BEADS: Journal of the Society of Bead Researchers

Volume 5 (1993) Article 5

1993

Gold-Glass Beads: A Review of the Evidence

Maud Spaer

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Spaer, Maud (1993). "Gold-Glass Beads: A Review of the Evidence." BEADS: Journal of the Society of Bead
Researchers 5: 9-25. Available at: https://surface.syr.edu/beads/vol5/iss1/5

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 GOLD-GLASS BEADS: A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE

Maud Spaer

The study of gold-glass beads was given a considerable GOLD-GLASS BEADS IN GLASS HISTORY
boost in the 1970s by Weinberg's report on their manufac-
ture in Hellenistic Rhodes and by Alekseeva' s and Boon's Basing themselves on studies made already in the
studies onfindsfrom southern Russia and Britain, respecti- 19th century, early glass historians, such as Kisa
vely. Nothing comparable has been published in the interve-
(1908:128) and Eisen (1927:8-9, 44, 194), reported on
ning years, but scattered new information has appeared.
gold-glass beads, regarding them as part of the story
This paper aims to survey and review th~ available data on
manufacturing technique, style, provenience and chronolo- of glass. With time, the glass historians concentrated
gy. An attempt is also made to fit gold-glass beads into the more on vessels, and the study of gold-glass beads was
general framework of glass history. The main focus is on the largely left either to the often cursory interest of
finds of the Mediterranean and related regions in pre-Isla- various excavators or to a few archaeologists with a
mic times. Note is taken of the continuation of the use of special interest in beads, foremost among them Boon
gold-glass beads in Medieval Europe. Conclusions drawn (1966, 1977) and Alekseeva (1978:27-32). Jewelry
are usually only tentative - if not hypothetical - as suffi- historians, irrespective of specialization, have
ciently well-documented source material is scarce.
primarily focussed on precious metals and, in no
instance, taken an in-depth interest in glass beads.
INTRODUCTION Most kinds of ornamentation used on glass beads,
such as eyes, trails and speckles, as well as molded,
"Gold-glass" is the generic term commonly used tooled and cut patterns, have known precursors in the
for any bead composed of two layers of glass with second millennium B.C., but, to our present
metal foil between them serving as the principal knowledge, gold-glass does not. Colorless translucent
ornamentation. Other terms such as "gilt-glass," glass was known in the second millennium, as was
"sandwich gold-glass" and "gold-in-glass" are gold and glass in combination, including glass beads
synonymous. Early gold-glass beads were decorated covered with gold foil. However, at that time
with gold foil, and the various terms alluding to gold transparent stone - rather than glass, a new material,
came to be used for this class as a whole, irrespective relatively speaking - was still an important medium
of the fact that with the passage of time, silver and employed to protect and enhance delicate
various substitutes were employed as well (the term ornamentation. A pair of elaborate gold earrings from
"silver-glass" is used whenever st lver-colored the 14th-century-B.C. tomb of Tutankhamun are
varieties are specifically referred to). Gold-glass richly decorated with colored glass. However,
beads obviously copied beads of precious metals and whether the ear-stud covers, with a portrait of the
it has been suggested that their popularity in Egypt in Pharaoh painted on the interior surface of the frontal
the Roman period led to a reduced use of gold and ones, are of quartz or glass remains uncertain. A
silver beads proper (Shiah 1944:407). recent British Museum catalogue of Egyptian jewelry
describes the covers as being quartz (Andrews
1990:111-112, no. 92). An earlier study by Mavis

BEADS 5:9-25 (1993)

JO

Bimson (1974) of the British Museum research Gold-glass beads were produced over a period of
laboratory identifies them as glass! some 1500 years, with only minor differences . In
Some rock crystal ornaments with decorative order to distinguish between early and late beads, one
gold-leaf inlay are rather close in concept to the has to pay close attention to slight variations in
gold-glass beads. These include specimens found in manufacturing technique and style.
9th- to 7th-century-B.C. contexts in Euboea, an island
off the east coast of Greece, and Cyprus, and are
supposedly of Phoenician origin (Higgins 1980: 223, TECHNIQUES OF MANUFACTURE
Pl. 171, no. 5.16, Pl. 186, no. 31.19, Pl. 234, e,f). It is
also likely, as suggested by Barag ( 1990), that in some Both layers of most gold-glass beads were made
instances glass was used as a cover for gold or any by drawing. There are only some very rare exceptions
other delicate ornamentation already in the 9th to 5th to this rule (see "The European Epilogue" below, and
centuries ;B.C. (primarily on some of the Phoenician the caption of Pl. IA). Some longitudinal striations
ivories and on Phidias' statues at Olympia). From the can almost always be observed on the outer layer;
4th century B.C. there are several well-documented some of them rather faint, others strong. The same is
finds of glass placed over ornamental metal. The royal true of the interior layer, whenever it happens to be
tomb at Vergina in northern Greece, presumed final exposed. Drawing, as a common beadmaking
resting place of Philip II, father of Alexander the technique, was introduced sometime prior to the
Great, contained examples of glass placed over introduction of gold-glass beads. The insertion of a
patterned gold inlaid in wooden. furniture and over bubble of air into the glass before the actual drawing
plain gold and silver inlaid in a ceremonial shield of the tube can be accomplished by variations of either
(Andronicos 1984:123-124, 137, Figs. 75, 140). A rod-forming, tooling or blowing techniques. An
number of finger rings found at various sites in the examination of finished beads rarely enables us to
Greek colonies have bezels with patterned gold foil set establish which of these methods was used.
between two layers of glass (Williams and Ogden Gold-glass beads have sometimes been described as
1994:nos. 108, 159-160). "blown and drawn" (e.g., Callmer 1977:51-53
As yet no gold-glass beads - or gold-glass passim). However, this can be misleading and should
vessels (bowls with a cut-out pattern of gold foil be avoided.
between two layers of colorless glass) - have been The following reconstruction of the manu-
dated prior to the 3rd century B.C. (Harden 1968; facturing process is suggested: A drawn tube was,
Oliver 1969). Some written sources have been after cooling, covered with a very thin layer of metal
interpreted as stating that gold-glass vessels were foil, probably attached with the aid of an adhesive.
carried in a procession of Ptolemy II Philadelphus in Another, slightly larger, premanufactured tube was
Alexand-ria in 274 B.C. (Harden 1968:41). Shiah then slipped over the first (these tubes are likely to
( 1944: 408), when discussing gold-glass beads from have been premanufactured in some quantity so that
Egypt, claimed that the earliest dated examples known well-fitting examples would always be on hand). A
were found with coins of the same Ptolemy. However, section of the double tubing was subsequently
the bead strand referred to by Shiah (Bd. 577, now reheated while held on a rod or wire. Some caution
UC.40563, at the Petrie Museum, London) includes no was needed as the gold would suffer damage if
gold-glass beads proper, only two glass beads covered overheated. The use of the rod or wire ensured the
with gold foil. Numerous gold-glass beads, as well as artisan a certain distance from the heat and kept the
some gold-glass vessel fragments, were unearthed at perforation open.
Rhodes in ca. late 3rd-century-B.C. contexts When the ends of the beads are examined, one
(Weinberg 1971:147-148, Figs. 1-2, Pl. 82a). finds that they differ and it is clear that they were
Although most new glass-vessel techniques have finished in various ways. Some beads with neatly
forerunners among beads and other minor objects of smoothed ends were finished individually by
glass, it is not certain in this case which came first: hot-working. This does not exclude the use of some
gold-glass vessels or gold-glass beads. tool for dividing the tube into beads. Any patterned
 11

....._____._____, cm

Figure 1. Various gold-glass beads finished individually by hot-working (Israel Museum, Jerusalem)(all
photos by Zev Radovan).

,: _ ~·

:·
1~ : ·
~·
r :.:: ~:
·'

f. : ..
:~

.. ~· .
: :.

>
..
i \. ~:
~ :-·
~.
'> ~: ~; it : f: t ::·

Figure 2. A well-preserved stone sectioning mold for the production of

14-segment bead tubes from Korn el-Dikka, Alexandria (after Rodziewicz
1984; all drawings by Pnina Arad); scale 1: 1.
12

surfaces were most likely obtained by the use of

shaping tongs (with the possible exception of simple \'*''''
ribbed patterns which could also be achieved by other
means). The individually finished beads usually have
relatively large perforations and the two glass layers
often appear to be of roughly equal thickness (Fig. 1
and Pl. IB).
ttt•ttt o et tttd
More numerous examples of gold-glass beads are
characterized by marked longitudinal striations and
narrower perforations, probably as a result of more
efficient drawing processes. Their outer layers are
frequently thinner than the inner ones. These beads
were obviously segmented by a tool which made it
possible to divide the combined tube into quite a
number of beads of equal size and shape in one single
process. Until recently, the exact nature of such a
segmenting tool could only be guessed at. It can now
' J 1 1
be reconstructed with more certainty based on finds
from Alexandria, Egypt (Rodziewicz 1984:241-243,
'
.....
Fig. 265, Pl. 72, nos. 359-366; the information
contained in this Polish publication has remained
largely unknown in the West).
Polish archaeologists working at Korn el-Dikka,
---,
Alexandria, unearthed the debris of a Coptic-period
Figure 3. Examples of differently ridged and grooved tops
(ca. 4th-6th century A.D.) glass bead workshop which of stone molds found at Korn el-Dikka; Alexandria (after
included several stone molds used to segment Rodziewicz 1984); scale 1: 1.
"ordinary" single-layered drawn beads. The report

Figure 4. The rolling of a double gold-glass tube on a mold (left) similar to the one shown in Fig. 2 to produce the
14-segment bead tube on the right.
 13

Figure 5. Segmented gold-glass beads of different sizes and shapes; the small-sized beads were
very possibly used unseparated (cf. Pl. ID, small necklace in top center)(lsrael Museum,
Jerusalem).

cm

Figure 6. Differently cold-finished gold-glass beads; note the beads with jagged edges in the third column from
the left (Israel Museum, Jerusalem).
14

Figure 7. Gold-glass beads 6-8 mm long on the original decorative leather string; probably Roman (Egypt?)
(IMJ 84.35 .97, gift of the Meyerhoff family, Baltimore, to "American Friends of the Israel Museum").

provides information on eight different freestanding 6[two left columns]-7). Some may have been lightly
molds made of granite, schist or limestone with polished, but many more were cut without any further
grooved tops. The grooves vary in size and shape from finish. Those expertly cut are reasonably smooth, even
mold to mold, so that each one was suited to the when left unpolished. Other beads, segmented with
production of beads of a certain shape and size wide grooves which presumably facilitated
separated by grooves of a certain width and depth. Fig. separation, were left with ragged edges, apparently
2 depicts the reconstruction of one of the better- having been carelessly broken apart (Fig. 6, third
preserved molds, with a ca. 6.5 x 3.0 cm top for the column from left; see also Fig. 14). The segmentation
production of 14 bead segments. Fig. 3 reconstructs of the tube often led to a widening of the perforation
the differently ridged and grooved tops of some of the at the center of the bead (Fig. 8) (Astrup and Andersen
other .e xcavated molds. Finished and semifinished 1987:224, Fig. 4; Boon 1977:Figs. 1-3; Dekowna
beads 2-7 mm in diameter and of various colors were 1967:Fig. 3,b; L'vova 1959:Fig. 5, no. 11).
also recovered. These beads had been formed by Both Boon and Alekseeva, like Kisa, Eisen and
rolling a hot tube over a mold perpendicular to the others, have discussed the manufacturing processes.
grooves. The ridges segmented the tube while the Most of their observations are in line with those
grooves imparted the shape of the beads. outlined above. Boon, however, does not regard the
After the double tube had been segmented - outer layer as drawn; and, in Alekseeva's view,
presumably by segmenting molds rather similar to drawing of the outer layer applies only to one subtype.
those found in Alexandria - it was cut up, either into Two Norwegian researchers of Viking Age finds also
single- or multi-segment beads (Figs. 4-5). Some concluded that the "outer glass is probably made by
beads were finished by grinding and have straight rolling on soft half-molten glass, which sticks to the
ends, revealing some of the layered structure (Figs. core" (Astrup and Andersen 1987:224-225).
 15

cm

Figure 8. Broken gold-glass beads showing the typical widening at the center; the specimen on the right still has its original
leather string (Israel Museurri, Jerusalem).

E
()

Figure 9. Examples of collared, granulated and ribbed gold-glass beads (Israel Museum, Jerusalem).
16

collars) . Flattened beads are rather common, some of

them collared. Ribbing occurs (Fig. 9, bottom), as
does a pattern of small protruding bosses, also
referred to as "granulated" or "mulberry" beads,
presumably imitating true granulation on stone beads
(Fig. 9, center; see also Fig. 13).
Of particular appeal are rectangular disk beads
with figurative motifs (Fig. 11 ). Most of the latter
Figure 10. Suggested cross-section view of a mold for have on one side either the Egyptian deity Harpocrates
making "collared" beads with a finished bead shaped on (Horus the child) in minor variations, in the
such a mold just above it; the arrow indicates one of the well-known gesture of finger on mouth (see front
ridges which formed a constriction where the segmented cover), or a feminine figure, in most instances the
tube was subsequently cut apart. Greek goddess Aphrodite, depicted with upraised
arms, wringing out her hair. The opposite side exhibits
SHAPES AND PATTERNS a lattice pattern of small bosses (Fig. 12). These
beads, although relatively rare, are well documented.
The majority of gold-glass beads are plain, They have been found primarily in Nubia (Dunham
without pattern, made in various sphedcal and 1957: 108, bottom, Fig. 73, Pl. 66,F; Shinnie and
cylindrical shapes. There are, however, also .beads in Bradley l 980:1tem 2515, Fig . 68; Woolley a.n d
other shapes and/or with patterned surfaces. Randall-Mclver 1910:75), but also in Persia (Sono
"Collared" beads occur (Fig. 9), most likely and Fukai l 968:Color Pis. 3-4, Pl. 38, no. l, center,
segmented using a mold with tripie grooves (Fig. 10) Pl. 64, no. 14) and southern Russia (Alekseeva
(or more, if the beads were to have double or triple 1978:Beads with an inlay of metal, Types 29-30, Pl.

cm

Figure 11. Three plaque-shaped gold-glass beads with figurative motifs: indistinct feminine figure
and two different versions of Harpocrates with finger on mouth and "horn of plenty" at the side;
said to come from Egypt (Israel Museum, Jerusalem, nos. 77 .12.330 and 77 .12. 710, Dobkin
collection; private collection, Jerusalem).
 17

cm

Figure 12. The backs of the beads in Fig. 11.

26, nos. 62-66). There are also other rare figurative gold-glass beads. Among them are the luxurious
representations. A disk bead depicting an animal (a so-called "gold-band" beads - specimens with
dog?) is displayed in the Metropolitan Museum's variously colored trails, including some with gold foil
Egyptian department, Study Gallery 28a, in addition - and stratified eye beads with gold foil strata (e.g.,
to the more common representations of Harpocrates Alekseeva 1975:Eye beads, Types 73, 87a, 119, 125,
and Aphrodite. Also, some vessel-shaped pendants in 133; l 978:Striped designs, Types 289, 292). One
the round are illustrated by Alekseeva (l 978:Pl. 26, should also be aware that the Celtic or "La Tene"
nos. 39-40). beads of the final centuries of the first millennium
B.C. have been consistently described by their
principal researchers, all writing in German, as being
COLORS AND INLAYS decorated with foil (Folie) when referring to a layer
of yellow glass placed under colorless glass (Gebhard
The two glass layers are identical in most cases: 1989; Haevernick 1960; Zepezauer 1993).
usually colorless, translucent if not transparent, often
Gold-glass beads with patterned foil, of the kind
with a greenish or yellowish tinge. There are
found in vessels and inlays, are not known. Silver foil
exceptions, though, and some low-quality beads with
(or a substitute) was probably used not only to copy
inferior foil are made of yellow glass to make them
silver beads, but also pearls which came into use only
look more golden. There are some exceptional beads during the Hellenistic period (Pl. IC). Of whatever
made in strong colors and some such pieces were metal, the foil was always very thin (according to
found at Rhodes (Pl. IA)(Weinberg 1971:146). There Alekseeva [1978:27], it could be as thin as 0.0001
are also beads of yellowish glass over inferior metal mm), and this has added to the difficulties of testing
foil which appear to be copying colorless glass with the composition of the metal foils. Their quality varies
gold foil. One has also to take note of the fact that considerably and different substitutes were undoubte-
there are beads decorated with gold foil under dly used. A study of medieval beads by Haevernick
colorless glass which do not fit our definition of (l 954:especially nos. 7 4, 107) showed the silver foil
18

to be frequently mixed with iron, and that copper and region and the numbers of gold-glass beads are such
lead also figured in their composition. Some paint that a production of this type of bead in southern
mixtures may also have been used. Russia is probable from relatively early on.
Gold-glass beads also appear in more easterly regions
already in the Hellenistic period. Several locally
ORIGINS OF MANUFACTURE
excavated bead strands, which include gold-glass, are
in the Armenian Historical Museum in Erevan. Some,
Egypt has usually been considered the birth place
such as a necklace from Golovina (personal
of the gold-glass technique, and was no doubt an early
observation), have been dated as early as the 4th
and important manufacturing center for gold-glass
beads and vessels. Neighboring Nubia has also provi- century B.C. While . the exact date may be open to
ded very rich finds. Only the excavators of the Roman question, the presence of rather numerous gold-glass
cemeteries at Karanog and the Coptic-period royal beads in Armenia during the Hellenistic period is
cemeteries at Ballana and Qustul suggested the possi- certain.
bility of indigenous manufacture in Nubia (Emery European finds in regions other than those of the
1938:182; Woolley and Randall-Mciver 1910:17), a southeastern portion of the continent are less
view not shared by others. It is now becoming increa- numerous and not as early (Boon 1977: 197; re finds
singly apparent that glass beadmaking was consider- in Roman-period Europe, see also Guido 1978:93-94,
ably more widespread than once believed and that one, 205-206; Tempelmann-Maczynska 1985:64-65, Type
therefore, cannot dismiss the likelihood of some local 387). Similarly, the finds in today's Syria, Lebanon,
production - possibly including gold-glass beads - Israel and Jordan are considerably less numerous than
south of Egypt. Examples of Egyptian-Nubian finds those in Egypt-Nubia. However, considering the
appear in Brunton (1930:27, Pl. 46, nos. 144, 146-148, quality, versatility and volume of Roman-period
153, 156, 182, 194-200), Dunham (1957:for example,
Syrian glass production, which in all probability
80, Fig. 51, 2 l. l 2. l 9Ja-b, Pl. 65R; 104, Fig. 71, 21-
included high-quality beads, it would be surprising if
2-558, 564d; 118, Fig. 78, 22. l.22h; l 963:for exam-
gold-glass beads were not made there,
ple, 178, Fig. 132f, rows 4, 6, 822.2.559a-d; 184, Fig.
134a, bottom, 22.2.598k), Emery (l 938:Pl. 43, Types notwithstanding the lack of published sources. Persia
l, 30, 40-42, see also Pl. 47 A), Holland ( 1991: 113, Pl. is another country likely to have produced gold-glass
79), Shiah (1944:400-402, 407) and Woolley and Ran- beads and the evidence, although not rich, points to a
dall-Maciver (1910:74-77, Pl. 40). rather early date (Fukai l 977:Pl.50, top rows; Sono
Hellenistic Rhodes is the only identified site for and Fukai l 968:Color Pis. 3-4; these few sources are
the early manufacture of gold-glass beads. Only a boosted by evidence from the antiquities trade). India
preliminary report has as yet been published, but it is among the countries suggested as home to
suffices to show the importance and scope of the finds gold-glass bead manufacture (Dikshit 1969: 56-58).
(Weinberg 1971). Greece and the Aegean region were Although indications of specific production sites are
seen in the past as playing only a very peripheral role lacking~ we believe that gold-glass bead production
in glass history, but a different reality is now emer- had spread to several sites in the Mediterranean region
ging - and not only as concerns gold-glass. However, and other parts of Europe and Asia by the Roman
very little is known regarding the continuation of period, if not already earlier.
gold-glass bead production and use in Rhodes and/or It is necessary to stress that any lack of evidence
other parts of Greece. is never quite so negative on closer inspection.
The southern Black Sea littoral has yielded Gold-glass beads do not weather well. The layered
numerous gold-glass beads of Hellenistic-Roman structure of the glass and the flimsiness of the foil are
times. More than 9500 specimens were inventoried by contributing factors. Many examples, on losing their
Alekseeva (1978:27-32), and she dates some of them original brilliance, were certainly overlooked; quite
as early as the 3rd century B.C. Many of these closely apart from the fact that excavators never paid much
resemble the Egyptian finds and quite a few may well attention to bead finds, if not of exceptional style or
have been imported from Egypt and elsewhere. date. This is especially true in those regions where
However, glass beads were certainly made in the there are any number of more spectacular finds to
 19

Palestine are too small to indicate local production.

However, if once the very idea of any such production
was beyond consideration, this is no longer so
(regarding finds in the eastern Mediterranean region,
other than Palestine, see Baur 1938:546; Chehab
1986:Pl. 32, no. 4[?]; Negro Ponzi 197l:No. 46[?];
Smith 1973:Pl. 80, Ck; Strommenger 1980:Fig. 61).
Trade versus local production is a pertinent
question at most times. The disk beads with figurative
motifs discussed above are a good example of the
issue. This is an easily distinguished homogenous
type, which, although never common, has been rather
narrowly dated. The beads have been found in regions
quite distant from one another. They may all have
been made in one center and exported elsewhere, or
made in different locations by similar methods,
Figure 13. Two of the "granulated" gold-glass beads from possibly using imported molds. The existence of long-
En Gedi, found on the original linen string (courtesy of the distance international contacts is certain, but it will
Israel Antiquities Authority). always be difficult to establish when trade exchanges
consisted of raw materials, implements and/or the
focus on (note the different states of preservation of artisans themselves, rather than finished goods.
the gold-glass beads in Pl. ID).
To throw light on the origins of gold-glass beads,
Boon (1977:197-200) has shown Roman
a compositional analysis was made of Roman period
gold-glass bead finds in Britain to be quite numerous, finds: one from Caerleon, Britain, one from Faras,
contrary to what might have been expected. Likewise, Nubia, and one from Panticapeum, southern Russia.
a closer scrutiny of bead groups in Israel has revealed Test results showed the British and Nubian beads to
that gold-glass, although never common, was not quite be so close in their constituents that the glass might
as rare as once assumed. Not surprisingly, several be from the same source (Dekowna in Boon 1977:202-
finds are from arid zones, such as En Gedi, Massada 206). However, it seems doubtful that even tentative
and Moa. Other find sites include Hanita, Nahariya, conclusions can be drawn from so small a sample.
Shikmona, Mishmar HaEmek, El Makr and Shubeika.
Only the finds from Hanita and En Gedi have been
published (Barag 1978:45, Fig. 18, nos. 113-114; CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Hadas 1994: 11, 56, Fig. 27, Color Pl. 10). At En Gedi,
an oasis on the shores of the Dead Sea, gold-glass The gold-glass beads found at Rhodes, repre-
senting various stages of fabrication, are very signifi-
beads were found with other beads of glass and stone
cant, showing this production as an already-
(Pl. IIA) in well-preserved wooden coffins dating to
stablished craft, past the experimental stage, at a time
around the beginning of the 1st century B.C. Among
approximately fixed by Weinberg ( 1983) as the late
the gold-glass beads, 15 dainty pieces had a pattern of 3rd century B.C. Accordingly, gold-glass beads were
"granulation" in two or three rows. Three glass beads first made sometime prior to this time, although they
were decorated with gold foil without an outer layer only became commonplace somewhat later.
of glass. A few of the beads, gold-glass among them,
were still on the original linen string (Fig. 13). The earliest gold-glass beads have a strong golden
Published beads from Jerusalem, Huqoq and Ashdod color and were almost certainly made with good gold
are very possibly gold-glass, although not described foil. They have plain surfaces, without patterns, and
as such (Baramki l 935:Pl. 80, no. 5; Dothan 1971 :Pl. are of slfghtly irregular sizes and shapes, indicating
94, nos. 17-21; Ravani and Kahane 1961:121-122, that they were shaped individually, with smooth
130-132, Pl. 18, no. 6). Still, by any reckoning, the hot-finished ends. Pattern-molded surfaces appeared
absolute numbers of gold-glass beads found in relatively early. There was more diversity during the
20

early Roman period than at any other time, with evidence we do possess comes from collections and
various patterned types being produced. However, this the an ti qui ties trade. A good e xa,mple is a
period also saw the introduction of new techniques well-publicized necklace in the Metropolitan
which, in time, would lead to increasedp roduction, Museum. The object consists of trail-decorated
but less diversity. pendants and gold-glass beads, and is described as
The luxurious beads with figurative motifs early Islamic. This string is a purchase (Pfeiffer Fund
appeared for a relatively short time: from the middle 1973) and there is no certainty that the gold-glass
of the 1st century B.C. to the middle of the 1st century beads are contemporary with the pendants, which
A.D. The patterns of small bosses (granulation) undoubtedly are Islamic (Dubin 1987:92; Jenkins
known from the late Hellenistic and early Roman l 986:no. 77). The scarcity of archaeological source
periods went out of fashion during the 1st century material is typical of many kinds of objects of the
A.D., but cruder beads with larger bosses came into Islamic period. The reasons are manifold, one of them
use. Some ribbed beads continued to appear. Already being a change in burial customs. The lack of definite
in the Roman period, most gold-glass beads can be evidence for the manufacture of gold-glass beads in
described as mass-produced, being strongly striated the Near-Eastern Islamic countries is, therefore, not
with narrow perforations. "Collars" came into decisive. Egypt and Syria are likely to pave continued
fashion and silver foil was used, but remained for a their gold-glass bead production during the early
long time less common than gold foil. Many beads Islamic period. Even so, it seems safe to assume that
were left segmented, not broken or cut apart. the majority of the gold-glass bead-producing centers
Silver-glass, collared and segmented beads become were located outside the eastern Mediterranian
well-known during the Roman period, but may have countries during this time.
forerunners at the end of the Hellenistic period.
One can be rather certain that the technical
differences between beads finished individually by THE EUROPEAN EPILOGUE
hot-working and beads shaped in multiple numbers
using segmenting molds are temporally indicative: the The medieval European gold-glass bead finds are
first type is mainly Hellenistic and early Roman; the extremely numerous when compared to the
second is mainly Roman or later. However, contemporary eastern Mediterranean ones . This rich
considering the time and space involved, there would material, a continuation and outgrowth of the
have been some exceptions to the rule, as well as Greco-Roman beads, reached regions that previously
"hybrid" types, and our information is still too spotty had hardly been associated with this type of bead.
to permit other than very general conclusions. The Migration-period graves (primarily 5th-7th
The production of gold-glass beads continued in centuries A.D.), known for their abundance of glass
the Near East during the late Roman-Byzantine beads generally, contained gold-glass beads (there is
period. There is not much variety and patterned no synthesizing study of-Migration- period beads, but,
surfaces are rarely seen. Quality is frequently low as they figure in every relevant excavation report,
with an increasing number of beads carelessly broken albeit with few details, there exists a vast fund of data
apart. However, there are reasonably well-made beads which cannot be detailed here; see Boon
as well, as exemplified by the finds at Ballana and 1977: 201-202). From the 6th century onward,
Qustul in Nubia (Emery 1938). It is interesting to note silver-colored foil became very common, often
that some of these particular gold-glass beads were outnumbering gold. The finds from parts of Germany,
used as part of elaborate trappings for buried horses! northern France and Belgium are so numerous that
(Emery 1938:201, cat. no. 84). Boon (1977:201) sees local production as "certain."
Gold -glass beads are by no means restricted to
northwestern Europe, being found in various parts of
THE ISLAMIC NEAR EAST central and eastern Europe as well. They are
well-known from Viking-Age Scandinavia, primarily
There is no definite information on gold-glass the 9th-10th centuries (Callmer l 977:Bead group E,
beads in the Near East during the Islamic period. The "drawn multibeads;" the distinction between
 21

cm

Figure 14. Hollow gold-glass b~ads: brownish-yellow outer tube over a narrow inner tube covered with a
dark metallic layer (right); a deliberately broken bead (left)(lsrael Museum, Jerusalem, no. 86.67 .22).

segmented beads with and without foil is not always ally in the Near East, but better known among
clear in this publication). The beads were very popular European finds. Crude examples of this subtype · were
in Russia and some other eastern European countries, uncovered at Staraja Ladoga, Sarkel-Belaia Bezha
from the Baltic to the Black Sea, with a quantitative (L'vova 1959:326-327) and the Varninsky burial site
edge to the south. A peak was reached in the 11th (L 'vova 1983:especially groups 204, 207), all dating
century. Numbers decreased thereafter, but in some to the 8th-11th centuries (see also Haevernick
regions the beads continued into the 13th century. 1954:nos. 128-131). Earlier beads of this subtype have
Quality is often inferior, rarely reaching above the also been reported. Many were found at Panticapeum;
mediocre. Patterned surfaces are rare. they were attributed by Alekseeva (1978:Glass with a
Two subtypes can be distinguished from the others layer of metal, Types 31-33, Pl. 26, nos. 72-78) to the
on technical grounds. The first, "hollow" gold- glass early centuries of the Roman period in spite of the fact
beads, consists of two tubes, as is commonly the case, that she described them as "undocumented." One
but the interior tube is narrower than usual and the two seemingly similar bead, found at Vitudurum,
tubes touch only at the point of segmentation. The glass Switzerland, was also recorded in an early Roman
is brownish yellow and the metal foil is silver colored context (Riitti 1988:94-95, no. 1920). There is,
(Fig. 14). These are some kind of "economy" beads accordingly, a definite possibility that this subtype,
which achieve a reasonably good simulation of true best known from Medieval times, but with earlier fore-
gold-glass. It is an ubiquitous variation seen occasion- runners, was already present in the early Roman period.
22

Beads of the second subtype, to which we wish to were made with gold foil to the exclusion of silver and
draw attention, are less numerous and differ from have plain surfaces, but molded patterns already
almost all other gold-glass beads as they were appeared in the Hellenistic period. With only a few
rod-formed by folding. In most instances the foil, gold exceptions, both glass layers were made by drawing
or silver, does not cover the entire surface. This from the very beginning onward. During the
particular characteristic applies also to other varieties Hellenistic period, beads appear to have been mainly
and is not unknown in ancient times (Scapov a finished individually by hot-working. The
1972:Fig. 16, nos. 9-11, Fig. 33, nos. 29-30). The introduction of improved drawing and segmenting
folded beads, primarily of the 11th and early 12th techniques, at some point during the early Roman
centuries, have not been found in the Near East, but period, subsequently led to certain small, but often
are known from various excavations in Eastern unmistakable, changes: more strongly striated
Europe, reaching rather far north. surfaces, smaller perforations and frequently
Various compositional analyses carried out on cold-finished ends. A few beads have ground ends,
eastern European beads indicate a variety of possible having been skilfully cut apart, while others,
sources (Dekowna 1967, 1980; Scapova 1972:82-88, carelessly cut or broken apart, were left with ragged
176-180). Of the numerous gold-glass beads found in edges. Other differences include the frequent
pre-Mongolian Russia, Russian archaeologists occurrence of multi-segmented beads. Silver-colored
consider only one type, albeit a common one made of foil and ornamental "collars" were introduced, but
a certain variety of lead glass with silver foil and patterned surfaces decreas~d.
manufactured primarily in the regions of Kiev and Rhodes is, as yet, the only identified production
Novgorod, to be a local product. The type began to be site in the Mediterranean region. One can safely
made in the middle of the 11th century, continuing in assume that Egypt, in addition to Rhodes, produced its
Kiev until the 12th century and in Novgorod, in own gold-glass beads from early on. The credit for
diminished numbers, till the first half of the 13th pioneering the type is usually given to Egyptian
century. All other finds are regarded as imports. artisans. However, there is no conclusive evidence for
Rather rare, well-made specimens with good gold-foil this and more northerly origins are a definite
are believed to have been imported from one of the possibility. Regions estimated as being home to gold-
Islamic eastern-Mediterranean countries until the 11th glass bead manufacture by the early Roman period, and
century. As for the rest, including the folded beads, possibly well before, include the Black Sea littoral,
"Byzantium," famous for its gold-glass mosaics, is Persia and Syria. A further spread of the industry is
frequently suggested as the most likely source. likely to have occurred during the Roman period.
Byzantine Corinth and Sardis, among the very few Gold-glass bead production continued in the
sites with published beads, have not provided any eastern Mediterranean and related regions during the
confirmation. late Roman and Byzantine periods, and is likely to
Eastern European gold-glass beads have been the have lasted sometime into the Islamic period.
subject of considerable interest on the local level and However, the medieval European finds are
there is a large amount of literature in the Slavic considerably more numerous. This is especially true
languages, often difficult to come by in the West (on in Eastern Europe where gold-glass beads lasted into
the major sources, see Callmer 1977, especially note the first half of the 13th century in some regions.
190). It is important to realize the scope of the
European finds. Comprehensive studies of the
European gold-glass beads and of those of Southeast ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Asia would be very welcome.
My thanks to Gladys Davidson Weinberg for
giving me the opportunity to see the Rhodian finds, to
CONCLUSION Yael Israeli of the Israel Museum and Dan Barag of
the Hebrew University for drawing my attention
We estimate that the gold-glass bead industry was respectively to the finds of Korn el-Dikka, Alexandria,
introduced in the early 3rd century B.C. Early beads and to some gold-glass ring bezels in a recent British
 23

Museum catalogue, to Yael Gurin-Rosen of the Israel Baur, P.V.C.

Antiquities Authority for assistance in tracing 1938 Glassware. In Gerasa, City of the Decapolis, by
gold-glass bead finds in Israel, and to Gideon Hadas Carl H. Kraeling. American Schools of Oriental
of Kibbutz En Gedi, Rosalind Janssen of the Petrie Research, New Haven.
Museum, University College, London, and Iveta Bimson, Mavis
Mkrtschjan of the Armenian Historical Museum, 1974 Glass in the Tutankhamun Treasure. Annales du
Erevan, for their help. I am grateful to Zlata L'vova 6e Cong res de l' Association Internationale pour
of the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, for making l' Histoire du Verre:291-294.
it possible for me to see the bead finds of Staraja Boon, G.C.
Ladoga and Sarkel Belaia Bezha. My special thanks to 1966 Gilt Glass Beads from Caerleon and Elsewhere.
Julia Scapova of Moscow University for much helpful Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 22: 104-
information. I am indebted to Natasha Katznelson for 109.
translations from the Russian, permitting a glimpse 1977 Gold-in-Glass Beads from the Ancient World.
into Russian bead literature. Photos are by Zev Britannia 8: 193-207.
Radovan, when not otherwise stated, and the drawings
Brunton, G.
by Pnina Arad. 1930 Oau and Badari Ill. British School of Archaeolo-
gy in Egypt, London.

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I. Archaeology of the USSR Gl-12. Moscow (Rus-
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(Russian text). Dekowna, Maria
1967 Etude sur les origines de la verrerie en Pologne.
Andrews, Carol Annales du 3e Cong res de l' Association Interna-
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Astrup, E.E. and A.G. Andersen 1969 History of Indian Glass. Bombay University,
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1927 Glass. 2 vols. William Edwin Rudge, New York. 1908 Das Glas in Altertume. 3 vols. Karl W.
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Government Press, Boulaq. Cairo. 1959 Glass Bracelets and Beads from Sarkel Belaia'
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1977 Persian Glass. Weatherhill, New York.
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Gebhard, Rupert Beads found in the Varninsky Burial as a Basis
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Guido, Margaret The Hermitage, Leningrad (Russian text).
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Hadas, Gideon Oliver, Andrew, Jr.

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 25

Strommenger, Eva Woolley, L. and D. Randall-Maciver

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91710 Jerusalem
Williams, D. and J. Ogden Israel
1994 Greek Gold: Jewellery of the Classical World.
British Museum Press, London.
Plate IA. Gold-Glass: Rare spindle-shaped gold-glass bead 4.8 cm Plate IB. Gold-Glass : String of matching gold-glass beads 6-9
long of the Hellenistic period; gold foil applied spirally to blue mm long, finished individually by hot-working; probably Helleni-
glass, covered with colorless glass (Israel Museum, Jerusalem stic (Egypt?)(IMJ 77.12.455 , Dobkin collection).
[IMJ], no . 77.12.841 , Dobkin collection; all photos by Z. Radovan).

Plate IC. Gold-Glass: Two well-preserved pairs of segmented gold- Plate ID. Gold-Glass: Gold-glass and other interspersed glass
and silver-glass beads (both Egypt?)(IMJ 93 .29.40, gift of Lennie beads (left to right: from Persia(?), private collection, Jerusalem;
Wolfe, Jerusalem; IMJ 93.26.54); the lower pair is 1.6 cm long. IMJ 77.12.455 , 77.12 .687 and 77.12 .672, Dobkin collection).
Plate IIA. Gold-Glass: Stone, glass and gold-glass beads found at En Gedi on the Dead Sea (Tomb I); late Hellenistic period, ca. early lst
century B.C. (courtesy of the Israel Museum, J erusalem); the largest bead is 2.5 cm long.