day we
die. Education can be classified into three types, namely:
• Formal education
This education is mainly gained through experiences at school
• Informal education -
This education is gained from experiences at home
• Non- formal education
This education is acquired from non-formal situations such as sensitization meetings on
democracy, human rights, etc.
A curriculum, on the other hand, refers to all activities happening under school guidance,
whether planned or unplanned. There are three types of curricula:
• Academic/formal, eg, planned at school
• Extra curriculum, eg, sports, debate
• Hidden curriculum, eg, respect for elders
Activity 1
Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in their handbook.
1
Activity 2
Fig 2:
Arrows show answers
Outcome-based education and curriculum (OBE)

OBE is the education which is learner centred and promotes activity based approaches that are
responsive to the needs of all learners. At the end of instruction OBE displays learner –
achievements.
Activity 3
Purposes of outcome-based education and curriculum

Outcome-based education has several purposes. The following are some of them:
• to assist all individual children to learn successfully
• to ensure that the success of learners is progressive through attainment of success criteria
• to see to it that schools are responsible for the success of learners by being accountable for
conducive learning environment
Activity 4
Components of outcome-based education and curriculum

Knowledge of outcome-based education and curriculum is important. It enables the teacher/
student teacher to plan, teach and assess individual learners according to the components of
OBE.
There are four major components of outcome-based education and curriculum. The diagram
below illustrates these components in relation to teaching, learning and assessment through
learning areas of the primary school.
2
The Triangle means that Teaching Learning and Assessment are complementary components of
the process. The national expectations are derived from the purpose of primary education. They
form what is called Development Outcomes or expectations. The Malawi OBE curriculum has
eight developmental outcomes which you will discuss in other units.
The principle in OBE is that all learners can learn and succeed, if they are given necessary
support and attention. OBE depends on learner centred approach which ensures that individual
learners get support throughout the teaching and learning process, as well as assessment.
Continuous Assessment is used throughout the teaching and learning process.
Learning areas
There are seven learning areas at primary level which all student teachers should know, together
with their developmental outcomes.
Developmental outcomes
Are expectations learners show by the end of the primary cycle. The table below illustrates the
learning areas and their corresponding developmental outcomes.
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Learning areas Developmental outcomes
1 Agriculture, Science and Be able to observe, interact with the natural and physical
Technology environment to make use of their relationships.
2 Expressive Arts Be able to apply an imaginative, creative mind, vocational
and managerial skills to participate in productive manner
for personal and social benefits.
3 Life Skills Education Be able to demonstrate health promoting behaviour to
mitigate HIV and AIDS sexually transmitted infections and
other diseases.
4 Literacy and Language Be able to communicate competently and effectively in a
variety of contents and in multiple languages.
5 Numeracy and Mathematics Be able to apply mathematical concepts in various fields.
6 Social and Environmental Be able to use basic knowledge and skills necessary for life-
Sciences long learning, personal advancement development of society
and nation
7 Religious Studies/Bible Be able to demonstrate appropriate moral, ethical and
Knowledge healthy behaviour within acceptable norms and values of
the society.
Note: Teacher education offers Foundation Description of characteristics of

Studies as an extra learning area with outcome-based education and
outcomes for successful teaching in primary
curriculum
education
Characteristics of outcome-based education
(OBE) provide a flexible process that meets the
Primary outcomes
needs of all learners. OBE:
These are derived from developmental
• focuses on measurable outcomes. Each
outcomes. They state what the learners should
outcome has indicators for measuring the
know and be able to do in a core element. A
levels of learners’ performance.
core element is derived from a rationale of a
learning area.
• emphasizes on continuous assessment
which reinforces the link with teaching
Assessment standards
and learning.
These are descriptions of competencies to be
acquired by learners for successful learning of
• encourages learners to find out information
a core-element.
on their own. Learners do not always
depend on the teacher for information. In
Success criteria
that way learners are encouraged to be
These are descriptions of behaviours to be
independent, creative and critical.
shown by a learner in learning of parts of a
core-element.
• does not dwell exclusively on prescribed
content. It gives room to teachers and
Activity 5
learners to generate other relevant content.
Ask student teachers to do activity 5 in their
handbook.
• accommodates needs of all learners by its
use of multiple instructional and
assessment strategies.
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• promotes learners’ application of
knowledge, skills and attitudes beyond
school life.
• enables learners to succeed through

continuous self assessment, proper
management of time and effective use of
teaching, learning and assessment
resources. All these help to maximise
learners’ potentialities.
Activity 6
1 Ask student teachers to do activity 6 in
their handbook.
5
FST 2 Syllabus (2 hrs)
Introduction The purposes of a syllabus
Unit 1 described education, curriculum, Some of the purposes of a syllabus are as
outcome based education and curriculum. A follows:
syllabus is an important curriculum document • It helps the government to guide and
which every teacher must use when preparing control the education so that all children
for teaching. In this unit the term syllabus will in the country learn the same content
be explained and the purposes of a syllabus • It guides teachers in preparing detailed
will be described. In addition, types of schemes of work
syllabuses will be identified and explained. • It allows headteachers, Primary Education
Lastly components of outcome based Advisers (PEAs) and other Ministry
education [OBE] syllabus will be described officials to check whether the desired
and analysed. standards are being achieved
• It helps in limiting scope of the
Assessment standards examination. Those who set examinations
Student teachers should be able to at the end of a course of study, base their
demonstrate an understanding of the syllabus. questions on the content of each syllabus.
Suggested teaching, learning and Activity 2

assessment resources handbook.
• Samples of teaching and examination
syllabuses
• Samples of OBE syllabuses Types of syllabuses
• Charts Syllabuses are designed according to the
• Markers functions they serve. These different functions
• Student’s experiences give rise to types of syllabuses such as
• Reference books teaching and examination syllabuses.
• Specialist teacher
• Chalkboard Activity 3
• Sign language interpreter Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their
• Braillist handbook.
The meaning of a syllabus

The meanings of the syllabus include the
following:
• curriculum documents which outline
topics or concepts to be covered in a
particular subject for a period of time with
a particular class.
• a list of subjects, topics, texts, etc, included
in a course of study.
Activity 1
handbook.
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Types of syllabuses
Examination syllabus Teaching syllabus

• A statement of general aims or goals • a statement of general aims or goals
of the syllabus for teaching the subject which help in the teaching of the subject
• A statement of examination scheme which • clear statement of specific objectives
shows:- • statement of entry skills
- number of examination paper • statement of suggested instructional
- marks allocated to each paper strategies
- time given for the paper • statement of suggested instructional
materials
• statement of evaluation
Similarities
Both the examination and teaching syllabuses have:
• general aims or goals
• references
• content
Differences
• The examination syllabus has examination scheme while the teaching syllabus does not.
• The teaching syllabus has specific objectives, suggested instructional strategies, and
instructional materials while examination syllabus does not.
The components of outcome-based education syllabus

The components of Outcome Based Education [OBE] syllabus are as follows:
• Core element
• Core element outcome
• Assessment standard
• Success criteria
• Theme/ topic
• Suggested teaching, learning and assessment activities
• Suggested teaching, learning and assessment methods
• Suggested teaching, learning and assessment resources
Core Element : Farm tools, machinery and technology

Core Element : The learner will be able to use and maintain farm
tools and machinery, apply improved agricultural
technology and observe safety rules to increase
farm productivity.
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The following is a sample format for an OBE syllabus:
Assessment Success Theme/ Suggested Suggested Suggested

Standard Criteria Topic teaching, learning teaching, learning teaching, learning
and assessment and assessment and assessment
activities methods resources
We will know The learners Farm Tools • listing various • discussion • various farm
this when the must be able farm • demonstration tools, e.g. hoes,
learner is able to: • tools • drawing axes, pangas,
to: 1 describe • discussing parts • task analysis • learners’
Demonstrate farm tools of farm tools • checklist experience
an under- • drawing farm • question and • mount/head
standing of 2 explain tools and answer stick
safety, use uses of labelling their • written • charts of farm
and mainte- farm tools parts exercises tools and
nance of farm • discussing uses • peer machinery
tools of farm tools assessment
as:- • practising proper • individual
use of farm tools, assessment
such:
- maize sheller
- hoes
- pangas
Note References
Examination syllabus does not have columns
MCDE, (1991). Teacher upgrading book 1.
like those of the Outcome Based syllabuses.
Blantyre: Malawi. College of Distance
Instead it has elements which are listed in the
Education
following order:
• a statement of goals or general aims of the MIITEP [1998]. Foundation studies student
syllabus for teaching the subject teacher’s hand Book. Lilongwe: Ministry of
• a statement of the examination scheme i.e. Education/World Bank
how many examination papers pupils will Mtunda, FG and Safuli SDD, (1986). An
write at the end of the course and introduction to the theory and practice of teaching,
indication of mark allocation for each Blantyre: Dzuka Publishing Company
paper. The inclusion of a statement of an
examination scheme gives this type of
syllabus its name
• a statement of content in the form of topics
or concepts
• a list of reference books
Activity 4
handbook.
8
FST 3 Schemes of Work (2 hrs)
Introduction
In unit 2 student teachers learnt about Week and dates
syllabuses. In this unit, they will learn about In this column, the teacher indicates the
schemes of work and their importance, and term’s week number and dates of the week.
identify factors to be considered when
preparing them. Schemes of work guide Success criteria
teaching and learning activities. Lastly, they These are intended learning outcomes. They
will prepare samples of schemes of work in demonstrate learners’ achievement of specific
different learning areas. knowledge, concepts, skills and desirable
attitudes of each assessment standard.
Assessment standard
Student teachers should be able to Planned Activities
demonstrate an understanding of schemes of This is the content section. The teacher writes
work. the core element which is further broken down
into teachable topics and subtopics.
Suggested teaching, learning and
assessment resources Teaching, learning and assessment
• Samples of schemes of work methods
• School and year calendars In this section, the teacher indicates all
• Syllabuses methods that he/she is going to use when
• Flip charts teaching the content.
• Markers
• Reference books Teaching, learning and assessment
• Rulers resources
• Specialist teacher This is a list of all resources that will be used
• Charcoal when teaching that core element.
• Cartons
• Sign language interpreter
• Braillist
• Chalkboard
• Chalk
Schemes of work
Schemes of work is the interpretation of the
syllabus indicating the amount of work the
teacher is likely to cover during a term. It is
more detailed than a syllabus and describes
how the teaching should take place.
The components of schemes of

work
Different education systems have different
layout for schemes of work. The Malawian
education system has adopted what is known
as Outcome Based Education (OBE). The
following is the structure of OBE schemes of
work.
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References
A list of books and other sources of information used in the preparation of schemes of work.
The structure of schemes of work
Week and Success Planned Activities Teaching Teaching References

Date criteria learning and learning and
assessment assessment
methodology resources
Core elements
Topic 1:
• ……..
• ……..
• ……..
Topic 2
• ……..
• ……..
Activity 1 Factors to consider when writing

1 Cut out the components of the schemes of schemes of work
work Writing schemes of work requires a number of
2 Ask them to do activity 1 in their handbooks factors. These include the teaching syllabus,
in groups the school and annual calendars, knowledge
of the class ability, pupils experiences, time,
Importance of schemes of work and teaching, learning and assessment
Each and every teacher must prepare a scheme resources.
of work for each and every subject he/she is
teaching. Schemes of work are very important The teaching syllabus
because they: The teaching syllabus is important because it:
• help teachers in making lesson plans • reminds teachers about the purposes for
• guide teaching and learning activities teaching that particular learning area
• help teachers to prepare teaching and • helps teachers to be familiar with content to
learning materials well in advance be covered
• provide continuity in the work and • assists teachers in deciding the logical
sequence in the learning process when a scope and sequence of the topics
teacher has been posted away • helps teachers to identify recommended
• enable different teachers of different textbooks and other possible sources of
subjects to coordinate their efforts and information
avoid duplication
• help ministry officials, PEAs and
headteachers to evaluate the work of the
teacher
• help teachers meet the special needs of the
learners they are going to teach
Activity 2
In groups, ask student teachers to discuss the
importance of schemes of work.
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Class ability
Knowing the ability of your class is Teaching, learning and assessment
important because you easily determine how resources
much time you should spend on a topic. You The teacher should be well conversant with
are likely to take more time when dealing the textbooks the class is going to use. He/she
with slow learners than you would do with should ask the following questions to
fast learners. determine the relevance and appropriateness
of a textbook:
Learners’ previous experiences • how useful is the textbook?
What pupils already know will determine • does it cover the syllabus?
what they can effectively learn. The teacher • does it cover the syllabus in the best order
should, therefore, always remember to plan for your class?
knowledge/work that is related to what • will it have to be supplemented?
pupils already know.
The teacher should also select other sources of
information and prepare teaching/learning
aids ahead of time.
Activity 3
handbook.
Writing schemes of work

Having gone through this unit, let student
teachers prepare a sample scheme of work in
any learning area for a period of one week.
Hint: This should be a take-home-exercise, and

student teachers will bring it after a week. This
is part of continuous assessment
School and annual calendar
To prepare schemes of work, a teacher will References
need an annul calendar and a school Farrant J.C. (1982). Principles and practice of education.
calendar. The school calendar will tell you the London: Longman.
number of weeks of teaching and learning in a
Module 1 General teaching methods. Domasi: College of
particular term or school year. You get actual Education.
dates for each year from the annual calendar.
This will enable you to avoid overplanning or Mtunda F.G., and Safuli S.D.D., (1986). An
underplanning. introduction to the theory and practice of teaching.
Blantyre: Dzuka Publishing Company.
Time MIITEP (1998). Student teacher’s handbook 1.

A teacher should know the period allocation
per learning area per week. This helps the
teacher to decide on the breakdown of the
topics to be covered.
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FST 4 Lesson planning (3 hrs)
Introduction • provides the teacher with confidence for
In this unit student teachers will learn the success in teaching/learning process
importance of lesson planning in the process • can be used by education officials for
of teaching and learning. They need to acquire practical, constructive and concrete advice
skills in planning and presenting new • makes it easy to assess achievable goals.
knowledge in a classroom situation. They also
need to be trained in organising learning Activity 2
experiences and in evaluating effectiveness of Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their
lessons to assess children’s learning. This handbook.
knowledge will help them to develop
classroom competence and confidence. The structure of a lesson plan
A lesson plan can be written in different ways
Assessment standard but the basic principles remain the same.
Student teachers should be able to
demonstrate an understanding of a lesson Activity 3
plan. Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their
handbook.
assessment resources
• Flip charts
• Pental pens
• Braillist
• Samples of lesson plans
• Hand books
• Overhead projectors
• Transparencies
• Chalkboard
Meaning of a lesson plan

A lesson plan is an organised structure of
important points or ideas the teacher intends
to cover in a lesson.
Activity 1
handbook.
The purpose of a lesson plan

Lessons should be prepared in advance before
teaching because a lesson plan:
• acts as a reminder to enable the teacher
remember what and how to teach
• encourages the teacher to teach in logical
sequence
• acts as a guide throughout the lesson
presentation. For instance, when to ask
questions, when to use teaching and
learning aids, and when to do group work,
etc.
12
The following is the format of a lesson plan:
Preamble
The following essential information should be included:
y Standard
y Date
y Time
y Learning Area/Subject
y Core element
y Topic/theme
Success criteria
Indicate measurable objectives with observable action verbs, i.e., name, list, calculate ………
Teaching, learning and assessment resources
Indicate teaching, learning and assessment materials that will be used in the process
Introduction
Show clearly statements of techniques a teacher will use to engage learners
Development
Include a flow of activities learners will be exposed in order to achieve the learning objectives.
Lesson conclusion
Closing statement or action to mark the end of a lesson
Lesson Evaluation
Show statements of reflection on the learners if they have achieved the intended learning
outcomes
Preparation of lesson plans

After acquiring the theoretical part of lesson planning students have to actually practise how to
prepare lesson plans
The structure of a lesson plan
Template for lesson plan in OBE
y Standard
y Date
y Time
y Learning Area/Subject
y Core element
y Topic/theme
Success criteria
Learners must be able to:
Teaching, learning and assessment resources
Teacher activities Learners activities
Introduction
Development steps
Conclusion
Lesson evaluation
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Activity 4
handbook.
14
FST 5 Records of work (2 hrs)
Introduction
In unit 3 and 4 student teachers learned about schemes of work and lesson planning
respectively. Records of work assist teachers to improve the teaching and learning process. In
this unit, they will learn about records of work, their purposes and practise completing them.
Assessment standard
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate an understanding of records of work.

y Schemes and records of work
y Lesson plans
y Syllabuses
y Portfolios
y Flip charts
y Markers
y Reference books
y Specialist teacher
y Sign language interpreter
y Braillist
y Charcoal
y Cartons
y Chalkboard
y Chalk
Meaning of records of work

Records of work means the recorded material that learners of a given class were able to learn
during the lesson. It shows the degree of success and failure of the lesson, and the reason for
failure. It also indicates possible suggestions for improvement on the weaknesses of the lesson.
Teachers record what has been covered in a lesson in outcomes column and the success or
failure of the lesson, including what has been done, in the remarks column. The outcomes
column is bigger than the remarks column. See table below:
Outcomes Remarks
In Chichewa
Zotsatira za ntchito yomwe taphunzitsa Ndamanga
Activity 1
Organise student teachers into groups and ask them to do activity 1 in their handbook.
15
Purposes of records of work References
Records of work have a number of purposes. Chakwera, EW et al (2001). Educational
They: methods for humanities, education.Module 2B.
• remind the teacher the work he/she has Zomba: Commonwealth of Learning and
already covered with learners Ministry of Education, Science and
• help teachers who take over the class to Technology Malawi
know where to begin teaching
• show successes and failure of the lesson Farrant, JS (1990). Principles and practice of
• show what to do if the lesson was a failure education. Singapore: Longman.
• help head teachers, Primary Education
Advisors (PEAs) and other ministry of Hauya, R et al. Teacher Development Unit
education officials to check if pupils are Student teachers’ handbook. Domasi: Malawi
really learning Institute of Education
• help teachers to improve their schemes of
work in the following year. Kathewerea, GB et al (2000). Life skills training
manual: how to develop self esteem. Domasi:
Activity 2 Malawi Institute of Education
In groups ask student teachers to do activity 2
in their handbook. Mtunda, FG and Safuli, SDD (1986). An
introduction to the theory and practice of teaching.
Samples of schemes and records of Blantyre Publishing Company.
work
Bring samples of complete lesson plans, Nacino-Brown, R, Oke, FE and Brown,
schemes and records of work and display OP(1985). Curriculum and Instruction: An
them before the students. introduction to methods of teaching. London:
McMillan Publishers
* (For Chichewa-put sample from Journeys
Through PCAR 7 page 61) MIITEP(1998). Foundation studies teachers’
handbook, Lilongwe: Ministry of education/
Activity 3 World Bank.
Organise your students in groups and let them
do activity 3 in their handbook.
16
FST 6 Child Development (3 hrs)
Introduction Principles of child development
In this unit student teachers will study the Principles of child development are
development of the child. This knowledge of generalizations that have been made about
child development will enable the teacher to the way children grow and develop. There
determine what to expect of the child, when are six principles of child development and
to expect it and at what stages. these are:
Assessment standard A. The pattern of development is similar in all

Student teachers should be able to children
demonstrate an understanding of child This principle has two views. The first
development, management of beginners and view indicates that all children go
use of the standard 1 syllabus. through the same processes of
development which are physical,
Suggested teaching, learning and intellectual, social, emotional and moral.
The second view is that children develop
assessment resources in stages. The development of the child
• Environment (class of pupils) follows special sequence i.e. every child
• Flip charts grows before it walks and bubbles before
• Video equipment it talks. In the classroom the child begins
• Pictures to read before it starts writing.
• Library
• Reference books B. The rate of development is different from one
• Student teachers experiences individual to another
• Markers Each child develops at his or her own
• Braillist pace, along his or her own path of
• Sign language interpreter progress. This is the principle of
• Standard 1 Term 1 Syllabuses individual differences which should
• Standard 1 Teachers Guides remind teachers that each child is
• Standard 1 Learners’ Book different from other children.
• Standard 1 Posters
C. Children develop in stages
The meaning of child development As the child grows towards adulthood, he
Human beings including all living things or she passes through stages. Each stage
have the capacity for growth and has its own characteristics, achievements
development. Child development refers to all and needs. Experiences a child achieves at
the changes that take place in a child from one stage influences his responses to
time of birth to adolescence. situations during the next stage.
The following are the two kinds of change D. A child develops as unified whole
that take place during child development: This principle shows the inter-relatedness
Quantitative change of the processes of development in a child.
Change of the body in size, height and weight For example, mental development is
related to physical development. As a
Qualitative change child crawls and walks he or she comes
Change of the body in form and function into contact with objects in his
which also means development environment and makes discoveries about
them. Social development is also related
Activity 1 to mental and emotional development. A
Let student teachers do activity 1 in their child who is stable emotionally fits very
handbook. well in many groups. He or she is
17
confident, cooperative and friendly. His or
her social behaviour is stable and
acceptable.
E. Development is a result of heredity and Factors that influence child
environment development
Differences in hereditary and The major factors that influence child
environmental conditions account for development are heredity and environment.
physical, intellectual, social, moral and Heredity is the innate characteristics which
emotional differences in children. are passed on from parents to off-spring
However, of utmost importance in this during conception. Such characteristics
principle is that learners’ performance in include shape of the body, colour of eyes, hair,
the classroom is influenced by heredity intelligence, blood group and complexion.
and environment. There is nothing one
can do to improve hereditary factors but Environment is the total surrounding or
a lot can be done to improve the anything and anyone with whom an
environment. individual can come in contact. For example,
people, the home and the school form part of
F. Development is the result of maturation and the child’s environment.
learning
Maturation is a natural process of growth Activity 2
which controls the child’s ability to Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their
perform new tasks. Once a child reaches handbook.
the required level he shows signs of
readiness to perform new tasks e.g.
crawling, walking, running, speaking and
How the factors influence child
writing. development
Heredity and environment influence child
This knowledge about principles of child development in a number of ways.
development would assist student teachers Heredity sets limits to the individual’s
to: development. Enables the child to inherit
• appreciate the importance of assisting capacities for growth. Determines the height,
learners to go through the stages of sex and facial appearance. Determines a child
development without a rush because at intellectual potential
each stage a child must understand
experiences which will help him to Environment influences the speed at which
acquire experiences of the next stage. the individual develops. A good environment
• plan tasks that are suitable for the enables the individual to reach the limits set
development of physical, mental, social, by heredity. A poor environment prevents
emotional and moral aspects of the child. the individual from reaching the limits set by
• devise teaching techniques that can heredity.
benefit all the learners
• treat each child as an individual Activity 3
considering his developmental Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their
achievements and personal problems handbook.
• grade classroom activities in order to
cater for both slow and fast learners Exercise
• use interesting and varied teaching, Ask student teachers to write the exercise.
learning and assessment resources to
meet learner’s individual interests. Introduction to School Life and
• base learning activities from previous Learning
experience.
• proceed in teaching from simple tasks to Introduction
more difficult ones.
18
There are many challenges learners face
when they go to school for the first time. The Activity 5
current primary school curriculum and Ask student teachers to do activity 5 in their
assessment procedures have made guidelines handbook
to address these challenges in the Introduction
to School Life and Learning. In this section
student teachers will be equipped with
knowledge and skills on how to handle
learners during the first days at school. The
guidelines bridge the gap between the home
and the school.
A. Beginning school: first days at

school
On the first days at school beginners face
the following differences between life at
home and life at school
• More security at home than at school
• School life is orderly and at home
activities are not planned
• At school learners are faced with
peers, while at home they are faced
with parents and relatives
• Partial participants because of large
classes compared to home
Activity 4
handbook.
The characteristics of beginning

learners
Learners are expected to begin school at the
age of six. However, experience shows that
learners begin school at different ages. This
implies different levels of development. There
are a number of factors that characterize this
group of children. The characteristics of this
group include:
• Physically they jump, climb, dance, clap,
play games, draw and scribble
• They learn by doing. When they are
involved
Play;
- facilitates physical and intellectual
development
- makes them socially competent
- recreates their mind and body
• They are short-tempered, emotional and
talkative
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Necessary school conditions
A good learning environment for children is a combination of many factors. A conducive
learning environment includes buildings and grounds, teaching and learning resources and
how they are organized and used. It also includes the teachers’ attitude towards the learners
and learners’ attitudes and behaviour towards the teacher and other learners.
The teacher should motivate and encourage learners to like school and enjoy learning.
Teachers must consider the needs of the children including those with special educational
needs and parents. It is also important to think about the intended outcomes of primary
school education. The diagram below summarises these factors.
Activity 6
Relationships among Syllabus,

Familiarisation of teachers with the
Teachers’ Guides, Learners’ Books,
syllabus, teachers’ guide, learners’
Posters and Sequence of Activities
book, posters and sequence of
The Standard 1 Term 1 materials have many
activities for Standard 1, term 1 similarities. Student teachers need to know
all the similarities in order to plan effectively.
Standard 1 has two different syllabuses. The
first term syllabus is the introduction to Activity 7
school life and learning. The terms 2 and 3 Ask student teachers to do activity 7 in their
syllabuses focus on each learning areas handbook.
covered in standard 1. The layout of the
PCAR syllabus has some features that are Aspects/processes of child
new and the teachers must be familiar with
them. Other important curriculum document
development
that teachers must be familiar with are the As children develop, we see changes in them.
Teachers’ Guides, the Learners’ Books and These changes are seen through the five
posters. This section is intended to major aspects of child development. These
familiarize student teachers with the aspects/processes are:
features of Standard 1 Term 1 PCAR • Physical development
syllabus, the structure and content of other • Intellectual/cognitive development
curriculum documents. • Social development
• Emotional development
• Moral development.
20
Physical development
This refers to an increase in size, weight, length and height. New structures also grow and
mature. These changes assist the person to perform new tasks. Physical development can be
promoted by organizing activities such as sports, dances and teaching children correct ways
of sitting, standing and sleeping.
Intellectual (mental) or cognitive development

Through their senses infants’ awareness of the environment gets improved. Their thinking
ability develops and language improves. Naming and differentiating objects are signs of
cognitive development.
Social development
This involves the learning of attitudes, habits and ability to relate with other people. Social
development can be influenced by the peers, mass-media, the school, family and social
organisations.
Emotional development
This is the ability of the child to control feelings and express emotions. Apart from the
provision of love and care, children can be assisted to develop emotionally by correcting their
mistakes in a constructive manner.
Moral development
This refers to the process of the development of the sense of right and wrong or fair and unfair.
Parents and teachers are the most powerful sources of influence in moral development.
Activity 8
Relating the aspects/process of child development to teaching and

learning
Aspects/processes of child development are related to teaching and learning in various ways.
For instance, learning areas enhance the development of the five aspects of child development.
Aspect Learning areas Relationship

Physical development • Expressive arts Leads to maturity and
• Agriculture, Science and readiness to learn
Technology
Intellectual (cognitive) • Numeracy and Pupils understand what they
development Mathematics are learning
• Literacy and language
Social development • Social and environmental Easy to mix and learn from
sciences friends
• Life skills
Emotional development • Expressive Arts Able to control feelings
towards others
Moral development • Religious studies Able to judge what is right or
wrong, fair or unfair.
Activity 9
Let student teachers do activity 9 in their handbook.
21
Stages of child development • A good number of adolescents are found
Children develop in stages. The development in the last classes of the primary school.
of each child follows a particular sequence. • The child’s body proportions approach
The following are the stages of child those of adults.
development: • The child’s muscular coordination
improves further.
Pre-natal (Conception to birth) • The child’s physical development is quite
• It is also known as ante-natal rapid and then slows down.
• It begins after fertilization has taken place • The child develops to think in abstract
and the first cell of the new baby called terms.
zygote is formed • The child is able to compare and deduce
• In two weeks or three weeks time after from the given information.
conception the zygote becomes an embryo • The child develops logical and systematic
• From six to eight weeks after fertilization thinking.
the embryo develops into a foetus • The child’s social interaction with
• Nine months after conception the baby is members of the opposite sex is increased.
ready to be born. • The child prefers to be independent and is
sensitive to approval or disapproval.
Infancy (0-2 years) • The child is often moody and challenges
• This stage starts as soon as the baby is adult authority.
born • The child becomes a bully.
• During this stage the baby’s growth is • Girls are unwilling to help mothers with
rapid domestic work.
• The baby is attracted to people’s faces and • Children strive to be accepted socially.
does not turn away his/her eyes from any Therefore they make more effort to
object in focus at the beginning of this improve their appearance.
stage • Girls have strong feelings to fulfil their
• Since the baby has not acquired language childhood dreams to become like mothers.
she/he often expresses her feelings or • Girls may develop body odour as a result
intentions by crying of bodily changes and hard work of the
• The baby is egocentric and likes to explore different glands and hormones.
the environment. • Wet dreams occur in boys.
• Children feel reserved, awkward and anti
Childhood (2 – 12 years) social.
• This is a stage a child undergoes after
infancy Each stage is dependent upon the influence of
• It is further divided into the following the experiences from the previous stages.
three sub-stages: Therefore the child’s needs at every stage
- Early childhood: the child can attend should be satisfied for normal development
kindergarten (pre-school) to be achieved.
- Middle childhood: children start
primary school education at this age Activity 10
range Ask student teachers to do activity 10 in
- Late childhood: many children in the their handbook.
middle class of primary school belong
to this age group. Sub-stages of childhood
There are three sub stages of childhood and
Adolescence (12 – 16 years) these are:
• This is a period after puberty but before • Early childhood (2 to 5 yrs)
the child becomes a youth. • Middle childhood (5 to 7 yrs)
• Many teenagers belong to this group.
22
• Late childhood (7 to 12 yrs) • The child physical growth slows down
but muscular strength and second teeth
Early childhood (2 to 5 years) grow at the beginning of this stage
• The baby has temporary teeth • Coordination develops drastically making
• At 2 years the child is egocentric and skills like reading and writing possible
likes to play alone and is able to explore • The child develops the ability to imagine
the environment situations and reverse operations
• The child can run, kick a ball and use the • The child learns best by the use of
toilet concrete objects or situations
• Up to three years the baby growth is • The child develops the ability to notice
rapid relevant and irrelevant characteristics
• The child can drink from a glass held in • At this stage they like to gang up with
one hand other children of the same sex
• The child likes to repeat words and starts • The children are fond of competing and
to use sentences they are somewhat emotionally
• Between 3 years to 4 years the child is controlled
emotional and easily gets angry and is • The child begins to think logically and
also selfish and impatient solves problems based on concrete
• From 3 and 5 years the child lacks the situations.
ability to conserve and reverse situations
clearly Activity 11
• The child can copy a square and print Ask Student Teachers to do Activity 11 in
his/her name between 4 and 5 years their Handbook.
• At the end of 5 years and beginning of 6
years the child begins to accept friends
and enjoys the company of friends of
both sexes.
Middle Childhood (5 to 7 years)

• The child uses intuition
• The child imitates adults and can express
himself/herself well because of the
acquisition of a wide vocabulary
• The child can start schooling because he
or she can stay away from parents, for
hours or days without problems
• The child talks constantly and asks many
questions
• The child’s memory improves and
develops the ability to classify objects
according to their shapes, colour, size,
height, length and width
• The child is unable to make
generalisations but there is improvement
in the use for symbolic play
• At the end of 7 years the child begins to
lose temporary teeth.
Late childhood (7 to 12 years)

• The children develop strong group loyalty
and are good at copying what old, famous
and successful people do
23
FST 7 Individual differences (2 hrs)
Introduction
In life people differ from each other in many ways; for example, physically, mentally and
socially. The knowledge about these differences will assist student teachers to ensure effective
teaching by responding to individual needs of learners.
Assessment standard
Student teachers should be able to: demonstrate an understanding of individual differences.

• IPTER handbook
• Samples of child study report
• Braillist
• Student teachers
• Learners
Individual differences
There are a number of things that make people different from each other. These differences affect
the way in which individuals learn things. Individual differences refer to the ways people differ
from others physically, mentally, socially emotionally and morally.
Activity 1
Types of individual differences

There are five types of individual learning differences. These are physical, mental, social,
emotional and moral issues as shown below:
Physical Mental Social Emotional Moral

Height Fast learners Extroverts Anger Fairness
Complexion Slow learners (outgoing) Fear Unfairness
Hair colour Average learners Introverts Excitement Right and wrong
(reserved) Joy Correct and
Friendliness Happiness Incorrect
Activity 2
24
How individual differences affect References
learning Ausubel, D and Robinson, F(1969). School learning: an
introduction to educational psychology.USA Holt
Individual differences affect the way Rinehart and Winston Inc.
individuals learn.
Physical differences influence the way a Bernard H.W, (1965). Psychology of learning and
learner responds to learning. For example, a teaching.USA. McGraw-Hill Inc
child with physical impairment will have a Farrant, JS,(1980). Principles and practice of education.
problem to respond and participate in some UK, Longman Group UK Ltd.
sporting activities .
MIITEP(1980). Student teachers’ handbook 2. Domasi:
Mental or intellectual capabilities affect Malawi Institute Education
learning in that a bright learner will learn
faster than a less bright one.
Social differences also affect the way learners

learn. Individuals differ in their ability to form
relationships. A child who feels rejected at
school or by the society may have difficulties
to learn.
Emotional differences include changes in

feelings, behaviour and excitement. A child
who is in fear, anger and anxiety may not
concentrate on learning.
Moral differences too affect the way

individuals learn. This involves an individual
having a sense of right or wrong, knowing
what is fair or unfair, correct or incorrect. A
learner with no sense of guilt or remorse for
wrong doing may not take corrective measure
when disciplined. He/she may not have
empathy for other learners and may even harm
them; thereby disrupting learning in the
classroom or school.
Activity 3
handbook.
25
FST 8 Special Needs Education (4hrs)
Introduction • Special Needs Education is a purposeful

In this unit, student teachers will learn about intervention that prevents, eliminates
Special Needs Education. It is important that and/or overcomes the barriers
all teachers are aware of and understand the that keep an individual with
meaning and purposes of Special Needs disabilities from learning and from active
Education in order that learners with special participation in school and society.
educational needs can be assisted effectively.
• Special Needs Education is the education,
Assessment standard which provides appropriate
Student teachers should be able to modifications in order to meet special
demonstrate an understanding of Special educational needs. What are these
Needs Education (SNE) and Special modifications? (Ref fig.2)
Educational Needs (SEN).

• Learners
• Student teachers’ experiences (Fig 2: Types of Modifications)
• Braillist
• Special Needs Education is the
• Role models
instruction and services designed to
• Flip charts
meet the unique learning needs of
• Markers
learners with disabilities.
• Handout notes
• Special materials, teaching techniques,
equipment, facilities and related services
Meaning of Special Needs
like special transportation, psychological
Education assessment, counselling, medical
Special Needs Education can be defined from treatment, physical and occupational
many perspectives. It can be defined as an therapy may be required, if special needs
intervention or instruction. The figure below education is to be effective.
summaries it all. Compensatory
Activity 1
1 Ask student teachers do activity 1 in their
Special Needs handbooks.
Education Intervention Preventive
Instruction Remedial
Where it is taught What is taught How it is taught
(Fig. 1 SNE Map)
26
Meaning of Special Educational Note: Many teachers and other education
Needs officials frequently ask this question “What is
Special Educational Needs is an umbrella term ‘Special’ about Special Needs Education? “
describing a wide range of difficulties, which This question can be responded to by
may impair children’s ability to achieve examining Special Needs Education in terms
during their time in school. These are unique of the Who, What, How and Where of its
learning needs of learners with impairments. teaching.
It should be noted that not all children with The following points explain why Special
impairments have problems in learning. Needs Education is “Special”
However, many children without obvious (i) Who: the exceptional child needs
impairment fail in our schools because they individually planned programme of
are not assisted accordingly. Examples of instruction.
special educational needs include: (ii) What: Special Needs Education is
• Children with physical difficulties may sometimes differentiated from general
require special desks or communication education by its curriculum. Some
devices and may not need any children with impairments need
modification of the curriculum. intensive, systematic instruction to
• Children with difficulties in attention, learn skills to compensate
memory perception and general for or reduce the effects of the
knowledge and skills may need some disability. A child with Visual
modification or adaptations of the impairment may be taught to read
curriculum, materials and/or and write in Braille, where as a sighted
methods. child does not need these skills.
(iii) How: Special Needs Education can also
Activity 2 be differentiated from general education
1 Ask student teachers to do activitity 2 in by its use of specialized, or adapted
their handbooks materials and methods. For
example, sign language for those with
Purposes of special needs
hearing impairment,
education augmentative alternative
These include: communication (AAC) for those with
• The provision of accessibility to all communication difficulties.
children whose education cannot be met (iv) Where: Special Needs Education can
in an ordinary school. This may be due to sometimes be identified by where it takes
the severity of the impairments. place. Some children cannot be taught
• The inclusion of children with in a regular classroom with their
impairments in mainstream schools. peers. They have to be taught
Learners are first prepared in the resource either in a resource room or at a special
room before being included in the school.
mainstream.
• The identification of children with special NB. The term “Special Education” has now
educational needs in schools. been substituted with the term “Special
• Provision of sports and recreation and Needs Education” emphasizing that other
related services eg special olympics, learning problems may call for special
referrals, counselling and therapies. adjustments as well as emphasizing the idea
of special educational needs in the regular
classroom.
Activity 3
their handbooks.
27
FST 9 The process and principles of teaching (3 hrs)
Introduction
In unit 4 student teachers learnt about lesson • The learners only communicate with their
planning. In this unit student teachers will teacher during tests and examinations or
give an explanation and description of the during the few minutes allocated for
process and principles of teaching. The questions in a lesson .
knowledge and skills they will gain from this • It is teacher centred and not responsive to
unit will assist them in lesson preparation OBE.
and delivery.
The two-way teaching process
Assessment standard This process allows active participation of
both the teacher and the learner. It is a
learner-centred process. The teacher and the
demonstrate an understanding of the process
learner are both a source of knowledge. All
and principles of teaching.
learners in this process are encouraged to
learn to think for themselves. The two-way
Suggested teaching, learning and teaching process greatly supports outcome
assessment resources based education because:
• Checklist • the learner communicates directly with
• Flipcharts the teacher
• Markers • the teacher checks learners’ work and
• Local environment eg, Demonstration records progress
School • the teacher does not only correct learners’
• Pencils work but the learners too correct their
• Specialist teacher own understanding
• Learners • the teacher monitors and records
progress continuously
Meaning of teaching • it is learner-centred.
Teaching has been defined in various ways,
here are a few: Activity 2
• a process whereby the teacher imparts knowledge 1 Ask student teachers to do activity 2.
or intellectual values to a learner. 2 Give student teachers a checklist for
• The process of showing somebody how to do classroom observation as shown below:
something so that he/she will be able to do it 3 Organise student teachers in groups to go
independently. to the Demonstration school and observe
• Any process that facilitates learning lessons using the checklist
4 Discuss with student teachers whether
Activity 1 the checklist responds to a two-way
Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in their teaching process as required by OBE
handbook.
Principles of teaching
Teaching process Teaching and learning requires, teachers to
The teaching process can either be one-way follow guidelines called principles. Some of
or two way. the principles of teaching are:
• understanding the learners’ needs
The one-way teaching process • revising what has been taught before a
• The teacher is the fountain of all new lesson, ensuring that a lesson begins
knowledge. from known to unknown
• The learner is a semi-passive agent, only • introducing a new lesson in a more lively
receiving information. way and more related to what has been
• The potentialities of the learner may be taught
repressed.
28
• engaging learners in classroom activities including those with special educational needs
• using teaching and learning resources in every lesson to simplify both teaching and
learning
• creating a conducive learning environment in which all learners including those with
special educational needs are supported and encouraged
• managing classroom behaviour appropriately
• assessing learners’ progress continuously
• evaluating all lessons to improve teachers’ and learners’ performance
• re-teaching or re-planning any work on which learners have not managed to meet the
success criteria
Activity 3
1 Give student teachers a checklist for lesson observation as shown below.
2 Organise student teachers in groups to go to the demonstration school and observe lessons
3 Discuss their findings in a plenary.
Checklist
Guidelines Observed (Yes/No) Comments to justify

your opinion
• Was the teacher able to give individual
help?
• Did the teacher start the lesson in a lively
manner?
• Were learners involved in activities during
the lesson including those with special needs?
• Did the teacher/pupil use teaching and
learning resources during lesson delivery?
• Were learners able to ask questions freely,
and how did the teacher respond to them?
• Was the learners’ behaviour appropriate?
• Did the teacher distribute questions evenly?
References
Farant, J.S. (1990) (2nd Edition). Principles and practice of education. Singapore: Longman Singapore
Publishers.
Hunt, P. (2001). Exceptional children. London: Allyn and Bacon
Kyriacon, C. (1995). Essential teaching skills. Cheltenham: Stanley Thomas Publishers
Obanya, P. (1980). General methods of teaching. Ibadan: McMillan Nigeria Publishers.
Petty, G. (1980). Teaching today: a practical guide. Cheltenham: Stanley Thomas Publishers.
Robinson, A (1980). Principles and practice of teaching. London: George Allen and Unwin.
29
FST 10 Roles and qualities of an effective teacher (2 hrs)
Introduction Advisor
In this unit, student teachers will learn about People often seek the teachers’ advice for the
the roles and qualities of an effective teacher. general affairs of the community.
This knowledge will help student teachers to
display these roles and demonstrate qualities Role-model
of an effective teacher in different situations. The teacher should set good examples such as
This is very important for effective correct and appropriate speech, good
performance of the teacher. manners, modesty, responsibility, appropriate
mode of dressing, cleanliness, friendliness,
Assessment standard hardworking spirit, etc.
demonstrate an understanding of roles and An agent of socialization
qualities of an effective teacher. The teacher acts as an agent of the society or
community in the socialisation of children.
Suggested teaching, learning and An agent for change
assessment resources The school is one of the most important
• Checklist agencies involved in transmitting the message
• Local environment to the general public. The teachers teach about
• Specialist teacher HIV and AIDS, cause of HIV and AIDS, impact
• Flip charts of HIV and AIDS and strategies to overcome
• Markers HIV and AIDS. In this case, the teacher plays
• Pencils the role of an agent for change.
• Reference books
• Sign language interpreter The teacher’s role in the school
• Chalkboard The following are some of the roles of a teacher
• Student teachers in a school:
• Braillist
• Learners Administrator
The teacher calls the daily attendance register
Roles of a teacher in different to find out who is present and who is absent.
situations If some learners are absent, the teacher tries to
A teacher is as a person who is charged with find out why they are absent. The teacher also
the responsibility of helping others to learn prepares a class seating plan that will enable
and to behave in new and different ways. A him/her know all the names of the learners in
teacher interacts with different people in the his/her class. The teacher maintains
community and school. In each interaction discipline in the classroom so that the
with different people, the teacher is expected to environment should be conducive to teaching
behave in a particular way. The teacher plays and learning.
different roles with each group of people.
Judge
The teacher’s role in the community The teacher gives grades to learners after they
The teacher plays different roles in the have taken a test. The teacher may or may not
community and these roles vary depending on promote learners to the next standard/class
the size and type of community. Some of the
roles that the teacher plays in the community Role model
are as follows: The teacher is expected to be exemplary in the
way he/she behaves in the school. For
example, the teacher should not get involved
30
in intimate relationships with his/her Friendliness
learners. Young people seek models to assist Teachers should be friendly and interested in
them in their character development. the welfare and problems of both teachers and
learners in the school.
Parent substitute
The teacher comforts and shows affection to Modesty
the pupils when in school just as parents do at Teachers should not show pride or arrogance
home. in any way.
Manager Competency
The teacher exercises efficient control over Teachers must be professionally
his/her pupils, the available resources and the knowledgeable in all aspects of school system,
different programmes of learning that are in order to criticize with understanding and
going on in each subject. This helps him/her guide and advise other people competently.
to ensure that learning progresses efficiently
and that desired standards of out- put are Behaviour
maintained. Teachers should always use good language
and must be kind and considerate.
Guide and counsellor
The teacher advises the learners what to do Dedication
when they have problems with their academic Teachers must be devoted to duty and be able
work. Similarly, if the teacher discovers that a to get good results from their teaching.
learner has emotional problems, he/she It is also important for teachers to be
should advise and help that learner. resourceful and creative.
Activity 1 Punctuality
Organise the student teachers into groups to Teachers must be punctual to all activities at
do activity 1 in their handbook. the school. They should make sure they follow
the working timetable.
Qualities of an effective teacher
Teachers are required to be effective in their Co-operation
teaching profession. Qualities that teachers Teachers must co-operate with head, fellow
possess help them work without problems. teachers and learners and the general public.
Some of qualities of an effective teacher are as
follows: Adaptability
A teacher must be adaptable or responsive to
the changing needs, e.g. where a teacher is
Dedication
given a different class to teach, he or she
The head should be dedicated to his work and
should willingly accept the change.
he should show a sense of responsibility at all
times.
Activity 2
Ask student teachers to do Activity 2 in their
Impartiality
handbook.
Teachers must be fair and impartial in his
judgement, when handling matters relating to
Activity 3
members of staff and learners.
Ask the student teachers to do activity 3 in
their handbook.
Integrity and frankness
Teachers must be frank and honest in dealing
with other teachers, learners and parents.
31
References
Cooper, JM et al (2003). Classroom teaching skills
(7th Edition). Washington: Houghton Mifflin
Company
DuBey, DL et al (1986). Teaching in the primary
school: a course for active learning. London:
Longman.
http://www.svsu.edu/dboehm/Qualities.html
http:para.unl.edu/para/Roles/lesson/.html
MIITEP. Student teacher’s handbook 5
Mtunda, FG and Safuli, SDD (1986). An
introduction to theory and practice of teaching.
Blantyre: Dzuka Publishing Company.
32
FST 11 Teaching methods (5 hrs)
Introduction • Use instructional resources to spice the

In the previous unit student teachers learnt method
about roles and qualities of an effective • Use sign language interpreter for the
teacher. In this unit, they will learn about hearing impaired
methods teachers use. Teachers use various • Use tactile resources for the visually
teaching methods for learners, including those impaired
with special educational needs, to learn better. • Use a variety of questions
In this unit the student teachers will learn • Relate the needs, ability and interests of
types of teaching methods, guidelines for each learners
method, strengths and limitations of each • Plan the content thoroughly
method.
Activity 2
Assessment standard Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate handbook.
an understanding of various teaching methods
Strengths and limitations of the lecture method
Suggested teaching, learning and Some of the strengths and limitations are as
assessment resources follows:
• Videos
Strengths
• Local environment/class
• Helps the teacher to cover more subject
• Library
matter
• Checklists
• Helps learners to develop listening skills
• Portifolios
• Helps learners to acquire note-taking skills
• Resource persons
• It can be used with large classes
• Journals
Limitations
• It may lead to boredom and learners may
go to sleep if not carefully planned
• Overhead projector
• It does not permit feed back from learners
• Transparencies
• It is difficult for learners to correct errors
and misconceptions from learners
Teaching methods • Visually and hearing impaired learners
There are various teaching methods a teacher may not benefit much from the lecture
can use. method
Activity 1 Activity 3
Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in their Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their
handbook. handbook.
Lecture method
Question-and-answer method
It is a way of teaching in which the teacher
• It is a method based on the use of questions
talks to the learners while the learners listen.
which are answered by learners.
• It is defined as a method for both teaching
Guidelines for lecture method
and oral testing based on the use of
Some of the guidelines of lecture method are as
questions to be answered by learners.
follows:
• Know the overall goals and specific
objectives Guidelines for question and answer method
• Vary voice to reduce boredom Guidelines for question and answer method
include the following:
33
• Plan the questions before the lesson • Assisting learners in evaluating their own
• Decide the purpose of the questions abilities
• Ask the question, pause a little and name
the learner Some of the limitations are:
• Give feedback to all learners • Questions may slow the teaching process
• Distribute the question across the class • Sometimes teachers find difficulties in
• Rephrase the question if the learner shows formulating good questions
no sign of understanding. • Low order questions encourage learners to
• Involve both volunteers and non- memorise materials which they do not
volunteers understand
• Do not move to the next question if the • Poorly constructed questions make
learner has given an incomplete answer learners lose confidence in the teacher.
• Do not get too close to the learners when Good questions should:
asking questions – be short
• Probe the learners through the use of – be relevant to the topic
“Why”, “What” and “How” – be clear and to the point
• Direct more oral questions to a visually – suit the level of learners
impaired learner to maximise his/her – not call for double answers at the same
attention time
• Prepare written questions for learners with – appeal to the learners’ reasoning
hearing impairment
• Sign language interpreter should preside Activity 5
over the lesson for learners with hearing Ask student teachers do activity 5 in their
impairment. handbook.
Activity 4 Discussion method

• Ask student teachers to do activity 4 in This is a method where teachers and learners
their handbook. are involved in a discussion.
The meanings may include the following:
The strengths and limitations of question • A learning activity where a teacher and
and answer method her/his learners talk together in order to
Question and answer method has some share views, ideas and information about a
strengths and limitations. common topic or problem
. • An approach where two or more people
Some of the strengths of the question and interact with each other verbally
answer method include:
• Stimulating interest in learners Guidelines for discussion method
• Monitoring progress in a lesson Some guidelines for discussion method
• Monitoring learners include the following:
• Identifying what learners already know • The topic for discussion should catch the
about the learning area interest and imagination of most learners.
• Identifying special educational needs • The topic must be simple.
• Classifying and expanding certain points • Make sure that all learners are
in the lesson participating in the discussion.
• Evaluating learners’ progress • Ensure that fast learners do not dominate
• Providing direction to learners’ thinking the discussion.
• Providing feedback to the teachers • Give leadership roles to learners with
• Disciplining learners special needs to ensure maximum
• Emphasizing the main points of the lesson participation and to motivate them.
• Helping learners to organise and interpret • Sign language interpreter to preside over
material proceedings of the discussion to the
hearing impaired learners
34
• Guide the learners into discussing prove the truth by means of an
relevant issues only to avoid digression experiment
• Create a discussion free atmosphere by • It is an audiovisual explanation,
being friendly emphasising the important points of a
• Encourage learners to record a summary of product, a process or idea. It is basically an
the discussion activity which combines telling, showing
and doing for the benefit of an audience, be
Activity 6 it a person or group of persons.
handbook Guidelines for demonstration method
The guidelines for demonstration method
The strengths and limitations of the discussion include:
method • Plan the work adequately
This method has also strengths and • Analyse the objectives of the demonstration
limitations. • Prepare explanatory materials
• Practice the demonstration if necessary
Strengths • Prepare the outline of the demonstration
• Makes learners active • Prepare the environment
• Makes learners practise their verbal skills • Choose the type of demonstration to use
• Encourages learners to learn from each • Demonstrate by touch for visually impaired
other learners
• Provides opportunities to learners for • Let the sign language interpreter preside
critical thinking over the demonstration for the hearing
• Provides opportunities to learners to impaired learners
practice listening actively • Keep the demonstration simple
• Gives good practice in problem solving • Pace the demonstration for dramatic effect
• Provides training in democratic processes • Check learners understanding at all times
• Summarise the demonstration
Limitations
• Time consuming Activity 9
• Difficult to achieve maximum interaction Ask student teachers to do activity 9 in their
when the group is large handbook.
• Not easy to assess individual performance
• Fast learners may dominate the The strengths and limitations of demonstration
discussions method
• Discussion may lose direction if leadership In activity 10 student teachers are going to
is weak discuss strengths and limitations of
demonstration method.
Activity 7
Ask student teachers to do activity 7 in their Strengths should include the following:
handbook. • Trains learners to be keen observers
• Reduces accidents if the activities are
Activity 8 demonstrated first
Ask student teachers to do activity 8 in their • Stimulates thinking
handbook. • Arouses interest in learners
• It is cost effective
Demonstration method • It is most appropriate when teaching the
In this method learning takes place when a use of machine or pieces of equipment
teacher demonstrates an activity to learners. • Effective in skill learning
Possible meaning should include: Limitations
• Demonstration method is an instructional • Difficult to demonstrate to visually
activity in which the teacher performs an impaired learners
activity to show how a thing is done or to
35
• Time consuming • It is time consuming
• Requires thorough planning • Not all learners get involved in the role
• Not effective for large classes play
• Shy learners lose interest
Activity 10 • Fast learners may dominate the role-play
Ask student teachers to do activity 10 in their • Learners with learning difficulties may not
handbook. benefit very much
Role play Activity 12

This method requires a learner or teacher to Ask student teachers to do activity 12 in their
assume a role of some one, for example, a shop handbook.
keeper.
The meaning of role play should include: Activity 13
An immediate display of a situation, condition handbook.
or circumstance by selected members of a
learning group (learners) Field trips and educational visits
In these two methods, learning takes place
Guidelines for role play outside the traditional classroom.
Guidelines include:
• Organise the situation and roles to be Guidelines for field trips and educational visits
played in advance Student teachers will note that guidelines for
• Assign roles to learners field trips and educational visits are the same.
• Give them enough time to prepare for the They include the following:
roles • Prepare clear objectives for the trip or
• Learners who are not involved in the role- educational visit
play should be taking important notes • Book the place to be visited in advance
during the role play • If there is need for transport arrangements
• Involve learners with special needs in the do so in advance
roles • Make a preliminary visit to the place
• Switch roles among learners • Give specific instructions to learners before
• Improve some areas by repeating the role- the trip
play • Identify guides for visually impaired
• Summarise main points of the activity. learners
• Take precautions for learners with hearing
Activity 11 impairments in case of traffic cars
Ask student teachers to do activity 11 in their • If possible, let visually impaired learners
handbook. touch some objects which they do not see
• After the visit thank the owners of the
Strengths and limitations of the role play
premises visited
method • When you are back at school, discuss the
Strengths of the role play method include the trip or educational visit
following: • Ask learners to record the discussions
• Learners are motivated
• Curiosity is aroused Activity 14
• Learners with special needs get actively Ask student teachers to do activity 14 in their
involved in the lesson handbook.
• Learners develop their social potentials
• Learners develop a feel of real life situation The strengths and limitations of field trips and
in the roles played educational visits
The strengths and limitations for field trips
Limitations of the role-play method include and educational visits are the same. The
the following: strengths include the following:
36
• They enable learners gather first hand Activity 16
information Ask student teachers to do activity 16 in
• They allow learners learn in an their handbook.
environment of real life situation
• They enable learners clarify information The strengths and limitations of the group
got in a classroom situation method
• They give opportunity for learners to do Strengths of the group method include:
practical activities • In case of inadequate resources, learners
• They improve learners’ social relationships share them
• They improve learners with visual • It gives an opportunity for learners to
impairments in their mobility skills participate actively in a lesson
• Learners get motivated
Limitations of field trips and educational • Teachers have more time to spend on
visits include the following: special needs and slow learners
• They demand a lot of time • Learners develop a sense of social
• They require good arrangements and responsibility, for example in agriculture
organisation • Gives an opportunity for students to share
ideas
The differences between field trips and • Learners get trained to lead others
educational visits • Learners with special needs get assisted by
Although strengths and limitations of field their friends
trips and educational visits are the same, the
two methods are different. The following are Limitations of the group method may include
some of the differences: the following:
• In a field trip, the class teacher conducts • If tasks are not well defined learners may
the lesson while in an educational visit, the not benefit from the method
resource person is an expert in the field. • It is difficult to assess individual learners
• In a field trip the class teacher prepares a
lesson plan while in an educational visit, Activity 17
the lesson plan is not required. Ask student teachers to do activity 17 in their
handbook.
Activity 15
Ask student teachers to do activity 15 in their Project method
handbook. It is a common method used in practical
learning areas like Agriculture.
Group method The meaning should include:
Group method is a learning method that • A situation where learners are given an
involves learners in doing activities in groups. assignment to do or interpret data
• An activity involving an investigation to
find a solution to a problem
Guidelines for group method
The following are guidelines for group Guidelines for project method
method: The following are some of the guidelines for
• Plan for the method the project method:
• Define the purpose of the group activity • The topic should be clearly defined for the
• Explain the task to be under taken learners
• Know the ages, impairments and abilities • Learners should be provided with
of members of each group sufficient materials before they start
• Move around the groups as learners working on the project
discuss in order to give guidance where • Learners must be given adequate
required supervision to ensure maximum progress
37
• Learners should be given encouragement
to check their work against objectives
before the teacher’s assessment
Activity 18
Ask student teachers to do the activity 18 in
their handbook.
The strengths and limitations of the project

method
Strengths of the project method include the
following:
• Learners gain the skill of planning their
work with little assistance from teachers
• Learners learn to study topics in detail
• Learners are trained to be responsible and
to develop initiative
• Learners acquire skills of:
- observation
- data collection
- recording
- interpretation
- evaluation
Limitations of the project method include the

following:
• It is time consuming
• Learners can make a lot of errors due to
lack of back ground information
• Learners may copy from each other if there
is little supervision
• Objectives may not be achieved if there is
little supervision
Activity 19
handbook.
Activity 20
handbook.
38
FST 12 Teaching skills (4 hrs)
Introduction The skill of planning

Teaching skills are an important component of • This refers to the content that a teacher
the teaching and learning process. It is produces which is in the form of an outline
important that as a lecturer, you apply of important ideas that are to be covered
different teaching skills during the delivery of during the process of teaching and
instructional materials. Teaching skills aim at learning.
making the teacher teach effectively. This unit • It is important to note that planning for
discusses both the theoretical and practical instruction involves such things as
aspects of basic teaching skills that will help drawing schemes of work and writing
student teachers gain confidence when lesson plans, which have been thoroughly
teaching. discussed in units 3 and 4 respectively.
• Planning is an important component
Assessment standard because among other things it:
Student teachers should be able to - ensures logical presentation of the
demonstrate an understanding of different lesson.
teaching skills. - gives a teacher the required confidence
in front of his/her class.
Suggested teaching, learning and - keeps a teacher ‘on track’ for the
assessment resources complete lesson in terms of what to do,
• Assessment checklists when to do it, what teaching and
learning materials to use and what
activities are involved.
• Learners
• Local environment
• Videos
• Internet Remember the success of
• Specialist teacher a lesson begins with
• Sign language interpreter planning
• Braillist
The meaning of teaching skills

Teaching skills may be defined as the
appropriate and remembered set of behaviours
that teachers need in order to perform teaching The skill of introduction
tasks. It is the ability learnt and acquired Introduction helps learners to come to grips
through training to perform an action and with what is contained in a lesson. It gives a
achieve the desired outcome. Teaching skills short summary of what the lesson is all about
are instructional techniques that a teacher and its intended outcomes. A good
uses for effective teaching and learning. Introduction should be able to:
• stimulate learners’ interest and thereby
Activity 1 keeping them alert.
Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in their • motivate and make learners think by
handbook. arousing their curiosity.
• give an overview of the content that is to be
Different teaching skills covered.
There are ten different teaching skills that • enable the teacher link the previous lesson
teachers use in order to enable pupils to the new one.
understand what they are learning. The
following are some of them:
39
• make the teacher gain learners’ attention • Use learners’ responses (even incorrect
as he/she tries to tickle their minds and ones) in a positive way
make them ‘knowledge hungry’ for the • Good timing of questions and pauses
remaining part of the lesson. between questions (ask, pause, name)
The skill of explanation Questions serve two major purposes:

Explanation can be defined as the process of • To find out what has been learned and to
giving meaning and clarity to a concept, an summarise learning points. Four
idea or a skill in order to increase learners’ Interrogatives are commonly used for this
understanding. Most teachers rely on the skill purpose, and these are: Who, What, Where
of explanation when presenting their lessons. and When.
When explaining instructional materials, it is • To stimulate and encourage thought that
important that teachers are able to: leads to a deeper understanding.
• speak clearly, audibly and at an Interrogatives how and why are commonly
appropriate pace used.
• use examples that are appropriate in type
and quality The skill of reinforcement
• present things in a logical sequence and
Reinforcement is an ingredient for increasing
use link words and phrases
and maintaining learners’ attention in the
• offer learners a chance to ask questions and
lesson. Reinforcement also motivates learners
assess learning outcomes.
and maximises their rate of learning. It also
makes learners build confidence in what they
The skill of illustration are doing. If learners are attentive, classroom
Illustrations make it possible for things to be discipline improves and disruptions are
easily remembered and at the same time clarify minimised.
ideas, concepts and skills that are difficult to
understand. Illustrations could be things such Reinforcement could be in two forms: verbal
as visual materials like drawings on chart and non-verbal. Verbal reinforcement includes
paper and diagrams on the chalkboard. comments and remarks for encouragement
Illustrations are important because they such as ‘Very good’. Non- verbal
improve the teaching and learning of abstract reinforcement involves the use of gestures for
concepts and an understanding of concrete instance: the use of body language like
concepts. nodding or smiling. Other examples of non-
verbal reinforcements are proximity, contact,
The skill of questioning activity and token.
The skill of questioning is one of the most
significant ways which teachers use in order The skill of variation
to achieve their objectives of helping the Variation is regarded as an important skill
children to learn. Questioning skills are during lesson presentation. The purpose of
central to effective teaching. The skill of variation during lesson delivery is to:
questioning is incomplete if a teacher does not y gain and maintain the attention of pupils.
have effective questioning techniques such as This could be through variations in teacher
the following: movements or variations in the lowering
• The language used should be appropriate and raising of the voice in the course of the
for the class lesson
• The level of questions should be y emphasize important points in the lesson
appropriate for the class y change the pace of the lesson in order for
• Even distribution of questions around the pupils to gain a deeper understanding.
class Unit 6 of Mtunda and Safuli provides details on
• Prompting and giving learners clues where variations.
necessary
40
The skill of closure • Writing horizontally in straight lines
The skill of closure (also known as conclusion) from left to right.
refers to those actions or statements by • Using chalkboard ruler when drawing
teachers that are designed to make a lesson lines.
end meaningfully (achievements of success • Making sure drawings and writings are
criteria). According to Proctor (1993), there are large enough to be read by everyone in the
two main procedures for closure: tidying up, classroom.
knowing where everything has to go, and • Dividing chalkboard into manageable
consolidating and summarising the teaching, columns and writing from left to right.
establishing opportunities for general • Putting difficult drawings on the
discussions of outcomes. chalkboard in advance to avoid time
wastage during lesson delivery.
The skill of class management • Always keeping the chalkboard clean after
Classroom Management is a term that refers to use. When cleaning, move the duster up
a number of activities that teachers normally and down to avoid the spreading of chalk
use in order to maintain classroom conditions dust.
that facilitate and promote an effective and • Always turning your head to face the class
efficient teaching and learning environment. whenever you want to speak as you write
Good classroom management enables pupils on the chalkboard.
to derive maximum benefit from the given
instruction. It is widely believed that strategies Note: The Foundation studies department is
for classroom management are usually expected to conveniently organise student
situational and personal. However, the teachers to observe lessons at the
following are some strategies that work for demonstration school in order to complete unit
most pupils in classroom discipline: 12 (Teaching skills).
• Pupils should have well defined
classroom rules and regulations. Characteristics of teaching skills
• Teacher’s instructional materials should be Students have observed a lesson at the
well planned for effective classroom Demonstration School where they took note of
management various teaching skills and how they help
• Exemplary and professional behaviour by learners learn.
a teacher is key to classroom management.
Such behaviour includes: punctuality, Micro-peer teaching
good use of language and an appropriate Micro – peer teaching is a system specifically
dress code. designed to improve teaching skills. Students
• Encouraging pupils to express their ideas are required to do micro-peer teaching in this
and feelings and at the same time, listening unit in order to demonstrate the practical
to them. For example, short sighted application of each teaching skill including
students may need to sit in front. their inter-dependence during teaching.
• Establish appropriate and acceptable
standards and work procedures that could Activity 2
easily translate into group norms. Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their
handbooks.
The skill of chalkboard use
The chalkboard is still believed to be one of the Preparatory work
oldest and widely used teaching and learning Before student teachers do activity 2 on micro
materials in our schools. The way you use a – peer teaching, prepare them in advance as
chalkboard will be a major indicator of quality follows:
teaching. • Divide the students into groups.
• Give each group a topic and guidelines
There are several common techniques for where necessary.
using the chalkboard such as:
41
• Ask students to prepare lesson plans on
the given topics for a lesson that will last
approximately 10 – 15 minutes.
• Make sure you mark their lesson plans
before micro- peer teaching and let them
make corrections where necessary.
• Make sure each group member participates
in the lesson presentation.
• Produce a micro – peer teaching
observation form on teaching skills for
student’s assessment. (The department of
Foundation Studies may find it suitable to
design an appropriate assessment form for
each individual skill).
References
Farrant, JS (1990). Principles and practice of education.
Singapore: Longman.
MIITEP, (1998). Student teachers handbook 3. Domasi::

Malawi Institute of Education
Petty, G (1980). Teaching today. Cheltenham: Stanley

Thornis.
Proctor, A et al (1993). Learning to teach in the primary

school. London: Routledge.
Mtunda, FG and safuli, SD (1986). An introduction to

the theory and practice of teaching. Blantyre: Dzuka
42
FST 13 Teaching and learning resources (3 hrs)
Introduction Importance of teaching and learning

Teaching and learning resources are tangible resources
and untangible materials which are used Teaching and learning resources make the
during the processes of teaching and learning. processes of teaching and learning realistic.
Resources promote and reinforce learning. This is so because they provide concrete
They provide concrete representation of ideas experiences to learners so that they do not
and concepts. Use of a variety of teaching and forget the concept.
learning resources make lessons to be
interesting. They also:
• facilitate teaching of concepts in a lesson
Assessment standard • provide variety of experiences to the
Student teachers should be able to learners such as observing, touching,
demonstrate an understanding of teaching evaluating
and learning resources. • make teaching and learning interesting
Suggested teaching, learning Activity 1

assessment resources Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in their
Syllabuses for other learning areas, handbook.
classrooms, learners experience, local
environment, learners books, pictures,
learners, chalkboard, resources persons.
The meaning of teaching and

learning resources
They are materials that a teacher uses during
the teaching and learning process in order to
facilitate learning.
43
The Talular Challenge
In order to be successful, outcome based
education relies upon the school to have,
and to make use of, a wide variety of
resources. Many of the best learning
resources do not need to be purchased or
provided by the Government. If a school
uses talular effectively the quality of
learning should improve. Of course, what
is available to your school will depend upon
your location. Look at this page, how many
items can be found in your community?
Which items could you find for free? What
things could you use to help your pupils
learn? Which items should learners collect
themselves?
44
Categories of teaching and learning Locally-available resources
resources There are many advantages of using locally
There are three main categories of teaching available resources. Some of these are:
and learning resources. These are: • they are usually cheap and sometime one
can get them for no cost at all.
Visual aids • learners can bring them to the classroom.
Help learners to learn through seeing. • learners are familiar to these local
Audio aids resources.
Help learners to learn through hearing. • locally available resources can be
interesting to the learners. Hence reinforce
Audio-visual aids their learning.
Help learners to learn using both senses of
sight and hearing. Activity 4
Activity 2 handbook.
handbook. Preparation of teaching and
learning materials using the local
Qualities of teaching and learning
environment
resources Not all the teaching and learning materials
Quality of teaching and learning resources is can readily be available. Some of the teaching
dependent on its relevance to teaching and and learning materials can be made using the
learning and also to the concept being taught. locally available resources.
However, the following ABCs of teaching and
learning materials should be considered when
Improvising teaching and learning
choosing and developing resources for
teaching and learning: resources
• Appropriate for the age and subject Resources are sometimes difficult to get.
• Accurate information Teachers should be creative to improvise
• Attractive to draw learners attention teaching and learning materials.
• Brief and with essential information Improvisation is to make something using
• Bold for learners to see and read materials from the immediate or the local
• Bright – add appropriate colours environment. For example, if a school has not
• Clear for learners to get the message balls, teachers can ask learners to make balls
• Clean- should look tidy. using papers or cloth rags. There are many
• Carefully made – safe for learners to use resources which can be improvised.
Activity 3 TALULAR
Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their TALULAR stands for teaching and learning
handbook. using locally available resources. Talular
emphasises making teaching effective and
sustainable.
Activity 5
Ask student teachers to do activity 5 in groups.
45
Proper storage of teaching and learning
materials
Teaching and learning materials should be
cared for and stored carefully and safely so
that they can be used over and over again. It
takes time, energy and money to develop them
even when they are made from locally
available resources.
In the absence of cupboard, storeroom and a

lockable door in a classroom, teaching and
learning materials can be stored in the
following manner:
• at the head teacher’s office or at the
teacher’s house
• in match boxes
• in cartons
• in baskets
• in plastic bags
Before using these items, the teacher should

ensure that the materials are clean and in case
of charts, are folded carefully to avoid
spoiling. In addition, the containers used
should be labelled for easy identification of the
contents.
Activity 6
handbook.
References
Bickesstaffe, D.(1972). And so to teach: a general
methods course. London: Evans Brothers
Coombs, B. (1995). Successful Teaching: A practical

handbook. Oxford: Heinemann Education Publishers.
Ministry of Education (1997). MIITEP student teacher’s

handbook 1, Domasi: Malawi Institute of Education.
46
FST 14 The Concept of learning (2 hrs)
Introduction Reinforcement
In the previous unit, student teachers learnt Where good behaviour is encouraged, eg, in a
about teaching and learning resources. In this classroom a teacher can reinforce positive
unit they will learn about the concept of behaviour and the learner strives to keep up
learning. The knowledge will help them to the good behaviour.
promote effective teaching and learning.
Stimulus and response
Assessment standard It’s a learning by association (conditioning),
Student teachers should be able to eg, If a child who is playing with fire gets
demonstrate an understanding of the concept burnt and stops coming into contact with it,
of learning. this is a sign of permanent change in the
child’s behaviour.
Suggested teaching, learning and Information is simply acquired
assessment resources Learning takes place by simply listening to the
• Handbooks teacher, the radio presenter or watching
• Learners programmes on television.
• Video equipment
• Slides and flip charts From the above learning situations one can
• Library deduce that a person learns through
• Observation checklists encountering situations, trying responses and
• Student teachers acquiring information.
• Braillist Activity 2
• Markers Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their
• Internet handbook.
The concept of learning

Learning is defined as a change in behaviour
which is as a result of experience or practice
and that is relatively permanent. In learning
what is seen is performance and its results.
The common elements of concept of learning
include:
• change in behaviour
• result of practice or experience
• a relatively permanent change
Behaviours which result from reflexes,
instincts, maturation alcohol, drugs, fatigue
rote learning indoctrination, propaganda and
brainwashing are not learning experiences.
Activity 1
handbook.
Situations in which learning takes

place
Learning takes place in different situations.
The following are some of them:
47
An activity in which learning takes place
So far student teachers have learnt the
meaning of the concept of learning and
situations in which it takes place. Student
teachers will demonstrate a situation in which
learning takes place.
Activity 3
1 Organise student teachers into six groups.
2 Give one learning situation to two groups.
their handbook.
Note: Each group will role-play the situation

to the whole class. Ask student teachers
to record their observations for
discussions.
4 Consolidate the activity.
48
FST 15 How learning takes place (1Hr)
Introduction Repetition
In the previous unit student teachers learnt
about the concept of learning. In this unit,
student teachers will learn how learning takes
place. When student teachers are aware of
how learning takes place, they will be able to
plan, teach and assess effectively.
Assessment standard
demonstrate an understanding of how
learning takes place.

assessment resources Repetition is learning by doing the same thing
• Library over and over again with an intention of
• IPTER hand books improving learning. It supports memory. It is
• Poems used in acquiring skills and habits. Examples
• Charts of this are when learning to sing a song, and a
• Pictures scoring technique in a football game.
• Learners
• Sign language interpreter Conditioning
• Braillist
Learning by conditioning means associating a
• Chalk board
stimulus [signal or signs] with a response
• Portfolio
[reaction]. It is used to learn habits and
• Specialist teacher attitudes too. When a bell rings at a dining
hall, it tells that food is ready and it is time to
Ways of learning eat.
Learning takes place in different ways. These
include: Memorisation
Memorisation means committing to memory
Imitation the material that has been learnt. Poems,
This is the learning process that emphasizes songs, speeches, passages of interest are
learning, through copying from others. memorised and retrieved for use when they are
Student teachers would copy their lecturers needed or recalled.
behavior i.e. style of solving mathematical
problems on chalkboard, style of reading
aloud and also handwriting on the
chalkboard. It is the quickest way of learning
behavior, beliefs, fashions, values, habits,
skills and attitudes. Unfortunately imitation
weakens learners’ critical thinking because
they sometimes copy things without
understanding them.
49
Transfer of learning Abstract concept learning
It is the application of previous knowledge This is the learning of situations or events that
[experience] to a new situation. There are are related to things the learner can not see,
conditions for transfer of learning to occur. touch or hear. The following are examples of
These are: abstract concept learning:
• similarities in learning areas • justice
• depth of previous knowledge • goodness
• ability to perceive similarities
• learners’ ability to learn the underlying Discovery learning (Trial and error)
Children learn from exploring their own
principles of new concept under study.
environment.
• Motive of the learner
Activity 1
Concept learning Ask students to do activity 1 in their
This is the learning of common characteristics handbook.
of a group of objects, events or ideas. Concept
learning can be divided into two groups, Research
namely: Student teachers investigate solutions to a
problem.
Concrete concept learning
These are generalisations of things, situations,
and events which can be seen or touched.
50
FST 16 The Learning Process (2 hrs)
Introduction Describing stages of the learning

In the previous unit, student teachers learnt process
about how learning takes place. In this unit, As discussed in activity 1, there are five stages
they will learn stages of the learning process. of the learning process. The task at hand is to
These will help them to acquire knowledge describe each of the five stages.
and skills necessary for helping learners.
Stage 1
Assessment standard Learners must be attentive to learning material
Student teachers should be able to if learning is to take place. Vast quantities of
demonstrate an understanding of the stages of useful information and experiences are
the learning process. understood if a learner is observant. Attention
is necessary if a learner is to take note of
Suggested teaching, learning and experiences. Education tries to broaden
assessment resources learners’ experiences through classroom
lessons, the medium of books, films, radio and
• Chart paper
television. When these are well presented such
• Handbooks
experiences can be almost as good as the real
thing (Farrant JS, 1990).
• Markers
• Books
Stage 2
Learners must be interested in what is to be
• Student teacher’s experience
learned. One way of arousing learners’ interest
• Research results
is through motivation. Motivation is important
• Library
for getting learners to learn once their attention
• Pencils
has been captured. Learners can be motivated
using externally imposed and self imposed
Stages of the learning process motivation. The most common externally
Learning may be considered in its broadest imposed motivation in school is the use of
sense as a process of adaptation. Through rewards and punishments. If wisely used,
this process, learners acquire new ways of both rewards and punishments can be
behaving or performing so that they can make effective and stimulating. Some teachers give
better adjustment to the demands of life. The sweets or praise, or write words of
learning process has five stages as follows: encouragement in learners’ exercise books or
• Learners must be concentrating and school reports. Self-imposed motivation goes
paying attention to the learning material. deep down into the learner’s personality.
• Learners must be gaining interest in what
is to be learned. Stage 3
• Developing skills and understanding Learners develop skills and understanding
through active participation. when they participate in the lesson actively.
• Experimenting with what is learned. We learn by doing, and so full provision needs
• Applying what has been learned to real- to be made in the school for activities that aid
life situations. learning. Through activities, experience is
more readily acquired, skills are more quickly
Activity 1 learned and new learning is better understood.
handbook. Stage 4
Once we possess a certain amount of
knowledge or skill, our immediate desire is to
use it. For example, a boy or girl who has just
learned to ride a bicycle soon becomes excited
51
and tries to ride it fast. What happens is that Activity 2
new knowledge or skills invite Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their
experimentation, and this continues until they handbook.
are fully integrated with previous experience.
References
Stage 5 Dawn Quest (2000) Primary teaching methods.
The ultimate value of knowledge lies in using London: Macmillan Education Limited
it. There are skills such as reading and
writing that we learned at school and now use Farrant, JS (1990) Principles and practice of
almost everyday. However, other things we education. Singapore: Longman Singapore
learned have not proved so useful and have Publishers Pte Limited
long since been forgotten. We apply activities
that we find useful or give us pleasure and
satisfaction.
52
FST 17 Factors that influence learning (2 hrs)
Introduction Meaning of factors that influence

In the previous unit, student teachers learnt learning
about the learning process and its stages. In
this unit, they will learn about factors that Intelligence
influence learning. It is mental ability that enables a person to
reason and apply knowledge to new
Assessment standard situations.
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate
an understanding of factors that influence Individual differences
learning. These are the physical, mental, social,
emotional and moral variations that make
Suggested teaching, learning and people unique.
• Reference books Attention
• Student teachers’ experience Is the concentration of the mind on a
• Specialist teacher particular task.
• Braillist Interest
• Charts Is the innate/inborn desire to learn.
• Markers
Impairment
This is the loss or reduction of functional
Factors that influence learning
ability of an individual.
There are many factors that influence learning.
These factors include the following:
Memory
• intelligence
It is the power to store up information in our
• individual differences
minds.
• motivation
• gender
Maturation
• interest
It is the development of innate activities,
• attention
characteristics and potentialities in an
• impairments
ordered arrangement.
• memory
• maturation
Motivation
• attitude
It is the process of arousing interest in order to
• perception
achieve desired goals.
• pupils’ background knowledge
Attitude
Activity 1
These are feelings that enable someone to act
Ask student teachers to do activity1 in their
in a positive or negative way towards some
handbook.
people or objects.
Perception
This is the interpretation of sensations in the
mind.
Pupils’ background knowledge

This is learners’ previous knowledge that
helps him/her to acquire new knowledge.
53
Activity 2 Interest
Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their Interest encourages learners to succeed in their
handbooks learning tasks, improves rapport and helps to
maintain class discipline. It is the
How each factor influences learning responsibility of the teacher to arouse pupils’
interest by, among other things:
Intelligence • simplifying materials that pupils are going
Children who are brighter learn at a faster to learn
pace than the less bright ones. • rewarding pupils when they do well and
Brighter learners are able to solve problems encouraging those who do not do well
and understand situations better than learners • giving pupils feedback during teaching
who are less bright. The teacher needs to come and learning process
up with enrichment and remedial activities to • making lessons learner-centred by
assist bright. and less bright learners involving them in activities.
Individual differences Impairments

Healthy and physically fit learners have a It reduces learners’ abilities to learn properly
sound mind and are able to cope with the and do various activities. It is also a limitation
demands of a learning situation. Unhealthy of opportunities that prevent learners from
pupils fail to participate fully in the learning taking part in the normal life of the school on
process. an equal level with others. Impairments can be
physical (visual and hearing), mental (brain
Attention damage), social (sensory deprivation) and
The teachers’ responsibility is to make sure emotional (nervous disorder such as anxiety
that learners’ attention on tasks in the and fear).
classroom is maintained and encouraged. This
could be done through the following: Memory
• Making lessons learner-centred and A good memory is essential for effective
interesting through various activities. learning because it enables the learner to recall
• Motivating pupils to enable them do tasks. previous knowledge, retain what has been
• Using various teaching, learning and learned, and recognise what was previously
assessment resources. covered.
• Using a variety of teaching methods and
skills. Maturation
Maturation influences learning in that it:
Gender • enables the learner to do new activities
Is defined as characteristics, traits or • enables learners to learn properly because
behaviour that males and females display they have reached the required level to do
based on what society expects of them through the necessary activities.
socialization. Male learners generally receive • leads to readiness.
more teacher attention than females. Girls
therefore, think that they cannot compete with Motivation
boys in school activities, thus their learning or Learners who are motivated are the ones who
performance is affected. are interested to learn. If well maintained,
motivation enables pupils to undertake all the
Research has shown that many teachers in mental and physical processes involved to
Malawi have different expectations of male acquire a particular skill. Motivation could be
and female learners. For instance, male extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation
learners generally receive more teacher comes from outside the learner, eg, clapping
attention than females. Girls, therefore, think hands and good remarks. Intrinsic motivation
that they cannot compete with boys in school comes from within the learner, eg, feelings of
activities, thus, their learning or performance satisfaction.
is affected.
54
Attitude • suitable assessment standards and
Learners who have a positive attitude towards success criteria that are measurable
teachers and school work tend to do well in • various teaching, learning and assessment
most school activities. In order to measure resources
attitude, outcome based education requires • many examples to suit various situation
teachers to focus on the actions or behaviour of
learner outcomes. Effective teachers help Pupils’ background knowledge
learners to develop a positive attitude towards Good background knowledge enables
learning by being active and enthusiastic, and learners to acquire new knowledge easily
showing rapport. while poor background knowledge makes it
difficult for learners to acquire new
Perception knowledge and skills.
Good perception leads to good learning and
poor perception leads to poor learning. Activity 3
Teachers help learners to have good Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their
perception through the use of: handbook.
55
TERM 2
56
FST 18 Gender issues in education (2 hrs)
Introduction Sex role and gender role
In many societies, including Malawi, it is The term sex role and gender role are often
traditionally conceived that males and females used interchangeably. However, these terms
have different status and play different roles. are different. While gender roles are socially
Such misconceptions cause gender based constructed, sex roles are biologically
conflicts. These views have often led to unfair determined.
treatment of males and females in such
important areas of national development as Sex roles
employment, agriculture, health and A sex role is a function that a male or a female
education. It is most important to learn about assumes based on physiological
gender, particularly in education, because characteristics of the individual. These roles
such knowledge will assist teachers as well as are biologically determined and can be done
other education personnel to create an by one sex. They are never interchangeable.
enabling learning environment where all
learners learn effectively.
Assessment standard
demonstrate an understanding of gender and
gender issues in education.

• News paper articles
• Magazines
• Chart paper
• Pental pens
• Chalkboard
• Transparences
• Clothes
Gender
Is defined as characteristics, traits or behavior
that males and females display based on what
society expects of them, through socialization.
The culture in which men and women live
determines what roles, behaviours, traits,
responsibilities males and females should
display. Gender is identified through many
ways such as behaviour. For example,
submissiveness and humility are considered
feminine; while aggression and dominance are
considered as masculine behaviours. Gender
is also identified through occupation and
dressing roles. For example, doctors are
thought to be male, while nurses are thought
to be female. Similarly, cooking is regarded as
a female role while fishing is considered as a
male role.
57
The table below summarises female and male sex roles:
Female sex roles Male sex roles
Child bearing Ovum fertilization

Lactation Produce spermatozoa
Determining child sex
Gestation
Gender roles
Gender roles are socially determined behaviors that lead to the division of labour or activities
between men and women. For example, men make boats, women cook. Gender roles differ from
culture to culture. They can change with history and both sexes can perform them.
Activity 1
Ask students to discuss the differences between sex roles and gender roles and fill in the given
table.
Differences between sex and gender roles
Sex roles Gender roles
They are the same in all societies. They are Differ from society to society
universal, eg, only women give birth
Never change over time Change with history
Are performed by one sex Can be performed by both sexes
Are biologically determined Are socially, culturally determined
How some factors affect gender roles
Age
Younger boys/girls may not perform certain roles performed by adults.
Race
Black people may not perform roles that may be performed by white people.
Class
One’s status in a society may determine what roles to do.
Major concepts of gender

It is imperative for teachers to understand the concepts of gender for them to create a learning
environment which does not negatively affect the learning of both boys and girls. Below is a list
of major gender concepts and their meanings.
Gender sensitivity
Understanding and being able to consider the social cultural factors that cause discrimination
based on sex.
58
Gender blind Gender stereotype
The inability to perceive or sense that there are A socially or culturally prescribed set of
gender differences in roles, and expectations about roles of females and males
responsibilities. which has no basis in their real capabilities.
Gender balance Social construction of gender

Equality in number of males and females. It is a way in which gender roles, behaviour
etc are deliberately and systematically built in
Gender bias males and females over time through
Refers to the discriminatory attitudes, socialization. Some of the agents of
practices, policies based on socially socialization are parents, teachers, peers, and
constructed beliefs about male and female religious leaders. These agents use such forces
roles which limit the full range of person’s as the family, the school, religious institutions,
capabilities. media, and language to impart these
behaviours.
Gender gap
A socially culturally defined difference Activity 2
between females and males. Ask students to do activity 2 in their
handbook.
Gender disparity
Unequal treatment that puts one sex at a Gender disparity in education
disadvantage over the other. In some countries, girls are treated differently
in school and receive a different education
Gender equality even when they sit in the same class, and
The application of same standards of status, taught the same curriculum by the same
rights, respect and opportunities irrespective teachers. Access to education in Malawi is
of gender. It is based on the idea that no limited by such factors as inadequate
individual is less important than the other. infrastructure, financial and human resources.
These negatively affect both girls and boys, but
Gender equity they affect girls more than boys.
A principle of fair treatment which leads to
gender equality. Traditional views about gender
• Culturally females are associated with the
Gender issues reproductive role of taking care of children
A belief attitude, practice or policy which and the home. They are expected to be
shapes gender behaviours. It is a situation married and support their husbands.
that arises when a grievance is felt by one Males are associated with production.
gender that their needs are not being met or They are expected to manage, control and
that there is unfair treatment. look after their wives. Where fees are a
problem parents give preferences to boys to
Sexual harassment go to school.
Unwelcome acts of verbal and physical abuse • Girls are expected to be docile, emotional
committed by one person on another where and weak, not fit for leadership roles, and
the implicit or explicit understanding relates less likely to persist in school. Boys are
to sexual behaviour. expected to be intelligent, strong, dominant,
aggressive and likely to persist in school.
Stereotype Such attitude make girls feel inferior and
A socially or culturally prescribed set of do not participate fully in school.
expectations which may have little or no real • Lack of teachers and large classes, may
basis of fact. force many girls to lose interest and drop
out of school.
59
• Long distance to school may hinder girls Effects of gender stereotypes on
from attending school. Besides, girls are behaviour and learning
often harassed on the way to school. They Gender stereotypes have both negative and
may drop out therefore, for safety reasons. positive effects on individuals in that they
• Sexual harassment by both boys and male promote:
teachers often forces girls out of school.
Conformity
Curriculum and instructional materials Individuals try to conform to the special
The following are some of the gender biases standards. Girls, believe that they are less
prevailing in curricular and instructional intelligent. They may deliberately perform less
materials: well in mathematics, for example, in order not
• Technical subjects such as engineering, to embarrass boys. Boys try to be assertive and
motor vehicle mechanics, metal and wood aggressive so that they are seen to be real men.
work are often designed for boys while
home economics and needle work are Self image
meant for girls. Yet most chefs and tailors Women tend to have more negative self image
are men. than men.
• In expressive arts, teachers ask girls to
bring clay to make pots and dolls while Self esteem
boys are asked to bring wires and maize Females often have a lower self esteem and
stalks to make cars. think that they are less important than males.
• In agriculture, teachers tend to doubt the
ability of girls to do practical lessons. So Self confidence
they ask girls to draw water and boys to Males show more confidence in doing certain
transplant. Therefore, girls are denied the tasks than females.
opportunity to acquire necessary skills,
techniques to produce food. Activity 4
Extra-curricular activities handbook.
Some extra curricular activities reinforce .
gender biases. For example, if teachers assign
extra curricular activities according to sex and
Strategies to address gender
gender groupings, gender biases may arise. In disparities in education
assigning school roles often girls are asked to The knowledge about gender will enable
water vegetables or flowers, sweep or mop, teachers and other educationists to develop
and smear floors, while boys are asked to strategies that eliminate gender biases in
construct latrines or mend fences. education These strategies include:
Classroom displays Community sensitization

These tend to be gender biased. Wall The Community at large i.e parents, local
hangings, posters, are often predominantly leaders need to be sensitised on gender in
male. For example, pictures of famous men, order for them to change their attitude and
poems of heroes, sports activities feature men. practices that bring about gender stereotypes
Girls, therefore, are denied the opportunity to and discrimination. Boys and girls should be
have role models they can identify with, and treated equally during socialisation period.
may feel the school is male dominated or that
it is for males. Girls need to be sensitised to the fact that
gender roles activities and behaviour are not
Activity 3 biologically ascribed, but they are deliberately
Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their learnt. They have to be assertive enough to
handbook. claim their human rights where they are
violated.
60
School sensitisation
At school, teachers should be sensitised so
that they treat boys and girls equally in terms
of classroom interaction, distribution of school
roles and implementation of policies.
Review of policies
There is need to re-examine policies so as to
overcome all forms of discrimination in the
education system.
Activity 5
handbook.
Reference
UNICEF(undated).The girl child in Malawi: a case study
for action
World Bank (1996). Levelling the playing field. giving

girls equal chance for basic education: three country effort.
ADI learning resources series. Washington DC.
GAC,MoE/USAID (1997). Reference manual on gender

issues in schools. Domasi: Malawi Institute of
Education
UNESCO (2000). Regional training seminar on guidance

and counselling modules: gender sensitivity. UNESCO
61
FST 19 Impairment categories (6 hrs)
Introduction
In the last unit, student teachers learnt about
some basic concepts used in Special Needs
Education. In this unit, they will learn about
the educational definitions and descriptions of
each impairment category. They should know
all the impairment categories for them to make
educational plans that meet the needs of
learners with special educational needs.
Assessment standard
an understanding of impairment categories.

• Markers and flip charts
• Pictures/photos
• Overhead projector and transparencies
Impairment categories
There are several impairment categories. The
following are some of them:
• Hearing impairment
• Intellectual disability/Mental challenges
• Specific learning disabilities
• Communication difficulties/speech and
language impairment
• Health impairment
• Deaf-Blind
• Autism/Pervasive Developmental
Difficulties
• Emotional/behaviour difficulties
• Multiple disabilities
• Visual impairments
• Physical impairments/orthopedic
impairments
• Gifted and Talented/High ability learners
Activity 1
their handbook.
62
Categories, meaning and indicators of impairment
Category Meaning Indicators/Characteristics
Hearing • A genetic term indicating a • Strange noises in ears

impairment hearing disability. This may • Pain and itching in ears
range from mild to profound • Not understanding what is said
Giving incorrect or irrelevant answers
• Types of hearing impairment • Turning heads
include
- conductive • Watches the speaker’s face closely
- sensor’s neural (inner ear
loss)
Visual • A term that indicates a visual • Eyes and eyelids are red and have puss
impairment disability. This ranges from or tears
low to total blindness. • Eyes look dull, wrinkled or cloudly
• Types of visual impairment • Sores in the eyes
- Blindness-total loss of • Sometimes pupils are gray or white
vision (unable to see light) • Eyes cross or one eye turns in or out
- Low vision-residual light • Child squinks
• Difficult to see after sunset
• Cannot read small letters
Intellectual • When one has certain limita- • Inability to apply information learned in
disabilities/ tions in intellecual functioning one situation to another
Mental and deficits in adaptive • Learn fewer skills
challenges behaviour • Difficulties in processing information
• This range from mild to • Exhibit repetitive behaviour eg body
severe rocking and hand flapping
• Poor in social skills
• Poor in life skills eg toileting, washing,
buttoning shirts
• Deficits in attention
Specific • Difficult in one or more of • make excuses for things not remembered
learning the basic psychological • Cannot remember where he/she stopped
difficulties processes involved in if interrupted
understanding or using • Cannot follow oral directions
language • Confuses meaning of similar words
• Omit words and lines while reading
• Cannot concentrate
• Lose things
• Reverse, invents and confuses letters
and words
• Attends to irrelevant details
Language and • Inability to receive, send, • Cannot make themselves understood

communication process and comprehend • Have either receptive or expressive aphasia
difficulties concepts or verbal, nonverbal • Do not understand ideas that are spoken to
and graphic symbols them by others.
• Types include:
- speech difficulties, problems
with production of oral
languages
- Language difficulties, pro-
blems with comprehension
or use of spoken or written
language
63
Characteristics/indicators of impairment categories
Each impairment category has its own characteristics. These enable teachers to easily identify
impairments in their learners and how they can help them achieve their educational goals and
access other services.
Category Meaning Indicators/Characteristics
Gifted • Children who produce very • Out distance their peers academically
students outstanding work in almost • Work harder than others
all the subjects • Well developed attention span
• They are sometimes called • Able to grasp, retain synthesise and act
children of high intellectual upon information
ability • Have ability to work independently
• Become leaders of play or work groups
• Highly imaginative
• Have good memory of events and people
Health • It means having limited • Indicators of epilepsy include:

strength, alertness or vitality - recurrent seizures
due to chronic or acute health - loss of consciousness
problems. This include heart - body becomes stiff
condition, asthma, epilepsy, - rhythmic jerking motion
AIDS, tuberculosis and
diabetes. These affect the
child’s performance
Deaf/blind • It means hearing and • Cannot hear and see

visual impairments occur
at the same time
Emotional and • Behaviours that fall • Don’t sit long in their seats
behavioural significantly outside the • Disturb peers
difficulties normal of their peer groups • Hit or fight
• Types include: • Steal
- conduct difficulties • Destroy property
- socialised aggression • lie
- attention problem-
immaturity
- motor excess
- pschotic behaviour
- anxiety with drawal
Autism/ • Children have difficulties • Fail to make eye contact

Pervasive in three major area of • Delayed language
Development functioning. • Relies on nonverbal language (gestures or
Difficulties These are: pointing) to indicate preferences
- communicating • Echoes what has been said (echolalia)
- relating • Unsual attachments to objects
- adapting • Insists on sameness
• PDD or autism ranges • Self injurious behaviours eg banging one’s
from mild to severe head against wall, biting or scratching
oneself
• Self stimulating behaviour eg rocking back
and forth on heels
Activity 2
1 Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their handbook.
64
Causes and preventive measures of impairments
Category Causes Preventive measures
Hearing • Infections during pregnancy • Removal of excessive wax

impairment as a result of sexual • Atresia to be operated
transmitted diseases • Avoid poking ears
• Alcohol taking during • Avoid exposure to loud sounds
pregnancy • Getting early treatment for diseases such as
• Accidents leading to head TB, meningitis, malaria, measles and
injury headaches
• Loud noises
• Ear infections
• Heredity factors
Visual • Dry • Underfive children to be immunised

impairment • Trachoma • Wash face daily and dry with a clean cloth
• Gonorrhea • Eat fruits and vegetables rich in vitamin A
• Chlamydia • Use of recommended medicine
• Brain damage • Keep dangerous objects eg, sharp objects
• Eye injuries away from eyes
• Problems such as hydro-
cephalus, leprosy, arthritis,
brain tumors and cataracts
Mental • Diseases such as meningitis, • Expectant mothers to attend underfive

challenges/ measles, sexual transmitted clinics
Intellectual diseases and malaria • Mothers and children to eat balanced diet
disabilities • Taking alcohol and nicotine • Children to be immunised against diseases
during pregnancy • Mothers to deliver at the hospital or clinic
• Malnutrition • Protect children from malaria
Brain damage
• Premature or post mature
birth
Specific • Acquired trauma due to • Expectant mothers to attend antenatal clinic

learning maternal alcohol • Guidance and counselling
difficulties • Malnutrition • Early treatment of diseases
• Injury from medical • Pregnant mothers should not take alcohol
instruments and nicotine
• Head injury • Pregnant mothers and children to eat
• High fevers balanced diet
• Lack of oxygen to the
brain (anoxia)
• Genetic and heredity
influences
• Diseases such as meningitis
and cerebral malaria
Language and • Genetic defects • Take precautions to prevent accidents

communication • Chromosomal abnorma- • Pregnant mothers to attend under-five
difficulties lities clinics
• Infections such syphilis, • Diseases to be treated as soon as possible
measles and meningitis
• Accidents affecting the brain
• lack of oxygen
• Malnutrition
• Brain damage
65
Category Causes Preventive measures
Health • Heredity • Seeking medical attention to descrease the

• Accidents frequency of seizures
• Medical referrals ie at school level teachers
to make medical referrals of a seizure if
suspected
Deaf/blind • refer to hearing and visual • Refer to hearing and visual impairment
impairment
Emotional • Genetic factors • Good parents care

and • Environmental • Consistent discipline
behaviour factors
difficulties • Combination of genetic
and environmental
factors
Autism/ • Differences in the • Mothers to attend underfive clinics

Pervasive neuraloric system due to • Structure the environment carefully
Developmental - Structural differences • Implement a communication system as
Difficulties in the brain early as possible
- chemical differences • Establish a consistent routine
- differences in the way • Emphasise on effective and appropriate
the brain functions as a socialization
whole
Gifted students • Heredity • Give them more challenging work

• Environmental factors
Activity 3
1 Ask students to do activity 3 in their handbooks.
How to assist children with different impairments

Assisting an impaired learner is situational. This means that learners with impairment can be
assisted according to the situation they are in. The teacher’s role is to see that each learner has
learnt. It is therefore important that the teacher assists all including impaired learners
accordingly.
Activity 4
1 Ask student teachers to do activity 4 in their handbooks.
66
FST 20 Impairment identification process (4hrs)
Introduction • canvassing the community for children in

In the previous unit, student teachers learnt need of special needs education and other
about impairment categories, their causes, related services
characteristics and preventive measures. This • encouraging referrals
unit, will focus on processes of identification of (ii) Screening
impairment categories by using simple This is the initial step in assessment and
constructed tools. The knowledge gained will intervention process intended to assist
assist student teachers in identifying children in receiving an appropriate education.
impairment categories and make decisions for Screening provides an efficient way to sort out
appropriate educational placements and children who may need special needs
referrals for children with special educational education services from the general
needs. population.
Assessment standard (iii) Indepth assessment
Student teachers should be able to It is an in-depth evaluation of the learner who
demonstrate an understanding of impairment has been detected through the screening
identification process. process. During this third stage of
identification, the learner is carefully studied to
Suggested teaching, learning and check on the screening recommendation and
determine if the learner does indeed have a
problem that warrants special needs education
• Markers
services. Note: Two identification procedures
• Handouts
ie screening and indepth assessment provide
an answer to the question: “Does the child
• Specialist teachers
have the problem?”
• Flip charts
• Snellen charts (iv) Evaluation
• Checklists The process of determining a child’s
• Audiometer progress and achievement and how well
an individualised education plan is
working. This final step of identification
Impairment identification process process is important for providing data
Impairment identification process is the concerning the future placement of the
process of identifying somebody with an learner. These four steps of identification
impairment. It is important to find out as early process are interrelated and must be
as possible if a child has hearing, visual or any coordinated in order to meet the special
other impairment. educational needs of the learner.
Identification of learners with special
Activity 1
educational needs can be divided into the
following four steps:
handbook.
(i) Child find (identification): This is a process
of finding and identifying children with
special educational needs. The locating
process is the first identification step and may
include the following activities:
• defining the target population
• increasing the public awareness of
services
67
Basic tools for impairment identification
There are many tools that have been developed for identifying children who may need special
needs education and other related services.
The table below shows some of the child’s functions and the identification tools that may be used.
Function Identification Tool (s)
Vision • Snellen charts (E chart)

Hearing • Audiometer
• Voice and noisemaker
Cognition • Teacher-made test
• Observation checklists
Speech and language • One-word picture
vocabulary tests
• Observation checklists
• Oral interviews
gross and fine • Observation checklist
motor skills • Psychomotor tests
Self help skills • Observation checklists
Social-emotional status • Behaviour checklists
Activity 2
1 Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their handbooks.
Construction of simple tools for impairment identification process
It is important that teachers acquire necessary skills for identifying some impairment categories.
One of these skills is the construction of simple identification tools.
The following are some of the simple identification tools that a teacher can construct using the
locally available resources:
Tool Materials used
1 Snellen chart/E chart • Chart paper

• Pental pens
• Cardboards
2 Voice and noise maker • Empty tins
• Small stones
• Seeds
3 Observation checklist • Flip charts
4 Behaviour checklist • Markers
5 Teacher made tests • Pencils
• Pen
• Paper
Activity 3
1 Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their books.
68
Using identification tools
Once a teacher has constructed the identifica-
tion tools, he/she must be able to use them
appropriately to avoid making errors. The
following factors need to be considered when
using identification tools:
1 Identify the target group
2 Plan how to conduct the test
3 Choose appropriate identification tool
4 Select conditions for the test
5 Pre-test for several times to minimize
errors
6 Plan how the best test is going to be
administered
7 Record the results
8 Report the results and where possible
make referrals to specialist teachers or
other professionals.
Activity 4
their handbooks.
69
FST 21 Multigrade Teaching (3 hrs)
Introduction The importance of multigrade

Demand for teachers in schools in developing teaching
countries is a challenge to Governments. The importance of multigrade teaching is to
Various strategies and interventions on ensure that all learners are given attention,
education and training teachers have been support and are guided through the learning
applied but producing quality teacher is also a processes. This generally happens where
challenge. Distribution of teachers in urban teacher supply as well as learners enrolment
and rural schools is yet another complex are low. Multigrade teaching is important
challenge. because:
• Learners who have no class teachers
Teaching combined classes is a common continue to learn.
feature of rural schools due to teacher • Absenteeism is minimized because learners
shortages and small number of learners. This have teachers’ presence all the time.
is popularly known as multigrade teaching. • Learners learn from each other in that
Teachers in Malawi generally are trained to higher grade learners assist those in lower
handle single classes also known as grades.
monograde teaching. Teachers posted to rural • It encourages team teaching and teachers
areas find themselves in a situation to handle learn from each other.
combined classes. They do so without
acquiring the relevant knowledge, skills and Activity 1
attitudes to apply in such situations during Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in their
teacher training. handbook.
This unit, therefore, aims at equipping student Appropriate strategies for

teachers with knowledge, skills and attitudes
multigrade teaching
which, are appropriate for multigrade
Student teachers should be equipped with
teaching.
strategies and skills that are appropriate for
multigrade teaching. It is important to bear
Assessment standard in mind the fact that the learners are of
Student teachers should be able to different levels, ages and needs. The
demonstrate an understanding of multigrade following are the strategies and skills for
teaching. multigrade teaching:
• Identify themes and topics that can be
Suggested teaching, learning and developed into lessons to teach more than
assessment resources one grade or standard. Teachers will then
• Syllabuses have to work with more than one
• Learners syllabus, teacher’s guides and learners’
• Teacher’s guides books when developing schemes of work
• Learners’ books and lesson plans.
• Classroom • Design, select and develop resources that
• A resource person can be used by learners of different
• Checklist grades.
• Student teachers • Organise learners for different activities
effectively.
Meaning of multigrade teaching • Monitor learners’ learning outcomes.
This is a way of teaching whereby learners of • Organise space in order to accommodate
different classes and ages are taught and learn different age groups and learning needs.
in the same classroom at the same time. • Manage time effectively.
Others call this combined class.
70
The national primary curriculum in Malawi • Lack of adequate teaching, learning and
at the moment presents themes and topics assessment resources to cater for different
which spiral from lower to upper levels. levels of learners.
This means that one topic such as water in • Classroom management could be a
science and technology, will be found in problem.
grades one to five with different levels of • It is difficult for the teacher to manage
content. time properly.
• Multigrade teaching could lead to
Activity 2 inadequate space.
Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their Activity 3
handbook. Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their
handbook.
Challenges of multigrade teaching
Multigrade teaching cannot go without References
challenges because teacher training used to Commonwealth Secretariat, (2005). Resource materials
for multigrade teaching. London: Association for the
prepare teacher for monograde teaching. The development of education in Africa
following are some of the challenges:
• It requires creative planning to cater for Marlowe, BA and Page, ML (2005). Creating and
the different grades, ages and abilities. sustaining the constructivist classroom, 2nd edition.
• Teacher has problems to meet individual California: Sage Publications Company
learner’s needs of different grades.
71
FST 22 Child study (3 hrs)
Introduction The importance of child study
In unit 6 student teachers learned about child Teachers need to understand the children they
development. They noted that the child is the teach. Unless they know how a child learns,
centre of all that happens in the classroom. they cannot know how to teach him/her, no
Therefore, there is strong need to study how matter what the subject matter may be.
children develop. In this unit student teachers Therefore, it is important to study the child’s
will be introduced to how they can gain learning process. Through child study, you
practical knowledge about how children will develop a deeper understanding of the
develop. following:
• interests of particular children during
Assessment standard certain stages of their development
Student teacher should be able to demonstrate • ambitions of children which motivate them
an understanding of child study to perform certain school tasks
• factors which influence individual pupils
Suggested teaching, learning and academic performance
assessment resources • characteristics that are of significance in
• Portfolios helping each child to learn effectively.
Having understood the child, the teacher will
• Checklists
be able to:
• Learners
• select content which will be suitable to the
• Demonstration school
children learning
• Learners’ experience
• devise the right strategies of handling
• Parents
different children
• Lecturers
• use suitable teaching learning and
• give useful advice to parents about the way
• Braillist
their children should be assisted.
The meaning of child study Activity 2
Child study is an attempt to find out about a Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their
particular child by spending time with him/ handbook.
her and learning about his/her physical,
mental and personality characteristics and the Techniques in child study
relevant facts about the environment in which During child study, student teachers will be
he/she is growing up. required to collect as much information about
the child as possible. Some of the techniques
It is a practical and systematic attempt of
they will use to study a child are:
trying to understand why children behave as
they do during certain stages of their Observation
development. From the meaning of child study Teachers can collect information for child
we can single out the following activities: study through observing the child closely
• Spending time with the child and learning during classroom and outside activities. This
about his/her personality characteristics technique must be used with caution. The
• Studying facts about the child’s physical child should not realize that the teacher has
and social environment special interest in him/her.
• Analyzing facts collected and relating to
the theoretical aspects of child Use of questionnaire
development This technique involves the use of a collection
of questions. The questions must be
Activity 1
handbook.
72
formulated carefully so that they help to get Family and home conditions
detailed picture of the child. The child’s family and conditions under
which he/she lives.
Interview
Information about the child can also be Physical development
collected by asking him/her directly or Find information about the way the child is
indirectly. Direct interview involves face-to- developing physically. You should include
face relationship. The child’s reactions to the motor and physiological achievements of the
questions reveal the required information. child and their influence on the child’s
Indirect interview involves asking questions to behaviour and academic performance. You
the child’s parents, relatives and teachers. should also investigate the child’s health
When using this technique avoid asking problems including any other physical
questions which reveal that you are studying defects. Find out the sources and influences of
the child. such health problems.
Use of the child’s personal records Cognitive/intellectural development

Some information about their child can be Study the child’s mental abilities. Find
obtained by checking in his/her progress information about the child’s reasoning and
records and health record. For example, problem solving abilities. Look at how he
progress record gives information about the interprets and grasps information in the
child’s academic performance while health classroom.
record reveals the child’s health problems.
This information could be useful when Social development
considering factors which affect the child’s Investigate the child’s relationship with other
learning. Health records can be obtained from people such as parents, relatives, teachers and
the headteacher and the child’s parents and friends.
guardians.
Emotional development
The punishment book is a useful record for Study the child’s ability to control such deep
checking the child’s discipline whereas the feeling as anger, excitement, anxiety,
attendance register can help to establish attachment to other people and fear in
whether the child attends school regularly. different situations.
This record can also show information about
the child’s guardian, village and date when Moral development
he/she joined the school. Moral development refers to the growth and
the ability to judge right or wrong.
During child study teachers should:
• develop confidence in the child, parents False generalisations on child study
and guardians so that they feel your It is a common practice for some teachers to
relationship has no ill intentions generalize about learners’ behaviour.
• be tactful in their interaction with the child. Sometimes this is based on very limited
evidence. Consequently it leads to labelling of
Areas of study learners. The generalizations are based on the
To understand a child you need to learn as following:
much about him/her as possible. However, for
the purpose of guiding you, the study of the Heredity
following should help you to find Teachers sometimes attribute certain bad
comprehensive information about the child: behaviours to a child’s heredity. For example,
parents’ poor heredity characteristics may be
Personal details taken as the source of a child’s current
Name, sex, age, village, class and school behaviour. Such type of thinking may lead to
attended, and language he/she speaks. wrong conclusions.
73
Association Carrying out child study
Teachers sometimes associate certain The process of child study ends with report
characteristics with certain behaviours. For writing. The report should reflect the
example, teachers have a tendency to think conclusions about the facts that student
that dirty children are always careless in teachers have collected. When writing a child
school. study report, information about the child is
written under selected headings.
Social status
Some teachers have different expectations from Activity 4
children of a certain social status. For example, Ask student teachers to do activity 4 in their
it is a common mistake by teachers to always handbook.
expect the best performance from children
whose parents are highly qualified.
References
Blair, G.M. Jones R.S. and Simpson R.H. (1975).
Intellectual ability Educational psychology. Macmillan: New York
Pupils are often grouped as below average,
average and above average. This classification Farrant J.C. (1982) Principles and practice of education.
is sometimes based on limited information. For Longman: London
example, a child who is said to be a slow Laycocks S.R. and Munro B.C. (1966). Education
learner can sometimes produce excellent work psychology. Copp Clark Vanconer
in a different field.
Maynard N.J. (19 ). Child study. London: Oxford
University Press
Activity 3
handbook.
74
FST 23 Assessment (6 hrs)
Introduction Purposes of assessment
Assessment is used in different ways and at Before an assessment is administered, the
different levels since it is an integral part of teacher should be aware of the reasons why
teaching and learning. When planning to he/she wants to assess learners. The following
teach, teachers need to think of how learners are some of the purposes of assessment.
will be assessed. In this unit, student teachers
will explain the concept assessment and 1 Diagnosis
discuss its purposes. To monitor progress and to find out how the
learners are assimilating what is being
Assessment standard taught. Specific action can be instituted
Student teachers should be able to as a result of a diagnostic assessment.
demonstrate an understanding of assessment.
2 Evaluation
Teaching, learning and assessment To evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching
resources and learning process which can also lead to
• Text books specific action.
• Internet
• Flip charts 3 Guidance
• Markers To assist learners in making decisions about
• Overhead projector the future, whether it concerns choice of a
• Transparencies learning area or a course or choosing a
• Student teachers suitable career.
• Sign language interpreter 4 Prediction
• Braillist To discover potential abilities and aptitudes
• Assessment samples and to predict probable future successes
whether in school or outside the school.
Assessment
Assessment is defined as a process of measur- 5 Selection
ing the learner’s behaviour. It is concerned To determine which are the most suitable
with how well the learner is assimilating what candidates for progression to higher level
he/she has learnt. In many cases, it is equated classes.
to tests and examinations. However, a test is a
particular situation set up for the purpose of 6 Grading
making an assessment, whereas an examina- To assign learners to a particular group and
tion is a large scale tests or a combination of to rank them according to their performance.
several tests and other assessment procedures.
Activity 1
handbook.
75
FST 24 Assessment modes and forms (6hrs)
Introduction Formative and summative assessment

Assessment comes in different modes and (i) Formative supports learners to progress
forms depending on the activity learners are through positive encouragement and
doing. Teachers need to know the different constructive criticism, for example,
modes and forms so that they use them during through remedial sessions a teacher is
teaching and learning process. In this unit, able to help learners master intended
student teachers will identify modes, and forms skills.
of assessment. (ii) Summative assessment is concerned with
a final summing up and is often used for
Assessment standard grading, ranking and promoting learners.
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate Internal and external assessment
an understanding of modes and forms of (i) Internal assessment may be conducted for
in-school purposes, for example, to decide
assessment.
who follows which course, or it may be
Teaching learning and assessment mainly for the information of the teacher
and his/her learners.
resources (ii) External assessment is set and marked by
• Student teacher’s handbook external bodies.
• Flip charts and markers For example, university selection.
• Text books (b) Forms of assessment
• Student teachers Assessment can be carried out using different
• Specialist teacher media such as the medium of writing or the
medium of the spoken word in relation to
Modes and forms of assessment learners’ performance.
(a) Modes of Assessment Some examples of forms of assessment are:
Mode of assessment means the general nature, Written forms – assessment can be done
style and character of assessment.A teacher through writing (paper and pencil)
may decide to use continuous assessment as a Practical work- assessment can also be done by
mode for assessing a particular course. On the performing an activity.
other hand a teacher may prefer to use Oral forms- assessment can be done verbally.
summative mode for another course. Other Behaviour – performance may be assessed
modes of assessment which teachers can use through observation.
include the following:
Formal and informal assessment Activity 1
(i) Formal assessment mode include public Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in their
and school examinations. handbook.
(ii) Informal assessment involves a teacher’s
interaction with his/her learners.
Examples include praise or sarcasm, a
smile or a rebuke.
Final and continuous assessment
(i) Final assessment (or terminal assessment)
occurs at the end of a course. In most cases
the final examination will be based on the
curriculum content covered.
(ii) Continuous assessment takes place
throughout the course. Such assessment
usually takes place at regular intervals
throughout the course.
76
The importance of continuous 1 Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in
assessment their handbook.
Continuous assessment is an integral part of The importance of summative
learning and takes place throughout the assessment
learning process. This assessment gives the Summative assessment is concerned with the
class teacher and learners feedback, informa- final summing up. The judgment it makes is
tion about whether the learning objectives are for the benefit of the society rather than the
being achieved. It also provides information on learner. Usually, the concern is to differentiate
areas of weaknesses and strengths and between learners, so that selection can be made.
potentials. For learners, it is a form of attention This type of assessment often comes at the end
and encouragement and an important ingredi- of a course or a school year.
ent of motivation. The more immediate the
feedback, the more useful the information Summative assessment is strongly established
in most schools. It is entrenched in the public
The teacher too needs constant feedback on examination system. Great importance is
whether the teaching and learning success attached to it by parents, employers and the
criteria are being achieved. Much of his/her public in general. There is a real danger in that
day to day teaching strategy will depend on this assessment is undertaken because we are
this information. interested in outcomes and standards. This is
shown in making comparisons. The perform-
Activity 2
ance of learners may be compared with that of
other members of their class or of the year.
Activity 3
their handbooks.
77
FST 25 Assessment tools (6 hrs)
Introduction Activity 1
Assessment is used for various purposes and 1 Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in
for many reasons. It is therefore important that their handbook.
lecturers as well as student teachers know, Importance of assessment tools
construct and administer appropriate tools that
Assessment tools are very important because:
measures the intended education outcomes.
• they enable teachers to use assessment
Assessment standard practices and approaches that actually
determine what the student has learnt.
For example, some tools are suitable for
an understanding of assessment tools:
measuring knowledge and skills; others
Suggested teaching, learning and are best used to assess attitudes and
values.
• Textbooks
• through the use of various assessment
• Internet
tools the teacher is able to get various
• Handouts notes
pieces of information that will assist the
• Sample checklists
school in planning and evaluating the
• Sample portfolio
teaching and learning process.
• Pupils
• teachers are able to decide which tools to
• Report cards
use for each assessment. Therefore, they
• Calculators
are able to give accurate evidence of
• Markers
student’s learning status.
• Flip charts
• Samples of continuous and summative
• enables teachers to get assessment results
assessment
of various domains to allow them know
Assessment tools how well learners have mastered course
content. This helps them to take
Assessment tools are instruments or techniques
appropriate remedial measures to
that are used to measure and evaluate expected
improve those outcomes that have not
learning outcomes. There are many different
been effectively mastered.
tools which teachers can use to assess different
types of learning outcomes. Examples of these Activity 2
tools include the following 1 Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in
• paper and pencil tests their handbook.
• oral questioning
• observations
• checklists
• peer assessment
• demonstrations
• portfolios
• performance tests
• projects and practical
78
Using assessment tools (b) Best answer type eg choose the best answer
Teachers teach a variety of knowledge, skills from the following statements.
behaviours and attitudesWhen constructing
assessment items a test blue print or a specifica- What is the purpose of education in Malawi?
tion grid can be used. To assess these teachers • provide knowledge and skills
use different tools. No single assessment tool • make people read and write
can effectively assess all types of learning • improve educational standards
outcomes. Some of the tools overlap each other.
(c) True/false tests
It is important therefore, that teachers select,
Here, a preposition is presented which is
construct and use the type of tool that would
true or false and learners are asked to
appropriately and effectively measure the type
cycle or underline the correct answer.
of educational outcome to be fulfilled. Some
For example;
examples of basic tools that teachers can use in
In Malawi most rains fall in July true/false
everyday teaching include:
Sometimes the use of yes/no can be used
Paper and pencil tests
instead. For example
A test is any systematic procedure which is
In Malawi most rains fall in July yes/no.
used to measure achievement. Paper and pencil
test are usually written assignments. They are
(d) Matching items
categorized into objective and free response
These comprise of a stimulus and a response.
tests
The learner is asked to make a link between
(1) Objective tests the stimulus (list A) and the response (list B)
They are called so because they are free from eg Place the letter of the district where the
any biased marking. There is usually only one following crops in Malawi are mostly grown
answer to the question and learners select the A B
correct answer from a given list. Examples are Tea a Kasungu
multiple choice questions. Sugar b. Thyolo
Multiple choice questions comprise of: Tobacco c. Chikwawa
- A stem which may be a question or a Cotton d. Nkhotakota
statement
- Items which are four or five (e) Gap or blank filling
alternatives from which the The learners supply the missing word in the
correct answer is chosen blank or gap in a sentence.
- Key which is the correct alternative Eg The boys. . . to the market yesterday.
- Distractors – wrong alternatives go
For example goes
What is the capital city of Malawi? (stem) went
}
- Zomba - distractor Advantages of objective tests are that they:
- Mzuzu - distractor • are easy to mark, they can rapidly be
(items) marked by computers or hand, therefore
- Lilongwe - key save time and money
- Machinga - distractor • test a wide range of content material,
There are many types of multiple choice topics and courses.
questions that teachers construct – these • make learners get exposed to the same
include questions since there are no choices
(a) Single correct answer type eg • are not subject to biased judgement of
Who was the first president of Malawi? various markers.
• Reverend John Chilembwe
Disadvantages are that they:
• Dr Bakili Muluzi
• take long to prepare
• Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda
• do not test ability of learners to be creative
• Dr Keneth Kaunda
• are highly influenced by guessing
• need highly technical skills to write the
test items.
79
2 Free response tests engage in logical conversation in that foreign
Unlike objective tests, free response tests allow language. It can also be used to assess reading
and encourage learners to organize, interpret ability of learners.
and express their ideas. They can be
Advantage
categorized into:
A lot of ground material can be covered in a
(i) Structured questions
short time. For example, writing an
These may be in the form of short answer
examination of three hours can be done in 30
questions. They often test recall of facts eg.
minutes in oral testing.
Give three reasons why democracy is
important in a country? Disadvantages
• It is time consuming especially with large
(ii) Essay type of questions
classes as many learners have to be
It is often too narrow to assess learners
assessed individually.
progress, abilities and creativeness by
• It is subjective as it varies according to
simply
twisting and turning of natural
using questions and answers. The essay is
conversation.
often used to allow learners to show their
• It is not liked by many learners as they feel
abilities to express themselves. Essays can be:
threatened, and many think it is difficult
controlled or restricted. These are
to prepare for.
confined
and limited in words or length eg Describe in 4 Checklists
less than 1,000 words or less than two This involves a list of behaviours as items that
pages, occur in a given situation. When the behaviour
your first experience as a student teacher at occurs, the observer checks the list and shows
this college. that it has occurred by using a tick ( ) or any
other mark. Checklists are used when a series of
Advantages
steps must be completed to perform a task. For
• They are relatively easy to prepare
example in a lesson observation checklist, the
• Responses show originality and
observer may wish to check for the following:
resourcefulness of learners
lesson preparation
• Measure high level skills such as
methodology used
application, analysis and evaluation.
teaching and learning aids used
Disadvantages skills learnt etc.
• Take long to mark
5 Observations
• Even with a marking scheme, essays are
Often used in combination with the checklist. It
prone to subjective opinion of different
can be used to observe natural behaviour. It
markers
involves gathering information during a
• Only few essay questions can be assessed
lesson. The teacher watches how learners are
in a course or topics eg Out of 30 topics
performing in a given task. Watching learners
only five essay questions can be
at work can assist teachers to get to the bottom
assessed. They do not therefore
of certain problems that pupils may have and
provide a true assessment of the
hence take corrective measures. It is important
entire course and learners
for the observer to position him/her self where
knowledge.
3 Oral questions
These are often used in formal assessment eg
summative assessment. This is a useful tool to
use in assessing a foreign language acquisition
such as English. It is used to assess whether
learners can speak, communicate ideas or
80
he can observe most but intrude least in the and account for the individual learners
activities. progress. Therefore combined efforts are made
to take remedial actions where necessary.
Advantage- It enables teachers to collect Disadvantage-It is difficult to assess and score
information on natural behaviour of pupils portfolio because they contain products that
which may not occur with formal testing. differ from one learner to another.
Disadvantage: you can be biased towards
8 Performance test
certain learners.
Some skills cannot be measured by pencil and
6 Peer assessment paper tests. Performance tests are therefore
In this case, learners can assess, rate and used to measure the ability of learners. For
evaluate each other’s performances. It can be example ability to make a speech because they
used when the teacher for some reasons cannot require the learner him/herself to demonstrate
observe or assess the class directly. It is also the skills by actually performing the desired
mostly used in micro-peer teaching exercises. behaviour.
Advantage: peers are able to assess each other
They are best used in laboratory experiments
through active participation.
and projects. It involves practical abilities
Disadvantage- It is subject to leniency in that rely on cognitive and psychomotor
ratings and fellow students may be biased activities or both.
towards each other’s ratings.
9 Project and practicals
7 Portfolio They are used to assess different educational
It contains carefully selected samples of outcomes such as investigative and planning
learners’ work. It involves a systematic collec- skills as well as the ability to use appropriate
tion of samples of work in which learners’ best equipment or materials.
skills and accomplishments are displayed over
10 Anecdotal records
a period of time such as a whole term. The
Contain reports of specific incidences to
work is collected in a suitable container eg a
describe social behaviour that give an insight
folder or notebook and is kept in a storage box
in the learners personality. These behaviours
or filing cabinet. The portfolio must be updated
may not be easily tested by other tools or
as learners achievement and skills improve.
techniques in or outside the classroom. This
The portfolio is important because the docu- assessment tool provides hints on interests and
mentation of learners’ progress is assembled problems collected over time to indicate how a
and periodically evaluated by the teacher, the learner has changed or developed.
learner him/herself. It is made available to
Disadvantages
guardians to assess the academic progress of
• It is time consuming, longitudinal and
the child. An assessment card can be prepared
needs a lengthy period of time.
and used for this task.
• It may be subjected to teachers own
Advantage-Both the teacher and the student decisions.
including the guardian take the responsibility
Activity 3
their handbook.
81
FST 26 Continuous assessment procedures (6hrs)
Introduction Administering learning tasks
For anything to work, there is a need to follow properly
a procedure when using continuous The following points should be noted in
assessment you need to follow a procedure. In administering learning tasks.
this unit, student teachers will learn about • Continuous Assessment is done as
continuous assessment procedures for effective learning is taking place.
use of the assessment tools. • Teachers should prepare self-directed
learning tasks.
Assessment standard: • Learners should work in groups, in pairs
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate and individually.
an understanding of continuous assessment • Teachers should ensure that the learners
procedures. are engaged in their learning tasks
before beginning to assess.
assessment resources Activity 2
• Check-list, In groups:
• Portfolios, 1 Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in
• Student teachers, their handbooks.
• Assessment records,
• Learners,
• Rubric,
• Rating scales,
• Specialist teachers,
• Sign language interpreter,
• Braillist.
Constructing relevant learning tasks
The following are the factors to consider when
constructing relevant learning tasks:
• Learning tasks should cover all domains:
cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
• The relevant learning tasks should cover
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.
• Levels of learning tasks should progress
from easy to difficult.
• Prepare more learning tasks in order to
have a wider choice.
• Learning tasks should have clear
instructions.
Activity 1
In groups:
their handbooks.
82
Check learners responses
In continuous assessment teachers use indicators as benchmarks to assess the success or failure
of learners in achieving outcomes. For example a teacher can prepare a checklist to check learners
responses as shown below. Checklists must contain indicators of achievement for specific
learning areas against which learners’ performance can be checked. The following is a model
checklist.
Relevant indicators for achievement

Is the learner able to: Yes No
• Identify concept(s)?
• Solve identified problems(s)?
• Collect required information?
• Organize information/data?
• Analyze information/data?
• Express an idea/opinion?
• Communicate effectively using
a symbol(s)?
• Communicate effectively using
language skills?
• Critically evaluate information?
• Work effectively with others as
a group member?
• Apply science and technological
skills in real life?
• Promote health living?
• Demonstrate an understanding
of the world as a set of related
systems?
Activity 3
Interpreting learners responses
Interpretation should be done in terms of rainbow colours which must contain the indicators of
success reflecting knowledge, understanding and application of concepts (knowledge, skills,
values and attitudes). Each one of the colours should contain a certain percentage of knowledge,
understanding and application. For example, 40% of the questions could be at lower level (knowl-
edge), 30% at middle level (application), and 30% at higher level (analysis, synthesis and evalua-
tion).
Activity 4
83
Giving necessary interventions Keeping appropriate learners
The following is a general procedure for giving records for continuous assessment
necessary interventions - ie remedial and Record keeping involves recording of learners’
enrichment tasks: data (information) related to their learning. In
• The tasks should be formulated from continuous assessment, portfolios, rainbow
schemes of work, learners books, and colours, and others, are used for record keeping
teachers’ guides. or monitoring of an individual learners
• The tasks should respond to the success progress.
criteria in the teaching syllabuses of
learning areas. Activity 6
• The tasks should vary in order to sustain 1 Ask student teachers to do activity 6 in
the motivation of learners. their handbooks.
• They should be graded from easy to
difficult.
• Enrichment tasks are generally more
challenging than remedial tasks.
• Remedial task are made to improve
learners’ performance in their weak areas.
Activity 5
their handbooks.
84
FST 27 Summative assessment (6 hrs)
Introduction Types of summative assessment
Student teachers have already learnt that There are three types of summative assessment,
assessment is an on-going process that shows a namely; norm referenced, criterion referenced
learner’s progress. They have also learnt that and objective referenced tests.
there are different types of assessment. One of
(i) Norm-referenced tests
them is summative assessment. Summative
A norm referenced test is the one which is
assessment comes at the end of a course or unit
designed to provide a measure of
of instruction. Tests are designed to evaluate
performance that is interpretable in terms of
and determine the extent to which instructional
an individuals’ relative standing in some
objectives have been achieved. They are,
known groups. Norm referenced tests enable
therefore, used primarily to assign course
us to determine how an individuals’
grades or certifying learner mastery of the
performance compares with that of
intended learning outcomes. In this unit,
others at local or national levels.
student teachers will learn about types of
summative assessment, how to construct and (ii) Criterion referenced tests
administer assessment tasks properly, mark, Criterion- referenced tests are designed to
interpret and rank learners results. In addition, provide a measure of performance that is
student teachers will learn how to keep learn- interpretable in terms of clearly defined
ers assessment records appropriately. learning tasks. This enables us to describe
what an individual can do without
Assessment standard reference to other learners performances
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate because they:
an understanding of summative assessment - describe specific learning tasks a learner is
procedures able to perform eg count from 1 to 100
- indicate the percentage of tasks a learner
Suggested teaching, learning and performs correctly eg spells 65 percent of
assessment resources the words in the word list
• Student teachers - compare the test performance to a set
• Assessment records standard and make a mastery or non
• Former test results mastery decision eg. answers correctly at
• Text books least 80 percent of the items measuring
• Overhead projectors identification of the main idea.
• Transparencies (iii) Objective referenced tests
• Internet Objective- referenced tests are designed to
• Samples of objective tests provide a measure of performance that is
• Computers interpretable in terms of a specific
• Specialist teachers instructional objective.
• Sign language interpreter Objective referenced tests have meanings
• Braillist similar to criterion referenced tests. This is
• Graph paper why some test developers call objective
referenced tests criterion referenced tests.
Activity 1
handbook.
85
Constructing relevant learners – Avoid setting questions on trivial or
tasks obscure points.
• Before constructing a task, a teacher – Make sure that questions are
should gather the following information independent of each other ie. answers
about a curriculum: given to one question is not given as part
- the syllabus of another.
- the learners characteristics – Make instructions clear.
- resources available eg text books. – Plan layout of the test carefully so that it
• Teachers should also be familiar with the is easy to read.
learning area and core element outcomes – Prepare model answers and marking
as these provide the rationale for the scheme.
instruction. – Get a collegue to read through the test so
• Teachers must develop a plan referred to that you get a second opinion on the test
as blue print or table of test specification. – Get the paper critiqued through
moderation.
Qualities of a good test/task – If an assessment task is well done, it is
A good assessment task must satisfy two normally reliable.
requirements: validity and reliability.
2 Reliability
1 Validity is defined as the quality which a It is the consistency of test results when the
test/task should have if it is to achieve the test is given to a group more than once
outcome that is intended. The following are or given to several groups. In essay
forms of validity: tests, reliability is low if the
– Criteria related validity: the relationship scoring is done without a marking scheme.
between scores on the test and some
other criterion such as results of another Activity 2
examination. Criterion related validity Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their
can either be: handbook.
• concurrent validity – test results
compared with other measures of the
same abilities at the same time
• Predictive validity – results compared
later with another criterion eg. success
in a particular job or in a higher
education
– Content validity – the extent to which items
in a test cover the syllabus or course.
The following points can ensure an increased

level of validity of a test:
– Length of the test-longer tests are more
valid than shorter tests
– Selection of topics and questions must be
done in such away to reflect the way
topics are treated during the course. Test
blue print or specification grid ensures
that the test covers the right content and
behaviours expected of the candidates.
– Prepare more items than required to make
it easier for you to replace items
considered not suitable later.
– Award marks according to level of
difficulty of the questions
86
Administering learners’ tasks • The invigilator should remain in the room
• The administration of assessment tasks to throughout in order to prevent cheating,
learners begins with prior arrangements. handle any emergencies, answer learners/
These arrangements involve the physical candidates’ questions or queries eg.
setting of the environment or place where typographical errors, unclear printing or
the tasks will be conducted and the missing pages. The invigilator should
psychological climate (effects of tests answer questions related to how to
on the learners’ emotions). respond but not on what to respond.
• Prior arrangements when administering • The invigilator should periodically inform
learners tasks may involve the following: learners on how much time is left.
– organising and making a choice of the • The invigilator should collect all the
room where the tasks are to be written scripts before learners leave the
administered room. Those that finish earlier than
– selection of invigilators
– making a seating plan
others, can be allowed to go out so long
– the actual administration of the task they do not disturb others. But in
itself the national examinations allow candidates
to leave at the same time.
The room should satisfy the following • The seating plan checks cheating
requirements: • There should be security of the task
– should be quiet papers before administration
– well lighted • If a learner has missed the test/
– well ventilated examination administer the same one if
– free from interruptions proven beyond doubt that there is no
– should be spacious leakage or administer another one
of the same difficult level.
• Invigilators should display a high sense of • Timetable should be displayed at least
professionalism. The invigilator can come two weeks in advance. This will help
from another class in the same school or learners to prepare for the tasks/
from another school on an exchange examinations.
basis.
• The invigilator should ensure that the Activity 3
room is free from unnecessary Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their
materials at the beginning of the task. handbook.
87
Marking learners responses teacher must have a personal mark book.
Marking forms an important component of
Marking scheme
the assessment process. However, unless
All assessment tasks must have a marking
marking is efficiently done, the whole
scheme whether it is a ten minute test,
process of assessment is in vain. As teachers,
practical activity or a two hour examination.
we are expected to administer and mark
The marking scheme should have questions,
tests.
answers and marks allocations for each
question. A marking scheme should be as
Marking should ensure that test results are
objective as possible.
valid and reliable by following the following
Objective marking scheme is important
steps:
because of the following reasons:
– prepare a detailed marking scheme. It is
highly recommended that marking – it is easy to use
scheme should be prepared at the same – it will give fairly standard results
time of setting questions. – it will be transferable to other teachers
– model answers which form an outline of
answers should be prepared and When marking, consider the following:
discussed by colleagues teaching the – aim of the test: Aim of the test will guide
same learning area
the teachers what to look for when
– if marking is going to be done with
colleagues, mark 2 to 3 scripts to marking. It is important to look for
standardize the test. specific components of each question,
clearly isolating what the teacher wants.
Alternative answers and mark allocations – weighting of the components of each
should also be agreed upon
question; For example, if the teacher
– mark all of one set of questions at a
session. wanted to assess learners’ skill of map
Marking same questions at different times reading, then emphasis should be on map
alters the marking standards. If there is a reading skills and not beauty of the maps.
break in marking, check back previous
marked scripts to remind yourself of the Activity 4
standard. Ask student teachers to do activity 4 in their
– when marking is completed, check back handbook.
scripts at random. Usually people mark
strictly at the beginning and then become
more lenient as marking progresses.
Checking after marking helps to look for

what the test is examining i.e. at the end of
the marking exercise, it is important to
interpret the test scores in order to determine
the pass or average mark of the test.
– record students’ marks as soon as
marking is completed. To do this, a
88
Scoring – score the overall process, product or
Scoring is a process of comparing learners’ answer as a whole without judging the
responses/answers with the correct component parts. This is known as the
responses/answers listed on a scoring key/
holistic rubric type of scoring.
marking scheme.
– score separately individual parts, then sum
The aim of scoring is to obtain accurate up the individual scores to obtain the total
results as rapidly and economically as score. This type of scoring is called
possible. analytic rubric
– score learners’ answers by comparing with
Scoring can be done by hand or machine. For
most testing situations, however, machine those on the scoring key (checklist)
scoring is most accurate and efficient.
Essays are more difficult to score,
Errors are common experiences where therefore, we have to exercise care when
scoring is done by hand. Untrained scorers
scoring. The following are
are often the ones that make errors. Errors
can influence reliability and validity of test recommendations for scoring essays:
results. – minimise the opportunity to know who
wrote the examination papers.
Scoring errors can be reduced and – if several factors are to be graded, score
minimized. The following are precautions
them separately e.g. correctness, accuracy
and guidelines we must follow in order to
reduce and minimize errors: etc.
– score several sample papers before the – ignore errors in the mechanical of
scoring of pupils responses begins. This is expression while assessing the quality and
a form of standardization and the sample accuracy of the answers.
papers are a form of dummies – do not write scores on test papers until all
– have each learner’s paper rescored by a the scoring of a question is completed
second person to determine whether – shuffle test papers or booklets after
further scoring is needed scoring
– rescore any pupils papers that have each question.
questionable scores such as exceptionally Activity 5
high scores or exceptionally low scores Ask student teachers to do activity 5 in their
and those that widely deviate from the handbook.
teachers judgment
89
Interpreting learners results Provide three sets of scores for activity 6b in
Statistical interpretation of test data the student handbook.
When interpreting test data using statistical Frequency distribution curves
interpretation, the following concepts are used: Scores are generally plotted on graphs with
Raw scores- these are scores pupils get in a test lower scores on the left on horizontal axis and
Frequency- the number of times a score higher scores on the right. Frequencies are
appears (occurs) in a set of scores plotted on the vertical axis.
Tally- a way of finding out the frequency of Example of a frequency distribution plotted on
scores in a set of scores. It is / represented by a graph eg Histogram
a stroke (/) i.e. diagonal line.
Frequency distribution- listing of new scores
obtained by a group of learners or individuals
along with the number of individuals who
obtained it.
Cumulative frequency-Occurences of a score
can be calculated cumulatively using tally
system. Occurences are represented by a stroke/ Common distribution curve

diagonal line. The fifth occurrence of a score Score marks are generally plotted on one horizontal axis,
is recorded by putting a horizontal line across with lower scores on the left and higher scores on the
right.
the preceding four strokes, it forms a ‘gate’.
Below is an example of how to find cumulative
frequency.
(Raw scores of 20 pupils on a Numeracy
and Mathematics test)
26 25 27 27 28
29 29 29 33 30
27 28 29 29 30
28 29 32 35 36 (i) Normal distribution
The curve shows that there were very few high and low
Scores Tally scores obtained by learners. Most learners got average
Cumulatively
scores. As a result the curve makes a hump in the middle
Frequency which is ‘bell shaped’.
36 / 1
35 / 2
34 0 2
33 / 3
32 / 4
(ii) Positively skewed curve
31 0 4 The curve is skewed to the left. The test was too hard.
30 // 6 Only a few scored well.
Frequency (f)
29 //// 12
28 /// 15
27 /// 18
26 / 19 (iii) Negatively skewed
Frequency (f)
25 / 20
Activity 6a
Ask student teachers to do activity 6a in
The curve is skewed to the right. The test was too
their handbooks. easy. It didn’t test the brightest.
Activity 6b
Ask student teachers to do activity 6b in their handbooks.
90
Methods of recording and reporting test 2 Measure of Variability
results This tells the distance between the highest
1 Measure of central tendency score and the lowest score. The most commonly
Central tendency is another name for average used measure of variability is range.
or the most typical performance of a group of Range: Highest score – lowest score.
individuals. The three most commonly used
You can also tell this as the fornula:R = H – L
measures of central tendency are mean, median
Example: The example below shows the score
and the mode.
distribution of a group before and after
The mean:- the mean is the arithmetical receiving instructions.
average of the scores and it is determined by Pretest Post Test
summing up all the scores in a group and R= 30 -10 R = 36- 25
dividing them by their serial number = 20 = 11
Mean = Sum of all the scores
Total number of scores Activity 6c
Example: Find the mean of these scores: 4, 8, 5, Ask student teachers to do activity 6c in their
3, 4, 6 handbooks.
Score 1 = 4 Ranking learners results
Score 2 = 8 Ranking is positioning of people in a group. In
Score 3 = 5 schools, teachers rank pupils performance
Score 4 = 3 (results) according to an order of merit. Ranks
Score 5 = 4 are obtained by ordering raw scores from the
Score6 = 6 highest to the lowest. In a class of forty
Sum of all the scores = 30 Mean = 30 children, the highest would be placed first
6 (assigned a rank of 1) and the lowest fortieth
Number of scores = 6 = 5 (assigned a rank of 40).
The Median: the median is the score point
below which 50% of the scores in a frequency Example: rank the following scores
distribution fall
Sample:16, 15, 13, 12, 10, 6, 3 Name Score Name Score Rank
\median = 12 Obrain 27 Michael 40 1
Hint: rearrange scores from high to low. Ben 33 Mary 36 2
Michael 40 Ben 33 3
The Mode: the mode is a score value that has a Tionge 25 Maggie 33 3
frequency which is large in relation to the Jackson 28 Chance 32 5
frequencies of other score value near it. In other Mary 36 Casla 30 6
words, it is the most frequent score in a Casla 30 Clasebell 28 7
frequency distribution. Clement 20 Ronald 28 7
Example: Find the mode in these scores Maggie 23 Jackson 28 7
80 36 70 65 Clasebell 28 Obrain 27 10
65 41 62 33 Ronald 28 Tionge 25 11
39 65 40 65 Chance 32 Clement 20 12
Mode = 65 In the above table, the score 33 appears twice
and fills positions assigned to 3 and 4. The
next score 32 is then assigned a rank of 5
because the third and fourth positions are
already occupied. The same mechanism is true
with score 28.
91
Activity 7
handbooks.
Keeping appropriate learners’ progress
records
Assessment requires teachers to keep
appropriate learners progress records. After
marking a test, teachers need to keep a record
of the learners’ test results. One way of doing
this is by keeping learners tests results in a
class progress record book.
It is recommended that every teacher has a
learners progress record book for the following
reasons:
• A teacher is able to follow learners’
progress
• A teacher can reflect on and assess his/
her own teaching
• Such records enable him to complete other
records eg report cards and certificates
• A teacher is helped to run an organized
class, knowing who has
done what and when.
A sample of a learners’ progress record book
No Class A Ses P Eng Maths Chich

1 Tionge Time 70 61 A 69
2 Praise Bashir 60 42 70 5
3 Chifundo Elero 80 P 60 62
4 Mary Kanzi 40 71 63 56
5 Nesa Zuka 70 65 91 77
Key
AP= absent with permission
W= written
P = practicals
A = absent
S = sick
Activity 8
handbook.
92
TERM 3
93
FST 28 Inclusive education (4 hrs)
Introduction The characteristics of inclusive

All children must attend mainstream schools education
within their communities. There is no dividing Inclusive education:
line between children with impairments and • acknowledges that all children can learn
those without. Parents therefore, have the right • acknowledges and respects differences in
to choose whether to send their children to children: age, sex, language,
mainstream schools, or special schools. impairment, HIV and AIDS status etc.
• attempts to include children with special
Assessment standard educational needs in all education
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate activities.
an understanding of inclusive education. • enables education structures, systems and
methodologies meet the needs of all
Suggested teaching, learning and children.
assessment resources • allows participatory education.
• Handout notes • allows for a single education system for
• Checklist all.
• Videos • ensures equitable high standards and
• Tapes outcomes for all children.
• Internet • involves dialogue and information
• Student teacher’s experiences sharing.
• Sign language interpreter Activity 1
• Flip chart Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in their
• Markers handbooks.
• Field trip Purposes of inclusive education
• Braillist Inclusive education is about creating schools
Meaning of inclusive education that are responsive to the actual diverse needs
of children. The purposes of inclusive
Inclusive education has been defined in many
education include:
ways. Teachers must understand that inclusive
• to enable children with impairments stay
education is not another version of special
within their families and communities.
needs education. The following are some of the
• to improve the quality of education for all.
working definitions:
• to overcome discriminatory attitudes
• Inclusive education is a process of
towards learners with
increasing the participation of all learners
impairments.
in schools, including those with special
• to help in breaking the cycle of poverty
needs.
and exclusion.
• Inclusive education means children with
• to uncover and minimize barriers to
special needs and those without
learning.
impairments, learning together in the
same classroom, with appropriate Activity 2
networks of support. Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their
• Inclusive education is about restructuring handbooks.
the cultures, policies and practices in
schools so that they respond to the
diversity of learners.
94
Barriers to inclusive education Strategies to overcome barriers to
Inclusive education is concerned with inclusive education
identification and removal of barriers. It is also Schools must identify various ways of
concerned with participation of all learners addressing barriers to inclusive education.
who are vulnerable to exclusion and Some of these strategies are:
marginalization. The following are some of the
identified barriers in schools: 1 Promoting positive attitudes
• negative attitudes The society’s lack of knowledge,
• physical access misinformation and negative attitudes
• large classes excludes girls and boys with impairments
• gender discrimination from education. Education officials and class
• poverty teachers must understand that children with
• shortage of teaching and learning impairment lack opportunities to develop
resources their full potentials to effectively participate
• shortage of specialist teachers and related in the society. There is need to raise an
services awareness that each child is unique and
• lack of parental involvement different and that children with impairments
• high level of dependency of some children have the same rights, needs and aspirations
with impairments on their carers as all children.
Activity 3
2 Promoting inclusive learning
environments
handbooks.
Children need to be able to travel safely to
school and be in a safe physical and social
environment be it in a school or home.
3 Promoting early intervention

The earlier the intervention, the greater the
impact on the child’s future development,
early medical referrals or rehabilitation.
4 Promoting positive role models

Inviting men and women with disabilities to
give talks to the school about their lives and
achievements.
5 Supporting appropriate policy

development
Policies must mainstream disability issues.
6 Supporting change of system in

education
The introduction of more inclusive practices
in education necessitates change in
curriculum, teacher training, teaching
methodology and teacher’s attitudes.
Activity 4a
Ask student teachers to do activity 4a in
their handbooks.
95
Observing inclusive education in Activity 4b
practice at the demonstration Ask student teachers to do activity 4b in their books.
school
Inclusive education is about learning how to
live with differences and learning how to
learn from the differences. The classroom is
seen as a community where all children
work, talk, co-operate, and share. It is struc-
tured to serve a wide range of learners.
96
FST 29 Rehabilitation (6 hrs)
Introduction
Rehabilitation is when one is assisted in his/her problems so that he is able to contribute
effectively. In this unit, student teachers will acquire knowledge, attitudes and skills in
rehabilitation to enable them contribute effectively to disability prevention through networking
with other professionals.
Assessment standard
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate an understanding of rehabilitation services,
educational placement options and the process of designing an Individualised Educationa Plan
(IEP)

• Student experiences
• Handout notes
• Braillist
• Sample checklist
• Sample IEPs
• Flip charts
• Resource persons
• Transparencies
• Signing interpreter
• Markers
• Special teachers
• Text books
Rehabilitation services
Rehabilitation services in Malawi are mainly in three main sectors: health, social and education
services. These services are provided by government ministries, statutory bodies, and non-
governmental organizations. The following are some examples of rehabilitation services
available:
(i) Ministry of Education:................. offers special needs education at primary secondary and
tertiary levels. It also trains special education teachers.
(ii) Ministry of Health: ....................... offers medical rehabilitation through surgery, guidance
and counseling etc. Also provides psychiatric and
physiotherapy services.
(iii) Ministry of Gender,
Social Welfare and
Community Services:.................... identifies and refers people for rehabilitation
(iv) Malawi Against Physical Provides assistive devices such as wheel chairs, clutches.
Disabilities (MAP): .........................They also offer physiotherapy and occupational therapy
and trains rehabilitation assistants
(v) Beit Trust Cure Hospital:............. Provides orthopedic surgery to young children with
impairments
(vi) Malawi Council for the .................Provide vocational training and sheltered employment
Handicapped to persons with disabilities
(MACOHA):
(vii) St. John of God:................................ Offers guidance and counseling and
vocational training.
97
Rehabilitation services have professionals that Educational placement options for
form a team whose members interlink to offer learners with special educational
necessary provisions. They all work
collaboratively to reach the children’s
needs
ultimatum goal of self-independence. These are some of the places where learners
with special educational needs may go for
learning and support.
Activity 1
Ask student teachers to do activity 1 in their Special schools for children with hearing
handbooks. impairment
• Embangweni school for the Deaf-Mzimba
• Mua school for the Deaf – Dedza
Referrals to rehabilitation services • Maryview school for the Deaf- Chiradzulu
When teachers are unable to offer • Mountain View school for the Deaf-
rehabilitation services, they send the clients to Thyolo
special people. Teachers must therefore acquire
necessary skills for referring learners to other Special schools for children with visual
professionals for rehabilitation services. Before impairment
making referrals, a teacher must collect enough • Chilanga school for the Blind – Kasungu
information about the learner (case history) • Lulwe school for the Blind – Nsanje
and fill in a referral form. Resource centers for children with visual
impairment
Activity 2 • Montfort Demonstration – Chiradzulu
Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their • Salima LEA school- Salima
handbooks. • Blantyre secondary school-Blantyre
Placement options for learners with • Ekwendeni Girls secondary school-
special educational needs Mzimba
• Mzimba secondary school-Mzimba
These are simply choices of educational
programmes for children with special Resources centres for learning difficulties
educational needs. In Malawi the following are • Ekwendeni primary school- Mzimba
some of the placement options for impairment • SOS primary school - Lilongwe
categories: • Luchenza primary school –Thyolo
• Chimwala primary school – Mangochi
(i) Special schools: these are schools that
• Chankhanga primary school – Kasungu
enroll learners with specific impairments and
• Kamuzu LEA - Mchinji
all teachers are specialists.
Resource centers for children with hearing
(ii) Resource class placement system: this is
impairment
a system where learners are included in
• Chayamba secondary school-Kasungu
mainstream but are occasionally
• Migowi Primary-Phalombe
withdrawn to a resource room where they are
• Bandawe Primary-Nkhata Bay
assisted by a specialist teacher.
(iii) Mainstream system: this is when Activity 3
learners with special educational needs are Ask student teachers to do activity 3 in their
included in mainstream and they receive handbooks.
additional help from itinerant specialist
teachers.
Note: The severity of the impairment category
of the learner determines the placement option.
98
Purpose of individualised Constructing an IEP
educational plan (IEP) An IEP is constructed as soon as the child is
Children learn differently because each child identified to have problems in learning. An
is unique. Teachers need to plan so as to assist IEP should contain the following:
each and everychild effectively. IEP is • Child’s name and date of birth
important as it: • Date of IEP
• helps practitioners and parents to direct • Date and level of support
their energies and support more • A brief summary of child’s difficulty and
specifically. needs
• allows children’s progress to be regularly • Strengths and limitations
monitored. • Success criteria
• gives an overall view of the child. • Teaching methods and strategies
• provides other professionals with • Related services
information about effectiveness of the • Staff to be involved
planned strategies for success. • Date of review
• Signature of parents and staff
Activity 4
Ask student teachers to do activity 4 in their Activity 5
handbooks. Ask student teachers to do activity 5 in their
handbooks.
99
Implementing an IEP
Once a child’s IEP has been written the next thing is for the teacher to implement it. For example:
Case study
Let student teachers read the case study below and show them how an IEP can be constructed
and implemented.
Daniel was born ten weeks early. He is small for his age and he has poor motor skills, both fine
and gross. He has poor concentration. He changes activities frequency even when supported
with an adult. He is a sociable child and enjoys watching and being with other children. He
particularly enjoys painting and playing games. Staff has noticed that he responds well to
sensory activities such as sand and water. His parents report that at home he enjoys having
friends round and playing in a garden. They have noticed that he finds it hard to follow
instructions.
Below is a sample IEP beginning with the child’s information provided in the case study.:
Name: Daniel Area/s of difficulty: Fine motor skills and concentration
DOB: 4/12/99 Review Date: 14 March, 2003 Start Date: Jan, 2003
Proposed support: Support began: Jan 2003
Parents/Practitioner contribution: Work with Daniel on related activities at home. Practice

taking turns at home. Playing games.
Parent’s signature:…………............……………………..
Practitioner’s signature:…………………………………
Source: Tassoni, P. (2003): 73
Activity 6
Ask student teachers to do activity 6 in their books.
100
FST 30 Counselling and guidance (3 hours)
Introduction Differences between counselling
Life exerts pressure on both adults and and guidance
children. This pressure leads to problems Counselling is a helping relationship between
and challenges that need counselling and an individual who has a problem and another
guidance. As children grow within the individual trying to help find an appropriate
school, they also face difficult situations, solution to the problem. School counselling
frustrations and temptations that need aims at:
special attention. It is important that teachers • helping learners gain an insight into the
are aware of these learners’ needs. It is also origins and development of emotional
important that teachers learn the basic skills difficulties leading to an increased
of counselling and guidance so that in the capacity to take rational control over
school, they can play an important role of feelings and actions.
assisting learners to cope with some of these • helping alter maladjusted behaviour.
problems that may prevent them from • assisting learners to move in the right
effective learning. direction of fulfilling their potential
or achieve an integration of conflicting
Assessment standard elements within themselves.
Student teachers should be able to • providing learners with the skills,
demonstrate an understanding of awareness and knowledge which
counselling and guidance. will enable them to confront social
inadequacy.
Suggested teaching, learning
Guidance on the other hand is a process of
and assessment resources helping individuals to understand themselves
• Text books and their world. It is also an on-going
• Videos, tapes and DVDs assistance given to individuals who do not
• Flip charts and markers completely understand themselves (their
• Boards strengths and weaknesses) as well as their
• Counsellor social, economic, educational and political
• Specialist teacher environment.
• Sign language interpreter and braillist
Guidance has the following components:
(i) Educational guidance
- Guiding young people to pursue the
right type of education.
(ii) Vocational guidance
- A process of helping individuals
choose an occupation, prepare for it
and develop in it.
(iii) Personal and social guidance
- The process of helping an
individual know himself/herself,
behave with consideration towards
other people.
Activity 1
handbook.
101
The importance of counselling Learners’ problems that need
and guidance counselling and guidance
Counselling and guidance is very important It is a mistake to believe that all children grow
because: up in loving homes. While indeed some
• it assists individuals reduce children live contented lives in loving homes
maladjustment so that such individuals where they grow into good citizens, for some
develop their potential and self the reality is the opposite. Some children may
fulfillment. go through forces in the home, school and
• it assists people to discover their society that impinge on them and create
capabilities and potentials. emotional crisis such as unhappiness, periods
• it provides a conducive environment in of depression, grief, feelings of guilty, low self
which individuals are assisted to solve esteem and unworthiness. Such children need
their problems. to be counselled and guided. Their problems
may arise because of:
Entrance into primary school can lead to • broken homes when parents have
anxieties that may cause lasting emotional divorced,
disturbances to some learners. School • violent homes where the children are
counselling and guidance is important abused, rejected or punished,
because it: • unpleasant homes where there is theft,
• assists in preventing emotional assault, hatred, murder and no concern
problems and other disturbances from for the physical and emotional support
escalating into difficulties that may for the child,
inhibit effective learning. • in the event of HIV and AIDS, some
• helps to recognize learners with children experience illness or death of
serious emotional difficulties and refer parents,
them to appropriate institutions. • many children may also face problems of
• saves as a linkage between teachers hunger and absolute poverty.
and parents to facilitate effective • others face problems dealing with
learning. puberty and adolescence.
• facilitates development of school
behaviour and attitudes, for example, These problems may in turn lead to:
proper dressing, good study habits, • low academic achievement
cooperation among learners and • absenteeism
teachers. • drop out from school
• facilitates the development of • alcoholism, drug and substance abuse
acceptable social and civic habits such • teenage pregnancies and marriages
as respect for friends, relatives and • juvenile delinquencies
young ones.
Teachers therefore have a role to play in
Activity 2 assisting learners acquire confidence and
Ask student teachers to do activity 2 in their survival skills such as assertiveness,
handbook. independence, problem solving and decision
making.
Activity 3
handbook.
102
Qualities of an effective counsellor Conducting counselling and
A school should play an important role of guidance sessions
assisting learners cope with some of their Teachers have a role in motivating learners so
personal problems that may affect learning. that learners develop moral attitudes,
Teachers therefore, need to learn some basic behaviour and values that allow them to
skills and qualities of an effective counsellor. conform to acceptable standards in society.
They should become effective counsellors not
mere teachers. He/she should therefore: The counselling process involves:
• be ethical, professional and should not 1 Attending eg, warm welcome, posture,
develop intimate relationships with the eye contact,
counsellee or learner, 2 Listening: use of vocal sounds, head
• be a good listener in order to gain nods,
learners’ confidence 3 Clarifying: open ended questions for
• be objective and not judgemental, explanation and closed questions for
• be flexible and not rigid, specific information, interjections,
• must take note of the changes in the 4 Reflection of feelings: understanding
learner’s behaviour and work as a peer from the client’s point of view and
and an authority, communicating that understanding,
• be understanding and personally well 5 Summarizing: restatement of the content
adjusted, to show understanding (Rephrasing),
• have an intellectual competence to think 6 Identification of the problems in the
logically to assist the learner set up counselling process,
objectives, place his/her problem in 7 Information giving,
perspective and assist him/her in 8 Silence,
considering alternatives and assess the 9 Rapport: creating a close relationship
consequences, with the client,
• be sensitive, be honest and sincere with 10 Behaviour modification strategy.
some reservations but appropriate
openness, Activity 5
• be able to communicate verbally and Ask student teachers to conduct counselling
non verbally to help the learner to relax, and guidance sessions in Activity 5.
open up his/her feelings and formulate
Note Student teachers should prepare and
objectives and goals to change or learn a
plan for the activity before the actual
new behaviour,
sessions.
• be able to keep confidential information.
If there is need to reveal certain
information in order to effectively assist
the client, then the client should give
consent.
Activity 4
hand book.
103
FST 31 Counselling and guidance techniques (4 hours)
Introduction Informal procedures involve learner/client
Teachers have a role to build learners’ asking casually for assistance eg. seeking
academic capabilities as well as counsel and information on a project or mathematical
guide them to develop into responsible problem, or seeking advice on what to do,
citizens in the society. In order to counsel opinion on what to wear or how to
and guide learners, teachers have to know conduct him/herself in a certain
the techniques and processes involved in situation.
counselling and guidance. This knowledge
will enable teachers to effectively assist 2 Verbal and non-verbal
learners with different problems. Verbal through conversation-the counsellor
uses his/her voice and concepts to the level
Assessment standard of the client/learner to convey his empathy,
understanding and positive regard of the
client’s problem.
demonstrate an understanding of the
techniques of counselling and guidance.
Non verbal- the counsellor uses non verbal
expressions such as a smile, a nod and
Suggested teaching, learning leaning forward. An expectant look at the
and assessment resources client can help to convey or solicit more
• Textbooks information. Clinching of hands or fist may
• Case studies portray strong feelings of the problem on the
• Videos part of the counsellee.
• Tapes
• Flip charts and markers 3 Directive and non directive
• Boards Directive technique is a counsellor centred
• Resource person approach in which the counsellor assumes a
• Student teachers and/or pupils leadership position although the counsellee
• Internet is responsible for the final decision.
• Specialist teacher Questions and suggestions are controlled by
• Sign language interpreter and brailist the counsellor and he/she directs what the
client or learner should do. It is mainly used
Techniques for counselling and in clinical situations.
guidance
Non-directive. This is a client centred
There are many techniques that can be used
approach, using face to face discussions. It
to counsel and guide. Some of them will
involves permissive techniques in which
simply involve face to face discussion.
counsellor allows the client to speak freely and
Others may involve medical referrals. The
reflect on his problem without being directed
decision to use a particular technique
depends on the nature of the problem to be by the counsellor.
resolved. Some of these techniques and
4 Decision making
approaches are:
This technique is used in situations where
1 Formal and informal the individual has to make a decision or
Formal procedures involve face to face choice of a career.
counselling. This may include the formal Empathy, positive regard, use of open ended
gathering of information, conducting questions, selective deep listening and
interviews, referrals or consultations. interpretations are techniques that facilitate
and deepen the counsellor and counsellee
relationship.
104
Techniques for gathering • projective test - often used where some
information for counselling learners may be uncomfortable with face
It is impossible for the teacher to study every to face interview.
child at the same time. But he/she can get an • unfinished story – the learner is given an
insight into learner’s lives through such unfinished story of his/her problem. He/
techniques as: she analyses the situation, possible
• observations- the teacher observes the actions, reasons for these actions and
behaviour patterns of learners. solutions to the problem.
• anecdotal records - the teacher collects a
descriptive dated account of learner’s • role-play - used to solve problems that
unusual behaviours as part of the concern a group. A problem topic is
regular teaching. chosen and the learners role play it.
• rating - use of a checklist to sum up Standardized tests, aptitude and
learners’ behaviour. achievement tests show potentials and
abilities of learners in the learning
process.
1 2 3 4
• social metric measures - involve studying
Able to evaluate his work
the network of social relationships.
Seldom completes tasks Achievement
Able to keep a cool mind
Alice
• informal tests and work sample reports
-dated samples of learner’s work as
periodic appraisal of learner’s progress
towards an intended goal for self
understanding and direction. Informal Chikondi
reading tests are used for detecting John
ability to comprehend and Choice of friends may reveal certain patterns
communicate. of behaviour without aggressiveness.
Activity 1
handbook.
105
The process of counselling and this stage. This allows the learner to
guidance. realize that the counsellor is
The process of counselling is determined by committed to assisting him/her.
the problem at hand. However the following Helping the learner to talk, through the
general phases and tips can be followed: use of effective understanding and
(i) Initiating counselling assuring technique will enable the
The process can be initiated by the learner to relax and express his/her
learner him/herself. It can also be feelings freely.
initiated by someone else, that is, a
teacher or parent/guardian after (v) Listening and focusing
noting the problem. It involves Deep listening is important in all
preparing for the interview and stages of counselling. The counsellor
getting started. The counsellor may and learner focus closely on the
need to collect background problem and determine the course of
information and draw upon his/her action.
skills to initiate communication. It is
important at this stage that both the (vi) Closing
counsellor and counsellee are willing Before closing the interview, the
to participate fully in the process. counsellor should ask the learner/
The learner should be ready to make client to sum up what has been gained
maximum use of the time available in the interview process. The closing
to him/her. should be done when the learner feels
it was worth the time, that he/she has
It is important to have an been helped to accomplish what he/she
appropriate environment i.e. a well wanted.
ventilated and illuminated room to
show due consideration for the (vii) Planning for follow up
learner. The room should be away The counsellor should go through the
from other people to provide interview as soon as possible to
confidentiality of the process. summarise the understanding that has
been gained. Then ask the learner to
(ii) Providing structure come for a follow up at a time
Developing an opening structure - At convenient to both the counsellor and
this stage the learner works to the counsellee.
establish a working relationship in
which the counsellor helps the (viii) Termination
learner to know what he/she should The counselling process can be
expect out of the process. It may terminated when there is a strong
involve knowing each other, putting feeling that the client is now able to
the learner at ease so that he/she can handle his/her problem. Where
open up, listening to the problem of nothing has been achieved, a referral
the learner and planning for course should be made.
of action.
(iii) Establishing objectives Activity 2

The goal and objective must be Ask student teachers to do Activity 2 in their
realistic and achievable in the handbook.
available time.
(iv) Relationship building

The honest, expressions of interest,
humanness and perspectiveness are
techniques the counsellor can use at
106
Practicing the techniques of
counselling and guidance
It is important for student teachers to practice
techniques of counselling and guidance so
that they can use the skills in assisting their
learners.
Activity 3
handbook.
107
FST 32 Categories of counselling (5 hours)
Introduction developmental stages and tasks. Any
In the previous unit , student teachers learnt aspect of development can be turned into
about counselling and guidance techniques. an adjustment problem. In life every
In this unit, they will learn about categories human being encounters problems. For
of counselling. They will also learn about example:
different forms and types of counselling. The • anxiety over a career decision
knowledge of these categories and forms of • lingering anger over an interpersonal
counselling will enable student teachers conflict
perform roles as counsellors. • insecurities about getting older
• depressive feelings when bored with
work
Assessment standard • excessive guilt about a serious mistake
• lack of assertion and confidence
demonstrate an understanding of categories
• grief over the loss of a loved one
and forms of counselling.
• disillusionment and loneliness after
parents’ divorce.
3 Vocational Counselling
and assessment resources
Vocational counselling is defined as
• Text books
individual contacts with those counselled,
• Handout notes
in order to facilitate career development.
• Resources persons
This definition encompasses counselling
• Flip charts
situations such as:
• Markers
• helping students become aware of the
• Videos
many occupations to consider
• Tapes
• interpreting an occupational
• Field trips
inventory to a learner
• Internet
• assisting a teenager to decide what to
• Specialist teachers
do after school
• Braille materials
• helping a student apply to a college
• Sign language interpreter or university
• role-playing a job interview
Categories of counselling
There are many categories of counselling. Activity 1
Some of them are: Ask student teachers to do Activity 1 in their
1 Educational counselling handbook.
This is a process of rendering services to
learners who need assistance in making
decisions about important aspects of
their education, such as the choice of
courses and studies, decisions regarding
interests and abilities and choices of
college and high school. Educational
counselling increases learners’
knowledge of educational opportunities.
2 Personal/Social Counselling
Personal counselling deals with
emotional distress and behavioural
difficulties, which arise when
individuals struggle to deal with
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Forms of counselling These changes have resulted in the weakening
There are different forms of counselling. of the traditional counselling and guidance
Counselling and guidance are not a new structures.
phenomenon in African societies.
At present counselling and guidance is not
In the past, chiefs and elders were the main confined to chiefs and elders only. Any one
sources for counselling and guidance with the expertise can counsel and guide. The
services. The societies were held together by most common forms of counselling and
unique elements such as: guidance are:
• the extended family system, including
the clan and the tribe, (i) giving advice
• taboos, The advice offered is frequently
• various forms of initiation ceremonies, instrumental in helping people to consider
• close links with ancestors and elders. their future. In many instances, the family
is the main source of advice for girls and
At present, many African countries are boys.
experiencing changes, such as:
• a gradual shift from the extended to the Giving advice often promotes the
nuclear family unit, or single family dependence of the young person on the
unit advice given. In most cases, it is largely
• a heavy reliance on a cash economy subjective and does not promote the
• political demands and expectations personal development of young people.
• a rapid rate of urbanization with a high
unemployment rate compounded by a (ii) wisdom
high illiteracy rate Wisdom generally refers to experience
• a high population growth rate which and knowledge about life and using these
leads to large classes in schools judiciously. The wisdom provided by
• the infiltration of foreign culture elderly men and women is part of the
through films, television, videos, live counselling function of the family or
performances and magazines, which are society for boys and girls.
counter-productive Activity 2 (a)
• wars, political instability and Ask student teachers to do Activity 2 (a) in
epidemics that lead to increased their handbook.
numbers of orphans and refugees
• moral decay due to elements from
within and outside the nation.
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Types of counselling This is the counselling that assists
There are seven common types of counselling family members to resolve family
as described below: matters. Examples are sharing property
(i) Preventive counselling of a deceased person, or resolving
This type of counselling is very marriage problems.
important to youths since they will be
indulged in counselling peers so that Activity 2 (b)
they make decisions to protect Ask student teachers to do Activity 2 (b) in
themselves from HIV infection. their handbooks.
Emphasis is on prevention. NB: The information below is for the
(ii) Pre-test counselling lecturer only.
This is the basis of AIDS counselling or
any counselling which is done when
one requires a medical test and later
needs to come for the results.
(iii) Post-test counselling
This counselling is preceeded by pre-
test counselling where an assessment
is done to find out if the client still
remembers what was discussed
during pre-test counselling. After that
the results are given and both the
counsellor and the client find solutions
to the identified problem of the client.
(iv) Problem solving counselling
Counselling is provided with the
purpose of solving a problem. This
includes the problems that people face
such as peer pressure and how to deal
with relationships.
(v) Crisis counselling
Whenever there is a crisis counselling
is done in order to resolve the crisis.
An example can be when there has
been a diagnosis of an incurable
disease such as cancer or AIDS, the
relatives and the patient are
counselled. Another example can be a
dispute over land.
(vi) Bereavement counselling
This counselling is given to the
relatives of a deceased person in order
to comfort and assist them in
recovering from the loss. The relatives
or friends may also be counselled in
order to assist them to resolve conflicts
that may arise due to the death.
(vii) Family counselling
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Theories of counselling Rational emotive theory
There are many approaches used in This theory is based on the assumption that
counselling. The major theories are people have the capacity to act in either a
discussed below: rational or irrational manner. Rational
behaviour is viewed as effective and
Psychoanalytic theory potentially productive, where as irrational
This theory emphasizes the recovery of behaviour results in unhappiness and non
unconscious conflicts, motives and defences productivity. It is assumed that many types of
through techniques such as free associations educational problems result from irrational
and transference. The anxiety-dominated patterns of thinking. These irrational patterns
disturbances are problems such as phobic, may begin early in life and be reinforced by
panic, obsessive-compulsive and conversion significant others in the individual’s life by
disorders called neuroses. Freud believed general culture and environment.
that neurotic problems are caused by
unconscious conflicts left over from early Most students in our society develop many
childhood. He thought that these inner irrational way of thinking. These irrational
conflicts involved battles among the id, ego thoughts lead to irrational or inappropriate
and super-ego usually over sexual and behaviour. Therefore, counselling must be
aggressive impulses. designed to help youth recognize and change
these irrational beliefs into more rational ones.
In free association, clients spontaneously The accomplishment of this goal requires an
express their thoughts and feelings exactly active, confrontive and authoritative counsellor
as they occur, with as little censorship as who has the capacity to utilize a whole variety
possible. In free association, clients expound of techniques (UNESCO 2000).
on anything that comes to mind, regardless
of how trivial, silly or embarrassing it might Gestalt theory
be. This theory has, as its major objective, the
integration of the persons. In popular
Gradually most clients begin to let terminology this might be called “getting it all
everything pour out without conscious together”.
censorship. The counsellor studies these free
associations for clues about what is going on This treatment is finished when the client has
in the unconscious. achieved the basic requirements; a change in
out look, a technique of adequate self-
Behavioural theory expression and assimilation and the ability to
This theory involves the application of the extend awareness to the verbal level. The client
principles of learning to direct efforts to has then reached that state of integration
change clients maladaptive behaviours. It which facilitates their own development and
makes no attempt to help clients achieve they can now be safely left to themselves.
grand insights about themselves because
they believe that such insights are not Inorder to achieve this togetherness, the
necessary to produce constructive change. counsellor seeks to increase the client’s
For the behaviourist, counselling involves awareness. As a result, the counsellor
the systematic use of a variety of procedures functions in a way that provides the client with
that are intended specifically to change an atmosphere conducive to the discovery of
behaviour in terms of naturally established client’s needs. To facilitate this process,
goals between a client and counsellor. The counsellors themselves are the most important
following are some of the procedures: tools to utilize.
• operant learning
• imitative learning
• cognitive learning
• emotional learning
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Person-centred theory Transactional analysis
This theory focuses on the client’s Transactional analysis (TA) places a great
responsibility and capacity to discover ways deal of emphasis on the ego, which , from this
to fully encounter reality. Clients who know view point, consists of three states; child,
themselves best are the ones to discover more adult and parent.
appropriate behaviour for themselves.
Reality theory
This theory emphasizes the phenomenal This theory advocates that counselling is
world of the client. With accurate empathy simply a special kind of teaching or training
and an attempt to apprehend internal frame that attempts to teach individuals what they
of reference, counsellors concern themselves should have learned during normal growth
mainly with the client’s perception of self in a rather short period of time. This theory is
and of the world. also applicable to individuals with any sort
of psychological problem, from mild
This theory proposes the hypothesis that
emotional upset to complete psychotic
certain attitudes on the counsellor’s part
withdrawal.
such as genuineness, non-possessiveness,
warmth and acceptances and accurate This theory stipulates that people have two
empathy, constitute the necessary and basic needs, which if unfulfilled can cause
sufficient conditions for effective counselling. pain. These are the need to be loved and to
Person-centred theory holds that the love, and the need to feel that we are worth
counsellor’s function is to be immediately while to ourselves and to others. Every person
present and accessible to the client and to needs to feel love throughout life.
focus on the here and now experience
created by their relationship. The reality theory has a direct implication for
school situations. It believes that the stigma of
Transactional theory failure permits the atmosphere in most
This theory is a cognitive behavioural schools and has a damaging effect on most
approach that assumes a person has the students. The elimination and prevention of
potential for choosing and for redirecting or failure in the school systems, and the
reshaping his/her own destiny. It is prevention, rather than merely the treatment
designed to help a client review and evaluate of delinquency, are the main goals.
early decisions and to make new, more
appropriate choices.
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FST 33 Guidance services (3 hours)
Introduction Guidance is known to be a much larger concept
than counselling. Guidance may be referred to
In this unit, student teachers will learn the
as an umbrella of services and counselling is
meaning and types of guidance services.
one of the guidance services.
They will also learn how to design guidance
programmes. This will help student teachers
acquire important skills which will in turn
help learners in pursuing their education.
Assessment standard
demonstrate an understanding of guidance
services.

and assessment resources
• Textbooks
• Videos
• Flipcharts
• Markers
• Handout notes Guidance as an umbrella of services
• Resource Person
• Field Trips 1 Orientation service
• Specialist teacher 2 Information service
• Sign language interpreter 3 Appraisal service
4 Counselling service
• Braille materials
5 Placement service
Guidance services 6 Research service and
Guidance refers to a group of specialized 7 Referral service
services which a school provides to enrich
the educational experience of each learner.
1 Orientation service
A guidance service is an organized effort on When learners come to school for the first
the part of the school to help learners time, they are assisted to find their way in
understand themselves and the world their new school environment. Learners are
around them. This is achieved by helping exposed to school staff, school learning
learners see how the opportunities provided areas, subjects to be studied and how to
in the school make meaning to their relate to their future vocational and other
individual lives. developmental needs.
A school guidance programme embraces all 2 Information service
educational efforts of the school and This is provided to assist learners with
therefore cannot be confined to any necessary information to help them before
particular level of education-pre-school, coming to a decision on any life matter that
primary school, secondary, college or affects them as individuals.
university.
113
This service is further divided into the the purpose of having a better
following: understanding of them. This is the case, so
that learners know themselves and their
a) Educational guidance resources; their strengths and their
Is a process for helping an individual to weaknesses.
plan a suitable educational programme and
make progress in it. The individual may be 4 Counselling services
assisted, for example, in choosing subjects, Learners are given personalized attention
courses, school and colleges. by a qualified school staff, to help them
resolve any obstacles in their academic
Components of educational guidance progress, or to handle those decisions
• study skills relating to their vocational, educational,
• time-tabling family, marital, social, interpersonal, or
• note-taking, communicational life needs. The
• sitting for examinations counselling service is usually referred to
• academic counselling as the core of any guidance programme.
b) Vocational guidance 5 Placement and follow-up service

It is the process of helping an individual to School attempts to enhance or monitor the
choose an occupation, prepare for it, enter it nature of the opportunity of its learners.
and make progress in it. This is done to help learners open
smoothly and adjust into the world
Components of vocational guidance outside the school. Informed decisions are
• analysis of the individual taken concerning students promotion to a
• occupational information new class, repeating a class or transfering
• consultation to another school.
• vocational counselling
• placement 6 Research service
• community occupational surveys
It is through this that the counsellor
and follow-up-studies
updates or gathers new information vital
• evaluation.
for improving the assistance given to
c) Personal and social guidance clients or learners.
Is the process of helping an individual to
7 Referral service
know how to behave with consideration to
other people in order to improve the quality Cases beyond the counsellors’ competence
of life. In the course of their development, or preparation are referred to appropriate
individuals encounter a lot of problems. resource persons in the community for the
These problems include emotional conflicts, needed assistance.
anxieties, frustrations, fears, poor self
Activity 1 (a)
image, indecision, alcohol and drug abuse,
Ask student teachers to do Activity 1(a) in
unwanted pregnancies, the AIDS epidemic,
delinquency, suicide, inability to change their handbook.
unsuitable behaviour, in ability to set a Activity 1 (b)
goal in life, poor interpersonal relationships Ask student teachers to do Activity 1(b) in
and dependence on other people. their handbook.
3 Appraisal services (or testing
records services)
This enables school officials to collect,
analyse and use a variety of objective
and subjective personal, psychological
and social data about each learner for
114
Designing guidance programmes
A guidance programme is an organized
effort on the part of the school to help
learners understand themselves and the
world around them. A programme
development is a systematic process that
requires a series of steps or phases. Below are
the phases:
• Planning
• Designing
• Implementation
• Evaluation
Planning for a guidance programme

involves:
- setting up of goals and objectives
- resource mobilization
- setting up implementation strategies
- setting up monitoring strategies
- evaluation of the whole programme
Organization and structure

Three approaches can be identified
• In some schools guidance functions are
carried out by teachers and
administrators in the course of their
normal duties, with no time or
personnel assigned specifically for
guidance.
• In other schools guidance functions are
assigned to selected teachers who are
released from classroom for a part of
each day.
• Sometimes there are full-time
counsellors who are specialists and
have no teaching assignment.
Designing a guidance programme

The following Figure describes how a
Guidance Programme may be designed.
115
Establishing School
Based Counselling and
Guidance Committee
Assessing the CPP Assessing needs

Responsibility Identify relevant stake holders
Sources of data Design or select appropriate needs
Record keeping assessment methods
Categorise needs by grade/division
and area (educational, career,
Communicating the CPP to personal/social skill development
all members of the school
community
Determining resources
Human resources
material resources
Preparing a Counselling financial resources
Programme Plan (CPP) time available
a shared responsibility and community resources
commitment
Defining expectations
How are expectations
Defining strategies to address determined? By whom?
needs Establishing priorities
Teaching and counselling roles Adjusting expectations to needs
Counsulting roles and resources
Coordinating roles Setting realistic outcome goals
Mentors and objectives
Stating student competencies

Educational growth and development
Personal/social growth and development
Career growth and development
Designing a comprehensive school guidance and counselling programme
116
Developing a Guidance • Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT)
Programme (HIV and AIDS and • symptoms of AIDS
(SNE) • feelings about HIV and AIDS
It is important to develop HIV/AIDS and • living positively with HIV and AIDS
Special Needs Education Guidance
programmes in schools. The HIV and AIDS
The impact of Disability (SNE)
programme would help to prevent the spread • attitudes towards a person with a
of the epidemic. The special needs education disability
programme would help to create an inclusive • how to support a child with a disability
society. • equal opportunities to persons with
disabilities
HIV and AIDS programme • causes of disability
Schools could establish HIV and AIDS clubs • prevention of disability
where the following could be done: • how to live positively with a disability
• meaning of HIV and AIDS could be
Activity 2
discussed
• how HIV is spread
handbook.
• how HIV infection can be prevented
117
FST 34 Roles of a counsello (3 hours)
Introduction Teacher
In this unit, student teachers will learn about A counsellor assumes the roles of a teacher
roles of a counsellor. This knowledge will help when providing new information to teachers,
student teachers to conduct effective learners and even parents.
counselling.
Mediator
Assessment standard A counsellor acts as a mediator between and
among pupils, teachers, parents and other
Student teachers should demonstrate an
specialists.
understanding of roles of a counsellor.
Director
Suggested teaching, learning and A counsellor assumes the role of a director
assessment resources when giving directions during a counselling
• Textbooks session.
• Case study
• Videos, tapes and DVDs Expert
• Flip chart s and markers A counsellor is a specialist with expertise in
• Boards assisting those clients who have problems.
• Counsellor
• Student teachers and or pupils Assessor
• Internet A counsellor assesses client’s situation, shares
• Specialist teacher the experience and assists them.
Consultant
• Braille materials and braillist
Whenever a learner has problems, a counsellor
Roles of a counsellor is consulted.
The roles of a counsellor are many. These roles Advisor
can be best described in relation to the different
A counsellor gives pieces of advice to teachers,
counselling approaches. Thus the roles of a
parents and learners.
counsellor can be seen while he/she is
performing his/her duties in counselling Steps in counselling
sessions. Counselling is often seen as In order to perform these roles effectively, the
consultation or exchange of ideas which leads counsellor should follow the following steps:
to a decision making process. The teacher who • defining or clarifying the problem
counsels learners is a source of inspiration and • gathering information about positive and
direction. As counsellors the student teachers negative attributes of the problems
will have to help their learners analyse • exploring possible choices in terms of
themselves by relating their capabilities, wants, needs, principles and goals
achievements, interest and mode of adjustment • making choices one can live with
to new decisions made without prescribing a • making a plan of action to implement one
decision for them. choice
• putting the plan into action
General roles of a counsellor
The following are the roles of a counsellor:
Role model
The counsellor is expected to be exemplary in
behaviour, manner and conduct.
118
Points to consider when (iv) Identifies learners with special abilities
conducting a counselling or needs.
session: (v) Takes advantage of available
• assist the student to understand and processing and transmission of
accept himself/herself as an individual, learners’ data.
thereby making it possible for the
individual to express and develop an Activity 1 (a)
awareness of his/her own ideas, Ask student teachers to do Activity 1 (a) in their
feelings, values and needs handbook.
• furnish personal and environmental Activity 1 (b)
information to the student, as required Ask student teachers to do Activity 1 (b) in their
regarding his/her plans, choices, or handbook.
problems
• seek to develop in the client a great Role-play
ability to cope with and solve problems Role-play is very important for student
and increase competence in making teachers. It is an avenue through which they
decisions can practise different roles of a counsellor.
• assist the client who needs referral These role-plays could be between:
services to be aware of and to accept • a counsellor and a learner
referral to other specialists • a counsellor and a teacher
Roles of a counsellor in a school • a counsellor and a parent.
These include: Note: Student teachers can role play the case
study below or any other case study
Learner Appraisal
that can be created by the lecturer or
The school counsellor assumes the roles of
students.
leadership and consultant in the school’s
programme in which student appraisal is Case study
critically fulfilled. Jack is 27 years old and is employed as a
In learner appraisal the school counsellor: carpenter. His wife, Karen, is a full-time home-
(i) coordinates the accumulation of maker with three youngsters to look after.
meaningful information concerning When Jack and Karen were first married, they
students through both had jobs, but for the last three years of
- conferences with learners and their marriage Jack has provided the sole
parents income. Rising inflation, increasing family
- standardized test scores expenses, and a wage that cannot be raised,
- academic records have placed Jack and Karen in financial
- personal data forms difficulties. Worse is the strain on their
- records of past experiences and marriage that has arisen from their practical
inventories. problems. These concerns are narrated by Jack
in part of an initial interview with a
(ii) Co-ordinates the organization and professional counsellor.
maintenance of confidential files of
learners’ data. Jack : The bills are just killing us. It
(iii) Interpretes learners’ information to: seems, as the children get
• learners older, they need more and
• parents more. I don’t know how other
• teachers families do it!
• administrators Counsellor : Yes, it is hard to see how others
• other professionals concerned make ends meet when your
with students pay cheque doesn’t go far
enough.
119
Jack : I work harder than most you feel that they are
people, and still there’s not pressurising you to give it
enough money to meet up? Is that how it is?
expenses. It just is not fair.
Jack : Yes. My work, what I want
And now Karen is pushing
to do, doesn’t seem to matter.
me to enter a partnership
with my father. He is a small Counsellor: How have they told you, or
contractor here in the city, shown you, that they don’t
but I don’t want to leave care about your interest in
carpentry. It’s my work! carpentry?
Counsellor: You’d like to be a carpenter, Jack : Well, I’ve been at the job for
but it just doesn’t seem to over five years. They ought to
pay enough, and now you know by now how much I
feel as though you are being love it.
pushed into something you Counsellor: They ought to know, but do
don’t want. they? Have you talked this
Jack : Yes…but if I don’t get a over with Karen?
better paying job… (shakes Jack : She wouldn’t understand,
head back and forth). I just anyway!
don’t know what to do.
Counsellor: You don’t think she would
Counsellor: …..It seems you can’t win understand your feelings.
either way…
Jack : I don’t know, maybe … but I
Jack : Yes (sighs) hate to cry on her shoulder!
Counsellor: How does Karen react to the Counsellor: That’s what it would seem
situation? You did say she like to you?
was pushing you towards
the partnership… Jack : And besides, I don’t want to
burden her.
Jack : Oh, she thinks the
partnership would be a Counsellor: If she knew how you feel,
solution to all our problems, she’d be burdened?
and my father wants it too. Jack : Yes, she’d worry.
Counsellor: So they both want you to Counsellor: I think you’re right. If she
do it…you’d have to give up cares for you, she might be
something you love …a kind concerned about your
of work that is part of you. unhappiness.
Jack : I am one of the best
carpenters around here. Lots Jack’s financial problems were not solved in
of people say so! the first counselling session. Indeed,
the counsellor chose to respond more to Jack’s
Counsellor: And you don’t want to lose feelings and attitudes.
that skill, something which
you do so well. Activity 2
Jack : Yes, and damn it, I shouldn’t handbook.
have to give it up. They don’t
understand!
Counsellor: Karen and your father don’t
understand how much
carpentry means to you. Yet,
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FST 35 Conflict Management (4 hours)
Introduction The meaning of ‘conflict’
Conflicts are common occurrences in homes, Conflict means all kinds of opposition or
schools and work places. They occur as part antagonistic interaction which involves two or
of everyday life. They occur between more people. One can tell that there is a conflict
individuals, groups of people and even when the following are noticed: disputes,
between nations. Conflicts bring differences, quarrels, fights, confrontations,
disturbances such as destruction of competitions, struggle, collisions, discords,
infrastructure, human suffering, disharmony and disagreements.
displacement of people, insecurity and loss
Activity 1
of life. It is therefore important to prevent
conflicts from occurring and properly
handbook.
manage those that have already broken out.
In this unit, student teachers will learn about Sources of conflict

conflicts; meaning, sources and management There are many sources of conflicts. Among
of the conflicts. They will also learn to these sources are:
identify and apply solutions to conflicts. • ambiguous or overlapping
This knowledge will help student teachers to responsibilities
manage conflicts in institutions where they • competition for scarce resources available
will be working. • breakdown in the communication process
• unrealistic standards of rules, policies and
Assessment standard procedures followed
• personality clashes
• differences in people’s status
demonstrate an understanding of conflict
• unpredictable administrative style
management.
• time pressure
Suggested teaching, learning Looking at the sources listed above, conflicts
and assessment resources appear in almost every situation; the home,
• Textbooks school, job and social life. Where two or more
• Resource persons people interact there is potential for conflict.
• Video, tapes or DVDs
Activity 2
• Internet
• Flip charts and marker pens
handbook.
• Learners’ experiences
• Case studies
• Braillist
• Magazine and newspaper articles
121
Conflicts management (v) Smoothing
There are many ways of resolving or This method is a non-assertive and
managing conflicts. Among them are: cooperative way of resolving the
conflict based on the principle of self-
(i) Negotiations sacrifice. One opposing party accepts
These are peaceful campaigns based the views of the other party in order to
on the principle of contact and bring the issue to an end even if they
dialogue and give and take. don’t quite agree with the view points
Negotiations are a process of of the other party.
bargaining so that a working
relationship between the opposing (vi) Withdrawing or leaving the situation
parties is maintained. So each of the alone
opposing parties is prepared to give This is basically a passive way of
up something. In democratic resolving conflicts by avoiding the
societies this method is the major situation that causes conflict. This
means of resolving conflicts. approach involves such actions as
side-stepping, post-poning, denying
(ii) Arbitration and withdrawing from a threatening
This method involves one or more situation.
impartial persons judging a dispute
but at the end the decision made (vii) Use of sanctions
becomes final and binding. The This method involves the use of
arbitrators are chosen by the punitive measures (sanctions) on any
opposing parties or by some neutral unco-operating or uncollaborating
agency designed by the opposing party in the conflict. The
parties. uncooperating party feels the impact of
the sanctions which force it to
(iii) Mediation cooperate.
This method requires a neutral party
(peacemaker) to act as a go-between. (viii) Peace education
The success of the peacemaker Through this method people are given
depends on a number of factors eg. education which makes them aware of
- The desire by the opposing the importance of peaceful co-existence
parties to see the problem and harmony.
resolved,
(ix) Use of Peace Keeping Force
- Seeking to end the problem
This method is a military campaign
through collaboration rather
aimed at keeping apart opposing
than bickering,
parties which are on the verge of
- Understanding that the problem
fighting (going to war) or separating
lies in between the opposing
waring or fighting parties.
parties rather than in one of
them, (x) Use of tribunals or courts
- Having room to accommodate Tribunals are courts which preside
each others view points. over disputers and find resolutions to
conflicts. Whatever courts say at the
(iv) Competition or use of force
end becomes final and binding.
This is an aggressive and
uncooperative way of resolving (xi) Election of democratic leaders
conflicts based on competition or use Through this method effective
of force. Opposing parties aim at leadership is established in societies
achieving their goals and satisfying whose responsibility is to protect and
themselves at the expense of another. promote good governance as human
Force or competition is imposed as a rights, freedoms, equality and fairness.
solution to the conflict.
Activity 3
122handbook.
Appropriate solutions to conflicts Step 7: Reaching an agreement
When there is a conflict, productivity is low. This is the final step in the peaceful conflict
At school teaching and learning get affected. resolution process. There is final settlement to a
It is important therefore to resolve these dispute based on solutions agreed upon by
conflicts. There are different steps in the both parties.
conflict resolution process. The following are
Activity 4(a) and (b)
the steps:
In groups:
Step 1: Preliminary arrangements Ask student teachers to do Activities 4 (a)
Agree on issues such as arbitrators or and 4 (b) in their handbook.
mediators, venue for discussion, date and
time of the meeting.
Step 2: Opening remarks

Arbitrators or mediators must make the
disputing parties feel at ease, explain the
rules and spell out clearly their roles that is
to be as neutral as possible in the
discussions.
Step 3: Telling the story

Both parties should be given the opportunity
to tell their story fully and without
interruption. After each party has told the
story, they have to be given a chance to ask
each other questions in order to clarify their
statements. Let both parties ask each other
questions. This is a good way of checking the
level of understanding of the people. It also
straightens out any problems before moving
to the next step.
Step 4: Identifying facts and issues

At this stage the arbitrator or mediator tries to
get each side in the dispute to establish the
facts and issues. The arbitrator or mediator
summarises the facts and issues raised by
each side in the dispute. At this stage,
paraphrasing, outlining and classifying
points are essential. Then both parties decide
on which issue to resolve first.
Step 5: Identifying alternative solutions

Parties in the dispute and the mediator
search for possible solutions. Solutions
should therefore come from the parties in
conflict.
Step 6: Discussing and revising solutions

In this step, there is revision of solutions and
identifying the most workable ones, that is
those that are most agreeable to both parties.
Mediators should encourage both parties to
discuss and think through the merits and
demerits of proposed solutions.
123
FST 36 Educational management (6 hours)
Introduction The concept of educational
Education management is one of the most management
important elements that promote good Educational Management is the process of
teaching, learning and assessment relating resources to objectives required in
procedures in an educational institution. organizations which explicitly exist to provide
Management has to do with things such as education. It can also be defined as a process of
the control of human and material resources. facilitating teaching and learning. This
In this unit, student teachers will be exposed therefore entails that there must be a
to good management skills which require management team within the school.
that resources be used in the most efficient Management refers to the art of getting work
way possible and that a high quality of done through other people at a given time.
education is maintained. Headteachers of schools will work together
with and through teachers to achieve
Assessment standard educational goals of the schools and nation.
demonstrate an understanding of Management structure of schools
educational management. There are a number of different methods of
school management, each recognizable by the
Suggested teaching, learning particular way in which decision making is
carried out. The three common management
and assessment resources structure models are:
• Library • Hierarchical model,
• Handbooks • Departmental model and,
• Flow diagram • Democratic model.
• Chart paper
• Markers Hierarchical model
• Pencils In this system there is a clearly defined
• Rubbers/erasers structure of authority. The head teacher has
• Internet authority over all that goes on in the school.
• Specialist teachers The lines of authority move downwards and
• Sign language interpreter work is delegated to other persons.
• Braillist
Fig 1
Headteacher
Senior teacher
Junior teacher
Pupils
124
Hierarchical management structure at primary school level
Head teachers
Deputy head Teacher
Section heads
Infant Junior Senior
Teachers
Pupils
Departmental model
In this system, the head delegates authority to senior members of staff and the lines of
authority move outwards rather than downwards. The head will usually make clear what he
would like to see happening in the departments and will do this through discussion with
heads of sections. However, because each department has a certain degree of autonomy, in
practice it will be the heads of departments who work out in detail the activities of their
department.
125
Pupil Pupil
Teachers Teachers
Section head Section head
Head teacher
Section headteachers Section headteachers
Pupils Pupils
Democratic model
In this model there are no lines of authority operating as in other models. The school, operates
through a school council comprising of representatives of all interest groups. Policy making
decisions are taken by this council with the headteacher as chairman or co-ordinator of
representatives from teaching units. This system ensures that all interactions are fully represented
in the organization of the school.
Democratic type
Teaching
unit
Teaching School council Teaching

unit composed of unit
Head teacher and
Teaching units
representatives
Teaching Teaching
unit unit
Activity 1
Ask student teachers to do Activity 1 in their handbook.
126
Purposes of educational assessment resources. A school manager’s
management first action is to identify the mission of the
Educational management has several school and its objectives. The headteacher
purposes. Some of these purposes include: then needs to identify different strategies
• influencing the development of goals with which to achieve the school’s mission
and policies for the school, and reflectives. Planning is important
• stimulating and directing the because among other things it enables the
development of programmes to achieve headteacher to:
the goals and purposes of the school, • accommodate new ideas and
• establishing, coordinating and developments,
implementing programmes, • ensure that no important item is left out,
• procuring and managing the resources • avoid being taken unawares and working
needed to support the school and its on emergencies,
programmes, • ensure that programmes are carried out
• evaluating the effectiveness and on schedule.
efficiency of operations. Organisation
Activity 2 This is the establishment of a formal structure
Ask student teachers to do Activity 2 in of authority through which subsections are
their handbook. arranged and coordinated. Organisation helps
in educational management because it involves
Major aspects of educational putting together priorities and preferences of
management the resources which are available.
There are several major aspects of Organisation needs an action plan and targets
educational management. The following are which are attainable for a given period. At
some of them: school level, organisation breeds a formal
• Planning structure of authority that is, who is doing
• Coordinating what, which is good for protocol in
• Staffing communication.
• Financing Coordination
• Reporting Coordination implies a plan of action towards
• Evaluating the achievement of specific goals and
• Appraising personnel objectives. In a school, teachers are the main
• Organising resources and the head teacher must strive to
• Directing/controlling/commanding create a conducive working environment in
• Supervising which teachers will be able to give out their
• Communicating best. The headteacher should ensure that there
• Decision-making is proper and sound coordination among all
school sections/departments by holding
Activity 3
regular staff meetings which are valuable for
promoting unity.
handbook.
Staffing
The role of each major aspect in It requires proper and good educational
educational management management skills to ensure that a school is
well staffed. It is the duty of school authorities
Planning
such as the headteacher to make sure that
This means an advance preparation of what
members of staff are allocated and assigned
one intends to perform in future. For
duties where they are able to give out their best.
example, the school headteacher may plan
The headteacher should identify interests,
for things like time tables, staffing
talents, qualifications of staff and share classes
requirements, meetings, educational visits
and responsibilities accordingly. It is also the
and distribution of teaching, learning and
headteacher’s duty to request for more
members of staff from relevant authorities.
127
Financing • respecting teachers, parents and pupils
Schools are regarded as public institutions • giving credit where it is due
and as such finances should be accounted • having a positive attitude towards work
for. The headteacher and all members of staff and staff
should be aware of the sources of funds and • making himself or herself available for
how they are being utilized. School funds consultation by his staff
should be used for well planned activities. It • encouraging the staff to keep on reading in
is the responsibility of school authorities to order to update their academic and
strictly control finances available and professional qualifications and
resources purchased. competence
Reporting
School authorities should forward essential
Directing/controlling/commanding
reports to relevant authorities. For example, Refers to the activity of ensuring that staff
any important matter affecting the school members do their work, establishing rules and
such as death of a member of staff or learner, regulations for each member and setting
accidents and disasters should be reported to standards, as well as offering leadership in the
the Ministry of Education immediately and entire work place. In the school the head would
to other relevant authorities. The headteacher ensure that every member of staff performs
should also keep members of staff informed according to their job description.
of any school activity. Supervising
Evaluation This is an activity of quality control. It refers to
This is the process of determining the the activity of ensuring that workers perform
efficiency and effectiveness of the school. It is according to specified rules and regulations
important to assess the results and compare and that standards are maintained. In the
them with the set targets and objectives. The school supervision ensures that standards of
performance of the school should be learning are maintained.
assessed in order to have feedback needed to Communicating
adjust future plans. Therefore, the head Refers to the activities of creating channels of
teacher and members of staff must not wait command and transmission of information
for Ministry of Education officials to come from one level of management to another
and evaluate the school but must institute through which orders or organizational
their own system for maintaining standards commands are transmitted. In the school, the
and assessing the performance of the school. head would send orders through the deputy
For example, the head teacher can evaluate head or heads of department to teachers.
the school through local inspections, staff
meetings, tests/exams and checking of Decision-making
lesson plans and schemes and records of This is the major function of administration
work. encompassing the entire task of an
administrator. It involves making decision.
Personnel appraisal
The school authority should know some Activity 4
methods of motivating members of staff and Ask student teachers to do Activity 4 in their
other stakeholders so that they are able to handbook.
perform their duties well and efficiently. For
instance, personnel appraisal may be
through:
128
FST 37 Government Teaching Service Regulations and the
Education Act
Introduction educated in accordance with the wishes of
In the previous unit, student teachers learnt their parents.
educational management and its purposes, Advisory councils
identified aspects of educational Advisory councils are established to
management and described the role of each advise the Minister on matters regarding:
major aspect. In this unit they will learn - education in general,
contents of Government Teaching Service - special aspects of education.
Regulations and the Education Act. They
will apply this knowledge to real life school (i) National advisory council
situations. The main purpose of this council is to
advise the Minister on matters affecting
Assessment standard education in general. The chairperson of
Student teachers should be able to this council is the Minister or his/her
demonstrate an understanding of nominee and the secretary who is the
Government Teaching Service Regulations ministry official. Members are appointed
and the Education Act. by the Minister and such members are
people who have interest in education or
have some experience in education.
and assessment resources (ii) Special advisory council
• A copy of Government Teaching Service There are quite a number of such councils
Regulations which are designed to advise the Minister
• A copy of the Education Act on some special aspects of education like
• Resource person technical education and special needs
• Student teachers education. Just as in the national advisory
• Specialist teachers council, these councils are chaired by the
• Sign language interpreter Minister or his/her nominee and the
• Braillist secretary who is the Ministry officer.
• Flip charts However, members to these councils, who
are also appointed by the minister, are
• Markers
people with experience in some special
aspects of education, that is, teaching of
Contents of Education Act and learners with special educational needs.
Government Teaching Service
Regulations Meetings of the advisory councils
Both of these advisory councils mentioned
a) Contents of the Education Act above, are supposed to meet at least once a
year. However, they can meet any number of
General principles times during the year when it is deemed
According to the laws of Malawi necessary. The chairpersons of these councils
(Education Act Cap.30:01), it is the duty are free to invite any other person(s) to attend
of the Minister of Education to promote: any such meetings. Such invited people take
– education in Malawi part in the deliberations but are not allowed to
– education of the inhabitants of vote.
Malawi
– development of schools in Malawi Establishment of schools
– effective execution of the education In Malawi, a school is defined as: a place
policy by local authorities. where not less than ten pupils receive regular
Whenever possible the Minister tries to secular instruction either by personal tuition or
ensure that the children in Malawi are by correspondence.
129
A school can never be established unless it privately owned. Most of the learners in
is registered. All schools are registered in a these schools are children of expatriates
register of schools and each school is thus
given a registration number. In such a
(eg. Sir Harry Johnson in Zomba and St
register, all the particulars of a school are Andrews and South End in Blantyre).
recorded. These particulars include:
• Secondary Schools
• type of education offered
These provide courses leading to an
• highest class
approved Secondary School Leaving
• number of classes
Certificate of Ordinary or higher level.
• categories of classes
• Commercial Schools
Any person wanting to establish a school
These provide approved courses in
should first make an application for
commercial subjects (ie typing, book
registration indicating:
keeping and office practice).
• nomenclature (name of the school),
• classification sought, • Distance learning centres
• classes or standards or forms to be These schools provide distance learning
provided, courses.
• name and address of the proprietor.
• Night Schools
Conditions for registration of These schools operate outside normal
schools in Malawi school hours and offer approved courses.
The Minister will register a school if he/she • Special Schools
is satisfied that the proprietor is These provide approved courses in
• resident in Malawi, technical subjects (ie building, carpentry
• a fit and proper person to be and mechanics).
responsible for that particular class and
type of school. • Vocational Schools
These schools offer courses in trade,
Classification of schools handicraft, home craft and any other
Schools are classified into the following vocational subjects.
categories:
• Primary Schools • Teachers’ Colleges
These are schools where the first eight These are colleges providing approved
years of formal education is provided. courses of training for primary school
There are of four types: teachers.
– Assisted schools- these are wholly
Closure of Schools
maintained from public funds or Only the Minister may order a school to be
public authority, closed and he/she can do so if:
– Unassisted schools- these are • the school premises are not suitable for a
maintained by a private proprietor school,
and operate up to standard 5, • there is inadequate and unsuitable
accommodation as regards number, age
– Grant-aided schools- these are and sex of pupils,
maintained partly from public funds • efficient and suitable instruction is not
through board of governors and being provided,
partly funded or maintained by • the proprietor or any teacher employed at
private proprietors, the schools is not a proper person to be
the proprietor or teacher in the school,
– Designated board schools- these are • there is persistent and material departure
schools that offer curriculum outside from the approved curriculum,
the Malawi curriculum and are • there is no adequate supervision and
control of staff,
130
• there is variation in the establishment Activities 1-5
of the school without prior approval of Ask student teachers do Activities 1-5 in their
the Minister, handbook by following the procedure below:
• a school is being conducted in a manner 1 Organise the student teachers into five
detrimental to the physical, mental or working groups.
moral welfare of learners, 2 Each group should be given one activity
• instruction at the school is prejudicial only.
to peace, good order or good 3 If possible, let each group be given a copy
governance, of School Organization, Administration
• the school is not registered in the and Leadership by John J Bisika.
register of schools. 4 All the 5 activities will be done within one
hour with this arrangement.
Powers to reopen a school
If a proprietor of a school, which has been b) Contents of Government Teaching
closed does not make an appeal within the Service Regulations
period indicated on the notice, or if a school The Civil Service is composed of various
has been closed for six continuous months, ministries and departments which co-ordinate
the Minister can reopen it so long as he/she their activities to achieve goals and objectives
finds it to be in the interest of education. The in order to assist the government in the
Minister reopens the school by writing a development of the country. Like any other
notice to the proprietor, and then takes organization, the Civil Service has regulations
possession of the school and arranges for its and conditions of service which act as
reopening and management. When this operational guidelines.
happens, the proprietor is allowed to claim
for compensation. Books in the Malawi Public Service
Regulations (MPSR)
Powers to enter and inspect The MPSR is made up of six books which are
schools. described below:
The Minister or any ministry officer
(including the executive officer of the Book I
education committee of the LEA) may, at any This book contains regulations that apply to all
time and with or without notice enter and civil servants and that includes all teachers in
inspect any school or any place at which it is primary and secondary schools, lecturers in
reasonably suspected that a school is being teachers’ colleges and tutors in distant
conducted. Any obstruction to such entry education centres.
constitutes a punishable offence.
Book II
The proprietor, head teacher and staff of a This book contains regulations governing
school shall during such inspection, furnish temporary employees.
any information which the person inspecting
requires. Such information includes: Book III
• care and tuition of learners, This book contains regulations that govern
• names of staff, industrial class employees.
• qualification of staff,
• condition of service of staff, Book IV
• the curriculum followed, The regulations in this book are for those
• the state of the records, working in foreign service (our embassies and
• conditions of the buildings, high commissions abroad).
• generally anything regarding
Book V
management of the school.
Regulations contained in this book apply to
expatriate employees (those who come to work
in Malawi from abroad).
131
Book VI all employees on merit and depending on the
This book contains rules and regulations availability of vacant posts.
that only apply to teachers.
Annual holiday and leave
Appointment Annual holiday is intended to entitle
All employees in the Civil Service are employees to have some rest from their
required to apply for appointment on PSR 3 working environment. An annual holiday is a
forms. privilege and not a right. Annual leave for
those in teaching positions shall be taken
Probation during any school holiday.
Upon first appointment in the Civil Service
all employees will serve on probation for a Leave grant
period of two years leading to confirmation The leave grant shall be payable to employees
after a person’s suitability, conduct, ability only once in each holiday year and to qualify
and qualities are tested. for it an employee must take at least 7
consecutive working days. Application for
Medical examination leave grants shall be made not less than ten
Each employee is required to go for medical days before the date an employee proceeds on
examination by a government medical officer leave.
or any medical practitioner approved by the
Ministry of Health by completing PSR 4 Types of leave
forms before taking up an appointment.
Sick leave
Posting A civil servant is granted up to 6 months (180
This is an assignment by the responsible consecutive days) with full pay and up to
officer of an officer within the same further 6 months (180 consecutive days) with
department. For example, posting teachers half pay in any one year of illness. After this
from one school to another within the same period, no salary is paid to the officer. No sick
department of education. leave shall be granted where the sickness is
due to the officers negligence.
Transfer
This is when a civil servant requests or is Unpaid sick leave
required to be moved from the department or Unpaid sick leave may be granted to an officer
ministry he has been working to another if sick leave has been exhausted.
department or ministry.
Unpaid personal leave
Salary Unpaid personal leave is granted to a civil
An employee shall normally start on a servant who establishes a need to absent
minimum salary scale for his/her grade. In himself/herself from duty on an urgent private
some cases where a member has higher affair after exhausting his/her holiday period.
qualifications or more experience than the
minimum required for the post, he or she Leave for participation in sports activities
may be appointed at a salary above the Leave is granted to an officer if he/she is to
minimum. participate in sports. In such a leave the civil
servant shall be granted full pay and the leave
Registration of teachers will not count against his/her annual leave.
The Minister shall appoint an officer to be
Registrar of teachers who shall register every Leave after posting
teacher and issue a license and authority to A civil servant is entitled to 3 days leave after
teach. posting.
Promotion
Opportunities for promotion are accorded to
132
Maternity leave allowance in the following circumstances:
A female teacher may with approval of • if he/she is on posting from one station to
responsible officer be granted maternity leave another. Allowance is 1/30 of his/her annual
of up to 90 consecutive days with full pay salary.
once every three years for purposes of • If he/she is moving his/her household
confinement before and after delivery. effects from one house to another within
the station allowance is 1/60 of his/her
Advances annual salary.
Education advance
Subsistence allowance
An advance of salary may be granted to a
This allowance is given to an officer travelling
civil servant to meet the cost of tuition fees
within Malawi on duty. This allowance is for
and textbooks for correspondence courses
every night and is to be spent away from his/
approved by the Secretary for Education.
her normal place of work. It is given according
Emergency advance to grades and whether the officer was given or
provided with accommodation or not.
An emergency advance may be granted to a
civil servant where unforeseable occurrences Responsibility allowance
have resulted in serious financial hardships
A responsibility allowance will be paid to an
to the applicant.
officer who is appointed to a post to which a
Bicycle advance responsibility allowance is attached.
A civil servant is eligible to a bicycle advance Occasional meal allowance
on condition that:
Where an employee is required and authorized
• the civil servant shall have had to go away from his or her normal place of
completed one year’s satisfactory work for five hours or more but not spending a
service night she or he may claim occasional meal
• requires the bicycle for the purpose of allowance at the rate as laid down by
government from time to time.
carrying out his/her official duties.
Professional allowance
Motor vehicle advance
Any person registered in the Register of
A civil servant is eligible to a motor vehicle
Teachers shall be paid a professional
advance if he/she:
allowance as laid down by the Government
• has a family, from time to time.
• has commitments,
• has a valid driving licence, Housing allowance
• needs to have the vehicle for the All employees not housed by Responsible
officer shall be entitled to a housing allowance
purpose of official duties. at the rate approved by Government from time
to time.
Allowances
Hospitality allowance Classification of teachers’ quarters
A civil servant who is required by the Where a house is provided, the officer (teacher)
government to accommodate and entertain a shall pay the rent as follows:
guest of the government overnight with or Class (I) with permanent roof and walls
without meals may be paid hospitality with concrete floor throughout and
allowance. This allowance is equivalent to provided with water supply. Rent
the host’s subsistence allowance eg. deduction is 5% of his/her monthly
headteacher hosting an invigilator. salary.
Disturbance allowance
A civil servant may claim local transfer
133
Class (II) Quarters having no water • commits and is convicted by court of law
supply but having all other for:
components in class I. Rent
deduction is 4% of his/her – bribery or corruption,
monthly salary. – theft, by false pretence or receiving
stolen good,
Class (III) Quarters having water supply – fraud, forgery or altering a forged
with any two other components instrument knowing it to have been
specified in class I. Rent forged,
deduction is 2% of his/her – attempts, incites or conspires to
monthly salary. commit an offence of the above nature.
Class (IV) Quarters having water supply • engages in political or other activities that
together with any one interfere with his or her duties as a civil
component specified in class I. servant,
• makes a false claim to the government,
Rent deduction is Nil.
• acts as a reporter of a newspaper or
writes to the press or grants interviews or
Acts of misconduct
broadcast.
A teacher shall be guilty of misconduct if he/
• takes part in or assists in an activity
she:
subversive to the Government.
• conducts himself/herself so as to impair
• behaves immorally with any pupil or
the efficiency of the school or college,
student of any educational institution in
• absents himself/herself from duty
without just cause, the country.
• performs his or her duties negligently,
• fails to do properly any duties assigned
Notice of resignation to be given by
to him or her, a teacher
• disobeys any instructions properly A civil servant may not resign from public
given to him/her by the one in service without giving notice in writing to the
authority, responsible officer of his/her intention to
• displays insubordination by word or resign.
conduct,
Due notice refers to:
• continues to be incompetent or
• 30 days written notice for a probation,
inefficient after the expiry of the period
• 90 days written notice for a permanent
set in a warning letter,
officer,
• fails to comply with treasury
• 90 days or the period specified in his/her
instructions,
contract of service for a contract officer,
• is under the influence of intoxicating
• A probationer may pay the Government
liquor or habit formation drugs while
one month’s salary in lieu of notice,
on duty,
• A permanent officer or contract officer
• reveals directly or indirectly contents
may pay the Government 3 months salary
or any part of the contents of
in lieu of notice.
confidential matters,
• One months’ salary if he/she gives at least
• conducts himself or herself in a
60 days but less than 90 days written
disgraceful manner or while on duty is
notice to his/her responsible officer,
grossly discourteous to any person,
• Two months’ salary if he/she gives at least
• fails to take reasonable care of any
30 days but less than 60 days written
government property or does not
notice,
ensure that government property is
• Three months salary if he/she gives less
reasonably taken care of,
• engages in anything which might than 30 days written notice.
conflict with the interest of the
government,
134
Retirement Since 1st July, 1977 all primary school
• An employee may retire on attaining teachers came under the Government
the retirement age of 60 years or on Teaching Service (GTS) and therefore,
having worked for 20 years in the automatically became civil servants. It is
service. therefore, necessary for all teachers to
• Where a member wishes to retire before know how civil servants are employed
the age of 60 years and has done less since they themselves are civil servants.
than 20 years of service he or she may
Activity 11(a)
do so with the approval of the
Ask student teachers to do Activity 11(a) in
responsible officer.
• If at any time it is certified by a medical their handbook.
board that an employee is permanently Activity 11(b)
unfit or incapable of continuing in the Ask student teachers to do Activity 11(b) in
service due to ill health, he/she may their handbook.
retire on health reasons.
• Employees who are eligible for pension Demonstration of real life school
shall receive a gratuity, after retirement.
situation where contents of
• The responsible officer shall provide
reasonable transport on termination of Government Teaching Service
employment of a member to his/her Regulations and Education Act can
home or place of residence except on be applied
resignation. Demonstration method is an activity that is
done to show how a thing is done or to prove
Activities 6 – 10 the truth by means of an experiment. Therefore
Ask student teachers to do Activities 6 – 10 by demonstrating student teachers will show
in their handbook by following the the knowledge of Government Teaching
procedure below: Service Regulations and Education Act.
1 Organise the student teachers into five
working groups, Activity 12(a)
2 Each group should be given one activity Ask student teachers do Activity 12(a) in
only, their handbook.
3 If possible, let each group be given a
copy of School Organization , Activity 12(b)
Administration and Leadership by John J. Ask student teachers do Activity 12(b) in
Bisika, their handbook.
4 This arrangement will enable all the
activities to be done within one hour.
Application of contents of
Government Teaching Service
Regulations and the Education
Act to real life school situation
Note You will have to arrange with the
Demonstration school before
students do Activities 11(a) and 11(b)
135
FST 38 The school and the community (4 hours)
Introduction is, interaction among learners, learners
In the previous unit student teachers learnt and teachers, teachers and parents expose
about Government Teaching Service the learners to the socialization process.
Regulations and the Education Act. In this • Providing service to the community by
unit, they will learn about the School and the allowing activities within its premises.
Community.
Activity 2
Assessment standard Ask student teachers to do Activity 2 in their
Student teachers should be able to demonstrate handbook.
an understanding of a school and its
Characteristics of a school
relationship with the community.
There are five main characteristics of school as
Suggested teaching, learning and shown below:
• A school has an administrative structure:
assessment resources this comprises headteacher, deputy
• Demonstration school headteacher, section heads, teachers and
• Flip charts pupils. When a problem arises, teachers
• Markers and learners easily identify who to
• Specialist teacher contact for assistance through this
• Sign language interpreter structure.
• Braillist • A school is a democratic community:
• Library members of the school contribute towards
• Handbooks the improvement of various school
• Resource persons activities at meetings where a two-way
dialogue features high. Responsibilities
Meaning of a school aimed at improving the school are
A school is defined as an institution where at delegated to members including some
least ten pupils receive regular secular pupils with leadership potential.
instruction according to the 1962 Education • A school has a distinct culture in that one
Act. Such an institution includes the primary school’s culture is different from another
school which is our focus. in the way the school handles
achievement awards, assemblies, general
Activity 1
cleaning, disciplinary issues and so on.
handbook. Activity 3
The purpose of a school handbook.
Government spends a lot of money on
educational infrastructure, teaching, learning Concept of School Management
and assessment resources. Parents/guardians Committee
send their children to school where they meet The Education Act of the Primary School
teachers who, together with the children, use stipulates that there shall be a school
the resources purposefully. The school can be management committee for each primary
seen to serve three main purposes: school established in Malawi. A school
• Educating children to acquire reading, management committee is a body consisting
writing and numerical skills. This of nine elected members. The members are
information enables them live productive appointed as follows:
lives in society as well as transmitting the • one member nominated by the
society’s culture through other disciplines proprietor,
in other learning areas. • one member nominated by the education
• Socialising learners through games, committee of the Local Education
classroom group tasks, and others. That Authority (LEA),
136
• the District Education Manager or his/her Activity 5
nominee, Ask student teachers to do activity 5 in their
• four members each of whom is a parent handbook.
or a guardian of a pupil attending the
school, The concept of Parent Teachers’
• two coopted members (elected by Association (PTA)
existing members). PTA is a body comprising parents, guardians
and teachers whose main purpose is to work
Quorum hand in hand with the school management
A quorum for a meeting will be formed if the committee in matters concerning the school.
following members are present: It is an association where parents and
• the chairperson, teachers come together to discuss the needs
• four other members of whom two are of the school.
parents.
Composition of Parents Teachers
Tenure of office Association (PTA)
This is referred to the period when members Membership of PTA is not limited. All
have to be in office. Elected members stay in teachers, parents and guardians who have
office in the following manner: children at the school are members. The
• members nominated by the proprietor or Executive committee of PTA has ten members.
the LEA hold the office for 2 years. Any parent or guardian is eligible for election
• four members, who are parents of to the office of:
children attending classes at the school – chairperson and vice chairperson,
hold the office for one year. – secretary, vice secretary, and treasurer,
• the coopted members hold the office for 2 – five committee members, one of whom
years. should be a teacher.
Activity 4
The secretary of the executive committee of
the PTA is always the headteacher serving the
handbook.
school.
Functions of School Management
Tenure of office
Committee All members of the executive committee of the
A school management committee has the PTA hold office for a period of one year but
following functions: members are eligible for re-election.
• works as a bridge of communication
between the school and the community, Activity 6
• assists the proprietor in the management Ask student teachers to do Activity 6 in their
of the school, handbook.
• advises the Minister and Local Education
Authority, Functions of Parents Teachers
• observes attendance and punctuality of Association
teachers and pupils, The following are some of the functions of
• advises the proprietor on the PTA:
appointment and resignation or • works hand in hand with the school
dismissal of non-teaching staff, committees in issues like running
• maintains school buildings and provides development projects,
equipment and furniture to the school, • fastens cordial relationship between
• monitors that PEAs reports are school and parents,
implemented, • ensures that programmes of the school
• discusses and executes development are relevant to the goals of the
projects at the school, community,
• advises the proprietor on the proper • discusses learners’ failures and successes
conduct of the school. in meetings,
137
• opens a bridge of communication between • both discuss and carry out development
the school and the community, projects at the school,
• ensures that teachers participate in the • both link the school and the community
community’s affairs, in general,
• assists in arranging functions such as • both discuss and find solutions to some
open days which bring parents and problems affecting children and entire
teachers together, school,
• brings to the notice of the parents the • both assist the proprietor in
problems which teachers face, such as management of the school.
late coming of learners, absenteeism,
truancy etc. Differences
• brings to the notice of teachers the • School management committee advises
problems faced by parents caused by the Minister of Education and LEA on
learners once they return home. school matters,
• School management committee advises
Activity 7
the proprietor on the appointment and
resignation or dismissal of non-teaching
handbook.
staff,
The similarities and differences • School management committee ensures
that Primary Education Advisors reports
between school management are implemented,
committee and PTA • PTA membership includes all teachers,
Good management of a school is based on parents and guardians who have
sound understanding of PTA roles and roles of children at that particular school.
school management committee.
Activity 8
Similarities Ask student teachers to do Activity 8 in their
• both initiate self help projects in the handbook.
school,
138
FST 39 Record management (4 hours)
Introduction Different types of school records
In the previous unit student teachers learnt At a school, some records are kept by the
about the School and Community. In this Headteacher while others are kept by the class
unit student teachers will learn about record teacher. Records kept by the class teacher are
management. This is a very important teaching records and those kept by the head
component in the teaching profession if a teacher are administrative records.
teacher is to perform effectively.
Records kept and maintained by a
Assessment standard class teacher
Student teachers should be able to • Teaching syllabus: It is a curriculum
demonstrate an understanding of record document which outlines topics or
management and different types of records concepts to be covered in a particular
managed at a school by different stake subject for a period of time for a particular
holders. class.
• Schemes and records of work: Schemes of
Suggested teaching, learning work are an interpretation of the syllabus
indicating the amount of work to be
and assessment resources covered in a term. Records of work are
• Chart paper statements which indicate the actual work
• Markers that the learners are able to do and how
• IPTE handbook well it is done.
• Sample records like school register, log • Lesson plan: an outline of important ideas
book, visitors book etc. to be covered during the process of
• Braillist teaching and learning.
• Resource person • Class time table: It is prepared from the
master time table. It shows daily activities
Meaning of record management of a class and it is displayed in a
Record management is defined as keeping or classroom.
managing documents which contain useful • Class progress record: It shows
information on how the school is run. performance of individual learner in each
learning area.
Records are managed with the sole purpose
• Class stock book: The teacher records all
of improving performance of an institution
materials received from the head teacher
and holding the institution accountable on
or any other source for teaching and
all its stock and activities. Records are
learning.
managed because at an institution, there are
• Class attendance register: helps a teacher
many activities that take place. If not
to know pupils who are present and
properly recorded, the institution would lose
absent.
its cultural values and above all its
inventory.
Activity 1
handbook.
139
Format of class attendance register
No Name Sex Age Parent Village Date of Week Week Week

1st entry beginning Beginning beginning
Records kept by the Head Teacher

• Log book: The head teacher writes main events of the school in this book from the day it
was established. Confidential issues are also recorded in this book. It is therefore
important to keep this book under lock. The log book also provides record of experiments
and innovations which have been tried. Photographs, maps, sketches are included to make
it interesting.
Format of log book:
Date Event Recorded by
• School Stock Book: a stock book is an equipment record which shows items kept by the
head teacher and items distributed. It helps the head teacher to know details of items that
belong to the school. Stock books are in two categories; consumable and non-consumable
stock book. Non-consumables are permanent items and consumables get used up. For
example supplies of chalk and stationery. Examples of non-consumable stock include
furniture, farm tools, game equipment, projector, tape recorder, radio etc.
Format of a stock book
Date Item Invoice No. in No. Issued Date Received Balance in Head’s
no. stock issued by by stock signature
• Punishment Book: This is a document in which the head teacher enters any serious
punishment given to a learner. The punishment book helps the head teacher to:
– assess discipline of the school,
– monitor change in behaviour of learners,
– refer to it when serious misunderstandings arise from the community to ministry
officials.
Format of punishment book
Date Name of Sex Age Class Offence Action By whom Head
pupil taken given teacher’s
remarks
• Visitors Book: Important visitors to the school write their particulars in this book. It provides
a permanent and useful record of the interest taken in the school by outsiders. It also
provides contact addresses.
140
Format of visitors book
Date Name Address Designation Purpose of visit Signature
• Admission Book: All pupils admitted to the school are entered in this book. Each pupil is
given a serial number upon joining.
Admission Pupil Sex Year of Date of Parents Occupation Promotion/

number name birth admission name Transfer/withdraws
• Master Timetable: A chart indicating when class periods begin and end. It helps teachers
when preparing their class time tables. The head teacher knows what each class is learning
at a particular period.
• Staff Record Book: In this book, the head teacher records particulars of every teacher. Staff
record book gives information about teachers, their qualifications, number of teachers the
school received since establishment, and teacher’s particulars.
Format of staff record book
Name Date of Reg. No Vge. T/A District Class Date joined Remarks
birth teaching staff
• Staff/student Sick/Death Record book: This is where the head teacher records all sick/dead
members of the school.
Format of Student/Staff death/sickness record
Date Teacher/ Sex Age Class Cause of Address Remarks

Pupil’s Name problem
• School Progress Book: This helps the head teacher to know performance of every learner at
school. Information of every learner is compiled from class progress books.
Format of school progress book
Subject Maths English Chichewa Expressive Numeracy Social and Science

arts & Maths Environmental
science
Name
Jane Sayo 78 58 78 90 87 68 94 78 79 50 78 89
Activity 2
Ask student teachers to do Activity 2 in their handbook.
141
The importance of school records List of administrative records
Teaching and administrative records are • Log book
important documents used in the day to day • Visitors book
running of the school. • Staff minute book
• Stock book
Importance of teaching records • Garden records
• Provide guidance for teaching each • Testimonial/certificate book
learning area/subject, • General progress book
• Proper coordination of topics in different • Teacher’s particular book
learning areas, • Attendance book
• Help in reviews/revision purposes, • Cash book
• Provide information on pupils class • Needle craft sales book
performance, • Sick book
• Regulate every days’ teaching and • Death record book
learning activities, • Class attendance register
• Help in evaluation by school authorities, • Receipt books
• Monitors the attendance of pupils. • The payment voucher
Importance of administrative
Records
• Help to maintain history of the school,
• Show school development,
• Show successes and failures of the Records that are kept in the files
school, • Staff circulation files
• Shows accountability of school • Inspection files
resources. • Duty roster
• School calendar
Activity 3 • Pupils responsibility record
Ask student teachers to do Activity 3 in their • Class allocation
handbook. • Teachers responsibility
• Chart
• Timetables
142
FST 40 Educational leadership (2 hours)
Introduction Purposes of educational leadership
Leadership involves processes of influencing It is important to have a leader in an
the activities of an individual, group or an educational institution. The purpose of
organization in order to achieve the intended leadership is to guide, direct, encourage,
goals. Leadership in educational institutions control, support and nurture in order to
is a challenging task because of the many achieve the intended educational goals.
expectations which different groups have on
the leadership. The leader should be:
• participative,
• tolerant,
Assessment standards
• flexible,
• willing to experiment with different roles,
demonstrate an understanding of
• willing to be involved in organisations
educational leadership.
that are productive and foster
cooperation,
Suggested teaching, learning • willing to promote life long learning and
and assessment resources self development of staff and of self.
• Resource person Activity 2
• School Ask student teachers to do Activity 2 in their
• Specialist teacher handbook.
• Library
• Flip charts
• Markers
• Student teachers’ experiences
• Handbooks
• Braillist
Educational leadership
Leadership is a process of influencing,
directing and guiding activities of a group or
an institution such as a school.
Activity 1
handbook.
143
FST 41 Leadership styles (4 hours)
Introduction Characteristics of different
In the previous unit, student teachers learnt leadership styles
about educational leadership. In this unit, The three main styles of leadership discussed
students will learn about leadership styles. above have different characteristics:
Assessment standard (i) Autocratic or authoritarian style of

Student teachers should be able to show an leadership
understanding of various leadership styles. • the leader takes the sole responsibility
for all the decisions he/she makes,
Suggested teaching, learning • the leader sets all the goals, plans and
dictates to members all the activities,
and assessment resources • the leader delegates responsibilities
• School and/or college that do not accompany authority,
• Internet • the leader always keeps away from
• Specialist teacher members,
• Sign language interpreter • the leader has little respect for others,
• Braillist • the leader with such style of
• Flip charts and markers leadership is usually feared and hated,
• members of staff do not feel they own
Leadership styles what they do (low morale).
Leaders use different styles in order to
influence activities in an institution. These (ii) Laissez-faire style of leadership
styles are used in different situations. There • the leader is friendly,
is no one perfect leadership style. Each one is • members do what they want,
suitable for a specific situation. The • the leader does not give direction to
following are the common leadership styles. the members unless asked,
• the leader is not used to taking
Autocratic or Authoritarian decisions,
This is a style whereby the leader or • inadequate communication,
headteacher of a school makes almost all coordination and supervision leads to
decisions and takes responsibility over them.
poor work at the school.
This is the leader who does not trust that
others would do a good job.
(iii) Democratic style of leadership
Laissez-faire • the leader is warm and friendly,
This is a leadership style whereby the leader • the leader helps members in realizing
takes things easily. Laissez-faire is a French their potentials (abilities),
term which means “let people do what they • the leader seeks opinions of others
wish”. before taking decisions about them,
• the leader encourages group
Democratic leadership cooperation,
A democratic leader is one who is employee- • members of staff work with confidence
centred. He/she helps members to help and have the feeling of ownership.
themselves in order to achieve their personal Activity 2
potentials. The leader seeks other people’s Ask student teachers to do Activity 2 in their
opinions in order to contribute to decision- handbook.
making.
Activity 1
handbook.
144
Roles of leaders in managing the
implementation of the curriculum
at a school
School activities are controlled by the
curriculum. The head teacher has a number
of roles to make sure that curriculum is
implemented correctly both at classroom and
school levels. These roles include:
• teacher allocation to different sections
and learning areas/subjects,
• timetabling,
• monitoring preparations of schemes of
work and lesson plans,
• ensuring that teachers’ guides and
pupils books and their materials are
made available,
• in-servicing teachers at the school level
(school-based inset),
• supervising and advising teachers.
Activity 3
handbooks.
145

Foundation ODL 1

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FST 1 The concept of outcome-based education and

Suggested teaching, learning and assessment resources

Education and curriculum

Arrows show answers

Outcome-based education and curriculum (OBE)

Purposes of outcome-based education and curriculum

Components of outcome-based education and curriculum

Note: Teacher education offers Foundation Description of characteristics of

• enables learners to succeed through

Suggested teaching, learning and Activity 2

The meaning of a syllabus

Examination syllabus Teaching syllabus

The components of outcome-based education syllabus

Core Element : Farm tools, machinery and technology

Assessment Success Theme/ Suggested Suggested Suggested

The components of schemes of

The structure of schemes of work

Week and Success Planned Activities Teaching Teaching References

Activity 1 Factors to consider when writing

Writing schemes of work

Hint: This should be a take-home-exercise, and

Time MIITEP (1998). Student teacher’s handbook 1.

Meaning of a lesson plan

The purpose of a lesson plan

Preparation of lesson plans

The structure of a lesson plan

Template for lesson plan in OBE

Suggested teaching, learning and assessment resources

Meaning of records of work

Zotsatira za ntchito yomwe taphunzitsa Ndamanga

Assessment standard A. The pattern of development is similar in all

A. Beginning school: first days at

The characteristics of beginning

Ask student teachers to do activity 6 in their handbook.

Relationships among Syllabus,

Intellectual (mental) or cognitive development

Relating the aspects/process of child development to teaching and

Aspect Learning areas Relationship

Middle Childhood (5 to 7 years)

Late childhood (7 to 12 years)

Suggested teaching, learning and assessment resources

Types of individual differences

Physical Mental Social Emotional Moral

Social differences also affect the way learners

Emotional differences include changes in

Moral differences too affect the way

Introduction • Special Needs Education is a purposeful

Suggested teaching, learning and

Where it is taught What is taught How it is taught

(Fig. 1 SNE Map)

Guidelines Observed (Yes/No) Comments to justify

Introduction • Use instructional resources to spice the

Activity 4 Discussion method

Role play Activity 12

The strengths and limitations of the project

Limitations of the project method include the

Introduction The skill of planning

The meaning of teaching skills

The skill of explanation Questions serve two major purposes: