Earth-to-Orbit: Advanced

NASA Conference Publication 2437
Advanced
Earth-to-Orbit
Propulsion
Technology
1986
Volume H
NO_-12bt1
Oaclms
Hl/20 016494b
1
. L--_
_i_
__
NASA Conference Publication 2437
Advanced
Earth-to-Orbit
Propulsion
Technology
1986
Volume II
Edited by
R. J. Richmond
George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
S. T. Wu
The University of Alabama in Huntsville
Huntsville, Alabama
Proceedings of a conference held at

NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
May 13-15, 1986
N/_A
National Aeronautics
and Space Administration
Scientific and Technical

Information Branch
1986
CONFERENCE C O - C H A I R M E N
S. F. Morea & R. J. Richmond S. T. Wu
Structures & Propulsion Laboratory Department of Mechanical Engineering

NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center The University of Alabama in Huntsville
ARRANGEMENTS CO CHAIRMEN
Mr. Vance Houston, NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center
Ms. Sue Weir, The University of Alabama in Huntsville
STEERING COMMITTEE
Biliyar Bhat, NASA/MSFC Thomas Marshall, NASA/MSFC
Frederick Braam, NASA/MSFC William Nieberding, NASA/LeRC
Christos Chamis, NASA/LeRC Louis Povinelli, NASA/LeRC
Fred Dolan, NASA/MSFC Donald Pryor, NASA/MSFC
Robert Dreshfield, NASA/LeRC Richard Quentmeyer, NASA/LeRC
Sol Gorland, NASA/LeRC Larry Salter, NASA/MSFC
Loren Gross, NASA/MSFC Luke Schutzenhofer, NASA/MSFC
Gary Halford, NASA/LeRC Heinrich Struck, NASA/MSFG
Albert Kascak, NASA/LeRC John Wanhainen, NASA/LeRC
Larry Kiefling, NASA/MSFC Erwin Zaretsky, NASA/LeRC
Brian McPherson, NASA/MSFC
ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
Mrs. Pat Corder
Ms. Amy Cain

The University of Alabama in Huntsville
FOREWORD
During the next 15-20 years, the nationrs need for easy access to
space is expected to increase significantly. A highly efficient and
versatile space transportation system will be needed to support a
variety of activities in both low earth and higher orbits. The ele-
ments of this space transportation system will range from the current
space shuttle with planned improvements to heavy lift launch vehicles
using booster propulsion systems operating on oxygen/hydrocarbon pro-
pellants. These elements, although differing in size and configura-
tion depending on the requirements, will be dependent on highly effi-
cient and reliable propulsion systems.
For the past several years, the Marshall Space Flight Center has
been managing and conducting NASA-wideresearch and technology pro-
grams dealing with advancedoxygen/hydrogen and oxygen/hydrocarbon
earth-to-orbit rocket propulsion. These programs are under the aegis
of the Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology at NASA Head-
quarters, and includes Lewis Research Center participation. The over-
all objective is to enhance the analysis and design capability for
oxygen/hydrogen and oxygen/hydrocarbon propulsion to meet the con-
tinuing needs of earth-to-orbit space transportation. The accom-
plishment of this objective is expected to contribute to the nationes
space program by providing the technological foundation necessary for
the design and development of improved liquid rocket propulsion
systems.
On June 27 29, 1984 the first conference to describe the
initial products of the oxygen/hydrogen progamwas held at Marshall
Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama. Proceedings of the
conference entitled "AdvancedHigh Pressure O /H Technology" were
published in NASA Conference Publication 2372. Since that first
conference, NASA's separate research and technology programs dealing
with oxygen/hydrogen and oxygen/hydrocarbon propulsion have been com-
bined into one program entitled "Advanced Earth-to-Orbit Propulsion
Technology". Accordingly the title of this, the second conference has
been changed to reflect this increased scope. Results of the oxygen/-
hydrocarbon research effort are reported herein along with the
oxygen/hydrogen results. The purpose of these conferences is to
provide a forum for the timely dissemination to the propulsion
community of the results emerging from this program with particular
emphasis on the transfer of information from the scientist/researcher
to the designer.
In addition to the regular conference sessions, a one-day work-

shop on Hydrogen Environment Embrittlement in Advanced Propulsion
Systems was included in the program for this conference. Thus, the
content of the proceedings is organized into twelve sessions plus a
ii
workshop, which follows the structure of the NASAearth to orbit
research and technology program. These sessions are:
o STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
o INSTRUMENTATION
o DYNAMICCHARACTERISTICSOF TURBOMACHINERY
o MATERIALTECHNOLOGY
o FLUID ANDGASDYNAMICSI
o FLUIDANDGASDYNAMICS II
o ROTORDYNAMICS
o FATIGUE/FRACTURE
ANDLIFE
o BEARINGSI
o BEARINGSII
o COMBUSTION ANDCOOLING
PROCESSESI
o COMBUSTION ANDCOOLING
PROCESSESII
o HYDROGENENVIORNMENTEMBRITTLEMENTIN ADVANCED
PROPULSION
SYSTEMS
There is a total of eighty-three papers in these proceedings;

this large number required publishing in two volumes. Volume I
contains manuscripts from the first six sessions and the remainder are
included in Volume II. Volume I carries an "International Traffic in
Arms Regulation" statement and Volume II carries a "Limited Distribu-
tion" statement. These documents are available only to organizations
registered with the NASAScientific and Information Facility.
Wewish to thank the authors for their high quality contributions
and for their timely submittal of manuscripts. Wewish to thank the
session co-chairmen for planning the program and conducting the ses-
sions. Wewish to acknowledge the arrangements co-chairpersons, Ms.
Sue Weir and Mr. Vance Houston for the professional manner in which
they supported the conference. Last, but not least we wish to thank
the administrative staff, Mrs. Pat Corder and Ms. AmyCain, and the
Public Affairs Office at the Marshall Space Flight Center for their
dedicated efforts in coordinating and supporting this meeting.
June 1986 R. J. Richmond, S. T. Wuand

Huntsville, Alabama S. F. Morea, Conference Co-Chairmen
iii
VOLUME
TWO
TABLEOF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
............................... ii
Vll ROTORDYNAMICS
DampingSeal Tester Progress and Initial Test Results

K. L. Cappel and G. L. von Pragenau ............... 2
High-Pressure OxygenTurbopumpLow-SpeedFlexible Rotor

Balancing for Smooth, High-Speed Operation,
E. Zori, J. C. Giordano and G. von Pragenau ........... 9
The Effects of Internal Rotor Friction on Dynamic
Characterisitcs of Turbopumps
J. F. Walton II, A. Artiles, J. Lund and C. Lee ......... 33
Efficient Transient Analysis Methods for the Space

Shuttle Main Engine (SSME)Turbopumps
S. T. Noah, U. J. Fan, Y.-S. Choi and T. Fox .......... 62
Vibrations Induced by Nonlinearities in Rotordynamics

William B. Day ......................... 83
VIII FATIGUE/FRACTURE
ANDLIFE
Simplified Cyclic Structural Analyses of SSMETurbine

Blades
A. Kaufmanand J. M. Manderscheid ............... 107
Effects of High MeanStress on the High-Cycle Fatigue of

PWA-1480and DS MAR246 + Hf at 1000°F
S. Majumdar .......................... 125
Constitutive Behavior of Single Crystal PWA1480 and

Directionally Solidified MAR-M246 Under Monotonic and
Cyclic Loads at High and Low Temperature
Walter W. Milligan, Eric S. Huron, and Stephen D. Antolovich • 134
High-Temperature LCF of Ni-201 and 304L S. S.
G. R. Halford, L. R. Johnson, and J. A. Brown ......... 172
Fatigue Crack Retardation Following Overloads in Inconel

718, Ti-5AI-2.5Sn and Haynes 188
D. E. Matejczyk, R. P. Jewett, D. W. Schmidt and
and G. C. Hresko III ...................... 205
iv
IX BEARINGS I
Thermo-mechanical Performance Evaluation of Cryogenic

Turbopump Ball Bearings
Robert A. Pallini ....................... 221
Thermal Analysis of SSME Turbopump Bearings

Joe C. Cody, David Marty and Bruce K. Tiller ......... 241
Lubrication Evaluation of SSME Turbopump Bearings

K. F. Dufrane, J. W. Kannel and S. A. Barber .......... 266
Surface Characteristics of Liquid Oxygen Cooled Ball

Bearings
Myles Butner and Mary Shoemaker ................ 293
Powder Metallurgy Bearings for Advanced Rocket Engines

B. N. Bhat, T. S. Humphries, R. L. Thom, G. I. Friedman
and V. Moxson ......................... 311
X BEARINGS II
Rolling Contact Fatigue Life of Zirconium and Molybdenum

Nitride Sputter Plated AMS-5749 Bearing Steel
R. L. Thom and F. J. Dolan ................... 327
Measurement of Rotordynamic Coefficients for a

Hydrostatic Radial Bearing
B. T. Murphy and M. N. Wagner ................. 341
Surface Modification for Wear Resistance in a Liquid

Oxygen Turbopump Environment
Lillian Ng and Yngve Naerheim ................. 366
SSME Bearing Health Monitoring Using a Fiberoptic

Deflectometer
Michael E. Hampson, J. J. Collins, M. R. Randall and
Sarkis Barkhoudarian ...................... 377
Xl COMBUSTION AND COOLING PROCESSES I
Aerojet Techsystems Company Contribution to LOX/HC

Combustion and Cooling Technology
S. D. Mercer and D. C. Rousar ................. 393
Survey of LOX/Hydrocarbon Combustion and Cooling

A. I. Masters, W. A. Visek and R. G. Carroll .......... 439
LOX/Hydrocarbon Combustion and Cooling Survey,

R. T. Cook and F. M. Kirby ................... 461
V
Liquid Oxygen Cooling of High Pressure LOX/Hydrocarbon
Rocket Thrust Chambers
H G Price
• . ° ...... ° ..... . ............ 474
RP-I and Methane Combustion and Cooling Experiments

C ...........................
R. Bailey 529
XII COMBUSTION AND COOLING PROCESSES II
Results of Coaxial Injector Element Testing

S. C Fisher..... . . . . ............... ° • . 550
Combustion Modeling: Progress and Projections

P. Y Liang 570
Effects of Oxygen/Hydrogen Combustion Chamber Envirnoment

on Copper Alloys
M. Murphy, R. E. Anderson, D. C° Rousar and
J. A. Van Kleeck ....................... 580
HYDROGEN ENVIRONMENT EMBRITTLEMENT IN ADVANCED

PROPULSION SYSTEMS WORKSHOP
Hydrogen-Environment Embrittlement and Its Control in

High Pressure Hydrogen/Oxygen Rocket Engines
W. T. Chandler 618
Multispecimen Test Facility for High-Pressure Hydrogen

Creep Studies
S. K. Verma 635
Pratt & Whitney's Hydrogen Test Facilities

R. L. Fowler Jr° 660
A High Pressure, High Temperature Hydrogen Environment

for Metals Properties Testing System
Michael J. Rother ....................... 661
Development of a Computer-Controlled Technique to

Determine Crack Growth Rate Properties in Controlled
Environments Using Crack Opening Displacement
D. R. Moore, D. T. Drinan and J. D. Hodo ............. 672
Hydrogen Effects on the Fatigue and Tensile Behavior of

CMSX-2 Nickel Base Superalloy Single Crystals
I. M. Berstein, S. Walston, M. Dollar, A. Domnanovich and
W. Kroump ........................... 698
The Determination of Mobile Hydrogen in Aerospace Engine

Alloys
Merlin D. Danford 715
v±
LCF and Crack Growth Rate of Turbine Blade Alloys in Hydrogen
and Hydrogen/SteamEnvironments
B. A. Cowles, D. P. Deluca, J. R. Warren and F. K. Haake .... 729
Progress Report on the Development of a Hydrogen

Resistant Alloy
W. B. McPherson ........................ 749
Hydrogen Effects on Crack Growth Resistance of an Iron
Base Superalloy
N. R. Moody, M. W. Perra and R. E. Staltz ........... 758
PARICIPANTS
............................. 759
APPENDIX
Table of Contents of Volume One .................. 763
vii
VII ROTORDYNAMICS
/_N89 - 12627
DAMPING SEAL TESTER PROGRESS
AND INITIAL TEST RESULTS
K. L. Cappel, Wyle Laboratories

and
G. L. von Pragenau, NASA/MSFC
Introduction
Two years ago, at this conference, we presented an experimental plan for

investigatingthe effectiveness of so-called damping seals,i.e.bushing seals with a
multiplicityof pockets, to dampen the asynchronous whirl which presently limits
the performance of the high-pressure oxygen turbopump in the Space Shuttle Main
Engine.
This paper summarizes the design of the test rig, including modifications made
since the originalconcept, and presents initialtest results.
Test System Deseription
The test device substituteswater, supplied by a 1500 gallon blowdown system, at

flow rates up to 300 gpm and inletpressures up to 2300 psi,for liquidoxygen while
the test shaft is being driven by a steam turbine at speeds that will eventually
reach 37000 rpm. Figure I shows the arrangement of the test rig and turbine on
the test stand.
The test seals have a diameter of 3.6 in.and a length of 1.8 in. Triangular pockets
are machined (EDM) into the inside surface of the seal. The pockets are almost
equilateral triangles,with a side length of about 0.2 in.bordered by 0.02 in.wide
lands. The firstseal to be tested had a radial clearance of 0.020 in.and a pocket
depth of 0.020 in.
As shown in Figure 2, the test seal is housed in a seal carrier which is suspended
from a transverse shaft by a pair of ball-jointedlinks. The seal carrier is captured
between two water-lubricated hydrostatic bearings whose supply lines are connec-
ted so as to form a hydraulic servo which centers the carrier axially under all
conditions of pressure and flow. The seal carrier is free to translate in a plane
transverse to the shaft axis without touching the shaft because the seal'sfluid film
forces center the carrier in the radialdirection.
Test Objectives and Conditions
The linkages by which the seal is suspended are oscillated by an electrodynamic

shaker along one transverse axis. Because of cross coupling through the fluid film,
the seal is also excited along the other transverse axis. A major objective of the
ongoing test program is the determination of the cross-coupling coefficients,as
well as the stiffnessand damping of the fluid film in the seal gap, as a function of
exciting frequency and shaft rotation speed.
A lower limit to the maximum inlet pressure and resulting flow is set by the
necessity for carrying away most of the heat generated in the upper, high-pressure
_ ,_',_ I _',_, PAGE IS
C._FPOOR QUALITY
Damping Seal Tester and Steam Turbine on Test Stand

ART -ROTATION AND ACTUATING BAR
__ (CAM
ACTUATED)
" WATER EXiT
,,,,l.OAOGEO
LI.K__ ..... '
_. _\, i, ", 36,000 RPM
DIREC]ION OF WATER FLOW l_ , _ ' '

tt \ _ • DOWNSTREAM HYDROSTATIC BEARING
Figure 2
InternalArrangement of Damping Sea] Tester
_=R(FI- F2 )
F=FI +F 2
Z (Y)
M
R
Figure 3
Seal Instrumentation and Coordinate System
OR_,C__N_'_L
PAC-_; i_
4
OF PO0_ r':_! ="_
bushingseal which incorporates orifice-compensatedhydrostatic recessesto ensure
centering. The shaft is mounted in angular contact ball bearings which are
separated from the water environment by segmentedcarbon seals tightened by air
pressure.
Instrumentation
Water inlet and outlet pressures, flows and temperatures are monitored, as is the
entrance loss in two diametrically opposed pockets. These measurements, as well
as shaft speed, are recorded on a datalogger. The dynamic behavior of the seal is
measured by strain gauges in the suspension links which give the applied force, and
by four accelerometers on the seal carrier, mounted at 45 degrees with respect to
the main axes. These data are recorded on FM tape. It had originally been
intended to use two accelerometers, and two displacement sensors to measure the
relative motion between the shaft and seal, i.e.the fluid gap. This proved to be
unfeasible, but such displacement sensors will later be mounted just upstream of
the seal. The error in the fluid film properties introduced by the compliance of the
shaft and bearings is estimated to be of the order of 20 percent.
Data Reduction Scheme
Since measurements are made of motions in two degrees of freedom, but four
system constants are to be determined for each test condition, it is necessary to
measure phase relationswith great precision to supply the two additional measure-
ments. Figure 3 shows the relations between forces, displacements and accelera-
tions in the complex plane, normal to the shaft axis. Displacements are
determined from the accelerations, divided by the square of the frequency, with
the proper sign change. Figures 4 and 5 show the procedure for extracting the
system constants from the LaPlace-transformed equations of motion by inversion
of the response matrix.
By reinserting the values of stiffness,damping and cross-coupling coefficients into

the equation of motion, it was found possible to reproduce the measured test
conditions very accurately.
Test Data Comparison
Initialtest data and derived coefficients are shown in Tables 1 and 2, for test run
number I0 (shaft not rotating) and run number 11 (13,254 rpm), respectively. The
Reynolds numbers for these conditions were 68,200 and I01,000. Maximum
Reynolds number with hot water should be 280,000.
Table 3 listsanalytical predictions,except for the seal inlet losses. The losses are
the average values determined from two pressure measurements: upstream of the
seal inlet and inside the seal gap in the pocket next to the inlet edge. The inlet
losses are 0.188 without rotation and 0.133 for rotation. The values are less than
the common assumption of 0.25.
The measured leakage values for equal pressures are 20 lbs without and with
rotation. The predicted leakage is I0 percent higher.
Fy = Fl(-f_)- my
F z = FI(V_) - mz be-so K+SC_]
Fy = Ay + j By A y = Ya + J Yb j2=-l
Fz = Az + j Bz A z = Za + jZb
y=Ysin(wt+a) Ya = _ COS a Yb = Y sin a
z= Zsin(wt+b) z a = Z cos b Zb = Z sin b
y = _sin (wt + a) z = _sin (wt + b)

eo ,_
Y Z
Y = -Y/w 2 Z = -Z/w 2
Ay=jBy=KYa-W CYb +j(Kyb +w Cya)-Qza +w Gz b-j(Qz b+w Gz a)

A z=jB z= Kz a-w Cz b+j(Kz b+w Cz a)+Qya +w Gyb-j(Qyb +w G Ya)
Fk,m_ 4
D_n_mie Equations
m m i n
Ya - WYb Za --WZb KI
B. I Yb WYa Zb WZa CI
Az [ Za --WZb --Ya WYb Ol
Bz I Zb WZa --Yb --WYa GI

m
T
S R D
S Side Force Vector
R Response Matrix
D Dynamic Parameter
D= R-IS Solution for each vibration frequency W
Fk,_e S
Table 1
Results - Run No. 10 (Non-Rotating)
Inlet Pressure: 1525 psi; Flow: 156 gpm
Frequency Spring Rate Damping Cross Coupling

Hz Kib/in. C ms e e/in. Qib/in. Gibsec/im
40.800 37,700 94.76 1.07 -6.206

71.635 41,915 131.24 -6,573.6 -4.991
102.240 43,338 139.71 -12,036.5 -9.164
131.180 63,667 124.79 -3,014.1 -1.436
131.180 65,214 133.02 -3,079.7 -5.395
Table 2
Results - Run No. 11:13,254 rpm
Inlet Pressure: 15YY psi; Flow: 142 gpm
Frequency Spring Rate Damping Cross Coupling

Hz Kib/in. C lbsee/in. Qib/in. G lbsee/in.
40.29 45,021 111.49 31,122 -11.187

69.95 45,487 53.25 559 -13.000
100.00 47,957 131.78 26,387 -13.350
128.86 -72,055 116.59 -9,406 24.430
Table 3
Seal Data Prediction
Conditions Freq Stiffness Damping cross

rpm psi FIg K, ib/in. C, ib.s/in. Q, lb/in. G, Ib.s/in. W, Ibis
0 1525 0 99,000 129 0 0 22

40 98,000
(81,000)
Run I0, 156 gpm 70 97,000
126:11:32:07 (80,000)
100 95,000
(79,000)
130 92,000
(77,000)
13254 1577 0.133 0 98,000 127 35,000 8.3 22

40 97,000
(81,000)
Run 11, 142 gpm 70 95,000 Note: Only seal stiffness is frequency
132:16:27:55 (80,000) dependent. Parenthetical stiffnessesare
100 94,000 corrected with 472,000 Ib/in. for rotor
(78,000) bending and bearing stiffness in series.
130 91,000 In-loss is an abbreviation for seal inlet
(76,000) loss.
The predicted stiffness (including the corrections) is 53 percent to 75 percent
higher than measuredaverages. The predicted dampingis 4 percent to 23 percent
higher than measuredaverages. No cross coupling is predicted without rotation,
and the predicted Q with rotation is 81 percent above the measuredaverage. The
predicted cross coupleddamping G has the oppositesign from the measuredvalues.
The measuredG value is 57 percent above the absolute value of the prediction.
However, G is still so low in magnitudethat it is dynamically insignificant.
Conclusion
The comparison shows good agreement for damping and leakage. Stiffness seems
to be lessthan the corrected prediction values. Future test will measure the rotor
displacement and thus should increase the accuracy of the measurements. The
cross coupling without rotation is rather small and should be due to unpredictable
flow splittingwhen the stator oscillatestransversely to the axis. The measured
cross coupling Q under rotation is less than the prediction and will be more
accurately measured in the future when rotor motion is determined.
Outlook
The data comparison is encouraging. A bearing failure occurred owing to bearing

misalignment. The rotational test data seem to reflect the failingbearing in the
last line of Table 2 where the cross coupling sign changes. The tester is in repair
and is being improved for obtaining better data soon. The initialdata already have
increased our confidence in our analytical predictions. Future tests are expected
to contribute much to the damping seal development and the formulation of
analyticalpredictions.
Acknowledgements
The contributions of Wyle staff members Larry Millsaps, who acted as test project
engineer, and Dr. Jen Jong, who performed the data analysis, are gratefully
acknowledged.
8
11N89- 12628|:
High-Pressure Oxygen Turbopump
LOW-SPEED FLEXIBLE ROTOR BALANCING FOR SMOOTH,

HIGH-SPEED OPERATION
E. Zorzi and J. Giordano

Mechanical Technology Incorporated
Latham, New York
and
G. yon Pragenau
NASA-Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
ABSTRACT
A method for balancing flexible rotors at low speeds while

ensuring smooth high-speed operation has been developed and
demonstrated through proof-of-principle tests. A potential
application of this method is for the Space Shuttle Main
Engine (SSME) turbopump rotors. These rotors operate above
one or more critical speeds and must be balanced to ensure
smooth operation at those speeds. Conventional low-speed
rigid balancing is inadequate. SSME hardware and geometry
restrictions preclude the use of high-speed, flexible rotor,
in-housing balancing. The use of a low-speed flexible rotor
balancing method could substantially improve the state of
balance of these rotors, because this technique eliminates
the need for the high-speed runs during the balancing process
that are required by classical flexible rotor balancing meth-
ods. This paper describes the analytic formulation of the
low-speed flexible rotor balancing method and presents the
results of proof-of-principle tests. These results indicate
that low-speed flexible rotor balancing is not only a viable
technology, but that it is a valuable method for ensuring
smooth operation above more than one bending critical speed.
Also, the High-Pressure Oxygen Turbopump (HPOTP) rotor is
shown to be a candidate application for this method.
INTRODUCTION
The need to develop a low-speed flexible rotor balancing method arises

from the need to minimize shaft response amplitude and to reduce to a
minimum the force transmitted through the bearings. Because rotor imbal-
ance is a major cause of large amplitudes and high forces, it is necessary
that the SSME pumps be well balanced throughout their operating speed
range. In general, shaft response and transmitted force caused by imbal-
ance are greatest at or near critical speeds. Both SSME turbopumps, the
HPOTP and the High-Pressure Fuel Turbopump (HPFTP), operate above their
first critical speeds and exhibit considerable rotor bending. The maximum
operating speed for the HPFTP is above its second critical speed. As the
power level of the HPOTP increases, its operating speed approaches its
second critical speed. Thus, a method of balancing both rotors for two
critical speeds is needed.
The two general approaches to balancing rotating equipment are low-speed

rigid [1,2] and high-speed flexible methods [3,4,5]. Both of these meth-
ods are well documented. For the HPOTP and HPFTP, low-speed rigid balanc-
ing, by itself, is inadequate. In particular, correction weights applied
during rigid body balancing may worsen the state of balance at operating
speed. That is, increased rotor response and bearing forces may occur
when operating at or above flexible critical speeds. Therefore, flexible
balancing of the SSME turbopumps is recommended to ensure smooth, balanced
operation at high speeds. The ideal situation would be to balance at
critical and maximum operating speeds using a conventional multiplane,
multispeed flexible rotor balancing method. Furthermore, balancing
should be performed within the housing, but out-of-housing balancing at
critical and maximum operating speeds could be a satisfactory alterna-
tive, if suspension characteristics are similar to those in the housing.
However, these balancing approaches are impractical for the HPOTP for
several reasons.
• Operating speeds are above one critical speed and approaching the
second, yet only one plane is readily available for in-housing
balancing of the assembled rotor
• Balancing speed is limited to 1500 rpm when performing in-housing

balancing of the rotor since no coolant is available for the bear-
ings during the balancing operation other than a liquid oxygen
(LOX) compatible lubricant
• Bearing life is very short, precluding a significant number of

high-speed balancing runs regardless of coolant/lubricant
• Bearing pairs are uniquely matched to each rotor, thereby effec-

tively preventing approaches where sacrificial bearings might be
used during an out-of-housing assembled rotor-balancing procedure
• Excessive bearing loads that limit the already short life must be
minimized
i0
• Only LOX-compatible substances can be used to cool and lubricate
the bearings to avoid system contamination, if speeds higher than
those currently used are anticipated
" Rotor vibration data are extremely difficult to record from
in-housing operation, since only case-mounted accelerometers are
used.
As a result of these hardware constraints, neither in-housing nor out-of-

housing, high-speed, flexible balancing can currently be used on SSME
turbopumps.
A method has been developed that showspromise in overcoming manyof these
limitations. This methodestablishes one or more"windows" for low-speed,
out-of-housing balancing of flexible rotors. The windows are regions of
speed and support flexibility where two conditions are simultaneously
fulfilled. First, the rotor system behaves flexibly, providing sepa-
ration among balance planes. Second, the response effected by balance
weights is sufficiently large to measure reliably. The details of the
work described are documentedin Reference 6.
METHOD FORMULATION
Rotor balancing methods predict weights to be added or removed from a

rotor-bearing system to minimize imbalance response. With the low-speed
flexible rotor balancing method, weights are predicted at a low speed (or
speeds) for balance planes located at the major sources of potential
unbalance. Response is minimized at the balancing speed and at higher
speeds, including the operating speed. The purpose of low-speed flexible
balancing is to determine the lowest speed at which balancing can be
performed where the rotor behaves "flexibly". The major steps in balanc-
ing a rotor using the low-speed flexible method are described in the
following paragraphs.
Select Balance Planes. First, balance planes are chosen that represent
actual hardware locations (i.e., axial planes where weight can be added or
removed at any circumferential location). Next, active balance planes are
selected, rather than nodes, at the speeds of interest and at maximum
equipment operating speed.
Determine Plane Separation and Expected Rotor Response. The rotational

speed of the shaft and the flexibility of the rotor supports (i.e., bear-
ing supports to ground) are the chief determinants of plane separation.
The following three cases, represented schematically in Figure I, are
possible.
• There is only one required balance plane at any critical speed,

since (at any critical speed) the entire rotor vibration is
controlled by any one active balance plane on the rotor.
" At off-critical speeds where the supports are flexible as compared

to the rotor, the rotor behaves as a rigid body and two balance
ii
N
N-1
W
@
C
O. 7
¢3
C
a
@
"0
C
@
O.
@
"0
_c
First Second Third Higher

Critical Critical Critical Critical
(Rigid Body) (Rigid Body) (Flexible Body) (Flexible Body)
Fi_. 1 Available Number of Balance Planes
12
planes are necessary. At these speeds, the rotor can be balanced
by counteracting the forces and moments due to imbalance. Two
balance planes provide the required two degrees of freedom.
" At off-critical speeds where the rotor is flexible, plane sepa-

ration exists for all balance planes (except for those in close
proximity to one another).
One approach to determine plane separation uses the influence coefficient

matrix. With this approach, separation among selected balance planes can
be assessed for different support flexibilities and speeds. Regions of
expected plane separation are then mapped as functions of support flexi-
bility and speed.
In addition to locating plane separation regimes, it is necessary to

determine the expected levels of rotor response. Low-speed flexible rotor
balancing is performed at off-critical speeds where response is usually
small; therefore, "responsiveness" must be assessed so as to determine
when the expected response is large enough to measure. In this way,
vibration probes can be selected that have the desired sensitivity.
Perform Influence Coefficient Balancing. Actual balancing is performed in

regimes where plane separation exists and response can be measured using a
multiplane influence coefficient balance method. One way to establish
specific low-speed flexible balancing regimes is to plot plane separation
and rotor responsiveness on a critical speed map. An example of such a
plot is shown in Figure 2. The solid lines on this figure show the
predicted first and second critical speeds as a function of support stiff-
ness. Speed ranges where plane separation and rotor responsiveness exist
are shown by cross-hatched and solid vertical bars, respectively. For a
given value of support stiffness, speeds where the cross-hatched and solid
bars overlap are the predicted low-speed flexible balance regimes.
TEST RIG DESCRIPTION
An empirical evaluation of the flexible rotor balancing method was

conducted using a rotordynamic test rig. The objective of this proof-of-
principle testing was to determine the effectiveness of low-speed, flexi-
ble rotor balancing in a controlled laboratory environment. Furthermore,
test hardware and test conditions were selected based on the fact that a
potential application of the method is for the HPOTP.
The test rig used for the empirical evaluation was originally designed to
simulate the power turbine of a gas turbine engine and included:
• Flexible shaft with an integral drive turbine and overhung disk

• Maximum speed of 24,000 rpm
• Two pairs of duplex ball bearings for shaft support
• Bearing pedestals with interchangeable support cartridges.
13
Plane Separation
104 Responsiveness
[- Flexible Balancing Regimes
A 5-
E
4
3 3- Second Mode
10
4)
Q -2 -- l- 7
(3.
First Mode
10=
I i 1 I I I I Jl
10 2 2 3 4 5 103 2 3 4 5 104
Support Stiffness (Ib/in.)

85612-1
Fig. 2 Typical Low-Speed Flexible Rotor Balancing Map
14
A schematic of the test rig shaft assembly is shown in Figure 3. This
assembly consists of a slender shaft with a disk attached to each end.
Both of these disks were originally designed to simulate inertias on a
power turbine. The smaller disk also serves as a drive turbine. Both of
these disks were also used as balance planes. There are two additional
balance planes along the slender shaft. These are integral rings with 12
flats, each flat having a radial hole for insertion of a balance weight.
The maximum amount of weight which can be installed in each hole of these
center balance planes is one gram.
The shaft assembly is supported on two duplex pairs of angular contact

ball bearings; their locations are shown in Figure 3. A schematic of the
bearing support pedestals is shown in Figure 4. The pedestals provide
bearing lubrication and cooling oil and were designed to accept inter-
changeable support cartridges.
The support cartridges used for the balancing evaluation are shown schem-
etically in Figure 5. As seen in this figure, the cartridges were
designed to accept spring washers so that different sized washers (i.e.,
wavy or belleville) could be used to achieve different support flexibili-
ties. The design values for support flexibility were selected using the
results of the test rig analysis discussed below. In particular, pedestal
support flexibilities of 2, 4, 20, and i00 thousand Ib/in. were required.
To design for the desired support stiffness values, a method for predict-
ing cartridge sti£fness based on individual washer stiffness was estab-
lished and the cartridge stiffnesses were calibrated. The calibration
procedure consisted of applying a compressive load through the center of
the cartridge assembly and measuring applied force and displacement.
Table 1 is a summary of the measured cartridge displacement as compared to
the predicted stiffness. These results show that the predicted and meas-
ured values of cartridge stiffness are in reasonable agreement.
The test rig was instrumented with a series of capacitance and eddy-
current displacement probes. The probe locations are shown in Figure 3.
The capacitance probes were used for balancing since they provide greater
accuracy than the eddy-current probes. The eddy-current probes were used
for initial debugging and for monitoring rig response during high-speed
operation. They were installed with a larger probe/shaft gap than the
capacitance probes so that there would be less risk of damage if large
shaft orbits were encountered.
TEST RIG ANALYSIS
The rig was analyzed to determine its critical speeds and to calculate the
low-speed flexible balance speed and stiffness regimes. A computer-drawn
plot of the analytical model is shown in Figure 6. One set of bearing
supports was selected to match the HPOTP critical speed mode shapes.
Figures 7 and 8 show that the predicted first and second critical speed
mode shapes for the HPOTP and for the test rig are similar - the first mode
being a "disk bounce" mode, and the second, a bending mode. In addition,
measured test rig mode shape data points are added to the lower plot on
15
OM&rt¢o
P_ne
Plalr,e Balance Balance
3 in.
VV i I j VV I
O Bearings
lO eeadngs
5 15 20
|dtiphlx pa|f|
IdupieN pail)
Rolor Length (in.)
86901
Fig. 3 Power Turbine Simulator Test Rotor
16
Preload Screw _ /- Sl:ring Support
artridge
Housing
Fig. 4 Bearing Pedestal
Support Plate -_ •Guide Pin /-Assembly Screw
Belleville Washer
(or Curved Washer)
Support Plate /
Hardened Washer / 856C11-1
Fig. 5 Spring Support Cartridge
17
Table 1
Measured Versus Predicted Cartridge Stiffness
Predicted Measured
Sprin& Number Stiffness (ib/in.) Stiffness (Ib/in.)
I 1200 1100
2 2333 2083
3 15466 13800
4 66876 85000
18
_a
! !'
U
.,-q
E
I
0
n,-
21"
!
8.
l
19
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF, POOR QUALITY
HPOTP ROTOR Mode Number 1" 11,537 rpm
'j
Za
w
|1 II • •
;
:_.oli ,= ,._ ,2._ ' ' 2B,_

RXIRL LOCRTION [ IN]
TEST RIG ROTOR Mode Number 1- 4,967 rlom
'I
G
¢_'R.
u.I
CZ
B
I I t ! 1 "_ ]
_.rmn 0.00 _ .QO 8.00 12 .GO I S.Otl 20.00
RX[I:IL LOCRTTON { IN]
86532
G Measured at 4,700 rpm
Fig. 7 HPOTP and Test Rig First Mode Comparison
2O
O_!C' ...... - -,C,E iS
OF _r.- ' ,,,_f_','v
HPOTP ROTOR Mode Number 2: 36,082 rpm
.L .L JL .L l .L / .I. .1. JL l
/.
I -L
• I I---- I I-- I I I I
_mm.o0
RXTI_. L_._ITTON (IN)
TEST RIG ROTOR Mode Number 2: 23,550 rpm
'j
m
u_
'r
i
i. I ! I _ I
o.oo ,o.nn #.oo 12.rn lli._O 2Q.QI) _ .00 28 .OO
RXTllL LOCRTION (IN)
85633
e Measured at 21,500 rpm
Fig. 8 HPOTP and Test Rig Second Mode Comparison
21
each figure. Mode shape measurements were made at the speeds indicated by
using the capacitance displacement probes. The measured data were normal-
ized and added to the predicted mode shape plots. There is good agreement
between the measured and predicted shapes for the first mode and excellent
agreement for the second mode.
The calibrated rotordynamic model of the test rig was used to analyze the
rig for application of the low-speed flexible rotor method. That is,
rotor responsiveness and plane separation of the rig were assessed for
different speed and support flexibility ranges. Two support configura-
tions which gave good potential low-speed balance "windows" were
selected. One used the supports that simulated the HPOTP mode shapes.
The other used supports that were more flexible on the disk end of the
rig. The low-speed flexible balance assessment for these two configura-
tion regions is shown in Figure 9.
The results presented in this figure were used to determine the actual
balance test points. For example, with the HPOTP mode shape simulator
supports, the low-speed flexible balancing window is predicted to begin at
approximately 8,000 rpm, since this is the l;vest speed at which the solid
and cross-hatched vertical bars overlap for these support stiffnesses.
TEST RESULTS
Table 2 lists the support stiffnesses and the predicted and measured crit-
ical speeds for each of the two rig configurations. For Test Configura-
tion I, support stiffnesses simulated the HPOTP mode shapes. The
objectives of the Configuration I tests were threefold --- to determine
the acceptability of 8,000 rpm as a balance speed, to determine whether it
is the lowest acceptable balance speed, and to compare low-speed flexible
balancing results with conventional high-speed balancing. To meet the
first two objectives, the rig was balanced at 8,000 rpm and at speeds
below 8,000 rpm. High-speed flexible rotor balancing techniques were then
used to balance the rotor to meet the third objective.
Figure i0 shows uncorrected rotor response (i.e., response before balanc-

ing) and response after balancing at 8,000 rpm. The post-balance response
is lower than the uncorrected rotor response at all speeds. Furthermore,
correction weights predicted with low-speed flexible balancing permitted
operation up to the maximum rig speed of 24,000 rpm, which is above the
first and second critical speeds.
To determine whether 8,000 rpm was the minimum speed at which successful
balancing could be performed, correction weights were predicted at speeds
of 2,500 rpm, 5,000 rpm and 7,500 rpm. When correction weights predicted
at 2,500 rpm were installed, response at all speeds was greater than
uncorrected rotor response, indicating a degradation in the state of
balance. For correction weights predicted at 5,000 and 7,500 rpm,

response was lower than uncorrected rotor response at low speeds, but the
maximum achievable speed was limited by high responses at approximately
16,600 rpm and 19,800 rpm, respectively. For example, Figure II shows the
results of balance weights predicted at 5,000 rpm. Thus, "correction"
22
Plane Separation
r
_t Ruponsiveneea
54
i,
3
r
¢n 10:t
I I l I I III l I I I Ill I I I i l I II
101 3 4 5 I0 ¢ 2 3 4 5 104 3 4 5 I0 ¢
t I
Totol Stlffnut to Ground xl Olek End (Iblln.)

Simulate HPOTP
(Total Sttffnen at Turbine End = 2 x Disk End)
Mode Shapes
85612-1
Fig. 9 Test Rig Low-Speed Flexible Rotor Balancing Map
23
Table 2
Test Rig Configurations
Confi_uration-I Confisuration II
Rig configured Co simulate HPOTP Rig configured to simulate HPOTP

mode shapes first critical speed location
Total Radial Support Stiffness Total Radial Support Stiffness
Turbine End Bearing = i00,000 lb/in. Turbine End Bearing = I00,000 ib/in.
Disk End Bearing = 20,000 lb/in. Disk End Bearing - I00,000 ib/in.
Critical Speeds (rpm) Critical Speeds (rpm)
Predicted Measured Type Predicted Measured Type
Ist 4,967 4,700 Flexible - ist 11,358 12,100 Bending -

Disk Disk
Bounce Precession
2nd 23,550 23,400 Bending -

Turbine
Precession
24
5.0 ] i | i i i i i
Uncorrected Rotor Response
¢R .... Low-Speed Flexible Balance

i
°i
E 4.0
"13
__ .,,ano______e
Sp______=_
_. 3.0
E
<_
o= 2.0
o.
e-
_ 1.0
0
I
0
.,000, ,000
1,,000,,000 30,000
85596 - 1
Speed (rpm)
Fiq. i0 Rig Configuration I: Balance at 8,000 rpm (4 planes)
5.0 I ! i i i i m , !
Uncorrected'Rotor Response ]
I
A
-. N Response with Correction Weight I
E 4.0
/I/
"10
_. 3.0 ,' /
E
<C /' /
J_
o 2.0
//#llt//
t,.
C
1.0 //
0
I •
_'J I v I I I I I I |
0 30 000
(_6,000 12,000 18,000 24,000
95597-1
Speed (rpm)
Fig. ii Rig Configuration I: Balance at 5,000 rpm (4 planes)
25
_eights predicted at speeds below 8,000 rpm did not permit operation above
the second critical speed. These results show that the low-speed flexible
balancing method predicted the minimum speed at which the rotor can be
balanced to permit operation through two flexible critical speeds.
The rotor was also balanced using conventional high-speed balancing at two
speeds. These speeds were 4,800 rpm and 16,000 rpm which correspond to
the first critical and close to the maximum uncorrected rotor speeds,
respectively. In this case (see Figure 12), it was possible to operate to
the maximum rig speed of 24,000 rpm. The results in Figures i0 and 12 show
that the quality of balance for the 8,000 rpm low-speed flexible balance
method is nearly equivalent to the high-speed balancing method.
A two-plane, low-speed rigid body balance was then performed and the
weights were installed in the rotor with Configuration I supports. These
correction weights produced little change in the first mode maximum ampli-
tude, and the maximum speed was limited to 20,000 rpm. Thus, for this
hardware, rigid body balancing is not effective for high-speed operation.
Results for rigid body, low-speed flexible and high-speed flexible

balancing are shown in Figure 13. The following conclusions can be drawn
from the data in this figure.
i. Rigid body balancing showed virtually no improvement at or above

the first critical.
.
High-speed flexible balancing results in the smallest residual
response, but it required bringing the rotor to 16,000 rpm during
the balancing process.
.
A satisfactory state of balance for operating above two flexible
modes (to 24,000 rpm) can be achieved with low-speed flexible
balancing. Also, the balancing speeds are significantly lower
than required for high-speed balancing (8,000 rpm compared to
16,000 rpm).
These results demonstrate the payoff of low-speed flexible balancing when

compared to rigid body and high-speed methods --- that is, a significant
reduction in balancing speed for satisfactory high-speed operation.
For test Configuration II, support stiffnesses of I00,000 ib/in, were

installed in each pedestal, and the correction weights predicted at
8,000 rpm from Configuration I were installed in the balance planes. The
pedestal stiffnesses were changed to simulate the location of the HPOTP
first bending critical speed. Installing weights predicted from
Configuration I allowed Configuration II to assess the effectiveness of
using out-of-housing, low-speed flexible balancing to minimize in-housing
high-speed response.
The balance results for Configuration II, which are shown in Figure 14,
indicate that before installing the correction weights, the maximum speed
was limited to approximately 9,000 rpm. After installing the Configura-
26
Uncorrected Rotor Response
A
03
1
°l High-Speed Balance
E "(_E)-" Balance Speed
(9
"10
1
¢3.
E
<:
¢D
J_
2
G.
e-
0
0 000 12,000 000 24,000 30,000
85594-1
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 12 High-Speed Balance (4 planes)
5.0 ! j
i
l j I I I J I
i
A I
03
1
.1
Uncorrected Rotor Response /
E 4.0
..... Rigid Body Balance I /
no
Low Speed Flexible Balance I /
"_
<
a.
E
¢1)
"
o
3.0
2.0-
-
t
c 1.0
G)
0 I
0 6,000 12,000 18,000 24,000 30,000
Speed (rpm) 853252-1
Fig. 13 Comparison of Rigid Body, Low-Speed

and High-Speed Balance Results
27
5.0 I I I I I I I I I
u_
----- Uncorrected Rotor Response
E .... Response with Configuration I Weights
4.0
(_ Balance Speed
"10
O. 3.0
E
<:
.i
¢3 2.0
E
pm
¢- 1.0
m
ol
I--
. ,,j'\
,, A I I l _"%-J-- .... I".... T .... I i
0
30,000
6,000(_) 12,000 18,000 24,000
Speed (rpm) 85604- I
Fig. 14 Rig Configuration II with Low-Speed Flexible

Balance Weights from Rig Configuration I
28
tion I weights (predicted at 8,000 rpm), it was possible to traverse the
first mode and operate up to a maximum rig speed of 24,000 rpm. These data
show that, for this system, the correction weights predicted using
low-speed flexible rotor balancing supports are satisfactory for other
supports. In terms of the HPOTP, this shows that out-of-housing low-speed
flexible rotor balancing may significantly reduce in-housing high-speed
response.
HPOTP LOW-SPEED FLEXIBLE BALANCING ASSESSMENT
The low-speed flexible rotor balancing method was analytically applied to

the HPOTP to determine the overall feasibility of using the method for
this turbopump. The evaluation method consisted of selecting the balance
planes, determining the plane separation, and determining responsiveness.
Balance plane selection was based on a review of HPOTP drawings and design
information, mode shapes, and plane availability. The main impeller, the
preburner impeller, and the first-stage turbine end were the three
locations selected for determination of plane separation, based on the
available planes and the critical speed mode shapes.
The low-speed flexible balancing method has been applied to the HPOTP
rotor for these three planes. Figure 15 shows, for different values of
speed and support flexibility, the regions where plane separation occurs
and where the rotor is responsive. The regimes where these two conditions
occur simultaneously are the low-speed flexible rotor balance regimes. As
shown in the figure, for a support flexibility of 1,000 ib/in., balancing
could be performed at a speed as low as 6,000 rpm. As flexibility
decreases, the speed at which successful balancing is predicted
decreases. In particular, for support stiffness values between 10,000
ib/in, and I00,000 ib/in., there are "windows" between the first and
second mode where low-speed flexible balancing regimes are predicted.
These occur where plane separation and rotor responsiveness coincide. The
lowest predicted balance speed in these regions is approximately 3,000 rpm
for a support stiffness of i0,000 ib/in.
In Figure 15, it is interesting to note that for support stiffnesses of

50,000 ib/in, and I00,000 ib/in., plane separation is predicted at very
low speeds. However, this figure also shows that for these speeds,
predicted response is below the measureable regimes. This demonstrates
that instrumentation sensitivity may be a key parameter for the low-speed
flexible balancing method. In particular, lower balance speeds will be
predicted for instrumentation with greater sensitivity.
CONCLUSIONS
A method for determining low-speed flexible balancing "windows" has been

established and demonstrated in the laboratory using a flexible rotor rig.
These "windows" are combinations of support stiffness, balancing speed,
and probe and balance plane locations which, when combined with probes of
sufficient sensitivity and a suitable existing balance weight computation
29
100
40 Thlrd Mode
20
10
1 2 4 6 10 20 4060 100 200 400 1000 4000
Stiffness (10 a Iblln.)

856o9-t
Fig. 15 HPOTP Low-Speed Flexible Rotor Balancing Map
30
method, allow true flexible rotor balancing to be performed at low speeds.
Major conclusions from the test data show that:
• Low-speed flexible rotor balancing is a viable technology.
• The quality of balance achieved with low-speed flexible rotor

balancing is roughly equivalent to high-speed flexible balancing.
• For the test rig used, successful low-speed balancing required

operation above the first mode.
• Balance speed/stiffness regimes predicted using the low-speed

flexible rotor balancing approach are generally consistent with
analytic predictions.
• Rigid body balance was found unacceptable for satisfactory

high-speed operation.
• Correction weights predicted using the flexible supports required

for low-speed flexible rotor balancing are acceptable for differ-
ent support stiffnesses.
These test results show that the low-speed flexible method can be used for
balancing at low speed to ensure smooth high-speed operation. Further-
more, by judicious implementation of this methodology, the range of
balance speeds can be controlled and the state of balance achieved can be
satisfactory for different flexibilities. Therefore, if applied to the
HPOTP, the low-speed flexible rotor method may provide a means for
low-speed, out-of-housing balancing, which results in smooth, high-speed
operation.
REFERENCES
l.
McQuery, D. E. "Understanding Balancing Machines." American Machin-
ist June ii, 1973.
. Muster, D. and Stadelbauer, D. "Balancing of Rotating Machinery."

Shock and Vibration Handbook Harris, C. and Crede, C., Eds., 2nd
Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill (1976): Ch 39.
. Tessarzik, J. M., et. al. "Flexible Rotor Balancing by the Exact

Point-Speed Influence Coefficient Method." ASME Paper No.
71-Vibr.-91.
.
Goodman, T. P. "A Least-Squares Method for Computing Balance
Corrections." Journal of Engineering for Industry Trans. ASME (Aug.
1964): 273-279.
. Zorzi, E. S., Giordano, J. C. and Lee, C. C. "A Unified Approach to

Balancing with Multiple Constraints." IFTOMM Conference on
31
Rotordynamic Problems in Power Plants, Rome: Italy, Sept.28 - Oct.2,
1982.
.
Giordano, J. C. and Zorzi, E. S. "HPOTP Low-Speed Flexible Rotor
Balancing, Phase I Final Report." Mechanical Technology Incorpo-
rated, Jul. 1985, 85TR28.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their appreciation to Mr. Chester Lee of Mechanical

Technology Incorporated for his assistance in formulating the low-speed
flexible rotor balancing method and to the NASA-Marshall Space Flight
Center for funding the proof-of-principle tests described in this paper.
32
n8 9 -.126 29|
THE EFFECTS OF INTERNAL ROTOR FRICTION

ON
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBOPUMPS
By
J. Walton
A. Artiles
J. Lund
C. Lee
Mechanical Technology Incorporated

Latham, New York
33
INTRODUCTION
Modern high speed turbomachinery designs are resulting in both higher power
densities and rotating speeds. These trends are yielding a class of designs
which operate above one or more bending critical speeds and may be made of
complex, built-up assemblies. Therefore, there are many joints, fits, and
areas for friction if slippage takes place. That internal friction forces
can cause catastrophic failure of a rotor system has been known since the
early 1920's based on the reported work of A. L. Kimball [i]. This and sub-
sequent work has shown the possibility of internal friction-induced insta-
bility, but little work has been completed which attempts to quantify the
magnitude of the destabilizing forces. It is important to understand the
magnitude of the destabilizing mechanisms in order to either incorporate the
appropriate external damping for control of the vibrations or to design to
minimize their effect. In this paper, an analytical model developed to de-
termine the stiffness and damping for an axial spline will be presented.
Following the analytical development, a series of parametric evaluations
showing the destabilizing effects of the axial spline on a supercritical ro-
tor system will also be presented.
THE STIFFNESS AND FRICTION OF A SPLINE COUPLING
To evaluate _he forces and moments transmitted across a spline coupling, the
lateral and angular stiffnesses without friction are first considered, to
which the frictional contributions are added later.
STIFFNESS
To evaluate the overall stiffness of a spline coupling, the stiffness of two
34
teeth in contact (shown in Figure I), is first considered. The loading on a
tooth is represented by the force, F, acting at the pitch circle under the
pressure angle, @. This force has tangential and radial components given
by:
Ft = F cos@, Fr = F sin@ (i)
such that the de-

The resulting deflection has the components _t and 6r
flection in the load direction becomes:
= _t COS@ - _r sin@ (2)
Each tooth may be treated as a cantilever beam, mounted in a flexible base
as shown in Figure 2. The tooth deflection is obtained as the sum of several
contributions: a)Bending of the tooth; b)Rotation of the base; and c)Radial
compression of the tooth.
First there is the bending of the tooth as a cantilever beam with a rigid
base. The bending moment at the distance r from the base is equal to Ft(h-r)
- Frb where b is half the width of the tooth at the pitch circle and h is the
tooth height at the pitch circle. With a cross-sectional area moment of in-
ertia, I, a cross-sectional area, A, an elasticity modulus, E, and an effec-
tive shear modulus, G, the slope of the bent tooth is:
_t r i
- _ -- [Ft(h-r')-Frb] dr' (3)
8r 0 EI
and the deflection at the pitch circle (r = h) becomes:
h r 1 h Ft
6t = _ _ -- [Ft(h-r')-Frb] dr'dr + _ --dr (4)
0 0 EI 0 GA
where the last integral is the contribution from shear deformation. The
slope causes a radial displacement at the pitch circle, given by:
35
i
6r = b
36t)
(-- = b _
h [Ft(h-r)-Frb] dr (5)
ar r=h 0 EI
Eqs. (4) and (5) shall be written as:
6t = 61tF t - 63tF r
(6)
6r = 61rF t - _3rFr
where :
h (h-r) z h i
61t = _ dr + _ dr (7)
0 EI 0 GA
h (h-r)
63t = 61r = b _ dr (8)
0 EI
h i
63r = b z [ -- dr (9)
0 EI
For a beam with constant cross-section, 61t = (h3/3El + h/GA) and
63t=61r=bhZ/2El and 63r=bZh/El. For a tooth, however, the cross-section
varies and integration is required to evaluate equations (7), (8) and (9).
A numerical procedure can be found in Ref. 2.
Next, there is the bending of the base which will be represented by a moment
stiffness, k M. In Ref. 2, page 77, a suggested value is:
kM = EAoBo/5.3 (i0)
where Ao is the cross-sectional area at the base of the toothy Bo is the
width at the base (A o = BoL where L is the length of the tooth), and E is the
modulus of elasticity.
The deflections at the pitch circle become:
36
h
6t - (Fth - Frb )
kM
(ii)
b
r - ( Fth - Frb )
kM
These equations shall be written as:
_t = 62t Ft - _4t Fr
(12)
6r = 62rF t - _4rFr
where:
62t = hZ/kM (13)
_2r = 64t = hb/kM (14)
64r = bZ/kM (15)
Finally, there is a radial compression of the tooth:
6r = 65rFr (16)
where:
1 h dr
+ f (17)
kc 0 EA
and k c is the radial stiffness of the base. The total deflection is the sum
of the separate contributions. By adding equations (6), (12), and (16), it
is found that:
6t = (61t+62t)Ft - (_ir+62r)Fr
(18)
_r = (61r+62r)Ft - (_3r+64r+_5r)Fr
The flexibility coefficients _it to _Sr include the contributions from both
of the teeth.
The deflection in the load direction is determined from equation (2) with
substitution from equations (i) and (18):
37
= [ (61t+62t)cosZ@ + (_3r+_4r+65r)Sinz_
-(_ir+62r)Sin2_ ] F (19)
Hence, the stiffness of two teeth in contact is:
K@ = F/6 (20)
= i/[ (61t+62t)cosZ@ + (63r+64r+65r)Sinz_
- (61r+62r)Sin25 ] (20)
Let the number of teeth be n and introduce a _-r]-_-coordinate system with
the _-axis coinciding with the rotor axis, as shown in Figure 3a. Tooth No.
j is located at the angle yj from the {-axis. If the relative lateral dis-
placements between the two coupling parts are A_ and An, the displacement
in the load direction becomes:
6j = -A_ sin(yj-_) + An cos(yj-_) (21)
The corresponding contact force is Fj = K@6 j. When projected into the two
axes and summed over all n teeth_ the result is:
-Fq = [. -Fj sin(yj-@)

j=l
n
= K_.[ [ A( sin z(yj_@) _ An cos (yj-_) sin(yj-_) ]
j=l
(22)
n
-F_ = [. -Fj cos(yj-_)

j=l
= K@ [ [ An cosZ(yj-_) - A_ cos(yj-_)sin(yj-_) ]
j=l
For evenly spaced teeth and n>3, the following indentities apply:
[ cosZyj = [. sinZyj = n/2

j=l
(23)
n
[ COSZyj sinZyj =
j=l
38
Thereby equation (22) can be written as:
F_ = -K L _, F_ = - KL _ (24)
where the lateral stiffness is given by:
EL = nK_/2 (25)
To determine the angular stiffness of the spline coupling, the tooth stiff-
ness per unit length shall be set equal to K@/Lwhere L is the axial length
of the teeth. The relative angular displacements between the two coupling
parts are A_ and A8, assigned at the center plane of the coupling ( _ and 8
represent the local slopes of the deformed rotor axis such that _ _ d_/d_
and 8 _ dn/d_). At the distance _ from the center plane, the displacement
in the tooth load direction is:
6j =°_ [ -_ sin(yj-_) + 48 cos(_j-_) ] (26)

The corresponding contact force, acting over an infinitesimal length d_,
is:
dFj = 6j (K@/L) d_
The associated bending moment at the center plane is _ dFj and integrated
over the length of the tooth, the resnlting bending moment becomes:
L/2 1
_ dFj = -- Lz K_ [ -&esin(yj-_) +_Scos(yj-_) ] (27)
-5/2 12
By summing over all teeth, the two components of the bending moment along
the axes become:
n LZK_
-M_ = [ &esin(yj-@) -AScos(yj-_) ] sin(yj-_)
j=l 12
(28)
n L2K@
-M R = [ [ -Aesin(yj-@) +&Scos(yj-_) ] cos(yj-@)
j=l 12
By making use of equation (23), the equations reduce to:
39
M{ = - K A be
(29)
M_ = - K A 48
where the angular stiffness is given by:
KA = L2nK_/24 = L2KL/12 (30)
It should be emphasized that this derivation, as also the one for the lat-
eral stiffness, tacitly assumes that all teeth are in contact and stay in
contact during the motion. The assumption implies that the prestress caused
by the steady torque is never completely relieved by the dynamic stresses
or, in other words, that the dynamic contact force, Fj, never exceeds the
steady contact force. This is the equivalent of the assumption of no back-
[ash in a torsional vibration analysis.
In practice, tolerance effects will prevent equal sharing of the load among
the teeth even to the point where some teeth may not be engaged at all. For
this reason, the number of teeth, n, which is used to compute the stiffness-
es, should be replaced by some effective number, based on tests and experi-
ence.
FRICTION
In addition to stiffness, the spline coupling will also have friction. In
the preceeding analysis, the tooth contact offers no resistance to motion
tangent to the surface and here sliding may take place. Under idealized
conditions, where the teeth share the load equally, the normal force equals
T/nRcos_ where T is the steady transmitted torque, R is the radius of the
pitch circle, n is the number of teeth, and _ is the pressure angle. Hence,
the friction force per unit length is _T/nRLcos_ where _ is the coefficient
of friction. It is directed opposite the local sliding velocity.
4O
From Figure 3, the velocity tangent to the tooth profile is:
(31)
vj = (A_+_Ae)cos(yj-@) + (A_+_AS)sin(yj-_)
The velocity in the axial direction at the pitch circle is:
wj = R (be cosyj + ASsinyj) (32)
where "dot" means time derivative. A side view of the tooth flank depicts
the situation in Figure 3b. The friction force from the infinitessimal
length d_ has radial and axial components given by:
_T vj
- d_
dFvj nRLcos_ /vj2+wj z
(33)
_T wj
dFwj - d_
nRLcos@ /vjZ+wj z
By integrating dFvj over the length, next projecting it onto the _ and N ax-
es and finally summing over all teeth gives the F_ and FN components of the
friction force. Similarly, by integrating _dFvj + RdFwj over the length,
projecting onto the axes and summing over all teeth gives the M_ and MN com-
ponents of the friction moment.
The procedure as such is straightforward and is readily implemented in a
time step integration of the motion• It is, however, cumbersome and results
in a non-linear coupling of the lateral and angular motions through the term
/(Vj2+Wj2). This appears to be an unwarranted complication considering the
uncertainties and approximations inherent in the idealized physical model.
Instead, a simplified model shall be adopted in which Vj is ignored such
that all the friction is taken up in the bending moment while the shear
force is unaffected. The principal justification is that the bending moment
plays a bigger role in the deformation of the rotor than the shear force•
41
Furthermore, in somespline coupling designs, the lateral motion may be re-
stricted by pilots. With Vj equal to zero, dFwj in equation (33) is readily

integrated to give:
_T
Fwj = sgn(wj) Ay (34)
2_Rcos@
where by = 2n/n. The corresponding components of the bending moment are:
-M_ = [ Fwj R COSy j

J
(35)
n
-M n = [ Fwj R sinyj
J
When the number of teeth, n, is sufficiently large, by in equation (34) can
be replaced by dy, and the summations in equation (35) replaced by inte-
grations over y_ such that:
_T 2_
-M_ - sgn(w) cosy dy

2_COS@ 0
(36)
UT 2_
-Mn - sgn(w) siny dy

2_cos_ 0
where :
sgn(w) = _+I when w>0 (37)

t -i when w<0
w is given by equation (32) as:
w = R ( Ae COSy + A8 siny )
(38)
= R¢(A_2+AS2)cosly-X)
where:
coscx) :
(39)
sin(X) = AS/I(A l+A8i)
42
Thereby it is seen that:
= /+I when k-_/2 < y < k+_/2 (40)

sgn(w)
- when _+z/2 < y < _+3_/2
The integrals in equation (36) are then computed as:
27
f sgn(w) cos(y) d7 = 4cosk
0
(41)
2_
sgn(w) sin(y) dy = 4sinl
0
Equation (36) reduces to:
2BT • •
-S{ - A_//(Aez+A8 z)
_cos_
(42)
2BT
- AB/¢CA +AB
_cos_
These should be added to equation (29) to obtain the total bending moment.
They apply in a coordinate system which is fixed in the spline coupling and,
therefore, is rotating with the angular speed, _, of the rotor.
TRANSFORMATION TO A FIXED REFERENCE FRAME.
To convert into fixed coordinates, an x-y-z-coordinate system, fixed on the
ground, is introduced, with the z-axis along the rotor axis (coinciding with
the _-axis). The relative lateral displacements between the two coupling
parts are Ax and Ay, and the relative angular displacements are AO and A_
(they give the slope of the deflected rotor axis such that e _ dx/dz and _
dy/dz). The corresponding shear forces are V x and Vy, and the bending mo-
ments are M x and My. The transformations between the two coordinate systems
are (See Figure 4):
43
be = b_ cos_t - _8 sin_t
(43)
b_ = be sin_t + _8 cos_t
A8 + _A_ = A_ Cos_t - AB sinRt

(44)
A_ - _A8 = Ae sin_t + A8 cos_t
Mx = M_ cos_t - Mq sin_t
(45)
My : M_ sin_t + Mq cos_t
By substituting equations (29) and equation (42) into equation (45) and by
making use of equations (43) and (44), it is found that:
2uT
-M x = KAb8 + bg2+ k2)
(46)
-My = KAb_ + (b¢-_AS)//(A=z+48z)

_cos_
where :
be 2 + A8 z = (bS+_A_) z + (A_-_A_) z (47)
Similarly, the shear forces become:
Vx = - KL bx
(48)
Vy = - KL by
The omission of a minus sign in both of equations (46) is due to the adopted
sign convention as shown in Figure 4. In the rotor model, the two parts of
the spline coupling are represented by two lumped mass stations, connected
by the contacting teeth• The relative displacements across the coupling
are:
AX = X2 - X I, by = Y2 - Yl
(49)
b8 = 82 - 81, b_ = _2 - _i
44
With these definitions, equations (46) and (48) can be used directly in a
rotor dynamics calculation. In the general case, numerical integration of
the equations of motion is required.
In the special case of a rotor in isotropic bearings, the whirl orbit will
be circular and equation (46) gives rise to a closed hysteresis loop de-
picted in Figure 6. The circular motion is given by:
AO = r cos mt A_ = r sin _0t (50)
where _ is a resonant frequency of the rotor and r is the "radius" in the or-
bit. The energy dissipated over one cycle is:
2_/_ . • 4uT
U = f (MxA@ + MyA_) dt = sgn(m-f_) r (51)

0 cos_
When _>c0, the energy becomes negative and the dry friction acts destabiliz-
ing. The whirl motion given by equation (50) is forward whirl. For a back-
ward whirl (change sign of A_) the dissipated energy will always be
positive. In the general case, the whirl orbit is elliptical, containing
both a forward and a backward whirl component, and the hysteresis loop will
not necessarily close.
ANALYTICAL RESULTS
Once the spline friction model was integrated into the rotorbearing nonline-
ar time transient dynamics code, a series of test cases were run to evaluate
the effect of the spline coupling on rotor system stability. For the first
of these test cases, a simple two-inch diameter shaft was used with a 24
inch bearing span and the spline centrally located (Figure 7). Table 1
45
lists the baseline case parameters all of which were then individually var-
ied, with the exception of the imbalance (Me).
Table 1: Spline Coupling Parameters
KL = 5.10 s Ib/in
KA = 5.10 s in-lb/rad
Me = 0.02 in-lb
Speed = 3.x10 _ r/min
Friction Torque = l.xlO s in-lb
KB = 5.10 s Ib/in
CB = 0.0 ib-sec/in
The results of the parametric variations are shown in Figures 8 through 12.
In Figure 8, it is seen that when running below the first bending critical
speed of 26,550 r/min, the rotor system is stable. However, when the rotor
is operated supercritically, a self excited instability results as ex-
pected. To control the instability demonstrated in Figure 8, two additional
cases were run where damping was included. Figure 9 shows that a small in-
crease in external bearing damping (C B = I0.0 ib-sec/in) only delayed the
onset of instability. A large increase in the external damping, however,
did demonstrate that the instability is indeed controllable. Returning to
the baseline case, the next parameter varied was the external bearing stiff-
ness (KB). As seen in Figure i0, increases in the bearing stiffness result
in reduced stability. This is most likely due to the increased bending en-
46
ergy stored in the shaft as a result of the stiffer bearings. Another im-
portant parameter that was investigated was the product of the coefficient
of friction and spline torque. As seen in Figure ii, increases in the fric-
tion torque product increase stability. This is most likely due to a lock-
ing up of the spline joint which would then limit the relative motion be-
tween the elements and thus reduce the internal friction effects. It should
also be noted that the growth in vibration amplitudes with time appears lin-
ear, especially for the low friction torque value. This is to be expected
since a coulomb friction model is used in the spline componentanalysis. In
the final parameter test cases, both the lateral (KL) and angular (KA)
spline joint stiffness were varied. Figure 12 presents the results of this
variation. As with the other cases, Figure 12 showsthat rotor system sta-
bility is affected by changes in the rotor system and particularly the
spline joint.
Following the parametic variation test cases, a simplified rotor system mod-
el of the SSMELOXTurbopump(Figure 13) was established including the pre-
burner spline. Table 2 presents the baseline parameters used.

Figure 14 showsthe results obtained from the time transient analysis. As
seen, regardless of the friction torque value no rotor system instability

was observed for this model, even though the rotor was operated well above
the first bending critical speed of approximately i0,000 r/min. Whenview-
ing the modeshape for the first critical speed, it becomesreadily evident
that relative motion between both sides of the spline are likely to be ex-
tremely small if not nonexistent. As a result, it would be highly unlikely

that rotor system stability would be adversely affected in this model.
47
Table 2: SSHETurbopumpSpline Coupling Parameters
KL = 5.xlO 6 Ib/in
K A = 5.xlO 5 in-lb/rad
Me = 0.02 in-lb
Speed = 3.x10 _ r/min
Friction Torque = 2xlO _ in-lb
K B = l.xl06 ib/in
C B = 1.0 ib-sec/in
Further work in this area is continuing with the development of internal
friction models to represent both the interference fit and curvic coupling
joints. With the completion of these additional models, a complete LOX Tur-
bopump rotor system analysis will be performed. In addition, efforts are
currently underway to characterize the coefficients of friction experienced
under small aplitude oscillatory motion at a range of frequencies, temper-
atures, and normal loads. These tests will be followed by non rotating mo-
dal testing to assess the validity of the basic component models developed
prior to the rotordynamic verification tests.
48
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge Mr. George von Pragenau of NASA Mars-
hall Space Flight Center for his active support. This work was performed
under NASA contract NAS8-35601.
REFERENCES
i. Kimball, A.L., "Internal Friction Theory of Shaft Whirling," General
Electric Review, Vol. 27, 1924, p. 244.
2. Marmol, R.A., "Engine Rotor Dynamics, Synchronous and Nonsynchronous
Whirl Control," U.S. Army Report: USARTL-TR-79-2, February 1979.
49
Pressure Ang - -- .......... Itc..h.Cln:l.....
Figure 1. Axial Spline Teeth in Contact
r-- I
a) Bending b) Rotation C) Compression
Figure 2
Components of Tooth Flexibility
50
(a) Cross-sectional view
Pitch Circle
M_
_B Mn
Midplane
Axis of
Rotation
L/2 _I_ I./2
---!-+" t
--_--- L----,,.
R
(b) Side View (c) Top View
Figure 3
Tooth Geometry and Coordinate System fixed on the Rotor
51
Y
_f
x
B, Mn
Figure 4
Transformation from Rotating to Fixed Coordinate Systems
XI
KL
Pert 2
Part I Mx KA ("_
Vx Ft
II
Figure 5
Schematic of the Parts of the Rotor Interconnected

by the Spline Coupling Model.
52
/
I
/ i
/ I
I
I f
Ae
Figure 6
Hysterisis Loop in the Plane of Transmitted Moment Versus

Relative Deflection Across the SDline for a Circular Orbit
53
SI:LINE COUPL INO
INC_
-2._ 0.oo 2._0 q._ 6._ (l.O0 tO.e0 12,_0 PF.O0
I J , I I t t f l I
! q
I i ] I !
O.CI:) 2.00 4.00 S.O0 8.00 )O.OO 12.00 lq..O0
AXIAL LOCATION ( IN]
Figure 7
Geometry and Mode Shape Plot for Simple Rotor with Spline Coupling
54
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF. POOR QUALITY
SPEED PARAMETER
.t_oo
.m
151. ]NP 151 • ZNP
.,_D0 o .2_¢1
'7
@
o
x
°,_.
m 8ooo ._ ._ _ _ ._ ._-,
X RHP (XLO "z ] TINE (SEC)
8,000 RPM
z.m l.aog
152. INP ISZ.INP
.m
-.m ..ma
-i ._QO0
X _ rIME ISEC)
10,O00 RPM
30,000 RPM
Figure 8
Time Transient Response as a Function of Speed
55
EXTERNAL DAMPING PARAMETER
_-__ _ °1_'_' t/11
• /
0.0 Ib-sec/In
\ 1.0OO
.ago , [NP \ S?t Z42. ] NP
I0.0 Ib- $ec/in
1.000
l,mm 143.INP
L43.INP
.,ran
o1
).
-SO0
100. tb-sec/in
Figure 9
The Effect of External Damping on Rotor Stability
ORIG_NAL PAGE iS
56 .OF..POOR QUALITY
ORIGfNAL PAGE iS
OF POOR QUALITY
BEARING STIFFNESS PARAMETER
1.,ooo 1.ooo
lll.ll_' III,INP
.Ill
°.ill
5xi0 4 Ib/in
/Y" _ "_'=I
_ lln
• Ill"_ ' •
5x10 5 Ib/In
=rn
ol
_i.=,,
°.ira0
5x 10 8 Ib/in
Figure I0
The Effect of External Bearing Stiffness on Rotor Stability
57
FRICTION TORQUE PARAMETER
'= '=l =_i_N_ ,ill'if
._100
. j
,.. _ ,0= _._,=_
104 in-lb
x __ __=_ ,,,N, Jllll

=m
• _.OlM
105 in-lb
|,_ol,o
L33. IN,= I.m=
133.1NP
.Ira
.am
old
_.,,- _i=.
>.
g
-.mid
°.Boa
-i ,ooo.
°i JM i i
x _e _ ""_' _,E "0'=
(5EC) '_= "'-'
10 0 in-lb
Figure ii
The Effect of Friction Torque on Rotor Stability
58 ORIGINAL PAGE IS
DE POOR QUALITY
0_,_"_":,'!LPAGE IS
eoo Ou.aJ.jT (
SPLINE STIFFNESS PARAMETER
J.O60
_PLL21.INP
/ ,t._O
gcrl .o_i.ouo 5PL121 • INP

>.
-suo o._
° I .o¢o , - t ,llllD
• OB_lq
X _IP
KL " 5x104 Ib/In KA " 5x104 In-lb/rad
K L " 5xlO 5 Ib/in KA " 5x105 in-lb/rad
1.0_
123.1NP J.ooo 123.1NP
.SOB .500
O_
>.
-,WO -.500
-I ,OO1 - I .ooo
-I qOO
-. • _lh3 ,_rJ0 i,oo0 .ooou ,O300 rl_rJ J ,,?,uf_ ,t2 .j_d_}
x P_P liME IgECJ
K L " 5x108 Ib/in KA - 5xlO6in-lb/rad
Figure 12
The Effect of Spline Coupling Stiffness
59
5_rE ROTOR 5 IHU_T_R
O.OO ,.00 e.oo LI_._ t,.oo =,.co _.oo 20.00

i I f i L t f I I
:;r't
.00 O.OO 4.00 8.00 12.00 ]6.00 20.00 24.00 2B.OO
QX!AL LOCATION (IN)
Figure 13
SSME Turbopump Rotor Model and Mode Shapes
60
FRICTION TORQUE PARAMETER FOR HPOTP
l.nnn
[ • INP L.INP
.500 _.SQO
:,<
x
--0100
>.
@ uo0 _
- ,BIOQ
°,_
-i._W
-I.OOa -._ .= ._ ,._ _ .,_ ._,, ._6',= ,4, ._

X RMP (XIO -e ] TI_ (5ECI (XlO "n ]
20,000 in-lb
2.INP 2.1NP
e=
O.eO0
x
o
:,<
u_U
-.M
-i.o_ - 1.0_
°! .0go
X _ {110 "_ ; T{HE {SECJ
2,000 in-lb
1.000 I.OOG
.INP .INP
l=
o_
x
C:)
x
--.till
@ ko
.0_
-.60O IL - ,SO0
-I .Om
-I ._mn
100 in-lb
Figure 14
The Effect of Preburner Spline Friction Torque on SSME

LOX Turbopump Response.
61
N89-12630
Efficient Transient Analysis Methodsfor the Space Shuttle

Main Engine (SSME) Turbopumps
S.T. Noah*, U.J. Fan*, Y.-S. Choi* and T. Fox**
Abstract
Effective procedures are presented for the response analysis of

the SSME turbopumps under transient loading conditions. Of particular
concern is the determination of the nonlinear response of the systems
to rotor imbalance in presence of bearing clearances. The proposed
methods take advantage of the nonlinearities involved being localized
at only few rotor/housing coupling points.
The methods include those based on alternative integral formula-

tions for the incremental solutions involving the transition matrices
of the rotor and housing. Alternatively, a convolutional representa-
tion of the housing displacements at the coupling points can be util-
ized to an advantage.
For purposes of assessing the numerical integration results for

the nonlinear rotor/housing systems, an FFT-based harmonic balance
procedure is being developed to enable determining all possible har-
monic, subharmonic and nonperiodic solutions of the systems. A brief
account of the Fourier approach is presented.
*Mechanical Engineering Dept.

Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas 77840
USA
**NASA Marshall Space Flight Center

Huntsville, Alabama 35812
USA
62
INTRODUCTION
The dynamic transient response analysis of the SSMEturbopumps is

essential for further development and prediction of the engine perfor-
mance under various load levels and required maneuvers. Childs [I]
conducted numerical analysis for critical speed-transitions of the
HPOTP. A rubbing condition was predicted for that earlier configura-
tion at the turbine floating-ring seals during shutdown. More recent-
ly, Childs [2] concluded a series of studies concerning the develop-
ment of a reliable RPL engine and a description of new problems which
are being encountered in developing FPL performance. The analysis was
based on a model method developed earlier by the sameauthor [3]. The
method takes advantage of the modal representation in constructing
reduced size models based on truncated set of rotor modes at zero
running speed and of housing modes. Childs [2] demonstrated that
although a linear transient analysis remains an efficient procedure
for general characterization of the turbopump's rotor-dynamics, non-
linear analysis is essential. An important case considered by Childs
is that of the effect of the radial clearances provided at the outer
races of the bearings. The results of the nonlinear analysis showeda
significant reduction in the subsynchronous rotor motion. More sig-
nificantly, the bearing clearances can drop the peak-vibration running
speed into the operating range where the synchronous whirling loads
might pose a serious threat to bearing life.
For large complex rotor systems, such as the SSMEturbopumps,

various modeling and analysis techniques vary in their ability to
accurately describe the systems' behavior. This ability mainly
depends on the configuration of the systems analyzed and on the for-
cing conditions. In rotating components, this also involve whether
the rotating speed is constant or varying with time. A hybrid repre-
sentation by various types of coordinates and formulation for the
various componentsof the systems may prove valuable.
Different procedures have been utilized by analysts to determine

the transient response of large order rotor systems. The procedures
can be recognized as falling under one of two basic approaches. Those
using physical or modal coordinates of the complete system and those
using the coordinates of the individual componentsof the system. The
methods also differ in the numerical integration methods selected for
the analysis.
Rouch and Kao [4] employed Guyan (static) reduction method to

arrive at a reduced size model in terms of the remaining physical
coordinates. Accuracy of the results could be expected to be accept-
able since the rotor is basically a train of mass-stiffness subsys-
tems. Nordmann [5] attempted to minimize the inaccuracy of static
63
condensation by applying the static reduction technique to an arbi-
trarily substructured rotor system and then assemble the reduced sub-
structures to form a reduced system. The procedures is very laborious
and no guarantees of accuracy are apparent.
Childs [5] utilized free-interface modes of the various system
components to represent the assembled SSMEturbopumps. The method,
using fourth order Runge-Kutta integration, but does not provide for
accommodatingaccurate modal representation of the large housing model
while maintaining a small size for the model. Nelson et al. 17] on
the other hand used fixed-interface complex componentmodes to assem-
ble a reduced size model. For systems with large number of coupling
points among the components, the approach suffers the problem of
introducing higher frequencies resulting from excessive number of
constraints imposed at the coupling (or boundary) points. In a tran-
sient analysis, this will necessarily result in much smaller time
increments and consequently, will lead to excessive computational time
and larger round-off errors.
For nonlinear large rotor systems, only a few analysts have pre-
sented techniques for the general transient analysis of such systems.
Adams[8] used a normal moderepresentation for the rotor in terms of
its undamped, free symmetric modes and treated gyroscopic and non-
linear terms as pseudo-external loads. The method presented by Childs
[6] makes use of a similar procedure to couple the rotor to its flex-
ible housing. Nelson et al. [7] developed a general computer code for
the transient analysis of large rotor systems. The user may utilize
time-step integration in the constrained-rotor (fixed-interface) modal
space. Again, all connection points, including those at the non-
linearities must be constrained, leading to the same shortcomings
described previously.
None of the above studies have adequately addressed the problems

of attempting to use reduced size, accurate models and the associated
efficiency of computation. A judicious selection of the system con-
figurations and the numerical methods is essential for achieving the
required efficiency while maintaining acceptable accuracy.
In this study, integration methods based on the transition
matrices [9] of the separate rotor and housing are used to efficiently
determine the nonlinear transient coupled system response under imbal-
ance forces and in presence of bearing clearances. Pragenau [i0]
utilized the transition matrix for integration, stating that it offers
the simplicity of the Euler method without requiring small steps.
Pragenau maintained that for constant subsystems, the stability and
accuracy of the method are acquired through the closed form solution
of the transition matrix.
64
Alternatively, a discretized Duhamel [9] (convolution) integral
method can be used to an advantage to represent the response at the
housing coupling points to the rotor. Kubomura[11] used a convolu-
tion based method to achieve dynamic condensation of a substructure to
its coupling points to other structures. Convolution was also used in
[12,13] to reduce system coordinates to that of the nonlinearities.
Along with the response analysis in presence of bearing clearance

under imbalance forces, a numerical harmonic balance method is devel-
oped toward verifying possible steady state synchronous and subsyn-
chronous rotor response. This is essential to ensure that no possible
potentially damaging solution is missed due to unfortunate selections
of particular initial conditions. The harmonic method locates all
possible periodic solutions. The method is briefly presented here as
applied to a modified Jeffcott model.
THETURBOPUMP
MODEL
Housing
The modal equations of the housing in the X-Z, Y-Z planes in
terms of a truncated set of its modal coordinates {qH}, normalized
with respect to the mass matrix, can be written as [14,15]
oo } + ['2 _H AH']
½ {qH (1)
{qH o } + ["A H"] (qH } = [AHc]T (FH}
where _H and A H are the modal damping coefficients and natural fre-
quencies, respectively, FH is the vector of coupling forces to the
rotor, including the balance piston axial force. The axial force is a
function of the axial displacement and velocity as well as the spin-
ning speed. The coupled physical displacements in the X and Y direc-
tions at the coupling points to the rotor are given by
(2)
{WH} = {X} = [AHc ] {qH}
where [AHc] is the normalized modal vectors, with respect to the

mass matrix, associated with the coupling points.
Rotor
As in the case of housing, the symmetric-rotor equations of

motion may be written in terms of a truncated set of modal coordinates
{qR } of the free-free nonspinning, undamped rotor as
65
O0 0
{qR } + [D R] (qR } + [rR] {qR } = [ARcIT(F_ + P_} (3)
where D R and! F R are nondiagonal matrices which are speed $, depen-

dent, and PR is the imbalance
T
forces which are, in general, functions
of _ and "_ The vector FR represents the interaction forces with the
housing such as the bearing, seal, side loads (which are functions of
$), etc. the physical displacements at these coupling points are
given by
X ,T
(4)
YR 0 ARC
Interaction Forces
The coupling forces between the housing and rotor can be

expressed as (see Fig. I) [13]
o o
- {FH} = [C] {WH} + [K] {WH} - [C] {WR} - [K] {WR} (5)
and {FR} = {FH} (6)
where [C] and [K] involve direct and cross coupled stiffness and damp-
ing forces as well as spinning velocity dependent coefficients. The
coefficients of the bearing forces allow for presence of clearances
(deadbands).
TRANSITION MATRIX FORMULATIONS
The rotor's modal equations of motion are written in the first

order form
{OR} : [mR] {UR} + {FR} (7)
where
{UR} = {_R} [%1 = [o _ l (8)

, _ PR -D R
66
and
(9)
{F R} = {ARcT{F_ + P_}}
Similar first order equations can be written for the housing.
The solution of equations (7) and the analogous ones for the
housing in terms of the associated transition matrices of the rotor
and housing takes the form [9]
(U(t)} = e [_]t {U(0)} + O ft e[_](t-_){F(_)} dZ (I0)
This representation can be cast in discretized form as
ti+ I [_](ti+l-t)
{Ui+l } = e[=]T{ui } + t{ e (F(t)} dt (11)
where {U i} E {U(ti)} and T = ti+ 1 - ti (12)
The force vector in eq. (11) can be either treated as (i) con-
stant within a small time increment T or (ii) a linear function of
time. Clearly, the linear representation would result in more accuracy
for a given increment T. An assumption of a step load (constant load
within an increment) allows equation (11) to be written in the simple
form
{Ui+ 1} = [_(T)] {U i} + ([_(T)] - ['I-]) [_]-I {Fi} (13)
[_]T
where [_(T)] = e , {F i} = {F(ti)} (14)
= _ Tn
e[_]T _ n--_ [=]n (15)
n=0
0= Tn n]
so that (_(T) -I) [_]-i = T[['I-] + _ (n+l)! [_] (16)
n=l
Both expressions in (15) and (16) converge very rapidly for small
increment, T, and when used as above (constant [=]), need only be
67
calculated once for the entire time response history of the coupled
rotor/housing system.
A more efficient algorithm can be constructed by representing the

coupling forces as linear functions of time within each increment T,
or
t -- t,
1
{F(t)} = {Fi} + T ({Fi+1}- {Fi}) (17)
Using this representation, the solution (11) may take the form
{Ui+ I} : [_]{U i} +([_] - [I] [a-l]){{Fi} + [ -1] {Fi+I}-{Fi}T }
-I
- [_ ] [{Fi+1} - {Fi}] (18)
An incremental solution using equation (18) for the Rotor and a simi-
lar matrix equation for the housing, along with equations (5) and (6)
in first order form, can be employed to construct the response time
history of the turbopump considered. The particular recurrence proce-
dure used will depend on the type of transient response sought as well
as on the accuracy versus computational time tradeoffs. Some discus-
sion of the computational procedure is presented in a later section.
Use of the Convolution Integral
An efficient incremental representation of the housing displace-

ments can be achieved using the convolution integral. As with the
transition matrix formulation, the coupling forces are treated as
external loads on the housing and may be assumed linear in time for
every increment T. The response at any time t is given for zero
initial conditions, using equation (1), as
t
. I -_n_n(t-z)
= E CJofI e sin _d(t-_). ] [AHc] T{F H (%)}d%

(19)
where _d is the damped natural frequency of the nth mode.
To enhance the accuracy of the modal representation of the hous-

ing, the deleted higher housing modes can be approximately accounted
68
for through the residual flexibility corresponding to these modes, or
at any time t,
{W H} = [AHc] {qH } + [G H] {F H} ,
(20)
where [GH] is the residual flexibility matrix corresponding to the

coupling points on the housing's nth mode of the uncoupled housing.
For the purpose of demonstrating the method in simpler terms,

consider the generalized housing coordinate of the undamped nth mode
t
qn(t ) = i_ f sin _0n(t-_ ) Pn(_) d_ (21)
Wn o
where Pn(Z) is the unknown modal coupling force. If the force is

assumed linear in time within each increment, the generalized dis-
placement in equation (21) due to a coupling force applied between
ti and ti+ I is given by
1 fti+ 1 (en(t i) + __-t (Pn(ti+l)-en(ti))sin Wn(t-_)d_ (22)

qn(t) -
wn ti T
After some manipulation, the integration in equation (22) can be

written in closed form in terms of the unknowns Pn'S as
I
qn(t) = 2 {cos aht IPn(ti+l) cos _hti+l - Pn(ti) cos _nti
o0n
Pn(ti+l) - Pn(ti)
(sin _nti+l - sin Wnti) )
_0n
+ sin Wnt (Pn(ti+1) sin O0nti+ 1 - Pn(ti) sin Wnt i
Pn(ti+l ) - Pn(t)l
+ (cos U_nti+ I - cos _0nti))} (23)
_n
69
i {A(i) B(i)
or qn(t) = 2 cos cont + sin cont} (24)
_n
The total response at time t due to the contribution of the coupling

forces from zero to time t = N.T. is
N
12 [cos con NT _. A (i) +
qn(t) = i
_n i=0
N
sin con NT _. B_ i) ] (25)
i+0
The generalized velocity can be expressed as
• N N
qn(t ) _ I [cos conN.T _ B (i)- sin con N.T _ A (i)] (26)
con i =0 i =0
The generalized displacements and velocities of the rotor in incremen-

tal form are given previously in the form of equation (18). Equations
(18)_ (26), (5) and (6) can be readily employed to calculate the
response time history for the coupled rotor/housing system•
Computational Procedures and Results
Various alternative procedures have been explored for the effi-

cient implementation of the integral formulations based on the transi-
tion matrices and the convolution integral• Although studies are
continuing to fully make use of the computational advantages offered
by these formulations, the following appears to be the most attractive
to date.
For both the transition and convolution methods, a linearized

representation of the coupling forces (including those at the bearing
deadband) are utilized. Equations of the form of (18), (25) and (26)
are used along with the coupling forces relations given by (5) and
(6). If the rotor system is linear, the forces are expressed in terms
of the displacements at the coupling points. The system is then
represented by a simultaneous system of equations involving the hous-
ing and rotor coupling coordinates so that at each increment of time
{Wti+l} = {f(Wti , Ft_}. (27)
70
where f stands for a function.
Another alternative which proves to be very effective specially

in presence of the bearing deadband nonlinearity is by again using a
linear force within each time increment, but including an iterative
procedure at each time step. The iteration work as follows:
The coupling forces at time ti+ 1 are predicted as follows:
Predict the response at the coupling point as
W ti+ I = f (Wti ' Fti ) (28)
Then predict the forces at ti+ 1 from
(29)
Fti+1 = f' (WHi+I ' WRi+I)
Finally, reiterate to get the displacement at ti+ 1 as
(30)
W ti+ 1 = f" (WHi ' WRi , Fti+ 1)
Convergence to acceptable accuracy occurs rapidly.
The efficiency of the convolution formulation can be greatly

enhanced by utilizing a Taylor series expansion for the displacements
at time ti+ 1 in terms of the displacements and their derivatives at
ti, or
= + (ti+ 1 - ti)
Wti+ 1 Wt i Wt i
1 oo 2
+ _ Wti (ti+ 1 - t i) (31)
For linearized coupling force representation involving both Fti .and

Ft ., the force F+ is predicted using the above expresslon.
The i+ _esulting value _i+i
is entered in the right-hand side of the current
convolution expression for W t . This method is found to be very

i+I i
effective when applied to structura± models. It is yet to be applied,
along with a transition matrix representation to a rotor system.
71
Both the step force (eq. 16) and linear force (eq. 18) formula-
tions using the transition matrices of the separate rotor and housing
were applied to the HPOTP. the computational procedure represented by
equations (28), (29) and (30) proved most effective.
NUMERICAL HARMONIC BALANCE METHOD
A method is developed [16] in order to check all possible nonlin-

ear responses of simple rotor systems under periodic imbalance load in
presence of bearing clearances, rubbing, seal forces, side forces and
others. The method requires the spinning speed of the rotor to be
constant so that the model is represented by an autonomous system of
nonlinear equations. The developed method is a modification of that
due to Yamauchi [17]. The method is being extended to more general
rotor systems with local nonlinearities.
The procedure developed in [16] is based on a numerical harmonic

balance method using an FFT algorithm. The modified method presented
here uses discrete Fourier transformation and its inverse. This
transformation, rather than an FFT procedure was utilized in order to
reduce computational time and errors. This is achieved by calculating
the complex exponential values at the beginning of computation and
then store them in active memory for subsequent calculations. A brief
account of the method and some results obtained for the response of
the modified Jeffcott rotor system selected for the analysis is out-
lined in what follows. The details of the method and the results are
given in [16].
The Rotor Model
A horizontal Jeffcott rotor of constant spinning speed _, is

whirling around its axis under an imbalance force. The rotor bearings
have deadband clearance 6 with their support. The equations of motion
of the rotor relative to the inertial frame Y-Z can be written as
oo • 6
My + Csy + KsY + Qs z + Kb(y-y ) (32a)
/ 2 2
y + z
6
- _ Kb(Z - z ) = Me_2cos_t + Mg
/ 2 2
y + z
72
oo •
Mz + CsZ + KsZ - QsY + Kb(Z - z ) , (32b)
/y2 + z2
+ _ Kb(Y - y ) = Me_2sin_t
/ 2 2
y + z
where the bearing forces, associated with Kb, vanish whenever
/y2+z2 < 6
in which M and K b are the mass of the disk and the bearings' stiffness
(including that of the shaft) respectively so that Mg is the weight of
the rotor in the negative Y direction• The seal's direct and cross
coupling stiffnesses are denoted by K s and Qs, respectively. The
coefficient of friction due to rub at the bearing is _ and the rotor
mass eccentricity is e, as measured from the disk center.
The equations are cast in nondimensional form using the deadband

6 as the reference displacement and the natural frequency of the
undamped system with "6=0" as the reference frequency, so that
Y - Y Z - z Q - m (33)
6 ' 6 ' _n
The time is nondimensionalized by the scaling factor v, to read
ve = _t (34)
so that v is the subharmonic order sought.
The Steady State Solutions
The steady periodic solution of the nondimensional form of Eq.

(32) (see ref. [16]), including any subharmonic, superharmonic and
harmonic vibration can be written as the Fourier series
N
Y(_) = ay 0 + 2 _ (ay n cos ne - by n sin ne) (35a)
n=l
73
N
z(e) = az0 + 2 _ (azn cos ne - bzn sin ne) (35b)
n=l
where N is the number of harmonics to be taken into account under the

assumption of small frequency bandwidth in the final solution. In the
same way, the time series representation of the nonlinear bearing
force, which occurs only when the deadbandis closed, can be expressed
as Fourier series of the form.
N
G(e) = Cy0 + 2 _ (Cyn cos nO- dyn sin he) (36a)
n=l
N
F(O) = Cz0 + 2 _ (Czn cos n9 - dzn sin nO) (36b)
n=l
Since these nonlinear bearing forces are consequenceof the existence

of a deadband in the system. The Fourier coefficients of nonlinear
restoring forces are the function of the Fourier coefficients of
steady periodic solution. Substituting Eq. (35), and Eq. (36) into
the nondiminsionalized equations corresponding to equation (32) and
applying a harmonic balance procedure yields 4N + 2 nonlinear simul-
taneous equations, involving 8N + 4 unknowns.
Another set of 4n + 2 equations will have the relationship

between the Fourier coefficients of nonlinear bearing forces and those
of steady-state periodic solution. This relationship can be found by
determining Y(e), Z(0) from the Fourier coefficients of steady state
periodic solution using the discrete inverse Fourier transformation
N-1 i(21_kr/n)
xr = Real ( _ Xke ) (37)
k=O
Using the expression for the nonlinear bearing force, its discrete
time series can be found. The inverse discrete Fourier transformation
of the time series solution for the nonlinear bearing forces can yield
their Fourier coefficients. The resulting nonlinear simultaneous
equations can be handled using a Newton-Raphson iteration method by
which an incremental procedure is used to determine the value of the
next iteration as follows. Let
S = S ° + AS , (38)
74
where S represents all the Fourier coefficients of the steady state
solution, and the superscript o denotes current state and AS stands
for their increments during one step iteration. Similarly, the Four-
ier coefficients of the nonlinear restoring force terms are expressed
as
B = B° + AB (39)
so that
4N+2
AB = _ _B° (40)
n=l _S---n ASn
in which the partial derivatives are to be calculated at the current

state value. In order to account for the large nonlinearity in the
system, the increments, AS n, must be chosen comparatively smaller than
S n whenever numerical differentiation is performed.
Plugging Eq. (38), Eq. (39), and Eq. (40) into the relationships
obtained involving the coefficients an, bn, cn and ao, b o, c° results
in
[K] {Ax} = {R} (41)
where [K] corresponds to the Jacoblan matrix whose elements are calcu-
lated at every step. this iteration is continued until all the compo-
nents of the correction vector {R} become sufficiently close to zero.
The Harmonic Balance Numerical Results
The frequency response results using the numerical harmonic bal-

ance procedure demonstrate good agreement with those of the direct
numerical integration method [16]. As an example, a comparison
between the subharmonic and harmonic motions in the Y-Z plane can be
made from the results presented in Fig. 2. The radius of the shaft
center traces circular paths in a harmonic response case or otherwise
has the more complicated shapes and possibly a larger radius, a less
desirable behavior in rotating machinery.
The existence of second-order subharmonic resonances are probed

for_various values of the nondimensionalized side force factor _ =
g/mn_ (Fig. 3). The figure shows subharmonic vibration not to exist
for either zero or comparatively large _ values. This is so since
only symmetric motion is maintained in these cases. Fig. 3 also shows
that a smaller _ value results in subharmonic response within a
broader frequency range. The choice of a smaller clearance or a
75
softer bearing stiffness can therefore reduce the possibility of a
damaging resonance.
USE OF COMPONENT MODE METHODS
A modified fixed-interface component mode procedure of Glasgow

and Nelson [18] was applied to a generic rotor system with flexible
casing. The multi-rotor considered is assumed to be coupled to its
housing through bearings. A clearance is assumed to exist in one of
the bearings. The modified analysis procedure is done as follows.
The rotor and housing are coupled at their connection points (bear-
ings) except at the bearing with deadband.
The eigen parameters of the coupled system are obtained with the
rotor and housing fixed at the location of the deadband. The coupled
system is then represented by a truncated set of these modes plus a
static constrained mode [18] corresponding to the degrees of freedom
at the location of bearing clearance.
The fixed-interface component method as applied here proved to be

more accurate for the same total combined number of dynamic and static
modes of the system. This is so since the method as modified above
allows including more numbers of dynamic coordinates of the case and
rotor in the analysis. The modified method becomes more efficient in
cases where interaction forces occur at relatively large numbers of
locations between the rotor and housing.
The modified approach would allow first coupling the housing and
rotor using more numbers of modes than currently being used, then
reduce the number of modes of the resulting coupled system.
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.
Hybrid component representation and numerical incremental proce-
dures for the transient response analysis of complex rotor sys-
tems can lead to more efficient methods.
. The explicit integration methods based on the transition matrices

and convolution can be very effective in determining the trans-
ient response of large flexible rotor/housing systems such as the
SSME turbopumps. The methods are particularly efficient in cases
concerning constant spinning rotor speeds and in presence of
bearing deadband clearances. More work is, however, still needed
to exploit and further develop the methods to their fullest
potential.
76
. A modified fixed-interference component mode method could be used
to construct a reduced size rotor/housing system which is more
accurate than that of the original method [18]. The modification
concerns the use of smaller number of connection points as the
fixed interfaces of the system. Similarly, the hybrid coupling
method of McNeal [19] could be extended for application to rotor
systems.
.
A numerical harmonic balance method using discrete Fourier Trans-
formation is developed and applied to a modified Jeffcott model
including bearing clearances, seal cross coupling forces, a side
force and friction due to rubbing. The method can be used to
determine all possible steady state solutions for the rotor. The
method can be extended to larger rotor systems, taking advantage
of the nonlinearities involved being localized. Application of
the method will ensure that no potentially damaging periodic
nonlinear response of a given rotor will be missed solely depend-
ing on numerical integration methods. Arbitrarily selected
initial conditions may not necessarily lead to a possible peri-
odic solution using integration techniques.
Acknowledgement
This work is being carried out under support of NASA-Marshall

Space Flight Center under contract No. NAS8-36182. This support is
gratefully acknowledged.
77
REFERENCES
I. Childs, D. W., Transient Rotordynamic Analysis for the Space-

Shuttle Main Engine High Pressure Oxygen Turbopump," J. Space-
craft, Vol. 12, No. I (1975), pp. 3-4.
. Childs, D. W. and Moyer, D. S., "Vibration Characteristics of the

HPOTP (High Pressure Oxygen Turbopump) of the SSME (Space Shuttle
Main Engine), ASME Paper No. 84-GT-31, International Gas Turbine
Conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands, June 1984.
. Childs, D. W., "Two Jeffcott-Based Modal Simulation Models for

Flexible Rotating Equipment," ASME J. Engineering for Industry,
Vol. 97, No. 3 (1975), pp. 1000-1014.
. Rouch, K. E. and Kao, J. S., "Dynamic Reduction in Rotor Dynamics

by the Finite Element Method, ASME J. of Mechanical Design, Vol.
102, pp. 360-368.
. Nordmann, R., "Eigenvalues and Resonance Frequency Forms of

Turborotors with Sleeve Bearings Crank Excitation, External and
Internal Damping, Machine Dynamics Group, Technical University
Darmstadt, West Germany, June, 1975.
. Childs, D. W., "The Space Shuttle Main Engine High-Pressure Fuel

Turbopump-Rotordynamic Instability Problem," ASME J. Engineering
for Power, Vol. i00, 1978, pp. 48-51.
o Nelson, H. D., Meacham, W. L., Fleming, D. P. and Kascak, A. F.,

"Nonlinear Analysis of Rotor Bearing Systems Using Component Mode
Synthesis, ASME Paper No. 82-GT-303, 1982.
. Adams, M.L., "Non-Linear Dynamics of Flexible Multi-Bearing

Rotors," J. Sound and Vibration, Vol. 71 (1980), pp. 129-144.
1 Meirovitch, L., computational Methods in Structural Dynamics,

Sijthoff and Noordhoff, 1980.
I0. Von Pragenau, G. L., "Large Step Integration for Linear Dynamic
Systems," Conference Proc. IEEE Southeastcon '81, reprint, April
1981.
II. Kubomura, K., "Transient Loads Analysis by Dynamic Condensation,"

ASME, J. Applied Mechanics, Vol. 52 (1985), pp. 559-564.
12. Tongue, B.H. and Dowell, E. H., "Component Mode Analysis of

Nonlinear, Nonconservative Systems," ASME J. Appl. Mechanics,
Vol. 50, 1983, pp. 204-209.
78
13. Clough, R.W. and Wilson, E.L., "Dynamic Analysis of Large
Structural Systems with Local Nonlinearities," Computer Methods
in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 17/18 (1979), 107-129.
14. Childs, D.W., "Rotordynamics Analysis for the HPOTP of the

SSME," Interim Progress Report for NASA Contract NAS8-31233, The
University of Louisville/Speed Scientific School, Sept. 1979.
15. Noah, S. T., "Rotordynamic Analysis of the SSME Turbopumps Using

Reduced Models," Final Report, NASA Contract NAS8-34505, Texas
A&M University, Sept. 1984.
16. Choi, Y.-S. and Noah, S. T., "Nonlinear Steady-State Response of

a Rotor-Support System," Submitted to the ASME J. of Vibration,
Stress, Acoustics and Reliability in Design, April 1986.
17. Yamauchi, S., "The Nonlinear Vibration of Flexible Rotors, Ist

Report Development of a New Analysis Technique," Trans JSME,
Vol. 49, No. 446, Series C Oct. 1983, pp. 1862-1868.
18. Glasgow, D. A., and Nelson, H. D., "Stability Analysis of Rotor-

Bearing Systems Using Component Mode Synthesis," ASME J. of
Mechanical Design, Vol. 102, No. 2, April 1980, pp. 352-359.
19. MacNeal, R. H., "A Hybrid Method of Component Mode Synthesis,"

Computers and Structures, Vol. l, 1971, pp. 581-601.
79
Housing
Fxsc
Xbc
FXs c
E__ seal
X FXbR i Impeller force FXsR
i II XbRi [ I FXbR Rotor
_ b_-_" _bala_c_ ....

Z
X-Z plane
Figure i. Coupling elements and forces in the HPOTP.
80
t-
O
C1.
¢D
0_
C
O cn
E c-
>- L_ (1) O
ZE C
O ¢D
_D 7O C)_c_
I c" ¢,3
O _1_ ¢D I"-
tO c- ',-'-
°-- tO O II
C._ E C:_
O C _-
E O O
L. E .C
O _-- _O
(,_ o4 oo
I
C ,
I t
&
o_
t.O
I
81
G)
C_
o0 O
C_
O t_
Q_
of)
G)
t-
O
LL.
rid
Q)
o_
L., ,,I , I
u')
O
c_ r_
sn!po_ UDaM
82
N89-1263i
Vibrations Induced by
Nonlinearities in Rotordynamics.
by
William B. Day
Associate Professor of
Computer Science & Engineering
Auburn University, AL 36849
This work has been supported by NASA MSFC under Contracts NAS8 - 35992
and NAS8 - 36475.
83
ABSTRACT
This paper is an examination of special nonlinearities of the Jeffcott
equations in rotordynamics. The immediate application of this analysis is

directed toward understanding the excessive vibrations recorded in the L0X
pumpof the SSMEduring hot firing ground testing.
Deadband, side force and rubbin_ are three possible sources of inducing
nonlinearity in the Jeffcott eouations. The present analysis initially

reduces these nroblems to the samemathematical description. A special
frequency, namedthe nonlinear natural frequency, is defined and used to
develop the solutions of the nonlinear Jeffcott equations as singular

asymptotic expansions. This nonlinear natural frequency, which is the ratio
of the cross-stiffness and the damping, plays a major role in determining
response frequencies.
Numerical solutions are included for comparison with the analysis.
Also nonlinear frequency-response tables are madefor a typical range of

values.
84
I. INTRODUCTION
Vibrations are inherent in rotating machinery. Mathematical explana-
tions of vibrations began with Jeffcott's description of the shaft's
natural frequency of lateral vibration [6]. Unfortunately, Jeffcott's
linear model cannot account for all frequencies that have been observed
experimentally. In particular, destructive vibrations have occurred in

hot firing ground testing of the LOXpumpof the SSMEwith no clue to these
vibrations' origins being offered by the linear model. Specifically,
examination of the power spectral density (PSD) plots reveals unaccountable
frequencies. Consequently, numerous investigations have been undertaken to
study such rotors and to provide descriptions of the solutions of the two,
coupled, second-order differential equations which describe the motion of

the rotor's center of mass. Following the early work in rotordynamics by
Yomamoto[8], one introduces a nonlinearity to the Jeffcott equations by
including the effect of bearing clearance or deadband. In the pump, this

deadbandrefers to the load carriers (ball bearings) and physically
describes the clearance between the outer race of the bearing and the
support housing. The work of Yomamotodid not include cross-stiffness,

but a straight-forward derivation with this modification is easily obtained.
A more limiting gap in his work is the assumption that the response is
simply a perturbation of the forcing function. This is tantamount to

assuming that one always has the graph of a circle as the solution. It
is shown in this paper that this generally is not the case. Both empirical
results by Childs [I, 2] and Gupta et al. [5] and numerical solutions
using the fourth order Runge-Kutta algorithm by Control Dynamics Company
[3] have been helpful in understanding the rotor's motion for the nonlinear
problem. This paper extends the earlier work by using analytic expressions
85
obtained from singular asymptotic expansions (method of multiple scales)
to quantize the solution.
The primary objective of this paper is to describe analytically
solutions of the nonlinear Jeffcott equations with deadband (or an
equivalent variation such as rubbing). To this end emphasis is placed on
determining which frequencies one expects from the nonlinear problem, how
these frequencies are related to the parameters of the differential
equations, and where the solutions are stable.
Section 2 presents transformations which convert the Jeffcott equations
to nondimensional, complex equations. A discussion of physically related
problems which are mathematically equivalent to the original equations and
corresponding generalizations are included herein.
Section 3 begins with a heuristic explanation of the nonlinear natural
frequency. A mathematical derivation of a lower bound for this frequency
follows.
Section 4 contains the formal asymptotic expansion of the solution of
the Jeffcott equations. A numerical example is discussed vis-a-vis the
derived analytic expressions.
Section 5 contains a theorem and related numerical results which show
how one can predict whether the solution's geometry is a circle or an
annulus.
Section 6 concludes this paper with some remarks on the boundedness
and stability of the Jeffcott solutions. Numerical examples illustrate
these results.
86
2. NONDIMENSIONAL!ZATIONS AND GENERALIZATIONS
The linear Jeffcott equations which describe the displacement of the
rotor center from its equilibrium position in the inertial, Cartesian
coordinate system (y,z) (each in meters) are these:
(I.) my = -C S y - K s y - Q S z + mu_2cos_t
(2.) m_ : -C s + Qs y - Ks z + mu_2sinwt
where the shaft of the rotor lies along the x-axis and
m : mass (kg.)
C = seal damping (kg./s.)

S
K = seal stiffness (kg./s. 2)

S
Qs = cross-coupling stiffness of seal (kg./s. 2)
u = displacement of the shaft center of mass from the geometric

center (m.)
= angular velocity of the shaft (rad./s.)
For the model to include bearing forces which hold the rotor in position,
one adds the terms
-_ (y- y6/ /y_ + z_) + _ (z - z6/ /y_ + z_)

and
-_K B (y - y6/ 42+ z 2) - K B (z - z6/ /y2 + z2),
respectively, to the right-hand sides of equations (I.) and (2.).
Here
K B = bearing stiffness (kg./s. 2)
6 = clearance or deadband between housing and bearing (m.)
= coefficient of friction between housing and bearing (none).
These bearing forces occur only when _2 + z2>6; otherwise, they are zero.
Since _ is nondimensional and typically small, one may regard it as zero
without affecting the qualitative results.
87
Equations (I.) - (2.) then become
(3.) _ + (Cs/m) _ + (I/m)[Ks + KB (I -S/r)} y + (Qs/m)z = u_2cos_t
(4)• _ + (Cslm)_ - (Qs/m)y + (I/m)[K s + K B (I - 6/r)]z = u_2sinwt
when r = _y2 + z2>6; otherwise, _ = O. Equations (3.) - (4.) can be put
in nondimensional form using a displacement g and a frequency a. One
pair of candidates for g and o would be g = u, the deadband size, and
_2 = r_2=
0 KS + _, the natura] frequency of the corresponding linear
problem (_i = 0). Thus, using Y = y/g, Z = z/g, and : = _t, the dimension-
less equations are these:
(5.) Y ' ' + CY' + [A + k(1 -A/R] Y + BZ = E¢ 2 cos¢_
(6.) Z ' ' + CZ' - BY + [A + k(1- A/R)] Z = E¢ 2 sin¢_
where prime denotes differentiation with respect to _ and C = C /m/ _,

S
A = Ks/m/G2, k = _/m/a 2, B = Qs/m/c2, A = 6/g, R = r/g, E = u/g, and
Equations (5.) - (6.) can be reduced to the following single equation
by defining W = Y + iZ;
(7.) W'' + CW' + {A + k (1 - A/ IWI ) - iB} W = E¢2exp(i¢_).
A generalization of equation (7.) is

L
(8.) W'' + CW'+AW + K(I - A/ IWI)W = Z Fn(¢ n) exp(iCnT)

n=1
where C, A, and K are complex constants and where the nonlinear left-hand
side of equation (8.) is being driven on the right-hand side by multiple
forces. The following are special cases of physical interest:
a. Forcing function is mass imbalance. This is the case derived in
equation (7.) and is obtained from equation (8.) with N=I and
F1(¢1) = S¢_.
88
b. Forcing function is side force. This force may be introduced into
the Jeffcott equations (I.) - (2.) as a constant replacement for
the mass imbalance. In such cases, equation (7.) becomes
W'' + CW' + {A + k(1 - A/IW I) W = constant.
Thus, a side force is the special case of equation (8.) with
N = I, F!(¢I) = constant, and ¢1 TM O.
C. Forcing function is rubbing. Contact between a rotor and its
housing produces a Coulomb damping force. This force would
modify the original Jeffcott equations by the addition of the
terms:
Kst(1 - 6/r)y - UKst(1 - 6/r) z + Kst (I - 6/r)G
and UKst (I - 6/r) y + Kst(1 - 6/r) z + _Kst (I - 6/r)G
respectively, to the right-hand sides of equations (I.) - (2.).
Here, G = constant = stator offset in the y - direction, Kst =
stator stiffness and _ = coefficient of friction, which may not
be small. As before these forces would be included only when
r = (y2 + z2)½_6. On replacing y - G by y, equation (7.) (and
correspondingly its equivalent forms) again occurs but with
these modifications:
I. i[-B] is replaced by i[-B + _(Kst/g2)(1 - A/R)]
2. the forcing function E¢ 2 exp(iCT) is replaced by
E¢ 2 exp(i¢_) + ( __2 /g2 )(G/6 ).

o
Thus, rubbing is equivalent to having two forcing functions in
equation (8.) where N = 2, FI(¢ 1) : E¢_ , F(¢ 2) = constant, and
¢ 2 = 0.
d. Any combination of mass imbalance, side force, and rubbing.
89
Initially, attention is restricted to equation (7.): i.e., equation
(8.) with N = I. It will be seen later that in a first approximation, the
more complicated cases of N_I can be solved as a superposition of the

individual responses which are found using equation (7.).
9O
3. NONLINEAR
NATURAL
FREQUENCY
Consider the dimensional, homogeneous(E = O) equation corresponding

to equation (7):
(7!) _ + (Cs/m)w + (I/m) {IK s + KB (I - 6/r) - iQs)) w = 0,

where w = y+iz. If this equation were also linear (6 = 0), then
exponentially growing or decaying solutions would generally result for
a given set of system parameters. In the special case that (Qs/Cs)2 =
Ks + KB, a sinusoidal solution is obtained with frequency _0 = Qs/Cs•

To see this, consider the characteristic equation for w = exp (pt):
2
p + CsP + [Ks + _ - iQs] : 0
p = -Cs/2 ± (C_/4 - Ks - KB + iQs) ½
= -Cs/2 ± {C2/4
s - (Qs/C)
s + iQs) ½
= -Cs/2 + i{iCs/2 - Qs/Cs)
= -Cs - iQs/Cs, iQs/Cs.

In the nonlinear, homogeneousproblem, KB is replaced by KB(I - 6/r)_ hence,
if r is a constant, then there is a wide spectrum of r for which (Qs/Cs)2
may be Ks + KB (I - 6/r); i.e., if

(9.) KS_ (Qs/Cs)2< = Ks + KB,
then there is a constant value of r (with r>6) for which (Qs/Cs)2 =
Ks + _ (I - f/r). This value of r is denoted by a and the corresponding
frequency by B0 = Qs/Cs. This frequency is labeled the nonlinear natural
frequency. Thus, whenever inequality (9.) is satisfied, equations (3.) -
(4.) with u=O have steady-state solutions y = a cos (Got) and z = a sin (Got).
Notice that Bo = Qs/Cs <= (K s + KB)½ = _0, the dimensional natural
frequency of the linear system. Thus, in considering the general
nonhomogeneous problem, it is necessary to be aware of these three
91
dimensional frequencies:
SQ - the nonlinear natural frequency,
_0 - the natural frequency,
w - the driving frequency.
It will be shown in the next section that the nonlinear frequency _ which
may appear in a stable solution of the non-homogeneous version of equation
(8.) always lies between So and _0.
One final rearrangement of equation (7.) is made _ere to _mphasize
the nonlinear natural frequency:
(10.) W'' + CW' + <W = ef (W) + E@ 2 exp(iST)
where K = A + k (I - A/a) - iB and f(W) = kA [I/iW i - I/a]W/a.
92
4. METHOD
OF MULTIPLE SCALES.
This section deals with formal, singular asymptotic expansions of the
Jeffcott equations as written in equation (10). A straight-forward
asymptotic expansion is not general enough for this problem since it
always leads to a zero-order approximation of the form:
W = M exp(i_0_) + N exp(i_).
Typical singular asymptotic expansions suggest that one should replace
607 by _(_) and constant M by function M(T). In considering a Taylor
series expansion of B(T), one can ignore the constant term (or alternatively,
assume that it is grouped with the coefficient M(_) ). Then the leading term
:of the Taylor series should be BoT. This is what one obtains from the
straight-forward expansion.
One method, the method of averaging, is appropriate for the Jeffcott
equations since it begins with the assumption that
W = M(_) exp(i_(_)) + N exp(i¢_).
Another method, multiple scales, is also appropriate because one can
envision the action of the rotor being based on two different time scales.
The results are identical for the two methods.
Instead of one time scale T, assume the problem depends on many
time scales:
To = T, Ti = ST, T2 = 627 ,
Henceforth, only To and Ti are used. Let W(_) : W(To, Ti) = Wo(To, Ti)
+ aWl(To, Ti) + . Equation (10.) becomes a partial differential
equation since
d/d7 : (3/3Ti)(dTi/dT) + (_/_Ti)(dTi/d T) = Do + eDi
and (d2/d72) = (Do + £Di) 2
93
Thus, one finds
(11.) (Do + EDI) 2 (W0 + eW1 + . .) + C(Do + _D l) (W0 + _Wl + .)
+ < (Wo + EW_ + . .) = ef(Wo + eWl + .) + E@2exp(iCTo).
Equating like powers of _ yields
(12.) e° : Do2Wo + CDoWo + <Wo = E_2exp(iCTo).
This is a linear problem with this steady-state solution
W0 : M exp(iSoT0) + N exp(i@T0)
where N = E¢2/(-@ 2 + iC@ + <) and M = M(TI). To determine M one must
examine the e-order problem and choose M to eliminate secular terms;
see Nayfeh [7]:
El: Do2WI + CWI + <Wl= -2DoDIWo - CDIWo + f(W0).
With V = kA/e , the right-hand side of the last equation becomes
-2iSoM'exp(iBoTo) - CM' exp(iBoTo
+V(I/ IWo[ - I) [M exp(iSoTo) + N exp(i_To)]
where iW01 = {IMI 2 + INI 2 +_[N exp[i(_-go) To ] + MNexp[i(_o - _)To]} ½
To avoid secular terms one requires that the collective coefficient of
exp(iSoT0) be zero. Although an analytic solution of the differential
equation for M(TI) has not been found, one can qualitatively assess M
based on a similar problem (van der Pol's equation) and specific numerical
results (presented below).
Since M(T_) is complex, it may be written as

A
M(TI) : o(TI) exp[iB (Tl)]. Thus,
Wo : o(TI) exp[iSoTo + iS (Tl)] + N exp(i_T o)
or, assuming S(TI) is analytic near t=0, W0 = o(Tl) exp[i(S0 +E_l)_ + .]
+ N exp(i¢_). Thus the fundamental frequency of the nonlinear problem is
not So but S = So + eS1 + • .; however, S must reduce to S0 when
E¢ 2 = 0. Consequently, the frequency _ = @ -So that appears in the
94
expression for IW01 should be considered as ¥ = _ - [[. Then 111w01 shows
all frequencies n7 and W0/l W0i shows all frequencies ny±IJ, for n=0, I,
This suggests that M has a complex Fourier series of the form:
sn exp(invT_).
n= -_
Another factor of M must also be included since numerical examples
show that M_ if E@ 2 is greater than some fixed value. This is similar
to the behavior of the van der Pol oscillator; see [V]. One possible
form of M would include a factor of the form F = I/[I + exp(- nTl)] where
n = n(E¢2). This would imply that F÷ I as _-_o when n_O and F+ 0 as
T-_o when _0. Thus, M looks like:
1/[1 + exp(-_T1)] sn exp(inyT1).

n_-_
PSD plots of R show the frequencies ny.

L
For the case of multiple forcing functions, Z Fi(@i) exp(i¢s ),

i=I
one defines Yi = @i - B. Then the zeroth-order asymptotic approximation
of the solution of equation (8.) will contain L terms to account for the
L forcing frequencies, ¢i' i = I, 2, ., L. Thus, the term N exp(iCT0)
in W0 is replaced by N1exp(i@1 To) + + N L exp(iCLT0). The coefficient
M of the nonlinear frequency B will now contain the Fourier factor
Z S exp(iYT_)
v v
where ¥ = niYl + + nLY L and the summation is taken over the integer
v from -_ to +_ with v = n_ + . n L. Typical examples show significant
magnitude coefficients, Sv, only for v = 0, +I, -I, +2, -2.
95
Figures I and 2 show typical numerical solutions which are obtained
using Runge-Kutta fourth order on equations (I.) and (2.). The system
constants used are these: _ = 0, m = 1 lb. - s • 2/in . , Cs = 240 ib - s./in.,
Ks = 0., Kb = 1,305,000 lb./in., Qs = 200,000 lb./in., 6 = .0000285 in., and

= 500 Hertz = 1000wrad./s. Thus, B0 = 833.33 rad./s, and a = .000060915
in. The system is madenondimensional using a for the g-displacement and
B0 for the o-frequency. With these choices, the constants of this equation
W'' + CW' + [k(1 - AIIwI)- iB]w = E@2exp(i@m)
have these values: C = .288, k = 1.8792, fl = .467865, B = .288, and
= 6w15.
Figures I and 2 show changes in the solution Y vs. Z as E assumes the values
I00n/(I000_) 2 a for n = O, I, ., 7. The graphs are plotted for .2<t_5s.
The initial circle (for E = 0) opens into an annular region, which becomes
larger and thicker as E increases until a (transition) value of E occurs and
the coefficient of exp(i_¢_) becomes zero. Thus, W = N exp(i@_), a circle of
radius !N 1 . As E increases beyond this transition value, the solution
remains a circle (Figure 2.d) with radius IN! = IE$2/(-¢ 2 + iC$ + k(1 - 5/
I I)- iB)l.
Figure 3, a typical full PSD plot, is the case E = 4/I0,000_2a. As
shown earlier, one expects frequencies of w and B to appear, as well as
harmonics of nyi_ where y = _ -8 and n = I, 2, Thus, with B = 150
Hertz, and _ = 500 Hertz, one predicts that the PSD plot will exhibit
peaks at 150, 200, 500, 550, 850, 900, . Hertz. Figure 8 confirms
these predictions.
96
5. TRANSITION
POINTS
In this section a derivation is presented which allows one to calculate
in closed-form the precise values at which an annulus replaces a circle as
the geometric solution of the Jeffcott equations. This is accomolished by
assuming that the solution is a circle and deriving inequalities that must
be satisfied. In intervals where the inequalities are not satisfied, a
numerical example confirms that the solution is an annulus.
Theorem. The complex Jeffcott equation
(7.) W"_ + CW' + (A + k (I - A/IWI ) - iB} W = E¢eexp (i¢_).

has a solution of the form W= Nexp(iCT + i¢0), N _ A, ¢0 _ 0, if and only
if the following conditions are satisfied:
F > 0 and either
kAM+ ¢2(F)½ <E(M 2 + ¢4)
and {kAM +¢2(F)½} (_2
(M2 + ¢4)(B - ¢C) -
or
IkaM -¢_(F)½1 <E(M _ + ¢_)
and {kAM -¢2(F½)} _2
(M 2 + g_)(B - gO)
where
M = A + k - ¢2 g2 and F = MeE 2 +g4E2 - k2A 2 .

B - gO
The proof of this result will appear in the Final Report of Contract
NAS8 - 36475.
Table I is an example which summarizes frequency-response curves for
varying ratios of deadband to eccentricity (A/E). The transition points
between annulus and circle are calculated from the above theorem.
97
6. STABILITY
The stability question is presently under investigation, but pieces

of the puzzle are presented here.
First, the solution is bounded when (Qs/Cs)½< KB and is unbounded
when (Qs/Cs)½ > _ + Ks for all 6 <_ r< _, as reported in [4]. In a

similar derivation one can showthat a necessary and sufficient condition
for boundednessis that' this inequality be satisfied:
Re[/(-Cs/2)2
- (KB + KS ) _+iQsl<C S /2.
Figure 4 illustrates a broad range of values of (_ + K s ) and Qs with four
different values of C s. In each case the curve defines the points where
the above inequality becomes an equality. In each case, the region above
the curve is bounded and the region below the curve is unbounded. Numerical
results with points near the curves verify these bounds.
Conversion of equations (5.) - (6.) to an autonomous system of six,
first-order equations is accomplished using
ul = Y, u2 = Y' u3 = Y''
U 4 = Z, U5 = Z w u6 = Z T!
q = A if R _ A, q = A + k(1 - A/R) if R> A
P = [E2¢ _ - (u3 + Cu2 + qul + Bu_)2] ½
L = [E2¢ _ - (u6 + Cu5 + qu_ - Bul)2]½
Then every solution of the Jeffcott equations is a solution of the autonomous
system
U! 1 = U2
U! 2 = U3
u'_ = -Cu3 - Bus - _P - qu2 - q'ul
UW4 -- U5
u'6 = Bu2 - Cu6 + eL - qus - q'u_
98
This system can be written in the equivalent form
u' = f(u)
where u and f(u) are column vectors.
Let x(t) be a periodic solution of _ = f(u) with period T, let
aij(u) = _fi (_) , bij_(t) = a..[v(t)]ij

-- ,
Bu.
--j
B(t) = (b. (t); i,j = I, ., 6}, let X(t) be a fundamental matrix

1,j
solution of
_' = B(t)_, and let C = [X(O)]-I.X(T).
It is known that 0 is an eigenvalue of C. If the other five eigenvalues of
C have negative real parts, then _(t) is phase asymptotically stable.
The present research deals with locating the critical points analytically
and using numerical results for confirmation.
99
7. REFERENCES:
°
Childs, D. W., "The Space Shuttle Main Engine High-Pressure Fuel
Turbopump Rotordynamics Instability Problem", Trans. ASME,
Journal of Engineering for Power, Jan. 1978, pp. 48 - 57.
.
Childs, D. W., "Rotordynamic Characteristics of the HPOTP'(High
Pressure Oxygen Turbopump) of the SSME (Space Shuttle Main
Engine)", NASA MSFC Contract NAS8-34505, Turbomachinery
Laboratories Report RD-I-84, 30 January 1984.
. Control Dynamics Company, "Effects of Bearing Deadbands on

Bearing Loads and Rotor Instability", NASA MSFC Contract
NAS8-35050, 20 January 1984.
4. Day, W. B., "Nonlinear Rotordynamics Analysis", NASA MSFC

Contract NAS8-35992, 15 March 1985.
.
Gupta, P. K., Winn, L. W., and Wilcock, D. F., "Vibrational
Characteristics of Ball Bearings", Journal of Lubrication
Technology, AS_fl_ Trans., Vol 99F, No. 2, 1977, pp. 284 - 289.
.
Jeffcott, H. H., "The Lateral Vibration of Loaded Shafts in the
Neighborhood of a Whirling Speed - The Effect of Want of
Balance", Philosophical Magazine, Series 6, Vol 37, 1919,
p. 304.
7. Nayfeh, A. H., Perturbation Methods, J. Wiley & Sons, 1973.
8. Yamamoto, T. T., "On Critical Speeds of a Shaft", Memories of the

Faculty __°fEngineering,_ Nagoya (Japan) University, Vol. _,
No. 2, 1954.
i00
OR_IAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
(a.) (b.)
l
E=O. E=l/(lOC)_)2a
Z
1
. Z •
_,?.
1 ! ! -4 • 1
-4 -z
(c.) (d.)
" " l E=2/(100( ff)Za :3/(I 2

L
I °°°I'i
_ t
%
": _b-
Z • Z •
Figure 1
i01
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
POOR QUALITY
(a.) (b.)
E=4/, E=5/(I00 *aa
Z o
Z • ......
!
1
-4
Y Y
(c.) (d.)
E=6/(1 )2 a E=7/(I00( l_)2a
Z •
-e --
-4 ---1" ! J I !
-q -e
Figure 2
102
•,._. ...... PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
I,D v c_
o
g
:::l
o"
¢",,,I
-- .--- "-7. I 1 ! I 1 1 I ; l I ('
IJa
g
>-,
103
Table I
Absolute coefficient values:

Ks : 0.0 Kb = 1,305,000.0 Cs = 240.0 Qs = 200,000.0
eccentricity = 0.0000285 deadband = varied omega = varied
Non-dimensionalizing parameters:
frequency = s_rt(Ks + Kb) = omega - naught = s_rt(1305000.0)
displacement = eccentricity : 0.0000285
Non-dimensionalized coefficient values:

C = Cs/omega - naught = ND damping = 240.0/s_rt(1305000.O)
k = Kb/square (omega - naught) = ND stiffness = I
B = Qs/square (omega = naught) = ND cross - stiffness = 200000.0/I
phi = omega/omega - naught = ND forcing frequency = varied
delta = deadband/eccentricity = ND deadband = varied
deadband/eccentricity circle/annulus regions
phi = 0.0 : circle

0.1 0.01 <= phi <= 0.11 : annulus
0.11 4= phil= 4.00 : circle
phi = 0.0 : circle

o.5 0.01 <= phi <= 0.23 : annulus
0.24 (= phi <= 4.00 : circle
phi = 0.0 : circle

0.9 0.01 <= phi 4= 0.29 : annulus
0.30 <= phi <= 4.00 : circle
phi = 0.0 : circle

1.0 0.01 <= phi <= 0.31 : annulus
0.32 <=- phi <= 0.99 : clrcle
1.00 <= phi <= 4.00 : annulus
phi = 0.0 : circle

2.0 0.01 <= phi <= 0.40 : annulus
0.41 C= phi _= 0.95 : circle
0.96 <= phi 4= 4.00 : annulus
phi = 0.0 : circle

5.0 0.01 <= phi <= 0.53 : annulus
0.54 <= phi <= 0.88 : circle
0.89 (= phi <= 4.00 : annulus
phi = 0.0 : circle

10.0 0.01 <= phi <= 0.61 : annulus
0.62 <= phi <= 0.83 • circle
0.84 (= ohi <= 4.00 : annulus
104
(D
.r-t
".D
(D
1- T _- t- 1- 1-
C_J C_ CO _ ...1- C_I
x'-- ',r'-
4-
r/l
105
VIII FATIGUE/FRACTURE AND LIFE
106
l
N89-12632
SIMPLIFIED CYCLIC STRUCTURAL ANM.YSES OF SSME TURBINE BLADES
A. Kaufman and J.M. Manderscheid

National Auronautics and Space Administration
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio 44135
SUMMARY
Anisotropic high-temperature alloys are used to meet the
safety and durability requirements of turbine blades for
high-pressure turbopumps in reusable space propulsion sys-
tems. This study assesses the applicability to anisotropic
components of a simplified inelastic structural analysis
procedure developed at the NASA Lewis Research Center. The
procedure uses as input the history of the total strain at
the critical crack initiation location computed from elastic
finite-element analyses. Cyclic heat transfer and struc-
tural analyses were performed for the first stage high-
pressure fuel turbopump blade of the space shuttle main
engine. The blade alloy is directionally solidified HAR-M
246 (nickel base). The analyses were based on a typical
test stand engine cycle. Stress-strain histories for the
airfoil critical location were computed using both the MARC
nonlinear finite-element computer code and the simplified
procedure. Additional cases were analyzed in which the
material yield strength was arbitrarily reduced to increase
the plastic strains and, therefore, the severity of the
problem. Good agreement was shown between the predicted
stress-strain solutions from the two methods. The simpli-
fied analysis used about 0.01 percent (5 percent with the
required elastic finite-element analyses) of the CPU time
used by the nonlinear finite element analysis.
107
INTRODUCTION
Hot gas-path components of advanced aircraft gas turbine engines
and rocket engines for reusable space propulsion systems operate under
extreme gas pressure and temperature environments. These operating
conditions subject the high-pressure stage turbine nozzles and blades
to severe thermal transients that can result in large inelastic strains
and rapid crack initiation. To attain the safety and durability
requirements for these components frequently necessitates the use of
advanced turbine blading alloys. These alloys exhibit mechanical
property anisotropy. Assessing or improving the durability of hot
section components is contingent on accurate knowledge of the stress-
strain history at the critical location for crack initiation.
Nonlinear finite-element analysis techniques have become available
in recent years for calculating inelastic structural response under
cyclic loading. These methods are based on classical incremental
plasticity theory with uncoupled creep constitutive models. Many of
the nonlinear finite-element computer codes such as MARC (ref. I) have
the capability of handling materials with anisotropic properties.
However, these codes are usually too costly and time consuming to use
in the early design stages for aerospace applications. Costs are fur-
ther increased by the geometrical complexity of high-pressure turbine
blades which require three dimensional analyses and sometimes substruc-
turing to obtain accurate solutions. To improve the design of engine
hot path components such as turbine blades, simplified and more eco-
nomical procedures for representing structural response under cyclic
loading have been under development (refs. 2 to 4).
The objective of this study was to evaluate the utility of a
simplified cyclic structural analysis method in calculating the local
stress-strain response of an anisotropic turbine blade airfoil at the
critical location for crack initiation. The first high-pressure stage
fuel turbine blade (HPFTB) in the liquid hydrogen turbopump of the
space shuttle main engine (SSME) was selected for this study. In the
past these blades have undergone cracking in the blade shank region
and at the airfoil leading edge adjacent to the platform. To achieve
108
_k
the necessary durability, these blades are currently being cast using
directional solidification. Single crystal alloys are also under
investigation for future SSME applications. MARC elastic and elastic-
plastic finite-element analyses were performed for the blade airfoil.
Because of the extensive computation time required for the nonlinear
finite-element analyses, neither the blade platform nor shank regions
were modeled. The history of the total strain calculated at the criti-
cal location from the elastic finite-element analysis was used as input
for the simplified procedure. Solutions from the simplified inelastic
analyses of these problems for the critical airfoil location were com-
pared to those from the MARC nonlinear analyses.
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
The airfoil of the high pressure stage turbine blade of the SSME
fuel turbopump was analyzed because of its history of early crack initi-
ation. This blade is illustrated in figure i. The uncooled airfoils
have a span length of 2.2 cm and a span-to-chord width aspect ratio of
approximately unity. The blades are directionally cast from MAR-M
246+Hf alloy. Temperature-dependent properties for this alloy were
mainly provided by the Rocketdyne Divis}on of Rockwell International
Corporation. Material elastic properties are summarized in table I.
AIRFOIL L!cm
CRITICAL
LOCATION-_
\
Fiqure 1.- SSMEhigh-pressure fuel turbo-

pump ist stageturbine blade.
109
TABLE I. - DS MAR-M 246 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Temperature, Modulus of elasticity, Mean coefficient of

C GPa Thermal expansion,
%/C
Longltudlnal Transverse
21 131 183
93 128 179 O.OOll3
204 125 175 .OOl3O
316 124 173 .00133
427 If9 166 .OOl41
538 If4 162 .00148
649 I09 156 .00149
760 I03 149 .00156
871 97 142 .00160
TABLE II. - DS MAR-M 246 STRESS-STRAIN
PROPERTIES (LONGITUDINAL)
Plastic strain, Stress,

% MPa
21 °C 649 °C 816 °C
O.l 800 808 875

.2 830 855 930
.4 850 895 965
.6 855 930 970
.8 865 945 975
l.O 870 960 980
Mean thermal coefficient of expansion data were converted to instan-
taneous values for MARC input. Longitudinal stress-strain properties,
summarized in table II, were used for the elastic-plastic region;
transverse stress-strain properties were not available at the time of
this study. A single crystal alloy is also being considered for tur-
bine blades in future SSME applications.
Cracking has occurred during service at the airfoil base near the
leading edge and in the blade root shank area. These cracks were
apparently initiated during the first few mission cycles due to the
severe thermal transients and were propagated by vibratory excitation.
Since the primary purpose of this study was to compare nonlinear finite-
ii0
element and simplified analytical methods, the blade root and platfot_
were excluded from the analysis to limit the size of the problem and,
therefore, reduce the computing time.
The mission used for the analysis is shown in figure 2 in tet_s
of turbine inlet temperature, gas pressure and RPM. This cycle is
applicable to a factory test of the engine; it is also reasonably
representative of a flight mission except for the foreshortened
steady-state operating time. The major factor inducing fatigue
cracking is the transient thermal stressess caused by the sharp
ignition and shutoff transients.
Transient and steady-state three dimensional heat transfer analy-
ses have been conducted using the MARC code. Film coefficients were
obtained from preliminary information supplied by Rocketdyne. The gas
temperature was assumed constant around the airfoil surface for each
time step. Colder boundary conditions were assumed at the airfoil
base to simulate the effects of the cooling of the blade to-disk
attachment region by the liquid hydrogen fuel.
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
Elastic-plastic analyses have been conducted for the HPFTB airfoil
with both a simplified analytical procedure developed at the NASA Lewis
Research Center and with the MARC code. The severity of the problem
was progressively increased by analyzing a series of cases in which the
material yield strength was arbitrarily reduced until plastic strain
reversal was obtained in the cycle. Separate MARC analyses were con-
ducted for one case using both orthotropic elastic constants and the
Young's modulus and Poisson's coefficient with respect to the longi-
tudinal (spanwise) direction; this was to determine if the longitudinal
properties would give a sufficiently accurate elastic-plastic finite _
element solution to be used for the simplified analysis. However, the
best results were obtained with the simplified procedure by the use of
effective elastic moduli based on MARC elastic finite-element analyses
with orthotropic material properties. Creep analyses were not con-
ducted because the combination of airfoil temperatures and mission
iii
IO00--
8OO
LO
o 600
ul
m-
p-- 400
Q-
-2oo I I
(al lurbine inlet teml_rature.
50--
40
g.
Qt:
uo
20--
IO--
OL,
(b) Turbine inlet pressure.
40 0001--
30000 --
20 000 --
e,t
L_
I0000 /
I I I
8 16 24 32
TIME, sec
tc) Blade rotational speed.
Figure 2, - Mission cycle used for analysis.
dwell times were not severe enough to induce a significant creep prob-
lem. Also, there was inadequate knowledge of the creep characteristics
of the anisotropic material to perform such analyses even if desired.
112
Simplified Analysis
The simplified analytical procedure was developed to economically
calculate the stress-strain history at the critical fatigue location
of a structure subjected to cyclic ther_omechanical loading. This
procedure has been exercised on a wide variety of problems including
multiaxial loading, nonisothermal conditions, different materials and
constitutive models, and dwell times at various points in the cycles.
Comparisons of the results of the simplified analyses with MARC ine-
lastic solutions for these problems have shown reasonably good agree
ment (refs. 2 to 4).
The basic assumption is that the total strain ranges calculated
from linear elastic and nonlinear inelastic analyses are approximately
equal and, therefore, the material cyclic response can be calculated
using as input the total strain history obtained from an elastic analy-
sis. This assumption is essentially true for thermally dominated
loading. There is a version of the procedure that uses Neuber-type
corrections to account for strain redistribution due to mechanical
loading; however, this version was not utilized for this study because
of the dominance of the thermal loading during the peak strain parts
of the cycle. Classical incremental plasticity methods are used to
characterize the yield surface by a yield condition to describe yield-
ing under multiaxial stress states and by a hardening model to estab-
lish the location of the yield surface during cycling. This procedure
can accommodate itself to any yield criterion or hardening model. The
only requirements are that the elastic input data, whether calculated
or measured, be in a form consistent with the yield criterion and that
the appropriate material properties be used in conjunction with the
hardening model.
In these analyses, a bilinear kinematic hardening model was used
to represent the effect of cycling on the yield condition. Since the
cyclic stress-strain relation is a function of the plastic strain
range, it is necessary to iterate between the initially assumed and
the calculated maximum plastic strains. This iterative process is
usually accomplished within three iterations. However, each iteration
113
results in some change in the size and shape of the cyclic stress-
strain loop. These changes, although generally small, create some
difficulty in directly comparing solutions from the simplified proce-
dure against finite-element analysis results because of the differences
in the stress-strain curves.
As in most nonlinear computer codes, the yon Mises yield criterion
has been used in applying stress-strain results from elastic finite-
element analyses of multiaxial problems as input for the simplified
procedure. To compute cyclic hysteresis loops for life prediction
purposes, the input yon Mises stresses and strains have to be assigned
signs, usually on the basis of the signs of the dominant principal
stresses and strains.
The elastic input data are subdivided into a sufficient number of
increments to define the stress-strain cycle. As will be discussed
later, elastic finite-element solutions for 6 points in the SSME mis-
sion cycle proved adequate as the basis to create the total strain
history required as input for the simplified analysis of the HPFTB
airfoil. These points were at the start and end of the mission and at
the maximum and minimum temperature peaks during the preignition and
main ignition phases. A total of 120 stress-strain-temperature-time
increments were obtained by interpolation from the 6 elastic finite-
element solutions fo= the critical location. These increments are
analyzed sequentially to obtain the cumulative plastic and creep
strains and to track the yield surface.
An iterative procedure is used to calculate the yield stresses
for increments undergoing plastic straining. First, an estimated
plastic strain is assumed for calculating an initial yield stress from
the stress-strain properties and the simulated hardening model. Then
a new plastic strain is calculated as the difference between the total
and elastic and creep strain components. The yield stress is then
recalculated using the new plastic strain. This iterative procedure
is repeated until the new and previous plastic strains agree within a
tolerance of 1 percent. Creep computations are performed for incre-
ments involving dwell times using the creep characteristics incorpo-
rated in the code. Depending on the nature of the problem, the creep
114
effects are determined on the basis of one of three options to be
selected; (I) stress relaxation at constant strain, (2) cumulative
creep at constant stress, or (3) a combination of (I) and (2).
A FORTRAN IV computer program (ANSYMP) was created to auto-
matically implement the simplified analytical procedure. A detailed
description of the calculational scheme is presented in previous papers
(refs. 2 to 4) on the development of this procedure.
MARC Finite Element Analysis
A three-dimensional finite-element model of the airfoil (fig. 3)
was constructed of eight-node isoparametric elements. The model con-
sisted of 360 elements with 576 nodes and 1661 unsuppressed degrees of
freedom. The blade base and most of the platform were omitted for the
MARC nonlinear analysis to reduce the computing time and to run the
problem in-core on the CRAY computer system at Lewis. Boundary con-
ditions were applied to constrain all nodes at the base of the model
to lie on a platform plane. Additional boundary conditions were
imposed to prevent rigid body motion in this plane.
The MARC code has been used extensively at NASA Lewis for inelas-
tic analyses of aircraft turbine blades and combustor liners and of
space power components. In conducting a cyclic analysis, the loading
history is divided into a series of incremental load steps which are
sequentia]ly analyzed. The plasticity algorithm is based on a tangent
Fiqure 3.- Airfoil finite element

model.
115
stiffness approach in which the stiffness matrix is reformulated and
reassembled for every plastic load increment. The incremental loads
are modified by residual load correction vectors to insure that the
solution does not drift from a state of equilibrium. Convergence for
the iterative plasticity analysis is indicated when the strain energy
used in assembling the stiffness matrix approximately equals the energy
change resulting from the incremental solution.

The temperature tolerance controls on the MARC transient heat
transfer analysis resulted in the automatic subdivision of the mission
cycle into 124 time increments. The same increments were used for the
elastic-plastic structural analyses. Incremental loading included
centrifugal and gas pressure loads and metal temperature distributions
as calculated from the heat transfer analysis. Approximately one
million words of core storage on a CRAY-IS computer were needed to run
the problem. Each cycle of analysis required about 3 hr of central
processor unit (CPU) time on the CRAY system. In terms of calendar
time, the situation was even more serious because the system was so
heavily loaded that such a large block of computing time normally was
only available over weekends.
The directionality of the elastic material properties causes ani-
sotropic constraints. Lekhnitskii (ref. 5) has derived the generalized
elastic strain equations for an anisotropic body with a transverse
plane of isotropy. Matrix inversion of these equations to solve for
the stresses results in the relationship
_x
(I - n_ '2) (v + nv '2) _'(I + _) 0 0 0 Cxl
(v + nv '2) (I nv '2) v'(l + v) 0 0 0
_y
v'(l + v) v'(l + v) (1 - v2)/n 0 0 0
_Z CZ
= a
T 0 0 0 G'/a 0 0
T
yz
xz
0 0 0 0 G'/a 0
'YXZ
I
T 0 0 0 0 0 G/a
xy Yxy
J
116
where n = E/E' and a = nE'/((l + _)(I - _ -2 nv'2)). Here E',
G', and V S denote the Young's modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's
ratio, respectively, for the longitudinal or span direction while E,
G, and v denote these constants with respect to any direction in the
transverse plane of isotropy. Rocketdyne supplied values of 0 .143
and 0.391 were used for _' and _, respectively. This anisotropic
stress-strain law was incorporated in the MARC user subroutine, HOOKLW.
Plastic strain calculations were based on incremental plasticity
theory using the yon Mises yield criterion, the normality flow rule
and a kinematic hardening model. The material elastic-plastic behavior
was specified by the yield strengths and work hardening properties in
the longitudinal direction; transverse properties were not available.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Calculated metal temperatures at the leading edge at midspan and
at the crack initiation site at the base of the airfoil (critical loca-
tion) are presented in f[gure 4 as a function of elapsed time during
the cycle. The assumed gas temperature around the airfoil is also
indicated. Of particular note is that the leading edge temperature at
the airfoil base is cooler than at midspan throughout the cycle. This
seems reasonable because of the cooling of the bladeto-disk attachment
BLADE GAS TEMPERATURE

----- LEADING EDGE, MIDSPAN
m---- LEADING EDGE, BASE
800 --
600--
oo
uJ 400--
e_
200--
I I I I J
"2000 I 2 3 4 5 28 29 30 31 32
ELAPSED TIME, sec
Fiqure 4. - Airfoil temperature cycle.
117
region by the liquid hydrogen fuel. The colder airfoil base tempera-
tures induce tensile thermal stresses at the critical leading edge
location that are additive to the centrifugal stresses.
The entire discussion of the structural analysis results for the
HPFTB airfoil presented herein will be based on the critical location
at the leading edge adjacent to the platform as indicated in figure i,
unless otherwise indicated. This location was established from the
finite element analysis by determining the Gaussian point which exhi-
bited the largest total strain change during a mission cycle. There
was some practical difficulty in determining this location because of
the large number of elements, Gaussian integration points and load-time
increments involved and the consequent need to survey a vast amount of
computer output printout.
A number of cases were analyzed in which the material yield
strength was progressively and arbitrarily reduced to increase the
severity of the plastic strain until reversed plasticty was induced.
Comparisons are made between the stress-strain cycles computed from
the simplified and MARC finite-element analyses. The comparisons are
limited to the first mission cycle because of the exorbitant computing
time required for the nonlinear finite-element analysis. As mentioned
previously, creep analyses were not perfo_ned because the dwell times
were too short for the temperatures involved to have significant creep
strains and the creep properties of the material were not adequately
defined.
Since the simplified procedure is basically uniaxial, it can not
directly account for material anisotropy. The most convenient assump-
tion to have made was that the anisotropic effects could be neglected
and the stress-strain history approximated by using only the longi-
tudinal properties. However, the questionableness of this assumption
is indicated in figure 5 which shows the difference in the computed
stress-strain cycles between finite-element analyses using anisotropic
and only longitudinal material properties. The results presented in
figure 5 were from MARC elastic-plastic analyses of the HPFTB airfoil
in which the material yield strength was deliberately reduced for
118
750 --
600--
45O
_- 300
_ 150
.o.o,.oo,.....o.,.T,,s
-- ANISOTROPIC PROPERTIES
0
-150 --
/i i
-300
#
.i I I I I I
-I000 0 I000 2O0O _00 40OO 5OOO 6_
TOTAL MICROSTRAIN
FNuref-Com_risonofl_rcstress-straincycles_rcriti_llo_tionusing
anis_ropicandlongitudinalmaterialwoperties.
analytical purposes to increase the severity of the cycle. The stress-
strain hysteresis loops in figure 5 were for a different Gaussian inte-
gration point than was subsequently determined as being the critical
location based on the maximum cyclical total strain range criterion.
The MARC stress-strain cycle calculated from the orthotropic
properties of the dlrectlonally solidified MAR-M 246 alloy is shown in
figure 6. All of the plastic strain occurred during heatup on the
preignition part of the mission. The calculated plastic strain was
small (under 300 microstrain) and confined to a local region at the
leading edge. Initially, MARC elastic analyses were conducted for all
124 cycle load-time increments used in the elastic-plastic analysis.
Effective elastic moduli were obtained throu8hout the cycle from the
computed effective elastic stresses and total strains. The simplified
procedure was modified to use these effective elastic moduli to simu-
late the effects of the material anisotropy. Using this approximation,
119
very good agreement was obtained between the MARC and simplified analy-
tical cycles as shown in figure 6(a).
The problem was then rerun using only six elastic finite-element
solutions as input for the simplified analysis. These solutions were
for the start and end points of the mission cycle and for the minimum
and maximum temperature points during preignition and ignition. To
establish a more complete history of total strain, another 114 load-
time increments were obtained by interpolation from the initial elastic
solutions. The computed stress-strain cycle from the simplified analy-
sis using the reduced number of elastic solutions also shows reasonably
good agreement with the MARC cycle (fig. 6(b)), although not quite as
good as when the larger number of elastic finite--element solutions was
124 ELASTIC FINITE-ELEMENTCOMPUTATIONS
8OO
FINITE-ELEMENTANALYSIS
o SIMPLIFIEDANALYSIS
200
I I I I
0 3000 6000 q0OO 12 OOO
TOTAL MICROSTRAIN
(a) 124 Elastic finite-element computations.
Figure 6. - Comparison of simplified and Marc stress-strain cycles at critical location

using DS Mar-M246 properties.
120
6 ELASTIC FINITE-EIEMENTCOMPUTATIONS
i000
-- FINITE-ELEMENTANALYSIS
0
o SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS o
o
600 o
-mo I I I
-3000 0 5000 6000 9000 12 000
T_AL MICROSTRAIN
(b) 6 Elastic finite-element compu_tions.
F_ure 6. - Conclude.
used as input. A noticeable discrepancy is seen in the compressive
strain region where the reduction in elastic analysis points resulted
in failure to capture some of the cycle fluctuation due to transient
thermal effects during the rapid engine cooldown. The CPU time for
the six elastic finite-element analyses amounted to 5 percent of that
required for one cycle of the nonlinear finite-element analysis.
To increase the severity of the problem, a series of analytical
cases were run in which the material yield strength was arbitrarily
and progressively reduced until the occurrence of plastic strain
reversal on the unloading part of the cycle. The maximum plastic
strain for this case was over 5000 microstrain. Calculated stress-
strain cycles from the two analytical methods are compared in figure 7.
The same history Qf total strain as was created previously from the 6
elastic finite-element solutions was used as input for the simplified
121
500--
_0
b--
-90 -- -- FINITE-ELEMENT
ANALYSIS
o SIMPLIFIEDANALYSIS
I I I
-5_,,.40O
ooo 0 4O00 8O00 12 000
TOTALMICROSTRAIN
F_ure _-Com_risonofsimplifi_andMarcstress-strain wclesatcriti_llo_tion

usingreducedyieldstrenqth.
analysis for this case. The simplified analysis cycle in figure 7
showed reasonably good agreement with the MARC results. Again the
exception was a low stress region during unloading where the severe
thermal fluctuations due to cooldown were not fully taken into account
with the reduced number of elastic analyses. However, the region of
the cycle where this discrepancy occurred was elastic and would not
have a significant effect on life prediction based on the calculated
stress-strain response. The stress-strain cycle predicted from the
simplified method provided the stress/strain ranges and mean stress
values normally needed for life prediction purposes to almost the same
degree of accuracy as the nonlinear finite-element analysis. The CPU
time per cycle for the simplified analysis was less than 0.01 percent
of that required for the MARC elastic-plastic analysis.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
A simplified inelastic procedure for calculating the local stress-
strain history in a thermomechanically cycled structure was further
122
developed to handle material anisotropy. This was accomplished by the
use of effective elastic moduli that were determined from anisotcopic,
elastic finite-element analyses for a number of points in the mission
cycle. The simplified analysis was exercised on airfoil problems for
the first-stage high-pressure fuel turbopump blade of the space shuttle
main engine. Predicted stress-strain cycles for the critical airfoil
location were compared to stress-strain cycles computed from elastic-
plastic finite-element analyses using the MARC code. The following
general conclusions were drawn from the evaluation of the improved
simplified procedure:
I. The stress-strain response predicted from the simplified analy-
sis was generally in very good agreement with the elastic-plastic
finite-element solutions. The predicted stress-strain cycles provided
the basic information normally needed for life prediction, such as
stress and strain ranges and mean stress, to almost the same degree of
accuracy as the finite-element analysis.
2. Limiting the elastic finite-element analyses to several key
points in the mission cycle and interpolating between these solutions
to create a more complete history of total strain, resulted in some
inaccuracy in intermediate parts of the cycle due to the neglect of
t_ansient thermal fluctuations during the engine cooldown phase. How-
ever, the region where this discrepancy occurred was elastic and would
not significantly affect the accuracy of life predictions based on the
calculated local stress-strain response.
3. The simplified procedure computed the stress-strain history at
the critical location of the structure using about 0.01 percent of the
CPU time required for MARC elastic-plastic finite-element analyses.
There was an overhead computing cost for conducting elastic finite-
element analyses of key points in the mission to define the input total
strain history. This additional cost amounted to about 5 percent of
the CPU time used in just one cycle of the MARC analyses.
123
REFERENCES
I. MARC General Purpose Finite Element ProGram. Vol. A: User
Information Manual; Vol. B: MARC Element Library. MARC Analysis
Research Corporation,
1980.
2. Kaufman, A.: A Simplified Method for Elastic-Plastic-Creep
Structural Analysis. J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, vol. 107, no.
I, Jan. 1985, pp. 231-237.
3. Kaufman, A.: Development of a Simplified Procedure for Cyclic
Structural Analysis. NASA TP-2243, 1984.
4. Kaufman, A.; and Hwang, S.Y.: Local Strain Redistribution
Corrections for a Simplified Inelastic Analysis Procedure Based
on an Elastic Finite-Element Analysis. NASA TP-2421, 1985.
5. Lekhnitskii, S.G., and Brandstatter, J.J., eds.: Theory of
Elasticity of an Anisotropic Elastic Body. Holden-Day, Inc.,
1963., pp. 24-25.
124
N89 - 633 }
Effects of High Mean Stress on the High-Cycle Fatigue of

PWA 1480 and DS MAR M 246 + Hf at 1000°F *
by
S. Majumdar
ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY

9700 South Cass Avenue
Argonne, Illinois 60439
Materials Science and Technology Division
April 1986
The submitted manuscript has been authored

by a contractor of the U.S. Government
under contract No. W-31-109_ ENG-38.
Accordingly, the U. S. Government retains a

nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish
or reproduce the published form of this
contribution, or allow others to do so, for
U. S. Government porpose$.
INVITED PAPER to be presented at the 1986 Conference on Advanced

Earth-to-Orbit Propulsion Technology, Marshall Space Flight Center/NASA,
Huntsville, Alabama, May 13-16, 1986.
*Work supported by the NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH.
125
EFFECTS
OFHIGHMEANSTRESS ONTHEHIGH-CYCLE FATIGUEOF
PWA1450 _D DSliAR M 246 + Hf AT i000°F*
S. Majumdar
Materials Science and Technology Division
Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne, Illinois 60439
Abstract
The paper summarizes results showing the effects

of high mean stress on the high-cycle fatigue lives of
single crystal PWA 1480 and DS MAR M 246 + Hf alloys at
1000°F. Selected specimens of PWA 1480 were examined
by scanning electron microscopy after the fatigue tests
were completed. The results indicate that the high-
cycle fatigue resistance of PWA 1480 is less than that
of DS MAR _I 246 + Hf at low mean stress. However, at
high mean stress, PWA 1480 is slightly stronger than
MAR M 246 + Hr. The relatively low high-cycle fatigue
resistance of PWA 1480 at low mean stress has been
traced to the presence of porosities that nucleate
fatigue cracks rather early in life. A simplified
linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis, which
assumes that tlle cracks are present at the beginning of
life, provides reasonable correlation between the
present data and the limited crack growth data avail-
able for the same material.
Introduction
Single crystal PWA 1480 and directionally solidified (DS) _R M

246 + Hf are alloys of interest for use in the hot section of NASA
space shuttle main engine. As high-pressure turbine blade materials,
they will be subjected to vibratory high-cycle fatigue (HCF) loading
superimposed on a high mean stress due to centrifugal loading. The
present testing program at Argonne National Laboratory was initiated
by the NASA Lewis Research Center to study the effects of a high mean
stress on the HCF behavior of single-crystal PWA 1480 and DS MAR M 246
+ Hf. Since the high mean stress in a turbine blade of the space
shuttle main engine occurs near the root region, where temperatures
are relatively low, the temperature for testing was restricted to
538°C (1000°F), although some tests were also conducted at 20°C (room
temperature). Also, to minimize the effects of oxidation, tests at
1000°F were conducted in a vacuum. Since the principal loading
*Work supported by the NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH.
126
direction of interest is in the [001] direction for the single-crystal
PWA 1480 and in the longitudinal direction for the DS MAR H 246 + Hf,
only specimens with their axes oriented in these two respective
directions were tested for the two alloys.
It is known that microporosities are present in PWA 1480 and that

they are often the sites of fatigue crack initiation [i]. The present
study was no exception. Although there was a distribution in size, in
most cases a fatigue crack was initiated from the largest or a close-
to-the-largest micropore present in the gauge section of the specimen.
Sometimes a number of pores occur in clusters, resulting in large
elastic stress concentration factors. It is likely that cracks
initiated from these pores very early in life. Such micropores are
not present in DS MAR M 246 + Hf. However, the nature and location of
fatigue crack initiation for this alloy was not investigated.
The primary objective of the test program was to conduct tests of

single-crystal PWA 1480 and DS MAR M 246 + Hf in order to establish
the effects of a high mean stress on the HCF life. Because of tile
limited scope of the program, the target life was set nominally at one
million cycles. A second objective was to conduct metallographic
examinations of enough failed specimens of PWA 1480 to establish the
effects of microstructure on damage. Such a metallographic study was
not undertaken for DS _IAR M 246 + Hf.
Materials
5-mm (0.2 in.)-diameter, 15-cm (6 in.)-long straight gauge smooth

specimens (with the specimen axes oriented in the [001] direction for
PWA 1480 and in the longitudinal direction for DS MAR M 246 + Hf) were
supplied by the NASA Lewis Research Center. The measured elastic
modulus, proportional stress limit, 0.2% offset yield stress, and
ultimate tensile strength at 20°C (room temperature) and 538°C
(IO00°F) are given in Table i. Note that, in contrast to 20°C,
significant strain hardening is present in PWA 1480 at 538°C. Thus,
although the proportional limit is reduced with increasing
temperature, the 0.2% offset yield stress remains relatively constant.
Test Procedure
In the initial tests, specimens were subjected to axial strain

controlled cycles. However, very little cyclic plasticity was
observed in these tests. Therefore, all subsequent testing was
carried out under load control at a frequency of 20 Hz. Plastic
yielding occurred at the tensile end of the first cycle of the
high-mean-stress HCF tests. However, the magnitude of the plastic
strain is estimated to be only 0.05%, and there was no evidence of
plastic strain ratchetting with cycles, shakedown being reached after
127
Table i. Mechanical properties of PWA 1480 [001] and
DS _R M 246 + Hf (longitudinal)
Measured Ultimate
Temp., Elastic Proportional 0.2% Offset Tensile
Material Stress Limit, Yield Stress,
°C Modulus, ksi ksi Strength,
x i0 v psi ksi
PWA 1480
20 18.4 146 146 154

538 16.6 125 144 -
DS MAR M
246 + Hf
20 17.0 - 130 155

538 17.0 - 135 157
the firs_ cycle. In order to minimize oxidation effects, all tests

were conducted in a vacuum (8 x I0-- torr). The specilaens were heated
by a Lepel induction heater operating at a frequency of 455 KHz.
Test Results
A summary of all the tests conducted is displayed in Fig. i. A

Goodman diagram corresponding to a life of a million cycles estimated
from these tests is shown in Fig. 2, which also includes data for DS
_R M 246 + Hf at 840°C (1550°F) obtained from tests conducted at
Rockwell International [2]. Fatigue strength of DS LIAR M 246 + Hf
does not appear to change significantly between 538°C (1000°F) and
840°C (1550°F). The somewhat larger decrease in fatigue strength
with increasing mean stress at the higher temperature may be
related to creep effects. Note that, although the fatigue
strengths of both materials decrease with increasing mean stress,
PWA 1480 is more resistant to mean stress e_fects than DS MAR M 246 4
Hf. Thus, although at 538oC (IO00°F) DS _R M 246 + Hf is stronger
than PWA 1480 at zero mean stress, at high mean stress the situation
is reversed. The higher yield strength of P_ 1480 may be partially
responsible for this behavior.
Metallosraphic Observations
Several specimens of PWA 1480 were examined by optical and

scanning electron microscopes after fracture. In all cases, crack
initiation occurred at micropores. An example is shown in Fig. 3,
128
T
MATERIAL MEAN
STRESS
(ksi}
150
o PWA 1480 0
• DS MAR M 246+ Hf 0
O o [] PWA 1480 6(3 700
I00
90 -- [] 0 • DS MAR M 246+ Hf 60 600
A PWA 1480 105
80
70 • OS MAR M 246 + Hf 105
w 60 _:)_'-,Z_, •'- TEST INTERRUPTED
(,9 []
Z
.,_ 50 Z_
nr"
-- 300
(f)
40 if)
W W
n-
rr
,It,'" k-
I..- 30 -- 200 m
O3
20
-- I00
IO
,,I 1 I
i05 I06 I0 ? I08
CYCLES TO FAILURE
Fig. i. Summary of HCF tests on PWA 1480 and DS MAR M 246

+ Hf at various mean stresses at lO00CF (538°C).
MEAN STRESS (MPo)
200 400 600 800

80
' I I I t I I I I
o
O_
_- 6o DS MAR M 246 + Hf (1550°F)

400 03
or) 03
03 W
W MAR M 246 + Hf (IO00°F)
tY
nr I.-
03
03 40
(._ L9
Z z
200 C--
z
ztY 2O PWA 1480 (lO00°F) tY
hi w
I I I I 1 I o
O0 20 40 60 80 I00 120
MEAN STRESS (ksi)
2. Goodman diagrams for PWA 1480 at 1000°F (538°C) and for

Fig.
tLAR M 246 + Hf at 1000°F and at 1550°F (840°C).
129
.F. _)OR QUALITY
SPECIMEN AXIS
Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrograph showing surface porosity

from which a fatigue crack is initiated under HCF
loading.
where the crack initiated at a micropore with a major axis of about

40 _m. A more detailed discussion of crack initiation sites in PWA
1480 is given in Ref. [3]. In most cases, crack propagation was
crystallographic along [Iii] type planes. Several slight differences
were observed between tests at zero and high mean stress. Specimens
at high mean stress tend to have cracks initiated at several sites,
whereas those at zero mean stress tend to have a single initiation
site. The high-mean-stress test specimens also had a rougher and more
textured fracture surface, which may be indicative of a high crack
propagation rate.
LEFMAnalysis
Since fracture in PWA 1480 specimens initiated in all cases from

one of the elongated micropores, and since the macroscopic stress
strain response for all the tests was essentially linear, linear
130
elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM)analyses seemedappropriate.
However, there are several complications due to anisotropic elastic
behavior of the single-crystal material and the crystallographic
nature of crack propagation. Several simplifying assumptions were
madeto carry out the required analysis. Details may be obtained from
Ref. [3]. The analysis provided a meansof estimating the crack
growth behavior of the material from the HCFtests, assuming that the
crack growth rate per cycle can be expressed as the following:
da [C[u(R)AK] n for AN > AKth

(1)
= _0 for AK < AKth
where
AK = Stress-intensity-factor range
R = Ratio between minimum and maximum stress
u(R) = A factor to account for mean stress effects
AKth = Threshold stress-intensity-factor range
C and n = Material constants
Figure 4 shows a comparison between the derived crack growth

rates at both 20°C (room temperature) and 538°C (1000°F) with the
limited experimental crack growth data [i] available for this
material for R = 0.I at 427°C (800°F). The excellent agreement
may be fortuitous because of the various assumptions made in the
analysis. However, the use of these crack growth data (together
with reasonable estimates of initial crack length and completely
ignoring crack initiation lives) allows one to correlate the
observed life data of PWA 1480 generated under the present program
within a factor of two [3].
Discussions and Conclusions
Tests conducted at 538°C (1000°F) in vacuum have shown that,

under a zero-mean-stress condition, HCF strength of DS MAR M 246 + Hf
at a life of one million cycles is superior to that of single-crystal
PWA 1480. However, the HCF strength of the DS alloy decreases at a
faster rate with increasing mean stress than that of the single-
crystal alloy, so that at a mean stress of 105 ksi, the HCF strength
of PWA 1480 is, in fact, superior to that of DS MAR M 246 + Hf.
Fatigue cracks in PWA 1480 initiate from micropores that are

present in the as-received material. Therefore, it is
theoretically possible to improve the HCF resistance of this
131
1o-S
ac)
-6
io-Z X
538°C (VACUUM)
._ i0-8 (AIR)
0
_iz lo
-9
lo-_O X DATA AT427°C
iO-ll
IO-12
I I l ,,,,,I , a , ,l,,,l
I0 I00
AK (MPa-.v/'m ]
Fig. 4. Comparison of experimental crack growth rate data of

PWA 1480 [001] at 427°C (800°F) with derived crack
growth rates at 20°C (room temperature) and 538°C
(1000°r).
132
material by limiting the size of the largest micropores. Figure 5
shows the improvement in lives calculated by Eq. (i) as the size of
the initiating micropore is reduced from 40 pm to i0 pm. Note that
the main benefit from such a reduction in the size of the initiating
micropore is achieved at the high cycle end rather than the low cycle
end of the fatigue life.
I I I I I1_
I000
'"'"'1 ' '""l'l ' '"'"'1 ''""_1
20°C
c o -- IO/_rn -g
,.j/ u Co = 20Fro
_-o --, /%__ 4OF. m I000 --
'" I00 --
/ W
c_o
z Z
n- ¢r
co cO
00
w I00 ua
n- n,.
I0 -- I--
, Illlllll , ..,,,,,I , .lllllll , ,,_ll.I I I I IIIII I0
104 io 5 ioe io 7 io a I09

CYCLES TO FAILURE
Fig. 5. Possible improvements in the fatigue properties of

PWA 1480 [001] by controlling the size of the
initiating micropore at three different values.
References
., D. P. Deluca and B. A. Cowles, Fatigue and Fracture of

Advanced Blade Materials, Final Report for Period August i,
1982 through August 31, 1984, Materials Laboratory, Air Force
Wright Aeronautical Laboratories (AFSC) Report ASD-86-0051
(February 1985).
, J. Lewis, unpublished test results, Rockwell International,

Rocketdyne Division (1984).
o S. Majumdar and R. Kwasny, Effects of a High Mean Stress on

the High-Cycle Fatigue Life of PWA 1480 and Correlation of
Data by Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics, Argonne National
Laboratory Report ANL-85-74/NASA CR 175057 (1986).
133
i N89 - 12634
CONSTITUTIVE BEHAVIOR OF SINGLE CRYSTAL PWA 14_0

AND DIRECTIONALLY SOLIDIFIED MAR-M 246 UNDER MONOTONIC
AND CYCLIC LOADS AT HIGH AND LOW TEMPERATURE
Walter W. Milligan, Eric S. Huron, and

Stephen D. Antolovich
Fracture and Fatigue Research Laboratory

School of Materials Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, advancements in precision casting

have allowed the introduction of directionally
solidified and single crystal turbine blades in gas
turbine engines and advanced rocket engines.
Currently, the turbopump blade in the Space Shuttle
Main Engine (SSME) is fabricated from Directionally
Solidified Mar-M 246 + Hf. A possible replacement for
this alloy is single crystal PWA 1480.
Both alloys result in substantial improvements in

creep strength and high temperature fatigue strength
over conventionally cast alloys, due to the lack of
grain boundaries in the transverse direction. However,
their use presents an analytical problem, because of
anisotropic elastic and plastic properties.
Consequently, the conventional continuum-mechanical
approach is frequently inadequate. This has lead
designers and analysts to try to understand fundamental
metallurgical mechanisms which are active in these
alloys, and to attempt to incorporate these mechanisms
in their analytical models.
In addition to the complicated anisotropic

properties, the microstructures and deformation
mechanisms in these alloys are also complex.
Deformation mechanisms are very dependent on
temperature, strain level, strain rate, and stress
state. In the directionally solidified (DS) material,
an additional complicating factor is introduced by the
longitudinal grain boundaries, and the associated
rotational freedom of the grains. Metallurgical
analysis is clearly needed in order to fully understand
the behavior of these alloys.
134
The results reported in this paper are
intermediate results from a long term project in which
the constitutive behavior of the two alloys is being
studied. The variables are temperature, strain level,
strain rate, orientation, and number of cycles.
Additionally, the behavior of the alloys under non-
isothermal cyclic loading will be studied. The main
focus of the project involves documenting fundamental
metallurgical deformation mechanisms, and using this
knowledge to develop physically-based constitutive
models. To date, interrupted tensile tests have been
conducted on PWA 1480, and the associated deformation
analysis has been completed. Fully reversed, strain-
controlled fatigue tests have been completed on DS Mar-
M 246, and tensile tests have also been conducted. The
analysis of the deformation behavior has recently begun
for this material.
This paper summarizes results obtained to date

[1,2]. These references should be consulted for
details.
MICROSTRUCTURES
The alloys are similar, in that they are based on

the two-phase y/y'structure, and both contain a large
volume fraction of y' . However, there are significant
differences in chemistry and microstructure due to the
grain boundaries which are present in the DS
material. The alloy compositions are given in Table I.
PWA 1480
PWA is the simpler of the two, due to the lack of

grain boundaries and the subsequent lack of need for
grain boundary strengthening phases. The materia_ is
single crystalline, with the tensile axis within 10u of
<001>. The alloy contains a fine dispersion of
ordered, cuboidal y' particles in a disordered y
matrix, Figure l(a). The y' size was fairly
uniform, ranging from 0.25 to 1.0 Bm, with an average
y' size of 0.5 _m. There were isolated areas in the
interdendritic regions which contained larger primary
y' particles. The average y' volume fraction was 55-
60%.
As shown in Figure 2(a), the alloy contained a

residual dendritic structure with micropores and large
interdendritic eutectic pools. The volume fraction of
microporosity was 0.15-0.20%, and most pores were less
than 50 um in diameter. The volume fraction of
135
eutectic was about 5%, with an average diameter of
about 150 _m . Due to a low carbon content of 42 ppm,
very few carbides were observed. As shown in Figure 1
(a), the initial dislocation density was also very low.
Mar-M 246
The y' structure of the alloy is shown in Figure

l(b). The volume fraction y' was 60%, and the average
y' size was also about 0.5 um in this alloy. In
contrast to the low lattice parameter mismatch of 0.28%
for PWA 1480, the mismatch between the lattice
parameters of the 7 and _' in Mar-M 246 was high, about
0.65%. This high misfit influenced the y' morphology,
as seen by the sharp cube corners of the y' and the
relatively high initial dislocation density in the
precipitate/matrix interface. Note that some stacking
faults were present in the starting microstructure.
As shown in Figure 2(b), the microstructure

consisted of elongated, columnar grains which were
parallel to <001>. The grain diameters varied, but
were on the order of I00 _m . The grain boundaries
were serrated and irregular, and some transverse
boundaries and tapered grains were observed. Similar
to PWA 1480, the 7' was finer near the dendrite cores
and larger in the interdendritic regions. MC and M23C 6
carbides, as well as eutectic pools were present at
grain boundaries and interdendritic boundaries, and the
MC carbides exhibited a slight "script" morphology.
Some scattered micropores were observed, but the level
of porosity was not considered to be significant, as
subsequent mechanical testing revealed no initiation or
failure due to micropores.
TENSILE BEHAVIOR
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
For PWA 1480, tests were conducted at 20, 705,

760, 815, 871, 982, and I0930C. For Mar-M _46, tests
were conducted at 20, 704, 927, and i093vC. Both
alloys were tested at two strain rates, 0.5%/min and
50%/min. The tests on PWA 1480 were interrupted after
the yield point, while most the Mar-M 246 tests were
conducted to failure.
The behavior of both alloys was similar. As shown

in Table II and F_gure 3, the Mield strength was the
same at 20 and 705uC. Above 7600C, the strength began
to drop off rapidly, and the strain rate began to have
136
an effect on the strength. The temperature where the
strain rate began to have an effect on the strength was
a function of strain rate. At the lower strain rate,
the strength began to drop off above 7600C, while at
the higher strain rate, the strength did not begin to
fall until abeve 8150C. Such behavior is typical of
high volume fraction superalloys.
The stress-strain curves for Mar-M 246 are shown
in Figure 4. (Note that the upper endpoints of the
curve do not correspond to specimen failure, because
the extensometer was removed prior to failure in order
to prevent damage to it). The shape of the stress-
strain curves indicates a change in strain hardening
behavior. At room temperature and 704_C at 50%/min,
the curves were approximately horizontal after
yielding. For all other test conditions, a steeper
stress-strain curve was observed. This indicates that
the deformation was much more homogeneous at higher
temperatures, and this hypothesis was supported by TEM
observations which will be discussed later in the
paper.
YIELD STRENGTHANALYSIS
As indicated by the strain rate and temperature

dependence of the yield strength, yielding at elevated
temperatures is a thermally activated process. It is
therefore appealing to present the data in the form of
an Arrhenius-type relationship. Rate-controlling
mechanisms may then be deduced as a function of
temperature. Figure 5 is a plot of the modulus-
normalized yield strength vs inverse temperature, which
represents an equation of the form
a /E = A [ exp(Q'/RT) ] , ......... (I)
where a = Yield strength,

E = Elastic modulus at temperature, T,
Q' = Apparent activation energy,
A = A constant.
As illustrated by Figure 5, there are three distinct

temperature regimes when the data are represented in
this way:
a) At low temperatures (below 7600C), Q'
was equal to zero, so thermal
activation was not a factor in the
range of strain rates tested.
b) At high temperatures _(above 9270C at
50%/min and above 8150C at 0.5%/min),
137
Q' was a constant equal to 50 kJ/mol,
and was independent of strain rate.
The true activation energy was
calculated to be 500 kJ/mol, which is
indicative of a diffusion controlled
process [i].
c) At intermediate temperatures, a
transition from the low to the high
temperature behavior occurred. It is
evident from the shape of the curves
that the transition region boundaries
and functional forms were a strong
function of strain rate.
DEFORMATION STRUCTURES
Analysis of the deformation substructures at yield

resulted in the same three temperature regimes as the
Arrhenius analysis for PWA 1480, and the boundaries of
the three regimes were the same. As discussed below,
low temperature deformation at yield was dominated
by ¥' shearing, high temperature deformation was
dominated by ¥' by-pass, and intermediate temperatures
exhibited a transition from shearing to by-pass.
I. Low Temperatures
Deformation substructures at yield at 20, 705, and
7600C (high strain rate only) were qualitatively
similar. The dominant deformation mechanism was
shearing of the y' by pairs of a/2<l10> dislocations
which were confined to octahedral planes. At 20_C,
relatively few dislocations were present at yield, and
the spacing between dislocations was large. However,
the dislocation density at yield was significantly
higher than it was in the as heat-treated material.
There was also evidence of y' shearing, including the
presence of dislocation p_irs and residual loops within
the ¥' . At 705 and 760uC, the dislocation density at
yield was very high, and the structure consisted of
intense slip bands which contained closely spaced
dislocations, Figure 6. It is possible that this type
of structure may have been formed but not observed at
200C, due to the possibility of extremely localized,
non-homogeneous slip.
Through systematic analysis of the dislocation

Burgers vectors and line directions, it was determined
that the vast majority of dislocations observed after
deformation at low temperatures were of the type
{lll}a/2<l10>. Dislocations travelled through
138
the y' as closely-spaced pairs in order to minimize the
anti-phase boundary (APB) area created by the a/2<l10>
displacement of the superlattice. This is demonstrated
by Figure 7, in which those portions of the
dislocations within the precipitate are constricted due
to the high APBE, while those portions of the same
dislocations which had exited the precipitates are
split due to the elastic repulsion.
Dislocation structures observed at failure in Mar-

M 246 at low temperatures followed the same trends. At
20 and 7050C, precipitate shearing occurred, and many
dislocating were present in the y' and at the interface
(Figure 6 (b)).
2. High Temperature
The boundary separating the high and low
temperature regimes was a function of strain rate. At
0.5_/min, high temperature behavior was dominant at
815_C and above, while at 50%/min, high temperature
behavior did not manifest itself until 9270C and above.
In contrast to the shearing which was observed at

low temperatures, deformation during yielding at high
temperatures occurred primarily by dislocations moving
between and around the precipitates. Figure 8 shows a
typical substructure consisting of dislocation loops
left in the y/y' interface and in the y matrix.
Dislocations were only infrequently observed within the
y'a_ter interrupted tests conducted at 0.5%/min above
815UC. Although a few s_ip bands were observed to have
cut the y' even at i093_, the dominant mechanism at
low strain levels at 927 C and above was particle by-
pass at both strain rates. As seen in Figures 8 and 9,
this leads to a very homogeneous substructure, which is
consistent with the observed high degree of strain
hardening.
While dislocations were not observed within the

y' after interrupted tests at the low strain rate, the
specimens which were tested to failure at 871 and 9820C
contained a high density of dislocations within the y',
Figure i0. This indicates that the first step in
deformation was by-pass of the y', which was followed
by shearing of the T' later in the test. Shearing
occurred only after large increases in the matrix
dislocation density and significant strain hardening
had occurred.
At very high temperatures and low strain rates,

the y' coarsened, and the substructure consisted of
139
interfacial hexagonal networks of dislocations, Figure
ii. Under these conditions, the y' was not sheared,
and there was a large amount of dynamic recovery
occurring. Consequsntly, the strain hardening exponent

was lower at 1093 C (n=.221) than it was at 927vC
(n=.371).
3. Intermediate Temperatures
Not surprisingly, a transition from shearing to
by-pass was observed at yield in the range from 760 to

927_C (depending on strain rate). Slip bands were only
observed at the high strain rate, and the slip band
density decreased as the temperature increased.
DISCUSSION OF TENSILE BEHAVIOR
Both the activation energy analysis and the

analysis of the deformation substructures at yield
divided the tensile behavior into three regimes. At
low temperatures, deformation during yielding occurred
by y' shearing. At high temperatures, deformation
during yielding occurred by y' by-pass. The
intermediate temperature regime exhibited transitional
behavior. Attempts to model the yielding behavior must
therefore be divided into these three regimes.
However, the intermediate temperature regime exhibited
complex transitional behavior which would be difficult
to model with the available date.
As discussed in Reference i, currently available

models of yielding in high volume fraction superalloys
are based on the premise that dislocation penetration
into the particle is the rate-limiting step. The
following type of expression for the Critical Resolved
Shear Stress (CRSS) results from such an analysis
Y (y 0/2b) - (T/br 0) +1/2 (t m +tp)..(2)

c
where T = CRSS,
c
= Antiphase Boundary Energy,
= Dislocation Burgers Vector,
T = Dislocation Line Tension,
r0 = Radius of Particles in Slip Plane,

= CRSS of the Precipitates,
m
T = CRSS of the Matrix.
P
However, the results of this study [i] indicated

that penetration was not the rate-limiting step in the
yielding process at all temperatures in the shearing
regime, so the currently available theories are not
completely valid. Further work in this area is
140
planned.
At high temperatures, deformation during yielding

occurred by y'by-pass. The rate limiting step in these
alloy systems during by-pass is climb of dislocations
over the precipitates. As discussed in Reference I, a
model is available for this phenomenon which fits the
experimental data very well. The CRSS is given by:
Tc = TO + K1 Q0 - K2T [in(k3_)] ....... (3)
where T = Threshold Stress

o
QO = Activation energy of the rate-
limiting diffusion process,
k's = Constants which include micro-
structural parameters,
T = Temperature,
= Strain Rate.
It is observed that the CRSS should be a linearly

decreasing function of temperature, and this agrees
with the data fairly well.
FATIGUE BEHAVIOR OF DS MAR-M246
LIFE CORRELATION
The LCF test results are summarized in Table 2.

The data was first fitted to the well-known Coffin-
Manson Law:
C(N f )8 ......................(4)
where Ae is the plastic strain range (usually at half-
life), cPis a constant, Nf is the number of cycles to
failure, and B is the Coffin-Manson exponent. The
results are shown in Figure 12 (a). The resulting
Coffin-Manson equations developed were:
7040C : Ae = .08 Nf [.783

9270C: Ae p .ii Nf _.676 ............. (5)
I0930C: Ae p .80 Nf .762
P
The correlation coefficients were 0.996, 0.986, and

0.999 respectively. Life was also plotted and
correlated against stress range (Figure 12 (b)). The
effects of strain rate on fatigue life can be noted by
comparing Figures 12 (a) and 12 (b). At 7040C, the
0.5%/minute strain rate resulted in shorter lives, on
the basis of plastic strain range. On the basis of
stress range, the lives were approximately equal
141
between the two strain rates. At 9270C and i0930C,
oxidation was an important factor in determining
life. The slow strain rate lives were longer on the
basis of plastic strain range, but when lives were
plotted against stress range (Figure 12 (b)), the lives
were shorter at the slower strain rates.
It has been shown [3] that LCF life for single

crystal 7-14-6 (Ni-6.8AI-13.8Mo-6W) could be correlated
well with either (Aet x E) or the Neuber parameter
(sqrt(_e_E - _ max)), even for different orientations.
The present data for 50%/min were analyzed with these
parameters and the correlations were higher than those
for . .max
o or Aet. alone. This confirmed that elastic
modulus, which is subject to variation in DS materials
due to misorientation, is obviously significant in
determining fatigue life in the strain-controlled LCF
tests, through its effect on stress.
CUMULATIVE GLIDE BEHAVIOR
The LCF tests were conducted using total strain

control. Representative cumulative glide curves,
plotting stress vs. cycle,, are given in Figure 13. At
200C the stress range increased to a maximum, followed
by a gradual decrease over the remainder of the test.
Similar behavior has been observed in MAR-M200 [4] and
Waspaloy [5, 6] and is consistent with precipitate
shearing. At 7040C, 50%/minute strain rate, the stress
range was essentially constant _hroughout the test. At
927vC, 0.5%/minute, and at I093'_C, marked softening was
observed. Although the softening might at first seem
to be due to particle shearing, TEM studies (which are
discussed in subsequent paragraphs) revealed that
particle coarsening was taking place with relatively
little or no shearing.
FRACTURE CHARACTER
SEM examination of LCF fracture surfaces revealed

marked differences dependent on test condition. At
room temperature and 7040C, initiation was due to
cracking at carbides in the interdendritic regions, and
subsequent formation of slip bands (Figure 14 (a)).
The slip band spacing was wider at 704vC. Fracture
surfaces were perpendicular to the stress axis and the
fracture was highly crystallographic at 200C, less
crystallographic at 7040C, 50%/minute (Figure 14 (b_),
and only marginally crystallographic at 704_C,
0._%/minute. 9ptical examination revealed that at both
20"C and 704UC cracks followed transgranular paths
142
along interdendritic regions, regions that were
expected to be more brittle due to the eutectic and
carbides in those regions. Only slight deflection was
observed at vertical grain boundaries.
At 9270C the fracture character was quite
different. The fracture surfaces were still
perpendicular to the stress axis, but the initiation
region was flat and featureless and not
crystallographic (Figure 14 (c)). As expected the
surface was heavily oxidized. Optical microscopy
(Figure 14 (d)) confirmed the formation of cracks
perpendicular to the stress axis (Stage II) due to
oxidation of eutectic constituent in interdendritic
regions. The oxidation was more severe at the slow
strain rate te_ts, which caused reductions in lives at
9270C and I093_C. The initiation region at i093°C was
similar to 927 C: flat and featureless and resulting
from Stage II initiation at oxide spikes. However,
behind the flat initiation region, the crack changed
direction slightly and deviated from a plane normal to
the stress axis.
DISLOCATION SUBSTRUCTURES
The dislocation substructures, along with the

observations concerning fracture character and
cumulative glide behavior, show that the LCF behavior
of this material is highly dependent on the
precipitatematrix relationship.
At 200C, there were linear dislocation segments
throughout the microstructure with a significant amount
of dislocation debris at the precipate-matrix interface
(Figure 15(a)). The overall dislocation density was
quite high. The dislocations were found to be of the
type a/2<l10> {iii}. At 7040C, the overall dislocation
density was lower. Dislocations were present on the
interface and there was evidence of precipitate
shearing (Figure 15(b)). Most of the dislocations were
of type a/2<l10> {III}. However, some
a/2<l10> {ll0}dislocations were found. These
dislocations were pure edge, and near the
precipitate/matrix interfaces, where the strong
component of the Burger's vector in the direction of
the cube face would serve to accomodate the lattice
mismatch. Despite the strong strain rate effect on
life, there was little qualitative difference between
the substructures between the two strain rates with the
exception of slightly more "wavy" dislocations in the
0.5%/min strain rate tests, especially along the
143
interface regions. On the basis of plastic strain
range, the lives at 7040C were much shorter than for
other test conditions. This corresponds to the minimum
in ductility near this temperature, at the
maximum y'strength.
At 9270C, 50%/min, shearing of y'by a/2 <ii0> {iii}

dislocations was observed, but the density of this type
of dislocation within the precipitate was very low
(Figure 16 (a)_. The significant structural feature
observed at 927UC and above was precipitate coarsening,
with formation of hexagonal networks of dislocations at
the interfaces. Trace analysis showed that the
networks were composed of near-edge a/2 <ii0>
dislocations on {lll}planes with some dislocations were
on {ii0} planes. The interfacial networks were quite
well developed at the slow strain rate, and the
coarsening was extensive (Figure 16 (b)).
At I0930C, 0.5%/min, no dislocations were present

in the matrix or precipitate interiors (Figure 17).
All dislocations were stored in arrays on the
precipitate-matrix _nterfaces, with the same character
as observed at 927uC. The y'coarsened significantly,
in an irregular manner, even at 50%/minute strain
rate. Similar coarsening was observed at 9270C at
0.5%/minute strain rate, but was absent at the faster
strain rate. At 0.5%/minute at I093_C, the degree of
coarsening was severe (Figure 17 (b)). Note that the
mean free path between precipitate particles has
increased greatly.
Precipitate coarsening is obviously very important

in the high temperature deformation of MAR-M246+Hf. In
DS Rene 80, coarsening has been shown to be accelerated
by stress. To study this effect in MAR-M2_6+Hf,
undeformed samples were held for 49 hours at 927_C and
0 , 0
1093 C. The resulting y structure for 1093 C is shown
in Figure 17 (c). Some coarsening has occurred. N_te
that this was without applied stress. The I093_C,
50%/min. LCF tests coarsened to a greater extent after
test times of about 30 minutes, and at I093uC,
0.5%/min., the structure coarsened even in a tensile
test. Thus in MAR-M246+Hf, the high mismatch provides
a driving force for coarsening without deformation;
however, deformation does increase the rate of
coarsening significantly.
144
GRAIN BOUNDARYSLIP BEHAVIOR
In the low temperature tests, the slip behavior on

the surface could be studied using the SEM. The slip
behavior across boundaries varied considerably, and a
typical example is given in Figure 18. In Figure 18
(a), the grain at th right showed primary slip with
slip traces present on the entire grain surface. The
grain on the left contained only short slip traces,
adjacent to the grain boundary. In Figure 18 (b), both
grains exhibited primary slip. In the grain on the
left, secondary slip was observed on two additional
slip systems. These effects are similar to the results
of bicrystal studies [7 - 12] and indicate that
stresses can arise at the boundary due to
incompatibility effects. This topic will be considered
in more detail in the discussion.
DISCUSSION OF FATIGUE BEHAVIOR
i. Factors Influencing Life

As shown in Figure 12, the effect of strain rate
on life for the DS MAR-M246 changed with temperature.
The reduction in life at 704uC for the slow strain
rate, for a given plastic strain range, could be due to
the difference in strain hardening behavior. For a
given amount of strain the higher degree of strain
hardening at the 0.5%/minute strain rate resulted in a
higher stress range. Note that in terms of stress
range there is little strain rate effect.
At 9270C and I0930C, oxidation was an important
factor in determining life, and the slow strain rate
lives were longer on the basis of plastic strain
range. This result was due to the fact that, for a
given number of cycles, increased time was available
for softening due to precipitate coarsening. This
caused a beneficial reduction in stress, although
increased time was available for oxidation. However,
in terms of stress range (Figure 12 (b)), life was
shortened at the slow strain rate. Although beneficial
coarsening did occur to a greater extent, more time
was available (in a given number of cycles) for
detrimental oxidation, so the life was reduced.
Antolovich, Baur, and Liu [13] have presented a

model for the effect of oxidation on life. The model
assumes parabolic oxidation kinetics and relates the
depth of oxide spikes to the time of the test. The
relative depth, i i of an oxide spike, is given by:
145
ii = (t/t0)i/_ ......................... (6)
where t is the time to failure. For oxide-induced

failure, the m_ximum l.stress at initiation was
proportional to t/_ or i_ Figure 19 shows a plot of
maximum stress at initiation vs. the relative oxide
depth for the present study. Visually, the correlation
appears to be best for I0930C, and the horizontal slope
at 704°C implies little or no dependence of failure on
oxidation.
CUMULATIVE GLIDE BEHAVIOR
The cumulative glide behavior of the MAR-M246 was

strongly dependent on temperature due to changes in the
deformation mode. At 20_C, the structure was
indicative of heterogeneous, planar slip and
precipitate shearing, consistent with the surface slip
lines, the gradual drop in life over the last portion
of the test, and the highly crystallographic fracture
behavior. The initial hardening during the test
corresponded to hardening in the matrix, which is
relatively strong at 20vC. At the point of maximum
stress the dislocation density at the
precipitate/matrix boundaries and associated stress
concentration was sufficiently high to initiate
precipitate shearing. It should be noted that the TEM
substructure was taken from the failed specimen. A
worthwhile experiment would be to run an interrupted
test, to a point before the maximum stress is reached,
and study the deformation substructure. The completion
of the present study will involve a complete matrix of
interrupted testing.
At 7040C, at both strain rates, edge dislocations

on {ll0}planes were present after deformation. This is
a significant result, because such dislocations in the
FCC structure are sessile, would act as strong barries,
and would cause hardening. Note that at 704vC, at both
strain rates, the stress range of all tests is stable
almost immediately. The stability of the stress range
may be due to a balance of precipitate shearing, which
would eventually soften the material, and strengthening
from the immobile dislocations on {ll0}planes. Again,
completion of interrupted tests will help to clarify
these results.
At 9270C, 50%/min., the stress range was also

stable. Note that although coarsening and the
formation of interfacial networks had begun to occur,
some precipitate shearing was still occurring at the
146
high strain rate (Figure 16 (a)). At 9270C, 0.5%/min.
and i0930C, a drop in stress over the life of the test
was observed, due to coarsening of the y' . This
coarsening, with the resultant interfacial network of
dislocations, and the low observed dislocation density
in the matrix and precipitate are important in
determining fatigue life. First, the low dislocation
density is indicative that recovery processes can occur
easily. Thus, the damage due to dislocations is
probably minimal. The interfacial networks are not
actually damage, because they serve to accomodate the
mismatch. Also, the interfacial networks themselves
can accomodate large strains by serving as sources and
sinks for dislocations, and the coarsening increased
the mean free path between precipitates. The effects
explain the observed increase in fatigue on the basis
of plastic strain range at 927uC and i093_C.
Coarsening has been discussed in studies on Rene 80
[14], and it was shown that at 871 and 9820C, life was
determined by a balance between beneficial coarsening
and detrimental oxidation. Essentially the formation
of oxide spikes or regions of higher oxygen content
constitute damage to the extent that they nucleate
stable cracks. The formation of cracks at these
defects depends on the stress level, which is
determined by the amount of coarsening. The more
coarsening, the lower the stress and the longer the
life. As discussed earlier, when the present data
(50%/min.) was fitted to the Antolovich model, the
correlation was best at i0930C. The lower fit at 9270C
could be explained by the fact that some shearing (a
mechanism not related to oxidation) was occuring at
9270C.
GRAIN BOUNDARY SLIP BEHAVIOR
The final topic of discussion concerns the _rain

boundary slip behavior observed at 20vC and 704_C in
the MAR-M246 LCF tests (Figure 18). Studies of
bicrystal deformation have provided fundamental
information on the role of grain boundaries. As
discussed by Hook and Hirth [ii, 12], the grain
boundary is a source of constraint on deformation,
because to remain compatible at the boundary, each
grain most contribute to the strains in the grain
boundary plane in a like manner. In an ideal DS
structure, because of rotational freedom, the grains
will possess different compliance matrices relative to
a common spatial coordinate system. This leads to
elastic incompatibility. In addidion, deformation on
the operative slip systems will not be geometrically
147
continous and consequently will cause plastic
incompatibility. In an actual DS structure the
situation is even more complicated because of a small
allowable degree of tilt misorientation. The tilt
misorientation will result in changes in modulus (and
therefore stress) and changes in Schmid factors for any
given slip system.
A detailed analysis of the slip patterns shown in

Figure 18 could be made following the methods of
Margolin [i0]. However, such an analysis would require
knowledge of the exact crystallographic orientations of
each grain. Because of the grain size, the available
X-ray equipment could not be used for these
determinations due to the width of the beam. Following
the analysis of Prakash [15], the observed slip pattern
can be rationalized based on misorientation. The
following equation defines an incompatibility
parameter, as a function of degree of misorientation, 8.
= -h/(h 2 + k 2) (I - cos 8 - h/k sin 8) .... (7)
This equation predicts increasing incompatibility with

increasing rotation difference. The misorientations of
the grain in Figure 18 were measured by examining the
grains structure on transverse planes. The secondary
dendrites arms are aligned along <001> directions and
may be used to measure orientation differences. The
misorientati_n between the grains was 70 in Figure 18
(a) and 28 _ in Figure 18 (b), correlating well with
the observed degree of incompatibility slip. Greater
rotational differences lead to greater amounts of slip
near the boundary, with cause higher local stresses.
CONCLUSIONS
Strain rate, temperature, time, and microstructure

had strong effects on the mechanical properties of both
alloys, and physical damage mechanisms have been
correlated with these effects. This is the first step
toward characterizing the constitutive behavior of the
alloys from the physical point of view. In the
remaining portion of the program, these relationships
will be further explored, in hopes of developing
constitutive models which will be based on actual
microstructural deformation mechanisms in the alloys.
148
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial

assistance of NASA-Lewis Research Center under Grant
NAG3-503, which is monitored by Dr. Robert C. Bill and
Dr. Rebecca A. MacKay.
REFERENCES
I. W. W. Milligan: NASA CR-175100, 1986.
2. E. S. Huron: NASA CR-175101, 1986.
1 R. P. Dalal, C. R. Thomas, and L. E. Dardi: in

Superalloys 1984, M. Gell et. al., eds., AIME, New
York, 1984, p. 231.
. M. Gell and G. R. Leverant: Trans. TMS-AIME, 242,

1968, p. 1869.
5. B. Lerch, N. Jayaraman, and S. D. Antolovich:

Mater. Sci. Eng., 66, 1984, p. 151.
• R. E. Stoltz and A. G. Pineau: Mater. Sci. Eng.,

34, 1978, p. 275.
•
K. T. Aust and N. K. Chen: Acta Metall., 2, 1954,
p. 632.
8. J. J. Hauser and B. Chalmers: Acta Metall., 9,

1961, p. 802
9. Y. Chuang and H. Margolin: Metall. Trans., 4,

1973, p. 1905.
i0. T. K. Lee and H. Margolin: Metall. Trans. A, 8A,

1977, p. 157.
Ii. R. E. Hook and J. P. Hirth: Acta Metall., 15,

1967, p. 535.
12. R. E. Hook and J. P. Hirth: Acta Metall., 15,

1967, p. 1099.
13. S. D. Antolovich, R. Baur, and S. Liu: in

Superalloys 1980, J. K. Tien et. al., eds., ASM,
Metals Park, Ohio, 1980, p. 605.
149
14. S. D. Antolovich, S. Liu, and Baur: Metall.
Trans. A, 12A, 1981, p. 473.
15. A. Prakash: Ph.D. Thesis, University of

Cincinnati, 1981.
150
Table I - Alloy Compositions
ELEMENT PWA 1480 D.S. Mar-M 246
Cr i0 9
Co 5 i0
A1 5 6
Ti 1.3 1.5
W i0
Mo 2.5
Ta 12 1.5
Hf 1
C 42 ppm 0.15
B 0.015
Zr 0.05
Ni Bal. Bal.
151
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
i 0 .1_0_
IN
ININ
tO tOIO
I_IN
I_
I_IN
I0 IN
I_1_
I_ I_
I_1_
I_
I_.1 I_
_ I _00 _0_ _0_ I _ |NNO I r_ I/_ MI_

Ieo ¢1_ ,-_
I _,-_ N e,!
0
0000
O0 0_
J,,J rj
•,,_ I¢
4,,i,,,-i q_ql' mm_ _ o_ O_m_
0_
OJ
_,,_ 4J w oooo oooo oooo 0000 0000 0o0o
um
0
_0
r..O o_ N
,--,I r_f_i oooo _mo
I
IO
OV
G o o
_qr
P-I
QJ
v) I/1
• o ¢D • o
,U_O ¢; o
_9
• 0
o u_
_U f_
NN _NN_ MNNM _ N N _ M_NN

_1_1 _INI
0_0_ 0_0_ I_1_ I010 N_ Ifllm I_1_
N_NI
152
O_
r..1_
._ e..
e- r- e
_ 0
00o_1
_.J n_ x C 0 t_4_
_n
_o_o C
O_
e •
cO,_" U.ll _
_0_0
A C_
,--I ¢'_ t-h un_O
E_ n. q, I O0 00 ,..._
,,--I I o._r _
-,,4
o_
c_
A
0 0
¢)
n (._
u_ 0_
g_ --" 0 O_
0_0_
¢) ._i
r_
_o 1"_ co
u_O_ ;-4
0 0 O_ o_
0_ £-4
c_
I 0
I
0 00_
0'_'
Q
0
1"-4
I--I
¢1
cO
e •
O_ O_ cOO'_
0 0 O_ _0
_- __.
-,..* C u_ S-,
0 0 • 0 0
u_ u_o
,l.J
_ c_
I-.I
0 ._rq' r_
r.J oo
o O0
_.4p4 _f.-i
h.,
r. _
0 e_t_ O0 0
153
,44
0"_",-¢
_,0 _0 -'-4 I
o] £-.,_
lJ ...4
>.0"
IO g]
mO
e- _ rO 0
• oeeo oo ooze • eoeo •
0 0 0000 O0 __ _ __
A
u.
0
• eeoc oe eooo • eooo •
0 _ _ _ __ _ __
C
c_ cJ rO
_._ _0_ _ __ 0 _0_ 0
_0_ _ __ _ _ 0_ 0
-...o 0_0 O0 _00 _ _00 ®d
c-4 • eeeo ee eeoc • oooo • '_ 0
I
r.
,-i .,._ 0 00_ O0 __ _ __
__ _ __ _ __ 0
I _.._ _ :.- _-,.
o_ ,_o,_ • Ooeo eo oeee • eoeo •
i--i
i--i
• ,"4 -,"4
0 0000 " • 0000 * 0000 ,

__ O0 __ 0 __ 0
e-
_ .,,4
0 __ _ __ _ __
E 0000 O0 __ _ __
0
• E
_." _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
'13
0 __ _ __ _ 0000 0 0
_J
z
154
!
Figure I. TEM micrographs of the y structure, g =

<200>. (a) PWA 14S0. (b) MAR-M 246.
155
,,,_,.'=_.= PAGE IS
OE Poor QUALITY
(_)
Figure 2. Optical microstructures. (a) PWA 1480. (b)

MAR-M 246.
156
1200.0
13
800.0
a.
B_
@ 400.0 la
O
D = O.5%/MIN
,'_ = 50%/'MIN 13
0.0 t 1
0.0 400.0 800.0 1200.0
T (°C)
1000.0
D []
"6"
8..
750.0
0
I/1
&_ []
O0 500.0
"0
eD
>.-
250.0 0
O4 []
[] = 0.5Z/MIN. STRAIN RATE
6
0 = 50%/MIN. STRAIN RATE
0.0 I I I
0.0 300.0 600.0 900.0 1200.0
Temperature (C)
(b)
Figure 3. Yield strength vs. Temperature. (a) PWA

1480. (b) MAR-M 246.
157
1000.0
g _o.ot y/ =._o%/.,,. I
i / / ..J 704C,_S_O_Z_M!N__
l
I /__!._-- I
500.0 i'- _/_'" 977-C'5--_-M- -IN |
• //
t__7-_7
I%/ _ ---_27-c_-_.s_. II
_o.o_ f!__---_o, o75_i._. I
0.0
o.oo o.ol o.o2 o.03 o.o4
Engineering Strain (ram/ram)
Figure 4. Representative tensile test curves for MAR-M

246,
158
-4.0
I I
High I Med II Low

I
W -5.0 I I
-6.0 _ I
0
_J
-7.0 I I I
'7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 ii.0
1/T (K -1 x 10 4 )
Figure 5. Arrhenius representation of PWA 1480

yielding data
159
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF. POOR QUALITY
(a)
Figure 6.
Intense shearing of ¥ at low temperatures
in tensile teats. (a) PWA 1480 705 C. (b)
MAR-M 246, 20_C.
160
.OF POOR QUALITY
Figure 7. y shearing showing paired dislocations.

PWA 1480, 7050C, tensile test.
161
ORIGINAL PAGE iS
OF POOR QUALITY
•• \_ - ,_'_b 0.5 #m
Figure 8.
¥ by-pass at _ield at high temperature.
PWA 1480, 982 C, 0.3% plastic strain.
_!i
ii!!
i̧i!!i!!i
ii
ii!ii
!i
ii!i!ii
¸i!ii!ii
?'!
Figure 9.
¥ by-pass and coarsening a_ter tensile test
to failure MAR-M 246, 1093 C
162
OIRfGI.rJALPAGE 1.3
OF PO,.,._QUALITY
Figure I0. y shearing during late _tages of tensile

test in PWA 14RO at _71_'C.
Figure Ii. Interfacial networks developed at yield at

high temperature. PWA 1480, I0930C, 0.3%
plastic strain
163
,-, 1oo i
[_ 704C. 50 X/M I N UI'I[

(9, o27c. so Z/Ml NUTC
Q. As I093C. 50 X/MINUTE
704C, 0.SZ/I41N UT(
<I O,m 927C. 0.SX/MINUT[
<>,,+oo3c. 0.SX/MmUT_ A
Cr) V,, 2o¢. _OX/MmUTE o
(-
'Y 10-'
r-
em
I,--
"4,--
l/)
o
..k-,.
f/)
I I I l I i I I I i I l I I I I I
_- 10-'
i# io lO'
Cycles to Failure
(a)
"6"
10_
b [3---[]--_-- -D
<_ 0_0__
O---- O
C_ /7= 704C, 50_/&41NUTr •
l- 0 = 927C, 50_/IdlNUI"[
A= 1093C, 50_/MINUT[
n-
BE=704C, 0.5_;/UINUT[
in
In e= 927C. 0.5_/MINUI"K
<>= I093C, 0.5_;/MINUTr
&- o
=4"- V= 20C, 50_/MINUT£
I ' ' ' ' IIII I I I I I I I I
lO 10+
Cycles to Failure
(b)
Figure 12. Fatigue behavior of MAR-M 246. (a) Coffin-

Manson plot. (b) to/Nf plot.
164
J
1200.0
20C, 50%/MIN
704c.so%/_M!.__.
927c.50_/_lN
900.0 ""..... 927C, 0.5%/.MIN
EL
lo93c, so_./Mm
_E lo93c, 0.5%l_Ml.N_
600.0
b
<3 h
300.0
0.0
0.0 500.0 1000.0 1500.0 2000.0 2500.0
Cycles
Figure 13. Representative cumulative glide curves for

MAR-M 246.
165
ORiGiNAL PAGE IS
OF PoOR QUALITY
(a> 0.02 mm
(c)
Figure 14. LCF fracture behavior of MAR-M 246. (a)

Initiation and crystallographic propagation
at 20UC. (b) L_ss crystallographic

fracture at 704_. (c) Initiation due to
oxidation at 927WC. (d) _27_C oxide
spikes.
166
Figure 15. LCF dislocation structures at low
temperatures., (a) 20 C, 50%/min,^showing
remnants of y shearing. (b) 704UC,
50%/min Note stacking faults indicative of
shearing.
167
ORIGINAL PAGE _S
OF POOR QUALITY
Figure 16. LCF dislocation structures at 9270C.
Interracial networks have developed and

coarsening has occurred. (a) 50%/min.
(b) 0.5%/min.
168
ORiGi_AL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
(a)
I/_m
Figure 17.
Dislocation structures at I0930C showing
interracial arrays and coarsening. (a)
50%/min LCF. (b) 0.5%/min. LCF, showing
greatly coarsened structure. (c) untested,
hold at i093vC for 49 hours. Some
coarsening has occurred.
169
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
I Jl II I_
(b) 0.01 mm
Figure 18. Grain Boundary Slip Behavior in 200C LCF

test. (a) Primary slip has occurred in
both grains, with secondary slip on two
systems in the grain on the left.
Misorientation is approximately 280 . (b)
Primary slip has occurred only in the grain
on the right, with some secondary slip in
the grain on th_ left. Misorientation is
approximately 7 .
170
D--D--D
-D
D_
C
O 0
em
O
W-
e-
l'-I= 704C, 50%./MINUTE

O= 927C, 50_/MINUTE
O
Z_= 1093C, 50_/MINUTE
x
O
E
b
io0
Relative Oxide Depth at Initiation
Stress at Initiation vs. Oxide Depth. This

Figure 19.
plot is based on the model proposed by
Antolovich and coworkers _13, 14]. cThe

slopes of the data at 704vC and 9270
are nearly horizontal, indicating little
dependence of life on oxidation, whi_e a
stronger dependence is noted at iO93vC.
171
'N89
q
High-Temperature LCF of Ni-201 and 304L S.S.
by
G.R. Halford, Lewis Research Center, NASA
L.R.Johnson, Johnson Space Center, NASA
J.A. Brown, Aerojet Techsystems
ABSTRACT
The high-temperature, low-cycle fatigue characteristics
have been investigated for two candidate alloys for use in
the nozzle of an advanced design Orbital Maneuverable
Sys tern(OMS) engine. Stra in-controlled, low-cycle,
creep-fatigue tests have been performed in air on a
commercially pure nickel (Ni201) at 483, 594, and 760 C,
and on AISI Type 304L stainless steel at 650, 760, and 870
C. Both continuous strain-cycling tests and
compressive-strain, hold-time tests have been used in the
evaluation. Direct comparisons are made between the two
materials, and recommendations are presented as to which
material offers the greatest potential for use.
172
INTRODUCT
ION
Current OMSDesign
The OMS(Orbital Maneuvering System) is the Space Shuttle Orbiter's
primary propulsion system for on-orbit operations, such as orbit cir-
culation and orbital transfer. The OMS also provides the thrust
necessary to perform orbit insertion, i.e., the final phase of the
ascent trajectory after main propulsion system external tank separa-
tion from the Orbiter, rendezvous maneuvers, and deorbit. In addi-
tion, the OMS is used during Shuttle launch abort operations to pro-
vide additional thrust for critical maneuvers to deplete the OMS
propellant to an acceptable level (Orbiter propellant mass fraction)
for Orbiter flyback and landing. Typical OMS mission duty cycle pro-
files are shown in fig. I. On a given flight, the number of OMS
maneuvers may vary from a minimum of 3 to approximately 17 and the
engine total accumulated operating time may vary from a minimum of
approximately 300 seconds to a maximum of 1200 seconds (limited by the
amount of propellant onboard). The OMS is housed in two independent
pods located one on each side of the Orbiter aft fuselage. Each pod
consists of a high-pressure helium propellant pressurization sub-
system, fuel and oxidizer propellant tank and distribution subsystem,
and the engine subsystem. The pod also contains the aft RCS (Reaction
Control System) used for on-orbit attitude control and small differen-
tial velocity maneuvers.
The OMS engine (OME) subsystem is a pressure-fed 26,690-N(6,000 Ibf)
thrust engine that utilizes NTO (nitrogen tetroxide) as its oxidizer
and MMH (monomethyl hydrazine) as its fuel propellants. These pro-
pellants are hypergolic in nature; therefore, no ignition system is
required to initiate combustion. The OME is regeneratively cooled
using the fuel propellant as its coolant via circulation through chan-
nels in the combustion chamber. After being routed through the cool-
ing jacket, the fuel is then injected into the combustion chamber,
where it reacts with the oxidizer. The current OME has the nominal
operation characteristics shown in table I.
173
Uprated OMSDesign
An uprated version of the OMSis currently being investigated by the

NASA-JSC(Johnson Space Center) Propulsion and Power Division. The
development of an uprated engine for the OMS is an attractive project
from several standpoints. An appreciable Shuttle payload gain is
achievable with relatively minor Orbiter impacts and a high perform-
ance, man-rated storable-propellant engine is available for possible
future upper stage applications. The approach to OMS uprating that is
currently being pursued is the use of a gas generator cycle pump-fed
engine in place of the current pressure-fed engine to increase engine
chamber pressure. The pump-fed engine decouples the engine operating
pressures from the propellent tank pressures. By this means, the
potential of reducing propellant tank pressures is provided and if
implemented, an OMS pod structural weight reduction (approximately 499
Kg (II00 Ibm) total) is possible. Also, the engine, by operating a a
higher chamber pressure, can have a greater nozzle expansion ratio in
the same envelope, resulting in increased engine Isp (s peci fic
impulse). Higher engine Isp translates into significant benefits to
the Orbiter in terms of increased payload capability, increased
differential velocity capability, or additional excess propellant for
scavenging. For every second of Isp increase over the current OMS
engines, the propellant mass reauirement is reduced by approximately
34 Kg (75 Ibm) or the Orbiter payload capability is increased by this
amount. If additional differential velocity were desired instead of
reduced propellant mass (increased Orbiter payload capability), each
second gained in engine Isp results in an increase in differential
velocity capability of 0.91 m/sec (3 ft/sec).
The resulting uprated OME design characteristics also shown in table
i, have been selected primarily with the overall objective in mind of
minimizing the impact to the Orbiter. A primary objective is to avoid
any structural changes in the OMS pod/Orbiter interface and to have no
change in the OME envelope; at the pod/engine interface, any struc-
174
tural changes required shall be minor enough to avoid requalification
of the pod structure and to preclude any impact to the pod thermal
requirements. To avoid impacts to the operational characteristics of
the Orbiter, it is necessary to maintain the 304.8 m/sec (I000 ft/sec)
differential velocity capability and to maintain the current engine
redundancy and contingency operations capability.
Significant issues concerning the uprated OME are currently being
addressed in the "Uprated OME Component Demonstration Program". This
activity is being conducted by Aerojet TechSystems Company under
NASA-JSC contract NAS9-17215. The objective of this program is to
conduct the trade studies and design efforts necessary to define the
preferred uprated OME characteristics, and fabricate and test critical
components of the uprated OME to demonstrate feasibility of the per-
formance, life, and operational goals. Issues associated with the
Oprated OME and its components include the attainment of the required
Isp and combustion stability characteristics at the revised opera-
tions, selection of engine chamber pressure and thrust chamber mate-
rials that will combine to give acceptable engine life, and demonstra-
tion of turbopump and gas generator characteristics compatible with
Shuttle program requirements.
Selection of engine chamber pressure 2413 KPa (350 psia) is the most
significant issue affecting the uprated engine performance. From the
performance standpoint, the higher the pressure the better, since a
higher pressure enables a higher nozzle area ratio in the constrained
envelope. However, the higher throat heat flux at increased chamber
pressure results in combustion chamber wall temperatures that severely
impact chamber cycle life as the combustion chamber pressure is
increased. The current OME has a predicted chamber life of 137 cycles
(engine burns); if the current stainless steel liner were retained,
operation at the higher chamber pressure would result in a predicted
life in the vicinity of 25 cycles. To attain reasonable life at this
higher pressure operating point will require a change in chamber
175
material; the most likely candidate material at this time is the
nickel alloy Ni201.
This material is being considered because it appears to have the oest

overall properties (low-cycle fatigue, weldability, EF bondability,
high thermal conductivity) that are critical to this application.
However, mechanical design data, especially LCF (Low-Cycle Fatigue),
at elevated temperatures are very limited. As a result, LCF testing
was initiated at the NASA LeRC (Lewis Research Center) in the
Structures Division's Fatigue and Fracture Branch to evaluate the
high-temperature fatigue characteristics of Ni201. Resulting data
from this program shall be used to analytically predict the usable
design life of the combustion chamber liner. Comparative data for the
current bill-of-material alloy, 304L S.S., is also being obtained.
EXPERIMENTAL
DETAILS
Materials
The two alloys for the experimental evaluation were selected because
of their known high ductility and suspected resistance to thermal
low-cycle fatigue. The 304L stainless steel is the bill-of-material
for the current OMS engine, and the Ni201 alloy is being given serious
consideration for the upgraded C_S design as a direct replacement for
the 304L S.S. Low-cycle fatigue is one of the dominant failure modes
to be resisted in the OMS engine because of the severe thermal-strain
fatigue cycles imposed during operation. Large cyclic strains result
in very low fatigue lives. Fortunately, only a maximum of a few
hundred cycles are reauired for an adequate design. The experimental
program has been limited to the life range between I00 and I0,000
cycles to failure.
Both alloys were purchased by Aerojet TechSystems from Harvey Titanium
Ltd of Santa Monica, CA.
176
Ni201
The commercially pure nickel alloy, Ni201(ASTM-B-160-81, Heat No.
2170, Teledyne mill) was purchased in the form of annealed(760 C(1400
F)/35 rain., air cool) thick-walled pipe(165 mm (6.5") O.D. x 76.2 mm
(3.0") I.D.). Chemical composition is listed in table II. The room
temperature hardness was Rockwell "B" 47. Yield and and ultimate
tensile strengths were reported to be 134 MPa(19.5 ksi) and 374 MPa
(54.2 ksi), respectively at room temperature. Ductility was reported
to be 57.0 percent elongation and 92.1 percent reduction of area.
Uniform gage length fatigue specimens with threaded ends were machined
and shipped to the Lewis Research Center for testing in their High
Temperature Fatigue and Structures Laboratory. The specimen geometry
is shown in fig. 2. This specimen design was used for both the
tensile and fatigue tests. No heat treatment was performed after
specimen machining
304L Stainless Steel
The 304L austenitic stainless steel was purchased in the form of 19.4
mm(0.750 inch) diameter round bar stock(Unlversal Cyclops Heat No.
IG6074). Bars were mill annealed for 20 minutes at 1052 C(1925 F) and
water auenched to a hardness of 140BHN. Chemical composition is
given in table II. Room temperature yield and ultimate tensile
strengths were reported to be 208 MPa(30.1 ksi) and 546 MPa(79.2 ksi),
respectively. The strength is about 50% greater than for the Ni201
alloy. Tensile elongation and reduction of area were 65.0 and 79.5
percent, respectively. Specimens were machined and shipped to the
Lewis Research Center for testing. No heat treatment was applied to
the specimens prior to testing. The specimen geometry was the same as
used for the Ni 201 material.
177 f.- - -)
Test Equipment
Tensile tests were performed on conventional tensile testing machines
in accordance with applicable ASTM standards. A clam-shell, wire-
resistance furnace was employed to heat the specimens to the test
temperatures.
The isothermal low-cycle fatigue tests were performed on closed-loop,
electro-hydraulic, servo-controlled equipment. All tests were strain
controlled using a diametral extensometer on the uniform gage length
specimens. Heating in ambient air was achieved by passing large
alternating current(several hundred amps.) directly through the speci-
men at low potential drop(l to 2 volts) across the gage section.
Because of the large heat losses through the water cooled grip ends,
the temperature profile along the gage length of the specimen was
parabolic, being maximum at the center of the gage length. The dia-
metral strain was measured at the maximum temperature location. Maxi-
mum temperature was measured by optical pyrometers. At temperatures
of 760 and 870 C(1400 and 1600 F), a disappearing-wire pyrometer was
used; at lower temperatures of 483, 594, and 760 C(900, II00, and 1400
F), a two-color, infrared, optical pyrometer was employed. A feedback
temperature measurement for control was obtained with a thermocouple
spot-welded directly to the specimen surface at a short distance
(approximately I0 to 15 ram) from the highest temperature. The thermo-
couple location was sufficiently removed from the test zone that no
fatigue failures initiated from the spot weld.
Pro ce dur es
The programmed cyclic strain waveform was provided by conventional
analog function generators. Three types of cyclic waveforms were
employed: HRSC, High Rate Strain Cycling using a triangular waveform
at a frequency of 0.2Hz; CHSC, Compressive Strain Hold Cycling using a
178
triangular waveformwith a superimposed dwell period of two minutes at
the peak compressive strain of each cycle; THS_____C,
Tensile Strain Hold
Cycling using a triangular waveform with a superimposed dwell period
of two minutes at the peak tensile strain of each cycle. Only a
limited number of THSC tests were performed. The waveforms are illus-
trated in fig. 3. During the dwell period, the stress relaxes from
its peak level to a lower value. Future testing calls for five minute
CHSC tests to be performed.
After loading the specimen into the low-cycle fatigue machine, the
extensometer was attached at the specimen mid-section, and the speci-
men was heated to the desired temperature and held there for at least
one hour prior to testing for thermal stabilization to occur. Load
data were recorded continuously on a conventional strip-chart recorder
and load and strain were recorded on an XY analog recorder.
Diametral strain results were converted to equivalent axial strain
after testing using the following procedure: Diame tral inelastic
strain range measured from the X¥ plot was multiplied by two (inverse
of the inelastic Poisson's ratio of 0.5 required for constancy of
volume) to determine axial inelastic strain range, and axial elastic
strain range was calculated by dividing the measured stress range by
the modulus of elasticity; the total axial strain range is the sum of
the elastic and inelastic axial strain ranges. Using this procedure
avoids the necessity for having to know the value of the elastic
Poisson's ratio.
Several different measures of cyclic life, in addition to failure into
two pieces, were determined from the load versus time trace. The
number of cycles was noted for three different levels of drop in
cyclic load range; 5, 20, and 50%. In addition, a newly defined
measure of life was also adopted. This failure life was defined as
the number of cycles for which the ratio of the peak tensile stress to
the peak compressive stress dropped from a stabilized value by a fixed
179
percentage. A value of 10%was used in the present series of tests.
The idea behind this measure is to avoid the uncertainty of confusing
cyclic strain softening with the drop in load carrying capacity due to
specimen cracking. By considering the ratio of the peak stresses, the
phenomenonof cyclic softening, which usually affects tensile and com-
pressive load response equally, cancels, and only the loss of load
bearing area in tension due to a crack is retained. The load bearing
area in compression is largely unaffected by the presence of a crack,
since as the crack closes, it can transmit loads across the crack face
as if it were not there. In the absence of cyclic softening, the 10%
load ratio drop corresponds directly with a 5% load range drop.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Tensile Behavior
Tensile test results for both alloys are summarized in table III, and
plotted in fig. 4 as a function of temperature. The modulus of elas-
ticity values were determined from the literature. In the case of the
Ni201, the modulus values were determined by a pulse-echo technique
(ref. i), hence the results are considered to be representative of the
dynamic modulus. The 304L results represent static modulus values
(ref. 2). The modulus at 870 C(1800 F) was obtained by extrapolation
from lower temperature data.
Cyclic Stress-Strain Behavior
During the course of generating the LCF data, the cyclic stress-strain
response characteristics can be observed and documented. For the
present series of tests, the stabilized stress ranges and inelastic
strain ranges, as determined from the XY plots, are presented in
tabular form along with the LCF results contained in tables IV and V.
180
Stabilized stress-strain results for both alloys were achieved well
before the half-life of the specimens was reached. The influence of
temperature in reducing strength is clearly evident from a cursory
study of the table. The introduction of a two minute hold period at
peak strain further reduces the strength, but only at the highest tem-
perature for each alloy. A comparison of the cyclic stress-strain
response under compressive hold period conditions for the two alloys
at their only commontest temperature, 760 C(1400 F), shows the 304L
S.S. to be nearly four times stronger than the Ni201. Such a direct
comparison, shown in fig. 5, however, may not be in order with respect
to performance in an engine service environment since one would expect
lower operating metal temperatures for the Ni201 compared to the 304L
S.S. because of the nickel's superior thermal conductivity. Appropri-
ate temperatures for strength comparison would have to be determined
from a thermal analysis of a specific OMEcomponent(face plate, liner,
etc.). The limited cyclic stress-strain response from CHSC tests of
the Ni201 at 483 and 594 are also included in fig. 5 to demonstrate
that strength differences between the alloys are not significant when
lower temperature Ni201 behavior is compared with the higher tempera-
ture(760 C) 304L S.S. response. Similar observations hold for the
HRSC results.
Not shown in fig. 5 is the transient cyclic hardening and softening
response exhibited by the two alloys. Qualitatively, the Ni201 alloy
initially hardened a significant amount(by as much as a factor of two
or more in stress range), stabilized for approximately half of the
life, then proceeded to cyclically soften until failure into two
pieces occurred. Greater cyclic hardening was observed at the lowest
temperature than at the highest temperature. The 304L S.S. cyclic
hardening response was auite similar to the Ni201 in terms of the
degree of hardening, i.e., slightly greater than a factor of two at
the lowest temperature, down to a factor of 1.5 at the highest temper-
ature. However, the 304L S.S. stabilized sooner in life, and the
degree of cyclic softening immediately prior to cracking was less than
for the Ni201.
181
Low-Cycle, Creep-Fatigue Behavior
Ni201 - Only limited LCF data have been generated to-date for the
Ni201 alloy, because of experimental difficulties brought about by the
alloy's high thermal conductivity. Several low voltage power trans-
formers have been overheated and ruined as a result of the high cur-
rent requirements for direct resistance heating of this alloy.
Attempts to conduct tests at strain ranges above about twp percent met
with premature cyclic buckling failures, so the experimental program
was conducted at lower strain levels. The low-cycle, creep-fatigue
and cyclic stress-strain results obtained are summarizedin table IV.
As expected, the HRSClow-cycle fatigue results for this ductile alloy

show an excellent resistance to large inelastic cyclic strains. For
example, from the Manson-Coffin LCF plots of fig. 6, an inelastic
strain range of 1.0% in a HRSCtest yields a life of I000 to 4000
cycles to failure, depending upon temperature. While the temperature
dependenceon cyclic lifetime is not particularly large, there appears
to be a trend for the life to increase at the highest temperature of
760 C(1400 F). This observation is consistent with the fact that the
ductility as measured by the reduction of area in the tensile tests
showeda modest increase as the test temperature rose.
Only three successful CHSCtests have been completed to failure to

date, so we have little information upon which to base preliminary
conclusions. Nevertheless, only a small effect on cyclic lifetime of
the two minute dwell period has been observed. Again, it appears that
the higher the temperature, the greater the cyclic failure life for
the CHSCtests. Figure 7 better illustrates the temperature depend-
ence of the LCF curves, with and without hold times. Here the influ-
ence of temperature is more apparent. Wehave refrained from drawing
individual curves through these data, and have only shown bounding
lines to indicate maximum and minimum behavior. As can be seen, more
of the low temperature data fall near the lower bound line while the
high temperature results are closest to the upper bound.
182
Four THSCtests were performed early in the program at 760 C(1400).
These, as expected, foreshortened the cyclic lifetime considerably, as
seen in fig. 6. Visual inspection of the fracture surfaces indicated
severe intergranular cracking compared to specimens failed in HRSC or
CHSC tests.
Only the inelastic strain range LCF curves have been discussed above.
It is also appropriate to examine the total strain vs. cyclic life
response, since the application is one of a thermal strain driven
nature in which a fixed mechanical total strain is imposed by the
constrained thermal expansion.
The total strain range creep-fatigue behavior behavior of the Ni201 is
shown in fig. 8. Again, bounds have been drawn to represent the
extremes of the results, with the exception of the THSC results that
are clearly different from the HRSC and CHSC behavior. The superior
resistance to creep-fatigue at the highest temperature is still
observed in the high-strain, low-life regime. However, as the total
strain decreases and is more and more dominated by the elastic strain
range resistance at longer lives, it is expected that the lower tem-
perature behavior will become superior. This trend is brought about
by the significant drop-off in strength(and hence elastic strain) with
increasing temperature. Concerns for the {]ME, however, are in the
large strain, short life region of the curve.
Metallography and fractography of fatigued specimens is underway, but
has not been completed in time for inclusion herein.
304L S.S. - Considerably more data have been obtained for the 304L
S.S. alloy, as shown in table V. As was the case with the Ni201
alloy, tests at strain ranges above about 2 percent resulted in pre-
mature cyclic buckling failures. Figure 9 displays the HRSC and CHSC
results generated to-date in the form of Manson-Coffin LCF curves.
183
Cyclic lives for an inelastic strain range of 1.0% are not as high as
they are for the Ni201, but are still reasonable, being between 300
and i000. A compressive hold period of two minutes exerts a
negligible affect on cyclic endurance, regardless of the temperature
investi gated.
Temperature has an opposite effect on cyclic life for the 304L S.S. as
compared to the Ni201. As shown in fig. i0, life decreases as the
temperature of testing increases; 870 C(1600 F) results fall nearest
the lower bound curve, while the 650 C(1200 F) data are closest to the
upper bound curve. Although no THSC tests were performed on this
alloy, it could be expected that significant life losses would be
incurred based upon published literature Again, this is consistent
with the observation from fig. 5 that the tensile ductility also
decreases with increasing temperature.
Although no THSC tests were performed on this alloy, published results
from the open literature(for example, ref. 3) indicate a substantial
life loss through the introduction of tensile hold periods that intro-
duce relaxation type creep strains.
When the 304L S.S. creep-fatigue results are examined on a total
strain range basis, fig. II, the affect of temperature on cyclic life
is even more pronounced than when comparison is made on an inelastic
strain range basis. Not only does the inelastic strain range vs. life
drop with temperature, but so does the strength(and hence elastic
strain range). This leads to a modest life reduction in the high-
strain, low-life region, and a substantial reduction the low-strain,
long-life regime.
Comparison of Ni201 and 304L S.S. - An important objective of the pro-
gram was to generate comparative creep-fatigue results for the two
alloys so that one could be identified as a superior alloy for
construction of components in an uprated (]MS engine. To this end, the
184
cyclic stress-strain response has been compared in an earlier section,
and it was observed that little strength differences existed if proper
temperatures for comparison were considered. A similar observation can
be made for the creep-fatigue resistances of the two alloys. Figure
12 compares the total strain range vs. life curves under CHSC condi-
tions for the two alloys at the common temperature of 760 C(1400 F).
While a life difference on the order of a factor of two to three would
be realized at this temperature for the same imposed total strain
range, less of a life difference would be expected if it is realized
that the Ni201 alloy would likely run a a lower temperature than the
304L S.S. in the same operating environment. Although results to-date
are sparse, the trend is for only a 30% improvement in life of the
Ni201 alloy at 483 or 594 C(900 or II00 F) compared to the 760 C(1400
F) life of the 304L S.S. Similar observations can be made using the
HRSC results.
SD_MARY AND GONCLUS IONS
The high-temperature, low-cycle, creep-fatigue resistances of Ni201
and 304L S.S. have been investigated under isothermal strain-cycling
conditions. Testing included continuous strain-cycling at 0.2Hz and
compressive strain hold-time experiments with a two minute dwell
period. Results have been presented in terms of inelastic strain
range and total strain range vs. life curves. Comparisons between the
two alloys shows a greater strength for the 304L S.S., but a lower
creep-fatigue resistance. Differences are the greatest when compari-
sons are made at a single common temperature. However, when high-tem-
perature behavior of the 304L S.S. is compared to lower temperature
Ni201 behavior, these differences become less significant.
185
FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
The preliminary results contained herein are being supplemented by
further tes ting in the Lewis Research Center' s High Temperature
Fatigue and Structures Laboratory. In addition to filling out the
present test matrix, compressive hold-time tests with a five minute
dwell period are in progress. A few simulated thermomechanical
fatigue experiments are to be conducted to ascertain the sensitivity
of the creep-fatigue lives of these alloys to such additional rigors
of loading. These results will enable a more realistic assessment of
the capabilities of both alloys to resist the engine operating condi-
tions to be found in an uprated version of the OME.
REF_ENCES
I. Farraro, R. and McLellan, R.B.: Temperature Dependence of the
Young's Modulus and Shear Modulus of Pure Nickel, Platinum, and
Molybdenum. Metallurgical Transactions, vol. 8A, October 1977,
pp. 1563-1565.
2. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Piping Code Case N-47-22, Section III,
Nuclear Components, A_E, New York, NY 1983.
3. Sal tsman, J.F. and Hal ford, G.R. : Application of St r ainrange
Partitioning to the Prediction of Creep-Fatigue Live of AISI Types
304 and 316 Stainless Steel. Transactions t ASME, Vol. 99, Series
J, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, No. 2, May 1977, pp.
264-271.
186
TABLEIV- Low-Cycle, Creep-Fatigue Results for Ni201
900F(483C)
NO3 HRSC 14,805 no data 0.00310 0.00]47 0.00457 42.0 290

N20 HRSC 450 450 0.01812 0.00206 0.02018 59.0 407
NI7 HRSC 416 343 0.02116 0.00198 0.02314 54.6 376
NI8#CHSC 2,517 2,350 0.00640 0.00213 0.00853 52.6 362

N32 CHSC 3,315+ 3,315+0.00054 0.00125 0.00179 35.8 247
II00F(594C)
N21 HRSC 664 616 0.01465 0.00162 0.01627 44.0 303

N09#HRSC 2,772 2,510 0.00675 0.00150 0.00825 40.7 281
N38 CHSC 2,656+ 2,656+0.00123 0.00134 0.00257 36.2 250
1400F(760C)
N42 HRSC 938 670 0.01470 0.00140 0.01610 34.6 239

N30 HRSC 1,178 989 0.01470 0.00120 0.01590 29.7 205
N45 HRSC 1,264 1,155 0.01835 0.00125 0.01950 31.1 214
N44 HRSC 7,344 7,344 0.00448 0.00085 0.00533 21.1 145
N43#HRSC 7,772 5,786 0.00456 0.00086 0.00542 21.3 147
N46 THSC 315 303 0.01496 0.00102 0.01598 25.3 174

N35 THSC 436 321 0.01480 0.00112 0.01590 27.8 192
N39 THSC 740 740 0.00426 0.00064 0.00490 15.8 109
N49#TF_C 863 863 0.00434 0.00077 0.00511 19.0 131
N06 CHSC 358 358 0.03224 0.00118 0.03342 29.3 202

N52 CHSC 645 645 0.01814 0.00096 0.01910 23.7 163
NI5 CHSC 4,705 4,705 0.00676 0.00090 0.00766 22.2 153
* HRSC = High Rate Strain Cycle(0.2Hz)

CHSC = Compressive Strain Hold Cycle(O. 2Hz + 120 sec. dwell)
THSC = Tensile Strain Hold Cycle(O. 2Bz + 120 sec. dwell)
# Metallographic sample prepared.
+ Specimen did not fail, test discontinued.
187
TABLEV- Low-Cycle, Creep-Fatigue Results for 304L S.S.
S_pec Test* Cycles to Strain Range Stress

No. Type Failure Initiat. Inelastic Elastic Total
Nf Ni cm/cm cm/cm cm/cm ksi MPa
1200F(650C)
A39 HRSC 17,952 17,952 0.00187 0.00247 0.00434 51.6 356

A46 HRSC 1,824 1,824 0.00436 0.00320 0.00768 69.4 478
A284_RS C 1,824 1,756 0.00660 0.00366 0.01030 76.4 527
A45 HRSC 255 246 0.01770 0.00436 0.02210 91.0 627
AI9 CHSC 3,849 3,191 0.00310 0.00264 0.00570 55.1 380

A44 #C}ISC 1,103 902 0.00710 0.00320 0.01030 67.0 462
A32 CHSC 216 212 0.01840 0.00450 0.02290 94.5 652
1400F(760C)
AI6 HRSC 138,432+ 138,432+0.00100 0.00180 0.00280 33.5 231

A41 HRSC 6,106 5,962 0.00206 0.00207 0.00413 39.8 274
A02 HRSC 3,420 3,250 0.00324 0.00259 0.00583 49.8 343
A37 HRSC 2,352 2,248 0.00454 0.00296 0.00750 56.9 392
A40#HRSC 1,601 1,405 0.00660 0.00370 0.01030 70.8 488
A24 HRSC 210 207 0.02160 0.00440 0.02600 84.3 581
A29 HRSC 118@ II0 0.02160 0.00540 0.02700 102.7 708
A21 CHSC 4,224 4,224 0.00311 0.00264 0.00575 50.8 350

A42#CHS C 1,036 1,036 0. 00689 0.00342 0.01031 65.8 454
A30 CHSC 119@ 117 0.02130 0.00510 0.02640 97.0 669
1600F(870C)
A43 HRSC 2,339 2,339 0.00240 0.00137 0.00377 23.3 161

A38#HRS C 834 834 0.00518 0.00170 0.00688 29.9 206
A25 HRSC 285 285 0.01900 0.00287 0.02190 48.7 336
A22 CHSC 1,618 1,618 0.00350 0.00170 0.00520 31.5 217

A31#CHS C 439 439 0.00746 0.00218 0.00964 37.0 255
A26 CHSC 188 188 0.01920 0.00244 0.02160 41.4 285
* HRSC = High Rate Strain Cycle(0.2Hz)

CHSC = Compressive Strain Hold Cycle(0. 2Hz + 120 sec. dwell)
TRSC = Tensile Strain Hold Cycle(0.2Hz + 120 sec. dwell)
# Metallographic sample prepared.
@ Some specimen buckling observed at failure.
+ Specimen did not fail, test discontinued.
188
TABLEI - Characteristics of Current and Uprated OME.
CHARACTER IS TIC CURRENT OME UPRATED OME
Thrust, N(Ib f) 26,690(6000) 26,690(6000)

Isp, s. 315 315
Chamber Pressure, KPa(psia) 861.8(125) 2,413(350)
Mixture Ratio i .65 i .90
Exh. Nozzle Expansion Ratio 55:1 154:1
Dry Weight, Kg(Ibm) 134.7(297) 146(322)
TABLE II - Chemical Compositions of Alloys.
304L S.S. Ni201

Cr-18.64 Mn-0.22
Ni- 9.52 Fe-0. I0
Mn- 1.49 Si-0.03
Si- 0.72 Cu-O.01
Cu- 0.34 C -0.005
Mo- 0.16 S -0.001
S - 0.025 Ni-Balance
P - 0.024
C- 0.023
Fe- Balance
TABLE III - Tensile Properties
304L S.S.
Tes t Yield Ultimate Red. of Modulus of
Strength Str en_th Area E1 as ti city
F C ksi MPa ksi MPa % I000 MPa I000 ksi
75 24 30.1 208 79.2 546 79.2 195 28.3
1200 650 23.9 165 45.4 313 93.1 144 20.9
1400 760 24.1 166 29.9 206 80.6 132 19.2
1600 870 15.8 109 16.9 117 66.5 117 17.05
Ni201
75 24 19.5 134 54.2 374 92. I .......
900 483 21.3 147 31.7 219 92.5 197 28.6
II00 594 20.9 144 25.6 177 93.1 187 27.1
1400 760 12.7 88 17.4 120 94.0 171 24.8
189
TABLE I- Characteristics of Current and Uprated (]ME.
CHARACTERISTIC CURRENT OME UPRATED OME
Thrust, N(ibf) 26,690(6000) 26,690(6000)
Isp, s. 315 315
Chamber Pressure, KPa(psia) 861.8(125) 2,413(350)
Mixture Ratio 1.65 1.90
Exh. Nozzle Expansion Ratio 55:1 154: I
Dry Weight, Kg(Ibm) 134.7(297) 146(322)
190
TABLEII - Chemical Compositions of Alloys.
304L S.S. Ni201
Cr-18.64 Mn-0.22
Ni- 9.52 Fe-0. i0
Mn- 1.49 Si-0.03
Si- 0.72 Cu-0.01
Cu- 0.34 C -0.005
Mo- 0.16 S -0.001
S - 0. 025 Ni-Balance
P - 0.024
C - 0.023
Fe- Balance
191
TABLE III - Tensile Properties
304L S.S.
Tes t Yield Ultimate Red. of Modulus of

Strength Strength Area Elasticity
F C ks i MPa ksi MPa % i000 MPa I000 ksi
75 24 30. i 208 79.2 546 79.2 195 28.3

1200 650 23.9 165 45.4 313 93.1 144 20.9
1400 760 24.1 166 29.9 206 80.6 132 19.2
1600 8 70 15.8 109 16.9 117 66.5 117 17.05
Ni 201
75 24 19.5 134 54.2 374 92.1 ---

900 483 21.3 147 31.7 219 92.5 197 28.6
ii00 594 20.9 144 25.6 177 93.1 187 27.1
1400 760 12.7 88 17.4 120 94.0 171 24.8
192
O_IGiNAL PA:,_ _S
OF POORQUALIFY
CIRCULARIZ_TION
:'IT I"''RTI^N r/7.| BY 277 $ krn
,. o.,®N.,.% _--
'Z.o..,.1
__',_ ous BUrN ! ,.Q "LLANT I I _ J
E"J _O"EL,.*'T/ OU_R I,i _
N.Ao,No°_"/ ;I .OA_\
.t "''"'" _ _I _'_ NO_INAL
v_, _ ".LAND.,
RETURN TO LAUNCH SITE ABORT ONCE AROUND
AOA - ABORT ONCE AROUND
RTLI - IIIIETURN TO LAUNCH SiTE ABORT

M|CO - MAIN ENGINE CUTOFF
IMEP - EXTERNAL TANK SEPARATION
COMPONENTS OF TYPICAL
OME MISSION DUTY CYCLES
FIGURE i
193
108 mm
6.35 mm
_5/8 x 18
Thread
TENSILE AND FATIGUE TEST

SPECIMEN GEOMETRY
FI GURE 2
194
_ _ -J
be D >.
0 • 304L S.S.
[] [] • Ni201
600 100
400
P-
70
Z
UJ
¢E
k- 200
U3
0 400 600 800

TEMPERATURE, C
TENSILE PROPERTIES
FI GURE 3
195
Z
m
AAAAA IME
?VV
,_ o
_,,
I-
-
,,,J
(a) HRSC
I--
I,M
,,_ o TIME
(b) CHSC
I,,I,,I
n,"
0 o TIME
a, (c) THSC
STRAIN vs. TIME WAVEFORMS

FI GURE 4
196
1000 --
./IL---- ," 760 C

¢L
/__
483 & 594 C /D I Ir-D_

O
Z 100 __ (J (J (J
<{ o_ _O
rr
(n U3P_
m
(/) ID 304L S.S.
111 m
n- D _ • Ni201
I--
(n
10
, ,,,,,,.I t ,,,,,,,I I j,,,,..t
0.0001 0.001 0.01 O. 1
INELASTIC STRAIN RANGE
COMPARISON OF CYCLIC STRESS STRAIN RESPONSE

FI GURE S
197
0.1 --
483 C
© HRSC
0.01 -- D CHSC
0.001 I I I
uJ 0.1
Z
594 C
® HRSC
Z
ram,
_" 0.01 --
U_
0
oO
<
.J
uJ
Z
0.001
0.1
760 C
• HRSC
\ i CHSC
0.01 -- • THSC
\
\
m
\
\
0.001
I J ]
102 10 3 104 105
CYCLES TO FAILURE
MANSON COFFIN CURVES FOR Ni201

FI GURE 6
198
0.1 -- HRSC
© 483 C
® 594 C
• 760C
0.01 --
U.l
CHSC
m
1- D 483 C
O0
I_ 594 C
.J D 760C
l.IJ
z D
m
0.01 --
DNF
0.001 I J I
10 2 103 104 105
CYCLES TO FAILURE
MANSON COFFIN CURVES OF Ni201

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
FI GURE 7
199
0 0¢.)
0.1 n,. ,I- -r-
"r" ¢.) I-
I,IJ
t3 \
0 D 483 C
Z \ ® ® 594 C
• \
<{
r,- 760 C
Z
m
,,. 0.01 --
i--
(n
.,i 0_
,,:¢
I-
O
I-
] 1 I
0.00102 10 3 10 4 10 5
CYCLES TO FAILURE
CREEP FATIGUE BEHAVIOR OF Ni201

FI GURE 8
200
0.1
I 650 C
CHSC
0.01
0.001 I l
uJ 0.1
¢< 760 C
Z _,___ " HRSC
_ 0.01
3
0.001
0.1
870 C
® _ CHSC
0.01
0.001 l
102 10 3 104 105
CYCLES TO FAILURE
MANSON COFFIN CURVES FOR 304L S.S.

FIGURE 9
201
HRSC
© 650 C
• 760C
® 870 C
0.01 _
UJ
Z
<
Z e
¢
I- 0.001
u) 0.1 CHSC
0
Imm
I- D 650 C
(/) D 760C
.J 870 C
IJJ
Z
kled
0.01
0.001 ] I I
102 103 104 105
CYCLES TO FAILURE
MANSON COFFIN CURVES OF 304L S.S.

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
F7 SU;IE i0
202
0 0
-r" (J
0.1 la- 0
a: Z
D 650 C
iil
(:1 ,,.d • • 760C
Z
<
I_+_ ® _ 870 C
Z
o.01 -- \@ __
n-
I-
..I
<
I-
0
I-
0.001
I I I
102 103 104 105
CYCLES TO FAILURE
CREEP FATIGUE BEHAVIOR OF 304L S.S.
FIGURE 11
203
• Ni201
w-
Buckled ID 304L S.S.
z
<
¢1:
I-- 0.01 --
,_1
c¢
I- CHSC
0
I-
0.001 I , ,,l ,,I ' , ,,, ,,,[ I I ,, ,,,,I

102 103 104 105
CYCLES TO FAILURE
COMPARISON OF CREEP FATIGUE BEHAVIOR
Ni201 and 304L S.S. at 760 C
FIGURE 12
204
N89- 12636 b
FATIGUE CRACK RETARDATION FOLLOWING OVERLOADS IN

INCONEL 718, Ti-5Ai-2.5Sn, AND HAYNES 188
D. E. Matejczyk and R. P. Jewett
Rockwell International/Rocketdyne Division

Canoga Park, California
D. W. Schmidt and G. C. Hresko III
Materials Research and Testing Division

Professional Services Group
Hellertown, Pennsylvania
Abstract
Overload effects on fatigue crack growth have been stud-

ied in Inccnel 718, Ti-5AI-2.5Sn ELI, and Haynes 188 at
several temperatures as a function of load ratio and of
overload magnitude. Over the range of materials and exper-
imental conditions studied, a range of overload mechanisms
may be operative. Results are compared to a crack tip plas-
tic zone model and a plastic wake closure model. Ti-5AI-
2.5Sn ELI results are discussed in terms of crack branching
and fracture surface microroughness.
Introduction
Application of a single overload or of block overloads can signi-

ficantly effect subsequent constant amplitude fatigue crack growth.
Any of a number of mechanisms can be responsible for the observed ef-
fects, and many models are available for incot-porating these effects
into life prediction analysis. Several recent publications review
current overload models. 1,2 This paper presents results of an on-
going program examining and modeling overload effects in fatigue crack
propagation for several alloys used extensively in advanced earth-to-
orbit propulsion systems.
Materials
The alloys studied include Inconel 718, a nickel-base superalloy,

Haynes 188, a cobalt-base alloy, and Ti-5AI-2.5Sn ELI. Inconel 718
was received as a 1.9-cm (0.75-inch) thick rolled plate. It was sub-
sequently heat treated to the STA-I condition [1038 C (1900 F) for 30
minutes in argon, cool to room temperature, 760 C (1400 F) for i0
hours in argon, furnace cool to 6_9 C (1200 F), total age time 20
hours]. Haynes 188 was received as a 2.5-cm (1-inch) thick solution-
annealed rolled plate.
Ti-SAI-2.5Sn ELI was obtained as a 15 cm (6 inch) x 15 cm x 15 cm

block, which had been forged under conditions producing an equiaxed,
205
fine-grained microstructure. The forged block was annealed in air at
927 C (1700 F) for 3 hours, then annealed in vacuum at 760 C (1400 F)
for 4 hours.
All fatigue crack growth rate testing was carried out on compact
tension (CT) specimens having a width of 5.08 cm (2.0 inches). Inconel
ZI8 specimens and Ti-5AI-2.5Sn EL1 specimens were 1.3 cm (0.5 inch)
thick, and Haynes 188 specimens were 1.3 cm (0.5 inch) thick in some
cases and 0.63 cm (0.25 inch) thick on other cases. Both the Inconel
718 and Haynes 188 specimens were machined and tested in the T-L
orientation.
Constant amplitude and overload fatigue crack growth rate testing

was carried out at room temperature and at a second temperature of
interest for each material, as summarized in Table I. Tests were car-
ried out at load ratios (minimum load/maximum load) of 0.I and 0.7.
Tests of Ti-5AI-2.5Sn EL1 were carried out in liquid nitrogen at low
temperature and in flowing dry nitrogen at room temperature. Room
temperature tests of Inconel 718 and Haynes 188 were carried out in
air. All elevated temperature tests were carried out in argon plus I
percent hydrogen.
Table I. Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Test Conditions
Room
Temperature -320 F 1100 F 1350 F
Inconel 718 X X
Ti-5AI-2.5Sn ELI X X
Haynes 188 X
Note: R = 0.i and R = 0.7
Inert environment for all tests except Inconel

718 and Haynes 188 room temperature tests
This paper will concentrate on the room temperature results from

this test matrix.
Test Procedure
Tests were carried out on closed-loop servohydraulic test machines

with DC electric potential monitoring of crack length. The electric
potential drop technique relies on the ability to measure small
changes in electrical resistivity associated with a change in crack
length. A constant current was passed through the test sample, and
the change in resistance associated with crack growth was measured by
measuring potential drop between two selected, fixed points. Crack
length was related to potential drop using Johnson's equation. 3
A correction factor was used during data reduction to account for

minor discrepancies between visual and electric potential crack
measurements arising due to nonuniformity in the current field and due
206
Test procedures included measuring the difference between poten-
tial with the current on and the current off, to eliminate thermally
induced voltages. Resolution is further enhanced by sampling hundreds
of readings and averaging the results. Sampling and current switching
were computer controlled and were synchronized with the loading cycle
to minimize effects of crack closure and of stress. The stress inten-
sity solution for the CT specimen was based on the following: 4
P 2 + a/w
K
BW I/2 (I -a/w) 3/2
[0.866 + 4.64 a/w - 13.32(a/w) 2 + 14.72(a/w) 3 - 5.6(a/w) 4] (z)
Monitoring of crack length using compliance techniques could have

provided additional valuable data, but these measurements were beyond
the scope of the program because a primary goal was to obtain data at
low and elevated temperatures.
Constant Amplitude Fatigue Crack Growth
Figures i, 2, and 3 present constant amplitude fatigue crack

growth data at room temperature for each of the three materials.
10-A
!
DRY FLOWING NITROGEN ]

70°F
I
//
10--5
R = 0.7 /°o
[:] o
=,
;R=O.,
0 10 -6 N
>-
lO-7 //
10-8
10-9 I I I I l illl I .......

10 100
AK (KSI IVrT_,)
Fig. i. Ti-5AI-2.5Sn ELI Fatigue Crack Growth Rate vs Stress

Intensity Range for R = 0.I and R = 0.7 at Room
Temperature
207
I0-4
o/
10-5
O
Y
Lu 10-6
,,J
//
r,J
>.
°
Z o R=0.1
"ID cD
O
lO-7
0
0
10-8
10-9 I
lO 100
AK. KSI ,_-N-.
Fig. 2. Inconel 718 Fatigue Crack Growth Rate vs Stress Intensity

Range for R = 0.I and R = 0.7 at Room Temperature
In the constant amplitude tests, stress intensities were con-

trolled and varied using "K gradient" techniques. 5
The constant amplitude da/dN data for each material and tempera-
ture was represented using the Walker equation (Eq. 2). Table 2 pre-
sents Walker equation parameters used below in the application of the

Willenborg overload model.
,.,a
( Km)n = C
(1 - R) 1-
(2)
Overload Procedure
To systematically study overload effects, cracks were propagated
at chosen baseline stress intensities, a number of single overloads
208
I0-4
10-5
uJ 10 -6
>
LP
Z
m
"_ 10_ 7
10-8
10 -9
11111
Fig. 3. Haynes 188 Fatigue Crack Growth Rate vs Stress Intensity

Range for R = 0.I and R = 0.7 at Room Temperature
Table 2. Walker Equation Parameters for Constant

Amplitude da/dN
Material Temperature n m C
Inconel 718 21 C 3.0 0.85 1.59E-I0
were applied, and crack growth rates were measured following each
overload. Overload magnitude was defined as
K - K
max overload max
Percent Overload =
K
max
Throughout crack propagation, crack length was continually moni--

toted, and the amplitude of the load applied to each specimen was
automatically adjusted to maintain the preselected stress intensity
range. The computer-controlled test system stored crack length and
cycle number data at programmed intervals, and it provided detailed
209
point-by-point data on crack length and crack growth rate versus cycle
number following each overload.
Figure 4 shows crack length versus cycle number following a 100%

overload applied during the propagation of a fatigue crack in Inconel
718 at R = 0.I, _K = 21.6 MPa_-m (20 ksi V_-n.), at room
temperature. Data summarizing each overload were obtained by fitting
a straight line before and after each overload effected region, and
then calculating the overload effected crack length (a*), the
effective number of delay cycles (N_), and the total number of delay
cycles (Nt), Fig. 4.
0.92
R=0.1
T_dK
= 70°F
= 20KSI
0.9 B
-.r-
O
z
T
i--
0.88 --
Z 100%
OVERLOAD N ¸
v
O
< Nt
L)
0.86 -
0.84 -
I I I I I
470 490 510 530 550 570 59O
CYCLE NUMBER, THOUSANDS
Fig. 4. Crack Length vs Cycle Number Following a 100%

Overload During Fatigue Crack Propagation in
Inconel 718
Fractography
Scanning electron fractography has been carried out on the Inconel

718 room temperature test specimens. Fracture surfaces display duc-
tile striation crack advanced in the intermediate stress intensity
region above about 21.6 MPa _-m-(20 ksi _-_.), and Stage I crystallo-
graphic cracking at lower stress intensities. The crack path did not
deviate from the specimen's plane of symmetry.
210
OF POOR QUALITY
Preliminary optical examination of the Haynes 188 constant ampli-

tude fracture surfaces suggest similar fcactography. Most notably,
the fracture surfaces are very flat, with crack propagation on the CT
specimen central plane.
The Ti-SAI-2.5Sn ELI constant amplitude fracture surfaces differ

significantly from those of Inconel 718 or Haynes 188, showing a pro-
nounced tendency for crack propagation out of the original fracture
plane. This results in significantly kinked fatigue cracks.
General Overload Effect Observations
Figure 5A shows a Haynes 188 crack growth specimen [baseline prop-

agation at AK = 19.5 MPa V _ (18 ksi %/_.)] that has received sev-
eral 60% overload cycles at the indicated locations. Figure 5B shows
the corresponding crack growth rate versus crack length. Fatigue
crack growth returned to the baseline rate over distances approxi-
mately equal to three times the plane strain plastic zone size. Crack
growth returned to baseline rates in a consistent, reproducible man-
ner, and crack propagation remained on the original plane. Figure 6
shows overload effected crack length versus calculated plane strain
plastic zone size (1/3_(K/Gy) 2) for a variety of overloads applied
to Haynes 188.
L I 60% OVERLOADS
0.5 INCH
10-5
T = 70°F
R=0.1
=,
o
>
O
Z 10-6
10_ 7 I I I t I
0.500 0.675 0.850 1.025 1.200 1.375 1.5
CRACK LENGTH, INCHES
Fig. 5. Haynes 188 Fracture Surface and Corresponding

Crack Growth Rate vs Crack Position
211
0.08
1:1
0.07
-r"
z
- ° 0.06
Z R =0.1
I TA =K70°F
= 18 KSI _IN.
Z
u'l, 0.(_5
v
,<
IlC
o 0.04
a
p,,
_ o.o3
cl
<
o
_ 0.02
>
o
0.01
I i
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
CALCULATED PLANE STRAIN PLASTIC ZONE SIZE. INCHES
(1/3/t" (K/Gv)2)
Fig. 6. Haynes 188 Overload Effected Crack Lengths vs

Calculated Plane Strain Plastic Zone Sizes
Figure 7 presents overload effected crack length versus calculated

plane strain plastic zone size for Inconel 718 at R = 0.I. Overload
effected lengths also are significantly larger than the plane strain
plastic zone sizes, and are actually closer to plane stress plastic
zone sizes. These results are very similar to results for Inconel
600. 6 In those tests, crack growth rate remained at the minimum
value until a crack reached the overload plastic zone boundary, and
then the growth rate gradually returned to the preoverload value as
the crack closure effect of the interference between the two crack
faces gradually diminished.
In some of the Ti-5Ai-2.5Sn EL1 tests, crack growth acceleration

was observed immediately following the overload, as shown in Fig. 8.
Damage ahead of the crack tip, either ductile tearing or secondary
cracking, is probably responsible for this, and work in progress will
detail the nature of this damage. In many of the Ti-5AI-2.5Sn tests,
crack growth rates did not return to the preoverload values, as also
shown in Fig. 8.
A Ti-5AI-2.SSn ELI crack growth specimen (baseline propagation

at AK = 19.5 MPa%/-m (18 ksi Q_-n.) that has received several over-
load cycles at the indicated locations is shown in Fig. 9A. The frac-
ture surface is seen to be very rough, with considerable crack growth
212
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
0.08.
D
R=0.1
,,*,0.07t T = 70°F i
A K = 20 KSI_/IN.J
1:1
z o.os -
"r []
k-
(3
Z
0.06 --
<
=" 0.03
uJ
GI
0.02
0.01
0 '( I I I I I
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
CALCULATED PLANE STRAIN PLASTIC ZONE SIZE, INCHES
Fig. 7. Inconel 718 Overload Effected Crack Lengths vs

R =0.1
I T =K 70°F
= 19.7 KSI
0.66
80% OVERLOAD
0.64
0.62
0.6
0.58
750 770 790 810 830 850 870 890 910 930 950
CYCLE NUMBER, THOUSANDS
Fig. 8. Ti-5AI-2.5Sn ELI Crack Length vs Cycle Number with

an 80% Overload
213
OF POOR QUALm/'
:H
10-5
+
1
o +
o R=O,1
L) o
TA =K 70°F
- o ++ = 20 KSI _KIN. 1
10 .6 __ 6_ ° _ +*
o _ o +
Z
10--7 -- 0 +
oO
g
n
,0_8 i I I I I
0.500 0.700 0.900 1.100 1.300 1.500 1.700
CRACK LENGTH, INCHES
Fig. 9. Ti-5AI-2.5Sn ELI Fracture Surface with Several

Overloads and Corresponding Crack Growth Rate
vs Crack Position
out of the original crack plane. Figure 9B shows the corresponding

crack growth rate versus crack length. Crack growth rates are very
scattered and do not return to preoverload values.
Overload effected crack length versus calculated plane strain

plastic zone size for Ti-5AI-2.5Sn EL1 at R = 0.i and room tempera-
ture is presented in Fig. I0. Overload effected crack lengths are
nearly I0 times larger than calculated plane strain plastic zone
sizes. Many of the overloads were a large fraction of the plane strain
fracture toughness for this material, and the crack branching and the
damage ahead of the crack tip at these large overloads may be respon-
sible for these results.
Inconel 718 Plastic Wake Effect
The overload effect in Inconel 718 at R = 0.I seems to extend well

beyond the overload plastic zone because of the plastic wedge left
behind the advancing crack. One simple way to model this effect is to
consider that following an overload, the crack is similar to one
wedged open by excess material inserted into the crack mouth. Assuming
214
0.4
T = 70°F I
R=0.1
0.35
¢n
uJ
d K = 20 KSI
-1-
z
- 0,3 1:1
-r
z
LM
._ 0.25
v
(J
[]
° 0.2
I-
U
w --_ []
u,.
u. 0.15
w
a
<
_ 0.1
>
o
0.05
0 I I
0.4 0.6
0.2
CALCULATED PLANE STRAIN PLASTIC ZONE SIZE, INCHES
Fig. i0. Ti-SAI-2.5Sn EL1 Overload Effected Crack Lengths vs

plastic wake thickness proportional to the stress intensity squared,

and referring to the stress intensity solution for the splitting of a
body by a semi-infinite wedge, overload effected crack lengths should
be related to overload ratios by:
a2/a 1 = ( _2 / _1 )4
where
a2 = effected crack length of overload "2"
_2 = overload ratio of overload "2"

= percent overload/100 + I
Figure II shows that this function provides a very good fit of the
Inconel 718 overload data at room temperature, R = 0.i, and this
demonstrates the role of crack closure arising due to the plastic
wake. Further work is in progress to apply plastic wake closure
models to these data.
215
0.100
-r
u 0.080 - R =0.1
z
1 _K = 20 KSI
I-.. []
z
u,i
y = 0.0017X 4
"-= 0.060 -
o
,¢
er
u
_3
u.I
I-
u,.
I.i.
w
<
o
ec 0,020-
_J
>
O
0.000 = J
0.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000
OVERLOAD RATIO, PERCENT OVERLOAD +1
Fig. 11. Overload Effected Crack Length vs Overload Ratio for

Inconel 718
Application of the Generalized Willenbor_ Mode]
In the generalized Willenborg model of overload effected fatigue

crack growth, the applied stress intensities in a fatigue cycle are
each reduced by a factor based on the current crack position within
the overload plastic zone. 7 The resulting effective stress intensi-
ties are used along with da/dN data from constant amplitude tests to
calculate the instantaneous crack growth rate as the crack grows out
of the overload effected region.
Figures 12 and 13 show typical results for the generalized

Willenborg model applied to two of the single overloads applied to
Inconel 718 at 21 C (70 F). The Willenborg model was applied using
(i) the Walker equation data, (2) an overload zone size deduced from
the overload effected crack length, and (3) an overload shutoff ratio
of 2.2 for the R = 0.I test and an overload shutoff ratio of 1.5 for
the R = 0.7 tests.
Ti-5AI-2.5Sn ELI Overload Effects
Models based on plastic zone size or on the plastic wake cannot be

applied to the Ti-5AI-2.5 Sn EL1 data because of the (i) large varia-
bility in crack growth rates after the crack has grown out of the
overload effected region, (2) significant overload acceleration
216
1.8
1.7
-- I [] DATA
1.6
-- Ii _ WILLENBORG []
1.5
1.4
1.3
t.2
1.1
g 1
ZP
__ 0.9 []
___ 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4 -- [] 70°F I
-- [] R = 0.1 [I
0.3
0.2 - i Z_K = 20KSI I_/TN-._
0.1 - I
o ] I I
0 0.01 0.02 0.03
CRACK GROWTH AFTER OVERLOAD. INCHES
Fig. 12. Willenborg Model Applied to Crack Growth Rate Following

a 100% Overload in Inconel 718
2A
[]
WILLENBORG
2 MODEL RESULTS
1.8 - RSO=1.5
1.6 -
--._ 1.2
_- 1 -
0.8
0.6 --
[] 70OF
0.4 -- = 0.7
0.2 -- / l _K-19.8KSI IV'_.
o _ I 1 I
0 0.01 0.02 0,03 0,04
CRACK GROWTH AFTER OVERLOAD, INCHES
Fig. 13. Willenborg Model Applied to Crack Growth Rate Following

a 60% Overload in Inconel 718
217
following some overloads, and (3) overload retardation considerably
beyond the plastic zone. Over large crack growth distances, the crack
front remains extensively kinked and is out of the original crack
propagation plane. Therefore, it is not possible to apply models that
assumethe overload effect applies only over a limited overload zone.
In these cases, crack geometry is altered by the overload. The

effective stress intensity is controlled by this effect on crack con-
figuration both because of closure and because of the effect of crack
kinking on stress intensity. 2 To model these results, specific frac-
ture surface measurementswill have to be used along with models that
are based on crack kinking and branching.
Conclusions
R large number of models are available for calculating fatigue

crack growth rates following overloads. The experimental data on sev-
eral structural alloys indicate the variety of possible mechanisms.
For Haynes 188 and Inconel 718, models based on overload plastic zones
or on plastic-wake induced closure can model the data fairly well.
For Ti-SAI-2.SSn ELI, the significant variability in fatigue crack

geometry, both for constant amplitude fatigue cycling, and for over-
load testing, complicates the model effort. Models based on crack
kinking and on crack branching may be the only realistic representa-
tions for overload effects in this material.
Acknowledgements
This work is being supported by NASA under contract NAS8-35507,

under the direction of Mr. P. M. Munafo.
The authors wish to acknowledge Mr. D. Russell, of Rocketdyne, for

helpful guidance and for the derivation of the technique for correla-
ting plastic wake effect.
References
I.
Saff, C. R., "Crack Growth Retardation and Acceleration Models,"
Damage Tolerance of Metallic Structures: Analysis Methods and
Application, ASTM STP 842, J. B. Chang and J. L. Rudd, Eds., Amer-
ican Society for Testing and Materials, pp. 36-49, 1984.
2.
Suresh, S., "Micromechanisms of Fatigue Crack Growth Retardation
Following Overloads," EnKineerin K Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 18, No.
3, pp. 577-593, 1983.
3.
Saxena, R. and S. J. Hudak, Jr., "Review and Extension of Compli-
ance Information for Common Crack Growth Specimens," International
Journal of Fracture, Vol. 14, No. 5, pp. 453-468, October 1978.
218
4. Schwalbe, K. H., and D. Hellmenn, "Application of the Electric
Potential Method to Crack Length Measurements Using Johnson's
Formula," Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp.
218-221, May 1981.
5. Saxena, A., S. J. Hudak, Jr., J. K. Donald, and D. W. Schmidt,

"Computer-Controlled Decreasing Stress Intensity Technique for Low
Rate Fatigue Crack Growth Testing," Journal of Testing and Evalua-
tion, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 167-174, May 1978.
6. Brog, T. K., J. W. Jones, and G. S. Was, "Fatigue Crack Growth

Retardation Inconel 600," Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 20,
No. 2, pp. 313-320, 1984.
7. Chang, J. B., R. M. Hiyama, and M. Szamossi, Improved Methods for

Predicting Spectrum Loading Effects, Volume I - Technical Summary,
AFWAL-TR-81-3092, Vol. I, Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1981.
219
IX BEARINGS I
220
12637a
THERMO-MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

OF CRYOGENIC TURBOPUMP BALL BEARINGS
Robert A. Pallini
SKF Industries, Inc.
King of Prussia, PA 19406-1352
Abstract
The Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) high

pressure oxidizer turbopump (HPOTP) presents a
severe and demanding operating environment for
its rotor-bearing system• The life requirement
for the angular contact ball bearings that sup-
port the shaft is on the order of 7.5 hours. In
actual operation bearing distress has been
observed after much shorter times•
A thermo-mechanical analysis of the HPOT P

rotor-bearlng system was performed with th e
SHABERTH (SHaft-BEaring-THermal) computer code
Bearing performance was evaluated as a functio n
of its thermal and mechanical environment.

Bearing operating temperatures, heat generation
and rolling fatigue life were quantified as func-
tions of operating loads and ball-to-race fric-
tion. The latter of these was shown to greatly
influence bearing performance• Recommendations
for easing the sensitivity of bearing performance
to friction levels is addressed.
221
Introduction
The rotor/bearing system of the space shuttle main

engine cyrogenic turbopumps, in particular the high pressure
oxidizer turbopump (HPOTP), have been the subject of many
research studies aimed at improving their service lives.
One component being studied is the shaft support bearings of
the HPOTP. Bhat and Dolan [I] have reported heavy spalling
and prominent wear of raceways and balls of these bearings
after only 2,406 seconds of total running time, with only
1,090 of those seconds at full power level. Other studies
[1,2] have revealed heavy wear, smearing, microcracking, and
pitting indicative of surface distress associated with
inadequate lubrication. The bearings in these studies
experienced total operating times of less than 6,000
seconds. In addition, surface oxide films indicative of
high (>600°C) were observed on the rolling surfaces after
only I00 to 4000 seconds total operating time. This latter
evidence tends to support the thermal failure scenario pre-
sented by Bhat and Dolan [I].
Analytical studies [3,4] performed on these bearings

showed that if full-film lubrication conditions exist that
predicted bearing life is I00 hours (360,000 seconds) or

better. The current life requirement for the HPOTP bearings
is 7.5 hours or 27,000 seconds. The present HPOTP bearing
lubrication scheme consists of sputtered MoS 2 films on the
rolling surfaces, and a woven-glass-reinforced PTFE cage
intended to transfer a lubricating film to the rolling sur-
faces during operation. Studies of tested bearings have
indicated that the MoS 2 films are short lived and that PTFE
film transfer is marginal, resulting in inadequate surface
protection. The attendant wear and thermally induced
bearing loadin_ have resulted in grossly shortened bearing
service life.
This paper highlights an analytical study performed at

investigating the thermal failure scenario and identifying
the possible driving mechanism. State-of-the-art bearing
analysis techniques were employed to parametrically quantify
bearing performance as functions of applied loadings and
ball-to-race friction levels. The latter of these was found
to greatly influence bearing performance.
HPOTP Rotor Bearing System
The HPOTP (Figure I) consists of two single-stage

centrifugal pumps on a common shaft, directly driven by a
222
two-stage hot-gas turbine. The shaft is supported by two
sets of duplex angular contact ball bearings. The pump
rotor is designed to act as a large floating piston, between
variable clearance labyrinth seals to balance out, as much
as possible, any residual thrust loads on the bearings from
the fluid pressures. This requires that the bearing pairs
be free to float axially, thereby relieving them of any
directly applied thrust load. Preload springs between the
bearings in each pair apply thrust preloads of 3.8 to 4.5 kN
(850 to I000 ibf) to prevent skidding. Bearing design data
is presented in Table I.
The rings and balls in the angular contact ball

bearings, both pump-end and turbine-end, are made of con-
sumable electrode vacuum melted (CEVM) 440C martensitic
stainless steel. The cages are made of a woven glass rein-
forced polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) composite called
Armalon, which is intended to provide lubrication for the
ball and raceway contacts by PTFE transfer films to the
balls from the cage pockets. The cryogenic temperatures and
environment preclude the use of any conventional organic oil
or grease type lubricant.
Both sets of bearings are cooled by a substantial flow

of liquid oxygen. Coolant flow for the pump-end bearings is
through the preburner pump impeller hub labyrinth seal,
through the bearings, and to the main pump inducer/impeller
inlet. The flow rate is approximately 4.5 kg/sec (I0
Ib/sec). The turbine-end bearings coolant flow is through
the preburner impeller bolt, through the hollow shaft,
through the bearings, and to the main pump inducer/impeller
inlet. The flow rate for the turbine-end bearings is
approximately 2 kg/sec (4.5 Ib/sec).
The bearings are designed with 52% and 53% ball _roove
conformities that provide nominal contact angles of 20 to 28
deErees in the unmounted state. The axial freedom, as
discussed above is provided by loose fitting of the bearinEs
in their housings. The inner rings are press-fitted on the
shaft, which essentially becomes a line-to-line fit during
operation, taking into account differential thermal growths
and centrifugal effects on both the inner ring and shaft.
HPOTP Operating Conditions
The HPOTP loading consists of the combination of a sta-

tionary, non-rotating component (primarily weight) and a
synchronous rotating component (impeller action) applied to
223
the impeller shaft. Aside from a transient start-up axial
load that ranges from 8.9 kN to 35.6 kN (2000 to 8000 Ibf),
theoretically, the only axial load present on the bearings
is the sprlng-applled preload. The rotating and non-
rotating load components were combined at various rotation
angles to provide a range of radial load conditions for use
in the analysis. Table 2 provides a matrix of load cases to
be used in the analytical studies. Since the objective of
the analytical studies was to formulate criteria for
material selection, worst case loading conditions were
modeled.
The HPOTP shaft speed at rated power level (RPL) is 2969

rad/sec (28,349 rpm), climbing to 3182 rad/sec (30,381 rpm)
at full power level (FPL). For the purposes of the analyti-
cal studies a shaft speed of 3142 rad/sec (30,000 rpm) was
used.
Analytical Studies
Analytical studies of the HPOTP rotor/bearing system

were undertaken with the primary objective of parmetrically
quantifying bearing operation to enable the establishment of
possible failure scenarios. The bearing system analyses
were conducted utilizing SKF computer code SHABERTN
(SHAft-BEarlng-THermal) [5]. This approach provides an
efficient means of calculating the stress, kinematic, and
thermal information required to describe the bearing inter-
nal operating environment. Bearing stresses, fatigue lives,
heat generation rates, temperatures, rolling and sliding
velocities, were calculated. The SHABERTH analysis incor-
porated the effects of thermal contractions, shaft stiff-
ness, bearing preload, coolant temperature and flow rate,
solid lubricant traction coefficients, and material elastic
and heat transfer properties.
Two key features of SHABERTH, with respect to the

cryogenic turbopump bearing analyses, are the inclusion of a
general thermal analysis model and a dry lubrication option.
The high bearing heat generation rates due to the use of
solid lubrication make consideration of thermal and mechani-
cal interactions very important in analyzing the turbopump
bearings. The dry lubrication option makes use of a coulomb
friction model to calculate bearing heat _eneration rates.
The information presented above was used to create

detailed thermomechanical models of the HPOTP shaft/bearlng/
224
housing system. All appropriate dimensions were taken from
turbopump detailed drawings. Heat transfer mechanisms,
including conduction, free and forced convection, and fluid
flow are considered in the SHABERTH thermal model. The
thermal analysis is coupled with the bearing mechanical ana-
lysis enabling consideration of thermomechanical interplay.
In the SHABERTH representation the preloaded bearing
pairs are located in their respective positions and con-
nected by a flexible shaft. Radial loads are applied to the
shaft. For the HPOTP bearing analysis, the radial shaft
loads (as per Table 2) were applied at the centerline of the
pump impeller. Resulting bearing loads were calculated con-
sidering the elastic deformations of both the shaft and the
bearings. Bearing heat generation rates were automatically
calculated and fed into the thermal analysis portion of
SHABERTH for calculation of bearing, shaft and housing tem-
peratures. This temperature distribution then prompts a
revision of the mechanical analysis via thermal dimensional
changes of the shaft, bearing and housing components. This
in turn alters the bearing load distributions and sub-
sequently the heat generation rates. The SHABERTH program
will iterate on this thermomechanical interplay until a
steady-state solution is achieved, assuming one exists.
In order to correctly evaluate the thermal aspects of

the HPOTP bearing system, proper modelling of the frictional
characteristics of the ball/raceway, ball/cage pocket, and
cage rail/rinE land contacts had to be achieved. SHABERTH
normally calculates contact friction forces based on hydro-
dynamic or elastohydrodynamic (EHD) conditions with conven-
tional oil or grease lubrication, however, the turbopump
bearings are lubricated via a transfer film of PTFE (as
described in the previous section). In addition to the
solid PTFE (Armalon) lubricant, a phosphoric acid bonded
MoS 2 lubricant film is burnished onto the raceway surfaces
and the balls are sputter coated with MoS 2. The dry lubri-
cation option in SHABERTH was used to model these HPOTP
bearing lubrication conditions. Baseline analyses were per-
formed with a coefficient of sliding friction of 0.2 to
represent 440C stainless steel running against itself with
dry film lubrication.
Coefficient of friction was one of the bearing operating

characteristics that was parameterized. Coefficients varied
in the analysis from _ = 0.08 to _ = 0.5. A reported coef-
ficient of friction for 440C on 440C in unlubricated slidin_
conditions is 0.65 [6]. The precise coefficient of friction
225
during operation will be influenced by the specific
physical/chemical surface condition that is present.
The SHABERTHcomputer code and model were used to per-

form a thermomechanical analysis of the aforementioned HPOTP
shaft/bearing system.
Discussion of Results
Bearing fatigue llfe calculated in SHABERTH is based on

classical subsurface initiated fallfire. Empirically derived
multipliers are often applied to this calculated value to
reflect observed effects of bearing material quality and
lubrication conditions in an adjusted rating life or
"expected life". In the current analytical studies a
multiplier of 1 was used, i.e., the values indicated are the
unadjusted, calculated lives that may be achieved if raceway
and rolling element surface integrity is protected against
wear and lubrication related distress. Since the develop-
ment of lubricating films with llquid oxygen is doubtful
[7], and quantification of transfer film lubrication effects
on life are non-existent_ a multiplier of 1 for the purposes
of parametric studies is Justified. The surface charac-
teristic that was parameterized was coefficient of sliding
friction. This permitted characterization of the effect of
coefficient of friction on bearing heat generation and the
associated thermally induced loading, and the resulting
effect of that thermal loading on contact stress levels and
fatigue life.
Figure 2 is a plot of bearing fatigue life versus fric-

tion coefficient for bearing No. 2 (pump-end) and bearing
No. 3. (turbine-end) for two of the radial load conditions
analyzed. Under the worst case radial load condition, i.e.,
22.2 kN (5000 Ibf) total radial shaft load, the life of the
in-board turbine bearing (bearing No. 3) decreases from a
calculated 9 hours at a coefficient of friction of _ = 0.08
to a life of less than l hour at _ = 0.5. When subject to
the minimum radial load condition, i.e., 8.5 kN (1915 lbf)
total radial shaft load, the calculated life for bearing No.
3 shows a very dramatic decline from 44 hours at _ = 0.08 to
a value of 3 hours at _ = 0.05.
This trend in life degradation is severely a_gravated by

the application of axial load (possibly caused by the
failure of outer race/cartridge axial movement). The effect
of axial thrust load on life is presented in Figure 3.
226
Figures 2 and 3 indicate that even if surface initiated
failure mechanisms can be ruled out as causes for failure,
the HPOTP bearings will have difficulty attaining the design
goal fatigue life unless friction can be minimized and the
occurrence of transient axial loads can be eliminated.
Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the level of element-to-

raceway contact stress as a function of friction coefficient
and applied axial load, respectively. Again, a dramatic
sensitivity to friction coefficient is noted, with contact
stress levels ranging from 2500 MPa to 3500 MPa (362 ksi to
507 ksi). The application of modest axial load can cause
contact stress well in excess of 3500 MPa (510 ksi).
These high stress levels and low fatigue lives are a

result of thermally induced loading. The radial expansion
of the bearin_ created by the heat generated within the
bearing produces thermal radial preloading. Even though the
bearings are operating in a cryogenic environment, and
coolant flow is present through the bearings, the
ball/raceway contacts are still a source of considerable
heat generation. Figures 6 and 7 present the calculated
heat generation rates for the HPOTP bearings. Heat genera-
tion rates of i0 kW to 30 kW are estimated for the normal
bearing operating range. The application of small amounts
of axial load causes an increase in the heat generation to
as high as 70 kW. Table 3 presents the estimated inner ring
bulk temperatures for the HPOTP bearings subject to the con-
ditions analyzed.
Figures 6 and 7 show total bearing heat generations,

however, it should be noted that 55% to 65% of this
generated heat is at the inner race ball/raceway contacts.
The computer modeling via SHABERTH assumed that there was no
gross sliding or cage slippage. Thus, simple outer race
control was governing. Previous analytical studies [7]
using a method that more exactly models the situation, indi-
cated that there is no gross slippage. This means that all
sliding is due to ball spin and micro-slip (Heathcoat slip)
about the ball/raceway point of contact. It is this ball
spin at the inner raceway contact (in the presence of a high
coefficient of friction) that is the major contributor to
the high heat generation rates. Calculated spin-to-roll
ratios for the inner race contacts ranged from 0.I with
heavy loads to as high as 0.6 with the light load con-
ditions. A computed spin/roll ratio of 0.3 was typical for
nominal operating conditions.
227
One other bearing design parameter examined was that of
inner ring circumferential stress (hoop stress). As pre-
viously mentioned, the bearing inner rings are initially
press fitted onto the turbopump shaft, however, a line-to-
line condition is reached at the operating temperature. The
mounted bearing inner ring circumferential tensile stresses
were computed to be on the order of 69 MPa to Ii0 MPa (I0
ksi to 16 ksi). However, after chill down to cryogenic tem-
peratures and when operating at 3142 rad/sec (30,000 rpm)
the circumferential tensile stress is computed to be 83 MPa
(12 ksi). This value represents the maximum circumferential
tensile stress at the outer surface (raceway surface) of the
inner ring.
Conclusions of Analytical Study
In summary, the following key conclusions can be made

based upon the analytical studies.
I. Due to the rapid depletion of the MoS 2 films on the

balls and raceway surfaces, and the reported inability
of the PTFE lubricant transfer to be effective in the
LOX environment, the HPOTP bearings most likely operate
with a coefficient of sliding friction of that similar
to dry metal-to-metal contact. That is, a coefficient
of friction between 0.4 and 0.6.
2. At these high sliding friction levels and with the heavy

radial loads estimated for the HPOTP bearings, the
bearing internal heat generation rates reach levels on
the order of 20 to 50 kW.
3. The high rate of heat generation creates a situation of

inner ring thermal expansion and subsequent loss of
internal clearance. This results in high, up to 3447
MPa (500 ksi), ball/raceway contact stress levels and
greatly reduced bearing rolling contact fatigue lives.
4. The fatigue lives reported herein are for subsurface

initiated rolling contact fatigue. The curves showed
that even if this were to be the dominant mode of fati-
gue, i.e., full film lubrication, the bearing fatigue
lives are somewhat less than desired. Based on
Conclusion I, the bearings are operating with little or
no low shear strength lubricant film. In this condition
and with the high contact traction forces (_ ) 0.35) the
dominant mode of failure will be surface wear or surface
initiated fatigue. The actual bearing life may thus
228
lower than the lives presented in these results. In
addition, studies have shown that for friction coef-
ficients _ _ 0.15 reductions in fatigue life can be
expected because of the influence of tangential stress
on the subsurface stress field [8,9].
5. The analysis and the above conclusions indicated that if

surface fatigue is to be prevented and bearing clearan-
ces are to be maintained, a low (less than 0.15) fric-
tion coefficient must be supplied and maintained for the
ball and raceway surfaces. If this can be accomplished,
the analysis indicates that much improved bearing lives
may be realized.
6. Inner ring circumferential tensile stresses at bearing

operating conditions are less than, or equal to, 83 MPa
(12 ksi), and result from centrifugal loading.
7. Any applied thrust load dramatically aggravates the

thermal runaway scenario and increases the potential for
extremely short bearing fatigue life.
Acknowledgement
This work was performed under NASA/MSFC Contract No.

NAS8-35341 with SKF Industries, Inc., King of Prussia, PA.
The author acknowledges the assistance provided by Gordon
Marsh, NASA/MSFC Program Manager, Biliyar N. Bhat,
Metallurgy Research Branch, Metallic Material Division and
Fred J. Dolan, Chief, Lubrication and Surface Physics
Branch, Engineering Physics Division, Materials and
Processes Laboratory, MSFC.
References
I. Bhat, B. N. and Dolan, F. J., "Past Performance Analysis

of HPOTP Bearings," NASA TM-82470, March 1982.
2. Dufrane, K. F. and Kannel, J. W., "Evaluation of Space

Shuttle Main Engine Bearings from High Pressure Oxygen
Turbopump 9008," Final Report, NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center Contract No. NAS8-35576, Task No. 102,
July II, 1980. Submitted by Battelle Columbus
Laboratories, Columbus, OH.
3. Broschard, J. L., "Turbopump Bearing Analysis," SKF

Report No. AT83X001, March 1983.
229
4. Si bley, L. B. , "Analysis of Turbopump Bearings from
Space Shuttle Test Engine No. 5, SKF Report No.
AL79TO04, January 1979.
5. Crecelius, W. J., "User's Manual for Steady-State and

Transient Thermal Analysis of a Shaft Bearing System
(SHABERTH)," Contract Report ARBRL-CR-00386, submitted
to U.S. Army Ballistics Research Laboratory, Nov. 1982.
6. Spalvins, T., "Coatings for Wear and Lubrication, Thin

Solid Films, Vol. 53, pp. 285-300, 1978.
7. Kannel, J. W., Merrimen, T. L., Stockwell, R. D., and

Dufrane, K. F., "Evaluation of Outer Race Tilt and
Lubrication on Ball Wear and SSME Bearing Life
Reductions," Final Report NASA/MSFC Contract NAS8-34908,
July 1983 by Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Columbus,
OH.
8. loannides, E. and Harris, T. A., "A New Fatigue Life

Model for Rolling Bearings," ASME Paper No. 84-TRIB-28,
Presented at the ASME/ASLE Joint Lubrication Conference,
San Diego, CA, October 22-24, 1984.
9. Kannel, J. W. and Tevaarwerk, J. L., "Subsurface Stress

Evaluations Under Rolling/Sliding Contracts," ASME Paper
No. 83-LUB-18, Presented at the ASME/ASLE Joint
Lubrication Conference, Hartford, CT, October 18-20,
1983.
230
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
j_ POOR QUALITY
0
n_
ul
IB
ffl
ILl
I=
m
u_
231
TABLE 1
HPOTP BEARING DESIGN DATA
PUMP END TURBINE END

DESIGN DATA BEARINGS BEARINGS
BEARING BORE {mm) 45 57.15
BEARING O.D. (mm) 83.9 103.1
BEARING WITDH (mm) 17 IB.5
MATERIAL CEVM 440C CEVM 440C
PITCH DIAMETER (mm) 65.024 80.518
BALL DIAMETER (mm) 11.113 12.700
NUMBER OF BALLS 13 13
CONTACT ANGLE (deg) 24.34 20.5
RACE CURVATURE %1/%0 53/52 53/53
CAGE MATERIAL ARMALDN ARMALON
PRELOAD, AXIAL {kN) 3.8 4.5
232
TABLE 2
HPOIP CONDITIONS USED IN ANALYTICAL STUDIES
LOAD RADIAL RADIAL ORIENTATION RESULTANT

CASE NON-ROTATING ROTATING OF ROTATING RADIAL
LOAD COMPONENT LOAD COMPONENT & NON-ROTATING LOAD
(N) (N) LOAD COMPONENT (N)
(DEG)
I 11120 11120 0 22240
2 11120 11120 45 20550
3 11120 11120 90 15724
4 11120 11120 135 8515
5 11120 11120 180 0
SHAFT SPEED - 30,O00RPM

COMBINED STATIC AND ROTATING RADIAL LOAD
TRANSIENT AXIAL LOADS - 8,896 TO 35,584 N
RANGE OF FRICTION COEFFICIENTS - 0.08 TO 0.5
233
FGURE2
SSME HPOTP
FatigueLife vs FrictionCoefficient
LEGEND
x Brg.2 MinLood
o Brg.2 MoxLood
o Brg.:3gin Load
t , Brg.3 MaxLood
x
:p
0
L_
20
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

FrictionCoefficient
(Sliding)
_n:8518 N go_=22240 N
234
FIGURE5
SSME HPOTP
Fatigue Life vs Thrust
x Brg. 2 u=0.2
o Brg. 2 u=0,35
a Brg. 4 u=0.2
A Brg. 4 u=0.35
4448 8896 13344 17792 22240 26688
Thrust Load (N)

Ua_ Shaft Load=22240 N
235
FIGURE 4
SSME HPOTP
ContactStressvs FrictionCoefficient
40OO
LEGEND
3500" x Brg. 2 iJin Load
o Brg. 2 Idox Lood

0
O. 3000'
o Brg. 3 _n Load
A Brg. ::3IJox Load

2500"
U
o 2000"
d.a
c
0
0
N 1500.
"r
x 1000"
o
500'
I I I I l
0.1 0.2 0.3 0,4 0.5
FritionCoefficient
(Sliding)
Uin=8518 N U_--22240 N
236
FIGURE 5
SSME HPOTP
ContactStressvs Thrust Load
5O00
LEGEND
4500 Brg. 2 u=0.2
o Brg. 2 u=0.35
4000
t'%
0
0. D Brg. 4 u=0.2
Brg. 4 u=0.35
II
o
_ :S000'
U1
u
o 2500_
c"
0
O
2000
N
IJ
"T 1500
X
0
IOO0
50O
I I I I I l
4448 8896 13344 17792 22240 26688
ThrustLoed (N)
u_ ShaftLoad--22240
N
237
FIGURE 6
SSME HPOTP
Heat Generationvs FrictionCoefficient
LEGEND
x I_'g.2 l/in _od
o Brg.2 IJoxlood
v
c a Brg.;3_n Lood
O_ ¸
o , _g. :3UoxLood
L
o
_.
m
0
_ 25'
_ 2O'
C
0
B
m15"
0 10_
I I I I I
0.1 0.2 0.3 0,4 0.5

FrictionCoefficient
(Sliding)
gin=851B N uo_,=22240 N
238
FGURE7
SSME HPOTP
Heat Generation
vs Thrust Lood
200"
LEGEND
Brg. 2 u=0.2
o Brg.2 u=0.35
/
' 160'
X
o Brg.4 u=0.2
0
o
A Brg.4 u=0.35
L
0 120"
C
0
II
T
0_ B0"
[
._-
o
5
4-1
o
I-- 40"
20"
0 I I I I t I '
4448 8896 13344 17792 22240 26688
ThrustLoad(N)
ga_ Shoff Load=22240 N
239
TABLE 3
HPOTP BEARING INNER RING BULK TEMPERATURES
BEARING NO. 2
INNER RACE BULK TEMPERATURE
°c (°r)
p " 0.15 - 0.35 p -0.5
MINIMUM LOAD -123 (-190) -83 (-11B) -2o (-4)
MAXIMUM LOAD -i12 (-170) -4B (-$5) 43 (110)
BEARING NO. 3
INNER RACE BULK TEMPERATURE
°C (°F)
u " 0.15 u " 0.35 u : 0.5
MINIMUM LOAD -84 (-12o) 160 (320)
MAXIMUM LOAD -62 (-80) 249 (4BO)
240
I N89- 12638
Thermal Analysis of SSME Turbopump Bearings
Joe C. Cody, David Marty and Bruce K. Tiller

Spectra Research Systems, Inc.
Abstract
A lumped node thermal network model of the pump end

bearing of the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) has been
developed. The bearing elements, the shaft, isolator,
housing, and cryogenic coolant flow characteristics are
included. Two phase heat transfer characteristics of the
LOX coolant are used in the model. Two computer codes; one
thermal, and the other a bearing performance code, have
been coupled to provide an overall evaluation of the
bearing operating characteristics. Software was developed
to allow automatic iteration between the models until a
compatible solution was found.
The model was used to develop sensitivity characteris-

tics for the pump end bearing. A broad range of parameters
such as contact friction, preload, heat transfer coeffic-
ient, coolant flow, subcooling, and outer race misalign-
ments were investigated. In many cases, the solutions of
the thermal and performance model would not agree indica-
ting a thermally unstable operating condition which leads
to excessive bearing temperatures and possible failure.
The results show that bearing component temperatures are
very sensitive to contact friction, preloads, and heat
transfer coefficients. Although not as sensitive to
coolant flow and subcooling, these parameters are very
important for marginal conditions. In some cases, thermal
instability could be induced by reducing flow or by raising
coolant temperature to saturation.
241
Introduction
A simulation of the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) Liquid Oxygen

(LOX) turbopump shaft/bearing system has been developed. The simula-
tion allows for thermal and mechanical interactions allowing a more
representative description of bearing operating characteristics. The
model consists of two interacting models; one of the shaft/bearln_
system modeled on the SHAE_:RTH computer code, and the other a SINDA-
thermal model representiug the pump end bearing pair. The inboard
(Number 2) bearing Is modeled in detail to allow determination of
component temperature profiles and average temperatures. Single and
two-phase coolant conditions can be assessed, and heat generation from
fluid stirring and bearing friction are included. An executive program
controls the Iteration between the mechanical and thermal models to
arrive at solutions satisfying both models. Solutions that satisfy
both models are considered to be realistic and are designated as
converged solutions. Conversely, when the solution diverges a
realistic operation condition is assumed not to exist.
Parametri_ analyses were performed on the pump end bearing to

investigate the sensitivity of bearing thermal and operating characte-
ristics on contact friction, axial preload, coolant flow rate, coolant
inlet temperature, heat transfer coefficients, and outer race misalign-
ment. This effort is directed toward improved analysis and understand-
ing of these important characteristics of bearing systems operating in
cryogenics. Continued refinement of the model and correlation of
results with the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Bearing and Seal
Materials Tester (BSMT) will significantly enhance the development of a
verified analytical tool to aid in the design of high speed bearings
operating in cryogenics.
242
Model Description
System Model Description
A system model, representing the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME)

Liquid Oxygen (LOX) turbopump shaft and bearing configuration, was
coded for the SHABERTH bearlng/shaft computer program. A detailed
nodal representation of the LOX pump pump-end bearing was developed and
coded for solution on the SINDA thermal analyzer. Software was
developed to allow iteration between the SHABERTH and SINDA models
until a compatible solution was obtained.
SHABERTH Shaft/Bearing Model
The SHABERTH model of the SSME LOX turbopump consists of turbopump

shaft, turblne-end and pump-end bearings. The major components of the
model are show_ in Figure I. The shaftbearing system is modeled to
allow the effects of bearing radial stiffness and shaft deflection on
bearing load sharing to be evaluated. Other parameters such as clear-
ances, outer race tilt, and contact friction can also be investigated.
All analyses were conducted using a shaft speed of 30,000 RPM, and the
load profile shown for Figure I. In addition to bearing operating
characteristics such as contact angles, clearances, and Hertz stresses
the SHABERTH model predicts the reactions for each bearing and the
frictional heat generated.
SINDA Thermal Model
The thermal model is a detailed nodal division of the LOX turbo-

pump Number 2 bearing. The Number 2 bearing was selected for detailed
evaluation because it shares a greater percentage of the load than the
Number I hearing. The model accounts for the heat generated by Bearing
Number I. A nodal representation of Bearing Number 2 is shown in
Figure 2. The nodal network is finer _n the contact regions where more
severe thermal gradients are known to exist. Since the heat transfer
coefficient are strong functions of surface temperature, surface nodes
are on the order of 5.0 mils thick to provide good representation of
the surface temperature. The thermal model solves the conservation
equations which include the energy produced by working the fluid, and
contact friction in the bearing. Many surface temperatures exceed the
saturation temperature of the LOX coolant. Consequently vapor is
formed locally at these surfaces requiring the consideration of two
phase heat transfer in these regions. Furthermore for some inlet
coolant conditions, the coolant can become saturated as it flows
through the bearings. The model is capable of accounting for these
conditions, and the quality of the coolant at each fluid node can be
estimated.
243
Model Iteration Process
The shaft/bearing model and thermal model are used in an inter-

active process which requires iteration between models to determine the
operating condition for specific boundary conditions. Failure to find
a operating condition satisfying each model results in a diverged
solution and the operating point is judged to be thermally unstable.
The iteration process is totally automated. The user supplies an
initial guess for the bearing component temperatures, and the process
iterates until a solution is found or the ball temperature exceeds
2000°F, which indicates a diverged solution.
Figure 3 lllustrates the iteration process for a converged case.

Here tbe friction beat from the shaft/bearing model, and the average
ball temperature from the thermal model increase to a point of
agreement.
Shown in Figure 4 Is an example of a diverged case for which no

agreement between the shaft/bearlng model and the thermal model is
found.
244
Objectives and Approach
The objectives of the SSME LOX turbopump pump-end bearing analysis

were to Investigate the sensitivity of bearing operating characteris-
tics to variations In operating parameters. The operating parameters
that were considered are listed below with the values investigated.
1. Coolant Flow Rate (Ibs/sec) 3.6, 7.0

2. Contact Friction Factor 0.2, 0.3, 0.5
3. Inlet Coolant Temperature to -240, -230, -218
Bearing #I (°F)
. Axial Preload (Ibs) 350, 480, 850
5. Outer Race Clearance (mils) 2.6, 1.7, 1.0
6. Outer Race Misallgnment (mln) 0 through 42
7. Heat Transfer Coefficient Nominal, 2.45 and 3.43
times nominal
The flow rate, friction factor, inlet temperature, and preload

were investigated in all combinations while holding the remaining
parameters at their initial values. This resulted in 54 _nitial cases
to be simulated. These cases are represented in the parameter data
tree of Figure 5. This shows that 42 of the 54 cases were thermally
unstable (diverged). It was not necessary to run computer simulations
for all the cases to determine thermal instability. For example, if a
case with an inlet coolant temperature of -218°F, flow rate of 7.0
Ibs/sec, preload of 850 lbs, and friction factor of 0.2 was unstable,
then cases having friction factors of 0.3 or 0.5 with the other para-
meters the same would obviously not be stable.
The effect of changes in coolant flow rate and inlet coolant

temperature were evaluated using the 12 converged cases. However,
additional converged cases, over the full range of parameters values,
were needed to properly evaluate changes in the remaining operating
parameters. Thus, it was decided to increase the boundary heat
transfer coefficient to obtain the additional thermally stable cases
needed for the sensitivity evaluation.
Changing the boundary heat transfer coefficient introduced the

heat transfer coefficient as a parameter into the sensitivity analysis.
A second data tree was developed for the heat transfer coefficients and
remaining parameters. Figure 6 shows this tree, which provides 18
additional cases.
A nominal case with a flow rate of 7.0 Ibs/sec, inlet temperature

of -230°F, friction factor of 0.2, and preload of 480 Ibs was used to
evaluate these parameters. An increase in heat transfer coefficient to
245% of nom/nal was needed to converge the case with a 480 Ib preload
and a friction coefficient of 0.5. An increase in heat transfer
coefflcleot to 343% of nominal was needed to converge the case with an
850 Ib preload and a friction coefficient case of 0.5. The variation
245
of outer race t_it was evaluated separately, holding all other
parameters constant.
246
Analysis Results
Mechanical Characteristics
The bearing reactions were first determined for bearings with

uniform temperature, and compared with a thermally converged case to
assess the influence of the thermal gradient on load sharing. The
conditions for the pump-end bearings were: 480 ibs preload, 7 ibs/sec
coolant flow, coolant inlet temperatures of -230°F, and a friction
factor of 0.2. Figure 7 shows the results of the comparison. The
bracketed values are the reactions considering the thermal gradients in
Bearing Number 2. Reactions without brackets are for bearings with
uniform temperature. For both cases the inboard bearings support a
larger part of the load. This is primarily due to shaft deflection.
Bearing 2 receives about 72 percent of the pump-end reaction for the
uniform temperature case. This bearing supports about 76 percent of
the reaction, when thermal effects are considered. The thermal gra-
dient causes differential thermal growth in the bearing which reduces
the internal operating clearances, and increases the radial stiffness.
The reduction in internal operating clearances due to thermal effects
also increases contact stresses, and reduces the operating contact
angle which reduces the capability of the bearing to react to high
axial loads.
Thermal Analysis Results
The thermal model for Bearing Number 2 predicts temperatures for

each node point, and then calculates the volume average temperature for
each component. The average component temperatures are then used as
input to the mechanical model which provides the friction heat genera-
tion. These models iterate until they converge or diverge. The
boundary heat transfer coefficient is obviously a critical parameter in
the evaluation of the bearing component temperatures. Since most of
the surface node temperatures exceed the local saturation temperature
of the coolant, the two phase heat transfer characteristics must be
considered. In this investigation, nominal heat transfer coefficients
were estimated as described in Reference 3. Since many conditions of
interest would not converge, and the heat transfer coefficient esti-
mates for such a complex flow field are far from exact, the nominal
values were increased in two steps to allow convergence and provide
sensitivity data for all the parameters of interest.
The results using the nominal heat transfer coefficient are shown
in Figure 8. The effects of preload and inlet coolant temperature are
shown for a friction factor of 0.2 and flow rates of 3.6 and 7.0
Ibs/sec. Stable solutions were not achieved for the 850 Ib preload
cases, or any cases with friction factors greater than 0.2. This
demonstrates the extreme sensitivity of component temperatures to load
and contact friction. Although all the temperature data shown is above
the coolant saturation temperature, the magnitude of the temperatures
247
is not severe. The unstable cases would in theory increase in tempera-
ture without bound. The Impllcatlon is that all the 850 lb cases would
produce component temperatures beyond the capabillty of the bearing
materials to survive. The changes in component temperature with inlet
coolant temperature and flow rate are not as severe. However, for
marginal conditions the solution can be made to diverge by reducing
flow or increasing inlet coolant temperature.
To provide additional sensitivity data the heat transfer coeffic-

ient was increased until the 480 lb preload case with a friction
coefficient of 0.5 converged. This required increasing the nominal
beat transfer coefficient by a factor of 2.45. Since bearing tempera-
tures were determined to be less sensitive to coolant inlet temperature
and flow, the following series of analyses were conducted with a
coolant flow of 7 Ibs/sec and a coolant inlet temperature of -230°F.
Temperature results for preload and friction factor variations are
shown in Figure 9, based on the above coolant characteristics. The
high preload and friction case failed to converge. Shown in Figure I0
is a plot of temperatures vs preload and friction which illustrates the
dependence of temperature on these parameters.
Convergence for the most severe operating conditions (850 Ibs

preload and a friction factor of 0.5) required increasing the nominal
heat transfer coefficient by a factor of 3.43. To provide added
visibility, all preloads and friction factors were evaluated at the
increased heat transfer level. The temperature values at these condi-
tions are shown in Figure II. The most severe loading and friction
conditions produced the highest component temperatures among the
converged cases even with the highest heat transfer coefficient. These
data are graphlca]ly presented in Figure 12 which provides a graphical
representation of the component temperature sensitivity to loads and
friction. Notice the large temperature difference between the maximum
track temperature and average temperature. Since heat transfer coef-
ficients and thermal properties are temperature dependent, this should
illustrate the importance of defining the temperature profiles through-
out the bearing components to arrive at average values rather than
assuming a uniform temperature for each component.
Although the increase in heat transfer coefficient was arbitrary

to attain convergence for the high load and friction conditions, these
incr_ ses are not judged to be impractical due to the inexact methods
for estimating the boundary beat transfer for the complex two phase
flow conditions. Clearly more work is needed to gain a better under-
standing of this flow field and corresponding heat transfer characte-
ristics. Figure 13 illustrates the sensitivity of bearing temperatures
to heat transfer coefficients for the condition noted. More important
is the fact that for friction factors greater than .2 and loads greater
than 480 lbs the heat transfer coefficients had to be significantly
increased to obtain converged solutions.
248
Angular misalignments of the outer race up to 31.5 minutes were
evaluated to determine the effect on bearing operating temperatures.
The outer race was tilted toward the heaviest loaded bali, producing
the most severe conditions for the radially loaded bearing. Figure 14
shows the effect of misalignment on bearing temperatures for the
conditions noted. The maximum outer race tilt that allowed stable
operating conditions was 29 minutes. This condition produces the
higher stable operating temperatures than any other condition analyzed.
The maximum outer race track temperature was estimated to be 1858°F.
The misalignment caused the outer race to heat and expand more than the
inner race. Thus the bearing is able to maintain a sufficient
operating clearance for higher ball temperatures.
The maintenance of an acceptable operating clearance was found to

be a criteria for convergence of the system model. Shown in Figure 15
is a plot of ball temperature and internal operating clearance for the
conditions noted. Also shown is the approximate internal clearance
that separates the converged and diverged solutions. It is emphasized
that the set of conditions shown in Figure 15 is not proposed to be
general, and only applies to the specific 45 mm bearing operating under
the range of parameters and loading conditions analyzed. Even with
this qualification, it is interesting to note that a fairly linear
relationship exists between the average ball temperature and operating
internal clearance; fairly independent of load, heat transfer, and
contact friction. As shown the outer race misalignment case deviates
from the general trend. This is caused by increased heating of the
outer race relative to the ball and inner race, thus maintaining a
larger internal clearance for a given ball temperature.
Conclusions
The 45 mm LOX turbopump bearing temperatures are extremely sensi-

tive to preload, contact friction, and boundary heat transfer. Al-
though bearing temperatures are less sensitive to subcooling and
coolant flow, both conditions are important for maintaining thermal
stability at severe operating conditions. Alignment of the outer race
was found to be critical as bearing temperatures are very sensitive to
this parameter. This condition produced the highest temperatures for
stable thermal conditions. The maintenance of an acceptable operating
internal clearance was found to be a necessary conditions for stable
thermal operating conditions. With the exception of outer race
misalignment, the conditions of high friction and high heat transfer
produced the highest local temperatures for thermally stable cases. It
is suggested that hardware exhibiting high local temperatures
(discoloration in ball tracks, etc.) without other effects, such as
high surface wear, milling etc., is operating under the conditions of
higher contact friction and local heat transfer than normally expected.
Since the bearing temperatures are very sensitive to heat

transfer, further work should be-done to investigate the possible
effect of the internal flow fluid characteristics on fluld/boundary
249
heat transfer. In addition recent tests of the MSFC bearing and seal
materials tester showed a higher dependence of bearing temperature on
coolant flow than was predicted by this analysis. This inconsistency
in the analysis should be investigated and resolved.
References
I . SHABERTH Computer Program Operation Manual, Technical Report,

AFAPL-TR-76-90, October 1976.
o SINDA Engineering Program Manual (Contract No. NAS9-I0435), June

1971.
, Advanced Rocket Engine Cryogenic Turbopump Bearing Thermal Model,

J. Cody, L. New and B. Tiller, First Advanced High Pressure Oxy-
gen/Hydrogen Propulsion Conference.
250
Z
0
t--q
0--4
z
0
0
LJ_
c_
-r-
C__
°
x
0
"s:"
i,
251
FIGURE 2. NODAL BREAKDOWNOF THE 45n_, BEARING THERMAL MODEL
252
0
0
0
0
zD
l.--
cIc
w
0
w
.,cC
0
C)
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
(_H/_IS) 31V_ 1V]H ]VIOl
253
WI*J
_-- F-- Z
•_r- z
,-._ o _,_._
x _.-, o
r, z
_=_o o
o
o
• ,0
o
o
_o v
• ,O
D
w
0
ty
rm_ I.U _j LU
_ w
0 r-_
Z 0
0 -- C) ILl
I'--
Z
W • 0
0
i.--
0
m,m
U
0
W o w
r_
L_
>
"r"
Or'i
ILl
J.m_ 0
..--J_ - 0
X ,.--_
L_.Jv
ILl n
0
0 I'--
"r" I--'-
0
-- 0
SINIOd IDVIN03 IV MOI_ IV3H lVlOl
254
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
FIGURE 5. PARAMETER DATA TREE WITH NOtlINAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
im.(T _lN. _ (t.as}

COOLANT lr(_. IToo_YEe_o X
-._44"F
,io COWvE=C.___.__._EO
X
aSO OIYEWGEO
ftlCIlOl(
FACTOR )TO CONV(RG(O X
0._ -230"E
480
6TO CO_VERG(O
DIVERG(D X
)TO CO_VERG(D X
-21@(SAT)'f
460 CO_VERG(D X
3SO DIVERGED
-Z40*F
4_ OIVERG(O
OOOLANT
)SO DIVERGED
FL0VRAIT
3.6 L|S/S_C 0.)
4_-_s_OIVERGED
DIVERGED
-2)O'f
3SO OIVERG(O
-2ie(sxt)-F
4_6-6_oOI¥(RGE9
DIVERGED
]TO DIVERGED
-240"F 480 DIVERGED
_8-'_DIVERGED
3SO D[V(RGEO
O.S -Z30"F
480 DIVERGED
DSO DIVERGED
3SO OIVERGEO
O OUTER R,4C( CLf.AJU_CE - Z.6 MILS

! -218(SAT}'F
DSO DIVERGED
481_DIVERGEO
I OUTER
I WITH
OUTER
RACE TILT
_
-
HF.AT TIUJ(SFER
0 MINUTES
ANO [_LA1104
II(TWIEEK
V -Z40"F
)SO CONVERGED
480 DIVERGED
8SO COO(VERGED
)SO CO_WERGEO
X
O.Z
480 E,O_YER_O
DSO OIVERG(D X
3SO CO_VERG_O X
T;'F
350 D[VERGE9
.Z40"F
)SO OlVEmGTG
1.0 LSS/S(C 0.3 -Z30"F 480 OlVERG(O
350 DIVERGED
-210(SAT )*F
480 OlV[RGED
8SO DIVERGED
3SO DIVERGED
-Z40-F
480
850 DIVERGED
OlV(RGEO
350 DIVERGED
0.$
480 DIVERGED
6SO DIVERGED
--o-____I_
3'_0 DIVERGED
-ZlS(SAll'f
I 8$0 DIVERGED
255
X
_J
v
r'_ r_ _1_ Q a 0 0 _ r_
t_ W L_ W W IJJ I IJJ IJJ r_ w w
p-- w t_O _0
z _D
iv.
L_J LLJ tJJ L_ IJJ IJJ IJJ O_ w _J LLI w
_J
t_) Z Z Z Z Z z z Z : Z Z Z Z Z z Z
Ct C' C_ C_
_3 0 0 0
0
Oi
(->
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
_ 0 CI Ct C_ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O0 t_, M'_ 03_ Io luo O0 CO
O0 r,_ _ I CO
CO
¢,.,¢.
_p,--
I--C>
¢..) F--
_--* ¢J' ('_1 cO
°
LL LL C_, 0 0 0 0 0
t.---
LJ
p-.-
O_
ILl
LLI.--
t,OZ
ZbJ
¢Y .,,::_ ,,-'., I.U
I-- "--' '_

h I.sJ
I---- L.L O_
0")
¢Y t.d C> Z "_
,d
__J
i__ z
I.iJ
I.-- LLI L._
I--- I--- (:_Z r',,"

Z ,::::C,r'_ Z _ _ "
<:_E ,.'Y" _.1
_.J ::_ 0 L_._C _dl---
000 -dO _ I--L_ I-- --_
O--J ZO 0,.I 5_3J _
,._, _j ! Of...-) OF--
0 0 0
256
Z
0
o
@-- n_ N
D cJ
LJ_
Z
0
0
.mC
0
J
w
D-- z
Z
of
I
w
J W
.-./
Z
¢--_j
0_-._ (--_0
l_J tA_
nn 0 w_
o- r_ r_ L__
_Z) tJJ -J._C l--Z

DO
O_
0 _2:3 ..._
m I.---
22 _-L_
_ °
C_ z J
.-_
_o
257
ORiGiNAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
_W A _w
_,.- ,--,-, . . °
• ..
N
L N_
_L,J
_-_ o • •
..J
O _ ,.1_ lu_ _ _
O
(.J
1,<1_
t--
z o
I.¢J
LL.
LJ--
,.; =o o_::; ' '
(n
ILl
¢Z
I----
C_
W
LLI
_e
L,J "_
O LJ
F--
N
L_
o
LL
_ .-:, .-;., -
o
z¢¢
_-. ,,,K _,a
_o_ _
,_ N N r_ o o
,i
/
a_
258
OF [:00_. , ' "
_'__°1
_J__< _i" O_l_
_ _ ®_-
_ _ _ o
0a_ i.- _.,J

oo_ 0 it
Z
Z_ t.5_
0,---4
I-- _-4
•_C aa.J
a--GlJ_
_" LLJ
__.
I---U-
Z_
OZ
Z _.t
U_-T" o
u.,i
r_0--4
_¢" LAJ o
O_
¢.O
ELI
LU t,__
rr'_
I--
LLR,_
l_-r-
_o
O0
¢___--
0"_
u_
<_c_ 0 i
_J i.,,J
_z
_g
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
259
(.}£.GI,_.AL PAGE iS
OF. POOR QUALITY
FIGURE 10. 45mm PUMP END BEARING OPERATING TEMPERATURESvs AXIAL PRELOAD
• O,1 flllCTIOI Ir_'_l14
• I,11 LIISIS4IC _
• -IIN "F INLIT _ ;l._f_e(
• I_ NIAT _1_ Co(Irlr;cl£11T IIZ4SZ|
IIACI I(lg.
oI¢_.
i i i ! i i !
dl_ Sol _ lO0 140
_ullAI. I_ILO_O (I.II)
IIG. • |.I fllll['lrlll |Jl(lll
• l.ll LIII/SIC _ _1._

• -_f Illll _ fIN'.
l_lO.
100
F
It
IAU,
-I0o
-log
_IAL P_[LO,_ If*l)
260
I--
Z
0
I--,-
I---
_w
t-- cl_
I--*
Z
Z
_ L.U
_ Z
a- _.1
_ "1-
I---
_ w
,,-..-t
_l _ '_,
Qio o
261
FIGURE I2. 45mm BEARING OPERATING TENPERATURESvs AXIAL PRELOAD
NO • i.I _RICTIim F_Clm

• 7.0 LI;S_[C CO4L_T n.Ou
, -Z]Q*t r IL(I CO0LMt T[O_(UTUt

, leCIKP54UI u[A1 /liAl_(a CK_ICITIIT |]4K)
Z_O
IOQ,
f
oQZ(ll RKJ[
t4U[l_
TUCq¢ T(NP.
.Ioo
AYI[IL4_[ T[i_( ilt0,1t,W_

$
---,-.--'-" 0U;(| OL_

.zoo
• z v • | u •
Mo 40 _ 0500 ;00 _ I_
UIJL _ (tO)
$co
• O.J irltlC1Z01 fSCTOlt
• ;.0 LIS/S(C CGGLAKTrLON
• -Z.lo*r [NL£T COOLAIIT I[[I_PI[UTLIa(
• IWCJt(AS(ON(A! _lWf.(cn ¢O(fl'lCtl[Wl ()_]_)

zoo
OUTER
TlU_K SEWP.
o
t
AVI(IU4G( T[Oal'(UTt,_$
olOO ---..,-"'- i_L
Q_T[It It_
400 S(IO qkO0 _00 IO0

AXIAL P4(LO&O (Lit,)
* O.S (rOiSCTIONrACTOa
• r.o LOSIS(C O00LAiI? fLOi
• *Z)O*f XNI.(T £,,OOq.MTT(_V_[UTUit( m_[it ItbX.J[

• I*i_n[AsI:O b_4[ArTL4_(I £._f_1¢1(0,1" (]4)_| / _.KINUM
_6oo_
400 -
T[_UT_(S
N0 400 S00 600 4100

,UlAL PI(LOM (LI)
o i, • . '-
262
-_,-?
I--
Z
w
1.1.1
I,.I,_
Q:/ w
I--
I-- Z
f--
z
__)
IQOQ
t,I.J
o_ w
0
Q_
Z
c_
<.D
I--
I--
,'5.,
-r"
t.l.J
Gh-
0
0
Z
L*3
t,Eb
,4
,--4
I I I i I I
0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0 0 0
I ! !
(=Io)3_nlV'd3dN31
263
00000
(:Io) 3_fllV_3dN31
264
o
l-.-
-,,4
L)
Z
LIJ
_J
(.J
.J
z
nr"
._J
I--
o _-
v
Z:
w
._,I
0 (J
O-
Z:
w
l--
d z
w 0
-0
I I .... ' .... I .... ' .... .I .... '''''I ....

o o 0 0 o
0 o 0 (:3 0
(Jo) 3_NlV_3dW31 llV8 35V_3AV
265
:N8 9 - 1263 9l
LUBRICATION EVALUATION OF SSME TURBOPUMP BEARINGS
by
K. F. Dufrane, J. W. Kannel, and S. A. Barber

Battelle Columbus Division
ABSTRACT
The power density and longevity of the Space Shuttle
main engines (SSME) has put enormous demands on the fuel
and oxidizer turbopumps. The high pressure oxidizer turbo-
pumps (HPOTP) have required shaft speeds in excess of
30_000 rpm on 57 mm-bore bearings in order to deliver the
needed oxygen to the engines. Liquid oxygen is pumped
through the bearings to serve as a coolant. With no con-
ventional positive lubrication system, the bearings are
lubricated by initial solid films and by possible transfer
of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) from the bearing cage to
the ball-race interface. Despite the hostile environment,
the design goal for the bearings is 27,000 seconds with a
high degree of reliability.
The current bearing performance_ while still short of
the goals, has been adequate for multiple launches. This
performance has been achieved through an evolutionary pro-
cess. The process has involved significant efforts in
evaluating and controlling radial and axial loads, coolant
flow, bearing dimensions and tolerances, solid film lubri-
cation, and duty cycles. The paper describes some of the
rationale for bearing improvements and problems remaining
to be solved in order to achieve the optimum life.
266
INTRODUCTION
The desired multiple-launch capability of the Space Shuttle re-

/
quires the SSME turbopumps to operate for 27,000 seconds and 55 starts
between overhauls. Besides this extremely long service life (by rocket-
engine standards), projected needs for the Shuttle require further
increases in SSME power levels through increases in turbopump speed. The
projections are:
104 percent (current)
109 percent (full power level),
115 percent (power level growth), and
130 percent (ultimate objective).
Since measurements made on the MSFC bearing tester have shown that bear-
ing power consumption increases with nearly the cube of shaft speed,
these increases in power level can be expected to cause increases in
bearing problems.
Currently the turbopump bearings are capable of multiple
launches at the 104 percent power level. This achievement is the result
of improved load control, solid lubricant coatings, and bearing design
improvements. After a few launches, however, the bearings experience
excessive wear and must be replaced. The deterioration apparently is the
result of periods of inadequate cooling and/or insufficient lubrication.
This paper describes some of the observations made on deteriorated bear-
ings, which helped to guide the improvements to the current levels, and
some of the lubrication considerations needed for further life
extensions.
267
PREVIOOS BEARING SYSTEM IMPROVEMENTS
Numerous improvements were made to the bearing system of the
high pressure liquid oxygen turbopumps (HPOTP) after initial testing
showed the presence of life-limiting problems. A review of examples of
the problems 9 analyses, and corrections demonstrates the progress and
provides the background for the remaining improvements to be made to meet
the long-term Shuttle performance goals.
Initial Bearing Distress
The rotor of the HPOTP is supported by two sets of angular
contact ball bearings_ Figure I. The bearings are designed with low
contact angles (20 degrees) to provide radial stiffness. An axial pre-
load is provided by spring washers to remove free clearances. The shaft
is located axially by bearings 3 and 4 (turbine end), which have a 3800 N
(850 Ib) preload and are connected to the pump body through a spring
cartridge. The cartridge limits the axial travel between positive
stops. The dynamic location of the shaft is provided by a balance piston
incorporated in the oxygen turbine.
While the early HPOTP tests proved the bearings capable of suc-
cessful operation for times equivalent to several launches 9 bearing dis-
tress was observed after periods of 2000 to 5000 seconds of operation.
Evidence of classic axial overload was apparent, such as the ball contact
path extending to the shoulder of the inner race_ Figure 2, with a
plastically deformed burr replacing the chamber at the shoulder 9 Fig-
ure 3. Surface spalling was often present, Figure 49 which was associ-
ated with a network of subsurface cracks, Figure 5. A few examples of
excessive ball-cage loading were also observed 9 such as shown in
Figure 6. Inspection of the inner race ball contact paths on bearings
having less overload damage revealed varying path widths and locations,
which indicated the presence of synchronous (unbalance) loads on the
rotor in addition to the high axial loads.
268
._,'..'..,,_,,,.
i"l_GE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
Q.
=E 0
n_
0 0
en
n,e 0
Z z
ILl
C_ O
>-
X
0
I,M Z
=¢ 1,-4
,-.1
I,M
=¢
-I-
!
ra
-I-
269
O.,_G.NAL PAGE IS
.OF POOR QUALITY
8X 0K928
FIGURE 2. BALL-PATH SPALLING AND CHIPPING AT EDGE

OF RACE CURVATURE ON BEARING NO. 3 FROM
HPOTP NO. 9008
270
FIGURE3. PROFILEOF BURRAT EDGEOF RACECURVATURE ONINNER
RACEOF BEARINGNO. 3 FROMHPOTPNO. 9008
271
ORIGINAL PAGE 13
OF POOR QUALITY
67X 24944A
FIGURE 4. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROGRAPH OF SPALLING ON

INNER RACE OF BEARING NO. 3 FROM ENGINE
NO. 9008
67X 24944A
FIGURE 5. OXIDATION IN SUBSURFACE CRACKS IN OUTER RACE

OF BEARING NO. 3 FROM ENGINE NO. 9008
272
,-_:_;OR QUALITY
3X 0K927
FIGURE 6. BALL POCKET ELONGATED BY WEAR IN RETAINER

OF NO. 3 FROM HPOTP NO. 9008
273
Load Determinations
The load computations were performed using the computer program
BASDAP*. BASDAP programs can be used for static and dynamic analyses of
bearings of various designs. Ball-race stresses and contact areas,
steady-state motions, and contact angles are calculated for normal oper-
ation. Also, the dynamic behavior of the retainer is analyzed to deter-
mine retainer stability and ball-retainer loads (1) A quasi-dynamic
version of the BASDAP computer code was used for the HPOTP bearings.
This code calculates ball-race forces (inner and outer), contact pres-
sures, contact dimensions, and contact angles as a function of axial and
radial load.
The computation technique involves first computing the load
sharing between the balls in the absence of centrifugal forces. This
involves a formalized trial and error (nesting type) procedure. Esti-
mates of the axial and radial deflections of the bearing are made. The
correct value of these deflections results in the correct radial and
axial load. After the ball load sharing has been computed, the effect of
centrifugal force on contact angle is computed. Centrifugal force
causes the inner and outer race contact angles to be different from each
other as well as different from the static contact angles. The method
for the deflection and contact angles calculation is modeled after the
classic work of A. B. Jones _2)._
With the results of the calculations relating contact dimensions
and contact angles to axial and radial loads, a comparison was made of
the actual ball path dimensions and locations. With the best simul-
taneous fit of the measured contact widths and locations on both races,
an estimate could be made of the actual applied loads experienced by the
bearings.
Figure 7 is a cross sectional sketch of a used HPOTP turbine-end
bearing that had been subjected to the expected axial loading of 3850 N
*BASDAP is a Battelle-developed bearing dynamic computer model.
274
:z: l
r_
o z Z
g
Z ,_
0
ii ,--1
>
m _
0
z
II
_ m
L_
oZ
_o
,/ E-_ ,.-1
0
O0
o_
Z _Z
0
"_ E-_
,-1 0
Z_._
_ [...i O_
L_
O_O
OZ
t_
L_
275
(850 ibs). The widths and locations of the actual ball contact paths
coincided closely with the BASDAP predictions. Figure 8 shows an exam-
ple of a second HPOTP turbine-end bearing that had experienced excessive
axial loads.
The best simultaneous fit of the contact angles and widths of the
ball contact paths indicated an axial load of approximately 449500 N
(109000 ibs) had been experienced by the bearing. Rows of fatigue spalls
also confirmed the high loadings.
Following the load calculations and observations on used bear-
ings 9 experiments were run on a HPOTP instrumented to measure axial loads
during service. These measurements indicated that transitory axial
loads to 539000 N (129000 Ibs) were occurring during portions of the
operational cycle.
Bearing System Improvements
In the course of the SSME programj several design and assembly
corrections were made to the HPOTP's. Improved rotor balancing at higher
speeds reduced the synchronous radial loads to acceptable levels.
Improvements to the balance piston system reduced the axial loads sig-
nificantly and eliminated the recurring bearing damage from overloading
originally observed.
Improvements in the lubrication of the bearings were also made.
The bearing components were coated with MoS 2 to enhance the lubrication
intended to be provided by the transfer of PTFE from the ball retainer.
Measurable ball and race wear indicated that insufficient PTFE transfer
was occurring to lubricate the bearing. The MoS 2 permitted operation for
several launch cycles with minimal ball and race wear.
276
CURRENT AND FUTURE BEARING NEEDS
While the initial design, assembly, and lubrication improvements
permitted multiple launches at the 104 percent power level, qualifi-
cation tests at the 109 percent power level have experienced recurring
wear problems. After four to five test cycles at the 109 percent level,
excessive wear (primarily of the balls) is experienced. Apparently
slight degredation of the bearing components and consumption of the
solid lubricant films initiates a rapid deterioration process. Ball
wear to 0.2 mm (0.008 in.), diametral, has been observed in a single test
cycle after five previous successful cycles. Further improvements are
clearly needed in the cooling and/or lubrication of the bearings to meet
the multiple-launch requirements at 109 percent and greater power lev-
els. The cooling is primarily a design consideration involving the
management of the flow of liquid oxygen throughout the HPOTP. Efforts
are being pursued by NASA and Rocketdyne to insure adequate bearing
cooling. However, improvements in bearing lubrication are needed to
extend bearing life and reduce the sensitivity to transient loads or
periods of reduced cooling.
277
HPOTP LUBRICATION
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
The life of rolling contact bearings is dependent on both the
level of contact stresses and on the lubrication at the ball-race inter-
face. Under ideal conditions, a hydrodynamic film of a liquid lubricant
is formed between the balls and races, which completely separates the
metallic elements. Under full hydrodynamic lubrication ball or race
surface distress is eliminated and extremely long bearing life is pos-
sible if the loads are controlled. This kind of lubrication, which is
known as elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication, occurs in many situations
such as the main shaft bearings in a jet engine• In many systems,
however, EHD lubrication is not possible and other types of lubrication
such as solid films must be used. Solid lubricant films can be formed as
a result of a chemical reaction between additives in the liquid lubricant
and the balls or races, can be precoated onto the balls and races, or can
be transferred from a lubricant source.
Possibilities of Elastohydrodynamic
Lubrication of Turbopump Bearings
In the SSME turbopump bearings the only liquid that is available
is the cryogenic fluid (liquid oxygen or hydrogen) that flows through the
bearing. These fluids are not considered to be lubricants although they
can cause the formation of a hydrodynamic film under low stress condi-
tions (3) EHD films a few tenths of a micrometer in thickness were
measured in a twin disk machine simulating ball race contact using liquid
nitrogen (LN2) as the "lubricant". The stresses in the experiments were
very low (_0.3 GPa) as opposed to SSME turbopump ball-race stress
(_2 GPa). When the measured film thickness data were extrapolated to
SSME conditions, the predicted films were insufficient to imply sepa-
ration of the balls and races. In addition, experiments conducted at
higher (simulated ball-race) stress levels indicated that the friction
278
between the surfaces was much higher than would be expected from a hydro-
dynamic film. It appears to be highly unlikely that the SSME turbopump
bearings are or can be hydrodynamically lubricated.
One very positive observation made in the EHD experiments with
LN 2 was the level of surface distress to the disks. Af er several experi-

ments the disks were still in excellent condition despite the severity of
the operating parameters. The lubricant in a conventional high speed
bearing actually serves two purposes. One purpose is to separate the
surfaces with a replenishable EHD film. The second purpose is to extract
the frictional heating from the bearing. The cryogenic fluids serve the
second of these purposes and permit the bearings to operate for a useful
period. If some non-hydrodynamic layer could be used to separate the balls
and races, with the cryogenic fluid providing the cooling, very good SSME
life could be achieved. Since the cryogenic fluids are incapable of
generating the needed EHD films, solid film coatings appear to be the best
possibility to meet the need.
Solid Film Pre-Coatlngs
With the extended life provided by MoS 2 coatings on the turbo-
pump bearings, laboratory experiments were conducted with MoS 2 coatings
in an LN 2 environment. The experiments were conducted with a four-ball

test device (one ball in sliding contact with three stationary balls),
Figure 9. The conditions were selected to simulate stress and slip in an
SSME bearing. Table 1 shows wear data for several materials. The
friction was very low (0.03) as long as the solid film was present on the
balls. Wear of the solid film was relatively low and, of course, there
was no wear of the substrate when the film was intact. However, when the
solid film was worn off the friction coefficient was high (_0.04) and
ball wear occurred. The results showed a longer life with thicker
coatings and a longer life at ambient temperatures than in LN 2. Without

lubrication all three ball materials experienced high wear and high
friction coefficients.
279
Drill press
Load
ular contact
bearing support
I
II
I,I
II I_ Dewar for LN z
Rotating ball
y bolls
FIGURE 9. SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF FOUR BALL

FIXTURE FOR WEAR EXPERIMENTS
280
.It
u °°.°°°.°°
G _-J
q)
C ,,-_
0000000o0
1.1
qN _0 o 0
|1_, _D u_
•
0
°
i I.,IW
q i, ,,,a
_i,,_
-IZ C_ I I
I,.Jl _
_L
p,
0
B 0
0..4
l It le
.H
°
.,=_
I,d
IIQ
281
Trans fer-Fila Coatings
Bearing Experiments
Because of the problems of recoating MoS 2 on the surfaces, a
preferred method for solid-film coating the bearings would be to trans-
fer a solid film from the cage to the balls. Transfer film lubrication
can allow for a quantity of solid lubricants to be available to the ball-
race interface. The cage in the SSME turbopump bearings is a glass-
fiber-reinforced PTFE. Under ideal conditions, the PTFE transfers to
the balls and, subsequently, to the races. Low speed full bearing tests
were conducted with HPOTP bearing (drawing 7955) to evaluate PTFE lubri-
cation. The apparatus, Figure 10, consisted of a test bearing loaded
axially to 60,000 N (13,000 Ibs) and driven by variable speed motor. The
motor was mounted on a bearing and constrained by a load cell to measure
torque. Results of the tests are given in Figure II.
Bearings preburnished with PTFE or Rulon survived for 0.27 x 10 6
revolutions before a major torque change (indicating loss of film)
occurred. Dry bearings lasted for only a few hundred revolutions. The
burnished films were thus adequate to lubricate the bearing, but were not
replenished by the cage. The cage had been used in previous experiments
and apparently the available PTFE had been removed from the cage surface.
Figure 12 shows the edge of a cage pocket from a used bearing. The
exposed glass fibers protrude from the surface and can be expected to
disrupt transfer and cause wear of the balls.
Rin a Experiments
Experiments are currently being conducted to improve the under-
standing of transfer film lubrication in the SSME turbopump bearings. A
block of cage material is loaded against a 440C ring as shown in Fig-
ure 13. Several PTFE-rich materials have been evaluated with the appa-
ratus including:
282
Z
I'-'4
0,--I
_4
283
(sql000'_I) N 000'_9
(sqlO00'Zl) N O00'£g
(sq10008) N 009'g£
($q1000%,) N OO8'Ll
(sql000_) N 0068
I-¢
(sq10001) N 00_'_ I
o0
b-4
rm
(sql000'%,I)N O00'Z9 l 0
z
0
(sqlO00'ZI) N O00'£g
(sq1000%,) N O08'LI
o
r_
(sql O00Z) N 0068 I o
($ql 000_) N 0068 I
(sq10001) N OOiz_ I
(sq10001) N 00%,%, I
,--4
C3
(sql 000'01) N 000't,%,
(sq10008) N 000'9£
($ql 0009) N OoL'gz
$ql 000%,)N OO8'Zl
(sql O00Z) N 0068
-o
284
ORIGII'_AL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
21159 lOOOx
FIGURE 12. ENDS OF GLASS FIBERS IN BALL POCKET

OF USED HPOTP CAGE
285
. __ontrolled surface roughness
Candidate cage material-... _ / J I _

J7/'../ I /_ Flal, rotating steel ring 01"
Loa __ _ .. variable surface roughness
FIGURE 13. GEOMETRY OF APPARATUS USED FOR TRANSFER EXPERIMENTS
286
(A) Glass-reinforced PTFE
(B) 60 percent PTFE - 40 percent bronze
(C) 55 percent PTFE - 40 percent bronze - 5 percent MoS 2
(D) 40 percent PTFE - 60 percent bronze
Material A is the current cage material for the SSME, whereas materials
B-D are experimental cage-material candidates. Experiments have
included tests at room temperature and in LN 2. Ring surface roughnesses
of nominally 0.01, 0.I, and 0.3 micrometers cla (circumferential lay)
have been used.
At room temperature, materials (B-D) tend to form a bronze pro-
tective coating on the ring surface. A typical photomicrograph is shown
in Figure 14. Surface roughness did not seriously alter transfer but as
might be expected the highest roughness did increase the wear rate of the
candidate cage materials. At a surface roughness of 0.i micrometer or
less the wear rate was, qualitatively, independent of material or rough-
ness. The post-test surface finish of the rings was essentially
unchanged for materials B-D but was roughened by material A, Figure 15.
At LN 2 temperatures a transfer layer of PTFE appeared to be
present on the rings. Figure 16 shows a typical ring after testing with
a "scribe mark" to illustrate the presence of a soft (PTFE) surface
layer. All materials produced the apparent PTFE transfer film at LN 2
temperatures. However, when material A was tested surface damage was
observed. Initially PTFE was transferred to the 440C ring, but the
removal of PTFE from the cage material leaves exposed glass fibers, which
abrade the ring.
The next major lubrication improvement in the SSME turbopump
bearings is most likely to come from an improved transfer-film lubrica-
tion system. This recent research indicates that bronze-filled PTFE can
provide transfer films to 440C at LN 2 temperatures. Both bronze films
and PTFE films appear to occur and both types of films can offer some
level of surface protection to the bearing.
287
OR|GINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
500X
FIGURE 14. RING SURFACE AFTER SLIDING CONTACT AGAINST

60 PERCENT PTFE - 40 PERCENT BRONZE UNDER
ROOM TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS
288
ORIGINAL PAG_ !S
OF POOR QUALITY
500X
SURFACE OF 440C TEST RING AFTER SLIDING

FIGURE 15.
CONTACT WITH GLASS REINFORCED PTFE
289
ORIGINAL P,_iG-_;.;
OF POOR QUALITY
FIGURE 16. RING SURFACE AFTER SLIDING CONTACT IN LN^

CONDITIONS AGAINST GLASS REINFORCED PTFE_
SURFACE SCRIBED TO SHOW EVIDENCE OF PTFE
TRANSFER FILM
290
CONCLUSIONS
Several bearings operated in SSME turbopumps have been analyzed.
In some instances the bearings were found to have incurred very high
axial and radial loads. Major improvements in performance life have
resulted from reducing loads and applying MoS 2 coatings to the bearing
components Further life extensions will require improved cooling and
improved bearing lubrication. The most promising approach for resup-
plying solid lubricant beyond the MoS 2 precoatings is through films
transferred from the cage to the balls. Although the current glass-
fiber-reinforced-PTFE cage material is intended to provide transfer
films_ the glass fibers protrude and abrasively remove the transfer
films and abrade the surfaces of the steel balls themselves. Other
materials such as bronze filled PTFE appear to offer hope of an improved
transfer lubrication scheme.
291
_FERESCES
(i) Kannel, J. W., and Bupara, S. S., "A Simplified Model of Cage Motion
in Angular Contact Bearings Operating in the EHD Lubrication
Regime", J. of Lub. Tech., Trans. ASME, July 19789 pp. 395-403.
(2) i Jones, A. B., "A General Theory for Elastically Constrained Ball
and Roller Bearings Under Auxiliary Load and Speed Conditions",
Trans. ASME, J. Basic Eng., Series D., Vol. 829 No. 2, June 1960,
pp. 309-320.
(3) Merriman, T. L., and Kannel, J. W., Evaluation of EHD Film Thickness
for Cryogenic Fluids", ASLE Transactions, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp.
179-184.
292
-N8 9
SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUID OXYGEN COOLED

BALL BEARINGS
Myles Burner and Mary Shoemaker

Abstract
The bearings used in the Space Shuttle Main Engine operate

at high loads and speeds while being cooled by liquid oxygen
at temperatures of -250 to -280 F. As a consequence of the
lack of lubrication supplied by the coolant, bearing service
lives are limited by wear of the balls and races rather than
by the classic spalling of subsurface origin expected for
more typical operating conditions. Transfer films of Teflon
from the cage and dry films of MoS 2 are the only means of
lubrication currently available. In assessing the effective-
ness of these measures and in searching for more long-lasting
lubrication, the as-run surfaces of balls and races have been
analyzed for evidence of heating, residual lubricant films,
adhesive, and abrasive wear. Techniques used included metal-
lography, optical and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy)
imaging, AES (Auger Electron Spectroscopy), ellipsometry, and
PEg (Photoelectric Emission). The results of these investi-
gations are su_marized.
Introduction
Wear, rather than rolling contact fatigue, is the most commonly

observed life limiting condition experienced in propellant-cooled
bearings in liquid rocket engine turbopumps. These compact, high power
units employ ball bearings that run submerged in the pumped propellant
to eliminate the complexity inherent in the use of conventional lubri-
cants. The practice of propellant cooling of ball bearings has been
successful with many storable and cryogenic fuels and oxidizers be
cause of the ability of ball bearings to start dry, operate with mini-
mal lubrication under conditions of high speed and load, and to toler-
ate particulate contamination. The bearing service lives realized
were entirely satisfactory for the single-flight vehicles used in
early space programs. However, with the advent of the Space Shuttle
Main Engine (SSME) and other reusable rocket engines, operating condi-
tions are more severe and life requirements have been extended, some-
times exceeding the durability of current bearings. For example, the
bearings of the SSME high pressure oxidizer turbopumps (Fig. I) rotate
Work reported herein was sponsored by NASA/Marshall Space Flight

Center under Contract NAS8-27980.
293
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
Fig. I. SSME High Pressure Oxidizer Turbopump
at approximately 30,000 rpm under high radial and transient axial

loads, while being cooled by the liquid oxygen. Under these condi-
tions, bearing service life limitations due to wear and surface dis-
tress have been encountered. Current hypotheses are that wear is
associated with high surface temperature due to sliding under low
loads, while high friction at the ball/raceway contact is responsible
for surface distress.
As part of an ongoing effort to improve bearing life, an investi-

gation is being made to determine if the bearing contact surfaces have
been overheated and whether, in fact, the expected solid lubricant
films are present on the contact surfaces of oxidizer turbopump ball
bearings. Analysis techniques included metallography, optical and SEM
imaging, AES (Auger Electron Spectroscopy), ellipsometry, and photo-
electric emission.
Surface Temperature and Wear
The dark colors of worn ball and raceway surfaces indicate temper-
atures in the range of 1200 to 1400 F. To assess the role of surface
temperature level in producing wear, the appearance and microstructure
of balls worn in service were compared to those of new and artifi-
cially heated balls. The results show that temperatures high enough
to contribute to the loss of surface material probably exist in cases
of wear, but do not penetrate the surface to an appreciable depth nor
exist long enough to produce lasting metallurgical transformations.
294
_F POOR Q,_igt_
:_"
Temperature Indications
Co_lo___r. Figure 2 illustrates the appearance of the surface of a ball

worn 0.005 inch in diameter during 7117 seconds of operation. It is
similar in appearance to other balls that have worn from 0.0005 to
0.008 inch in diameter in that they all are essentially round, with a
dark, smooth, dull surface that may be uniform in color or may include
lighter and darker areas.
The mating raceway shows similar texture and color (Fig. 3). The
relatively smooth surface suggests high sliding velocity with lightly
loaded contact distributed evenly over the ball and raceway contact
areas.
Fig. 2. Worn Ball Fig. 3. Worn Inner Raceway
Wycliffe (Ref. I) investigated the

metallurgical aspects of ball wear,
using optical and SEM imaging to char-
acterize the near-surface condition of
the ball material in Fig. 4 through
I0. The 1200 to 1400 F temperatures
indicated by the surface colors are
expected to produce changes to the
microstvucture of the 440C ball mater-
ial. However, etching of worn ball
sections showed no evidence of temper-
ing. To resolve this apparent anomaly,
a spot-welder was used to produce a
high temperature gradient to determine
what evidence would be produced in the
ball microstructure by intense local
heating. In Fig. 4, the effect of
high localized heating is illustrated Fig. 4. New Ball With
in the shades produced by etching of a High Temperature
section of the specimen. A clearly Gradient
295
ORIGINAL pACT- iS
OF POOR QUALITY
discernible gradient exists from the highest temperature, indicated by

the light shade representing the austenitized zone around the heat
source, through a dark band identifying the surrounding tempered
martensite band bordering the cooler unaffected central mass of the
ball.
Temper Carbides. A second characteristic found in worn balls was that

there were no temper carbides in the vicinity of the surface. This is
shown in the replica electron micrograph of a worn ball cross section
(Fig. 5). The subject ball had worn 0.0055 inch during 1200 seconds
of operation. The light material at the lower left of the micrograph
is nickel plating applied to preserve the edge of the specimen. The
same result was observed at 5, 500, and I000 micrometers depth from
the worn surface. Figure 6 shows microstructures with no temper
carbides present at 5 _m (0.0002 inch) depth.
Fig. 5. Replica of Metallographic Section of Nickel-Plated Grossly

Worn Ball. Nickel-plated surface is at the bottom left
corner of both plates. The material within 5 microns of
the surface is plastically deformed.
._'_2
Fig. 6. Section of Worn Ball 5 Microns from Surface.

Temper carbides are absent.
296
.Of.. POOR QUALITY
Experiments showed that temper carbides are developed in the 440C

material given sufficient temperature and time exposure. New balls
were heated to progressively greater temperatures for 1200 seconds,
corresponding to the service time of the worn ball being analyzed.
One ball was heated to 1400 F for a shorter time (12 seconds). Temper
carbides were not produced after 1200 seconds at 423 C (793 F), but
did appear after 1200 seconds at 650 C (1202 F), Fig. 7 and 8. Temper
carbides, 50 to I00 nm (2 microinches) were formed within 12 seconds
at 780 C (1436 F), Fig. 9.
_ _.
,.......
....• ....,.......
Fig. 7. Replica of Metallographic Section of New Ball

Tempered for 20 Minutes at 650 C. Temper
carbides 50 to i00 nm diameter are present.
Fig. 8. New Ball Tempered 20 Minutes at 650 C (1200 F).

Structure contains temper carbides 50 to I00 run
diameter.
Plastic Deformation
Although there were no temper carbides developed, there were indi-

cations of plastic flow of the ball material to a depth of 5 microm-
eters (0.0002 inch), Fig. 5. The presence of plastic flow would indi-
cate very high loads in fully hard 440C. However, a worn ball cannot
297
ORiGi_,_;_L F,.,.CE iS
OF POOR OL)ALITY
Fig. 9. New Ball Tempered for 12 Seconds at 780 C (1440 F).

Structure contains temper carbides 50 nm in diameter.
support high loads; when the ball diameter decreases, axial travel of
the races is permitted, which will relax the spring preload. At the
same time, the opposing bearing of the duplex pair will support radial
loads. Rather than high loading, a more probable cause of the plastic
deformation is moderate loading combined with high local temperature,
which reduces the near-surface yield strength of the material. The
time that any one area in contact remains at high temperature is prob-
ably not sufficient for metallurgical transformations, which may ex-
plain the absence of evidence of tempering by etching and lack of tem-
per carbide formation.
Lubrication and Surface Distress
Although liquid oxygen is an effective coolant, provided that it

is maintained in a liquid state, it supplies little or no lubrication
for bearings. While ball bearings will function unlubricated for some
time, rapid deterioration occurs if high friction exists at the ball/
race contact zones and at the cage contacts.
Ball Contact Lubrication.
Lack of lubrication of the ball/race contact zone is thought to

shift the primary life-limiting mechanism from subsurface initiated
spalling to surface degradation. The normal load of the ball against
the raceway produces compressive stresses that can be calculated by
the analytic methods of Hertz, as adapted to bearing design by Jones
(Ref. 2) and others to include shear stresses. Given a low friction
coefficient _ at the rolling element interface, the shear stress at
the surface is also low, but increases with depth, attaining a peak
value at a particular distance beneath the surface. This model is rel-
evant for oil-lubricated bearings; since _ is low, the maximum shear

stress occurs at some subsurface point. The normal life-limiting mech-
anism is fatigue spalling originating at the subsurface level coincid-
ing with the maximum shear stress, although it should be noted that
298
spalls may also be initiated from other causes such as defects at the
surface. A typical fatigue spall is relatively deep, and may be as
much as 0.010 inch in depth. The capacity and life relationships used
in the bearing industry are based upon tests of conventionally lubri-
cated bearings that incorporate the benefits of low friction achieved
through use of lubricants, and to some degree, from elastohydrodynamic
(EHD) films.
Conditions are quite different for the ball/race contacts in a

propellant-cooled turbopump bearing, since the value of _ will be
higher and the fluid viscosity is too low to fot_ an EHD film. In ad-
dition, high velocity rolling and spinning motions are often present,
producing much higher tangential forces at the interface. These shear
forces are considered to be the reason for the predominance of surface
distress and wear as the primary failure mode for liquid oxygen-cooled
bearings.
Fully developed surface distress is the result of a fatigue mech-

anism arising from inadequate lubrication (Ref. 3). It progresses
through three steps: (I) burnishing, or obliteration of the as-
manufactured surface finish pattern by compressive yielding of the
surface asperities, producing a dull smooth surface, often without
directional patterns; (2) shallow cracks fot_ which then combine into
(3) microspalls that can cover a wide area without becoming deeper.
Spalls associated with surface distress are shallower than fatigue
spalls arising from subsurface shear stress, generally being on the
order of 0.001 inch deep. The appearance of advanced surface distress
is shown in Fig. I0 (ball) and Fig. II (raceway). At 50X, the cracks
near the edge of the load path are indicative of the surface shear
force direction (Fig. 12).
Smith and Liu (Ref. 4) developed methods of including the effects

of tangential forces at the contact interface of two cylinders and
showed that as friction coefficient increased, the magnitude of the
maximum shear stress increased, and occurred progressively nearer to
the surface. For friction coefficients of 0.33 or greater, the maximum
surface shear stress occurs at the surface and at the center of the
contact zone. Figure 13 illustrates the effect of friction coefficient
on shear stress magnitude and depth at this central location. If it
is assumed that the relations developed for cylinders are representa-
tive of ball/race contacts, where tangential forces are caused by ball
skidding or spinning, it can be concluded that high surface shear
stresses are a consequence of the use of liquid oxygen as the coolant.
Because of the minimal lubrication provided, some degree of sur-

face distress is likely to be present very early in the operating life
of all liquid oxygen-cooled bearings. Differences in the contributing
factors of loading, friction coefficients, and length of service time
account for the range of surface conditions observed, which may vary
from burnishing, (Fig. 14) to the advanced state of shallow spalling
shown in Fig. I0 and Ii.
299
IOO/._ I
Fig. I0. Surface Distress on Balls
Fig. II. Raceway with Surface Distress
ORIGZN?._t.";_
......
300
OF POOR O.UAL_3Y
Fig. 12. Directional Orientation of Surface Distress
Cracks on Ball
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION, /.¢
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
DEPTH ÷ V= CONTACT ELLIPSE WIDTH, ROLLING DIRECTION (z/b)
Fig. 13. Effect of Friction Coefficient on Shear Stress Depth
301
Of POOR "_ ......
Fig. 14. Burnishing of Raceway
Lubrication By Transfer Films
Armalon_ [glass fabric supported polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)]

cages are used in all SSME turbopump bearings. As the cage regulates
ball speed, normal loads and tangential friction forces are produced
at the cage ball pockets and at the cage/race interface. Since cage,
ball, and land forces interact and are mutually reinforcing, a high
friction coefficient at the cage contacts can lead to unstable cage
motion that may cause increased friction torque and heating or cage
structural failure. To avoid these circumstances, lubrication of the
cage contact areas or the use of cage materials with inherently low
friction coefficients are necessary. PTFE-containing cage materials
were found to be the most successful for bearings operating in liquid
hydrogen (1958) and liquid oxygen (1959), since they impart low fric-
tion coefficients and are chemically compatible with liquid oxygen.
An additional advantage of these materials is the tendency to transfer
some PTFE to the ball and race surfaces.
The mechanism of PTFE transfer had been proposed and quantita-

tively evaluated by Anderson, Brewe, Scibbe, and Coe at NASA-Lewis
Research Center in the 1960s. These studies used a tracing stylus to
reproduce profiles of bearing surfaces prior to and at intervals of
operation. From the results, it was postulated that PTFE was trans-
ferred during initial bearing operation to the balls and then to the
raceways but that the available PTFE was soon depleted. Subsequently,
the glass fiber ends and particles from the retainer caused abrasive
wear of the balls and raceways (Ref. 5 and 6).
In a more recent study of PTFE film transfer to 440C bearing balls

and raceways, Kannel, Dufrane, and Zugaro showed that uniform films
are not consistently formed, but that lumps and patches of PTFE adhere
to the ball surfaces (Ref. 7).
302
Surface Analysis
To verify that PTFE is transferred from the cage to the balls and
raceways in service, a nondestructive test method was needed to deter-
mine the presence and thickness of thin, nonmetallic films. This mea-
surement technique had to be reproducible and accurate when used to
analyze films ranging from just a few angstroms (A) to several thou-
sand angstroms thick (I A = lo-lOm or 3.93 x 10 -9 inches). Means
of identifying the constituents of this film, as well as differentia-
ting between the base metal, surface oxides and wear debris, were
needed to complete the surface characterization. With the assistance
of Rockwell International Science Center's Surface and Electrochemical
Processes staff and facilities, a set of analysis techniques were
identified to provide means of determining surface film thickness and
composition. Of all the potential methods evaluated, ellipsometry,
AES, and PEE appear to have the most potential for accurate, reproduc-
ible results. Additionally, the SEM feature of the AES equipment is
useful to record the appearance of surface films and wear tracks.
The methods described were used to evaluate surface characteris-

tics of unused bearing components and bearings that had run in liquid
oxygen. The analyses conducted by Smith, Lindberg, Stocker, and Kendig
of Rockwell Science Center have been used primarily to establish tech-
niques and baselines for more definitive work on used bearing compon-
ents (Ref. 8). Supporting evidence from these analyses agrees with
the earlier findings that PTFE transfer does occur, but in the fo[_ of
stringers, flakes, and patches of material rather than a uniform thin
film. The presence of PTFE in deep wear tracks also suggests that
under high contact stresses this transferred film cannot prevent wear.
Ellipsometry. Ellipsometry is aonondestructive method used to measure

very thin films (0.01 to I0,000 A) consisting of transparent or trans-
lucent materials. A polarized laser light beam is reflected and re-
fracted through the film as shown schematically in Fig. 15. The de-
flection angle of the laser beam depends on the materials' index of
refraction (n), the film thickness (d), and the absorption index (K).
PTFE has an absorption index of KpTFE = 0 while the absorption index of
of steel is Kst = 1.2. The index of refraction for PTFE is npTFE = 1.35
POLARIZER
/ I / 7"¢. / \ p.oTo
ANALYZER
SAMPLE
Fig. 15. Ellipsometry Surface Film Thickness Analysis Schematic
303
while light is not refracted through steel. The great difference be-
tween these properties of steel and PTFE allows definitive measurement
of film thickness. Film thickness (d) is determined from the relation-
ship between the reflected and refracted beams. An example of analysis
by ellipsometry is shown in Fig. 16. It appears that a PTFE film is
present on both worn and unworn surfaces. Unevenness of film thickness
is indicated by the lack of correlation between film thicknesses in
worn and unworn regions (Ref. 9).
BALL #1 POLE
LOAD PATH
BEARING A
BALL #2 POLE
LOAD PATH
INNER
LOAD PATH
RACEWAY
BALL #1 POLE ]
LOAD PATH __I
BALL #2 POLE
BEARING B LOAD PATH
INNER LOAD PATH "_

RACEWAY
, I , , ^,
0 4o 80 120 160 V230
FILM THICKNESS, ,_
Fig. 16. Surface Film Thickness Measured by Ellipsometry
AES. The Auger electron spectroscopy utilizes sputter removal of suc-

o
cessive 5 to I0 A thick film layers to give thickness measurements as
well as elemental identification of the material removed. Elements
below the atomic number of 3 (lithium) cannot be detected by AES. The
results, listed in Table I, show that the PTFE (as evidenced by the
presence of fluorine) is present even in the worn regions of the ball,
which is in agreement with the results of ellipsometry. Figure 17
shows the relative quantity of fluorine to oxygen as a function of
depth. The presence of fluorine to a greater depth in the worn area
suggests that PTFE is physically retained in cavities in the roughened
surface (Ref. 9).
PEg. In photoelectron emission, ultraviolet (UV) light strikes the

surface of a photoemitting substance causing electrons to be emitted.
These electrons are collected on a flat plate or probe and analyzed as
shown schematically in Fig. 18. The PEg apparatus used for the bear-
ing surface analyses is shown in Fig. 19. Ultraviolet light stimulates
electron emission from metal substrates and certain oxide films. Lub-
ricants, oxides, and contaminants, which are transparent to UV light,
attenuate the underlying metal's emission and thus the output current
giving an indication of the film type and thickness. Emission is also
304
Table I. Scanning Auger Microscope Results
Sputter Elemental Percentage Relative to

Time, Amount of Iron Present
seconds Area Fe 0 C N S Cl F Ca Cr
0 Pole 1 3.0 2.0 0.07 0.06 0.53 0.62 0 0
0 1 3.3 1.6 0.06 0.06 0.47 0.67 0 0

300 1 3.1 0.3 0 0.10 0.38 0.27 0 0
600 1 3.0 0.14 0 0.17 0.26 0 0 0.09
1000 1 3.1 0.05 0 0.05 0.28 0 0 0.05
1500 1 2.0 0.06 0 0.06 0.35 0 0 0.05
2000 1 2.7 0.09 0 0.09 0.12 0 0 0.26
2700 1 2.9 0.05 0 0.08 0.II 0 0.05 0.22
0 Wear Rink 1 3.8 1.8 0.07 0.07 0.57 0.63 0 0

300 I 3.3 0.49 0.05 0.07 0.19 0.59 0.07 0.02
600 1 3.4 0.25 0 0 0.20 0.43 0.10 0
I000 I 2.8 0.16 0 0.18 0.10 0.39 0.10 0.1
1200 I 3.7 0.12 0 0.17 0.08 0.62 0.12 0.12

1500 I 3.5 0.2 0 0 0.15 0.58 0.11 0.11
2000 0 3.8 0.13 0 0.13 0.13 0.56 0.13 0.13
2700 1 3.1 0.14 0 0 0.10 0.46 0.13 0.18
0 Pole 1 2.7 1.45 0.07 0.15 0.20 0.38 0 0

3OO I 3.1 1.04 0.07 0.51 0.20 0.40 0 0
6OO I 2.2 0.13 0 0.18 0.07 0.22 0 0.07
1000 I 2.5 0.12 0 0.17 0.09 0 0 0.07
1500 I 2.6 0.04 0 0.12 0.07 0 0 0.12
2000 1 2.1 0.11 0 0.08 0.04 0 0 0.18
0 Wear Rin_ I 2.9 1.47 0.09 0.22 0.18 0.95 0 0

300 I 3.0 0.73 0.07 0.55 0.13 0.84 0.07 0.24
600 i 2.2 0.49 0.05 0.38 0.07 0.44 0.09 0.27
I000 i 2.7 0.30 0 0.27 0.10 0.53 0.07 0.17
1200 i 2.3 0.29 0 0.28 0.06 0.40 0.08 0.23
1500 1 2.0 0.21 0 0.17 0.06 0.50 0.05 0.24
2000 I 2.1 0.I0 0 0.03 0.02 0.50 0.10 0.28
1.0
0.8
o.6
_ \ _ BEARING B
-r
0.
a.
<
0.4
-r
a.
0.
<
0.2
0.0 BEARING A POLE

BEARING B POLE
I I i I I i
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
SPUTTER TIME, SECONDS
Fig. 17. Percentage Fluorine vs Percentage Iron as a Function of

Sputter Time (APPH = atomic percentage peak height)
305
_RIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
/OHMS GUARD "-
/sAMpLE
"I I'm
II /,_
Fig. 18. Photoemlssion Surface Analysis
u¥
/ /.i
Fig. 19. Photoelectric Emission Apparatus
increased by surface roughness, so a PEE scan of a bearing surface

cannot be used to measure film thicknesses in worn regions. It can be
used to distinguish worn from unworn regions and to measure film
thickness variation on unifomuly rough surfaces. A typical example of
differences, as measured in picoamperes (pA), between the wear track
and smooth regions of bearing balls is shown in Fig. 20 (Ref. I0).
306
POLE
BALL #1
LOAD PATH
BEARING A
POLE ]
BALL #2 LOAD PATH
]
BALL #1
POLE 1
LOAD PATH
]
BEARING B
POLE --[___
BALL #2
LOAD PATH ]
I L I
0 5 10 15 2O
CURRENT, PICOAMPERES
Fig. 20. Surface Indications Photoelectric Emission
Interpretation of Investigation
The metallurgical analyses conducted to date indicate:
I. The bulk material temperature for worn balls was below 800 F.
2. The surface temperature may be as high as la00 F as evidenced

by the ball color. However, the time at temperature may be so
short as to preclude formation of temper carbides or transfor-
mations detectable by etching.
3. Plastic flow of the surface may be evidence of surface tempera-

ture high enough to soften the material immediately at the sur-
face so that it will flow under the conditions of high sliding
velocity and low contact loads associated with spinning or
sliding contact. The process of material removal may be accel-
erated by oxidation.
The surface analyses indicate:
I. Unused ball bearings t_pically have about 20A of icon-chromium

oxides and 50 to I00 A of nonmetallic contamination on their
surfaces.
2. After running for a short time in liquid oxygen, the ball-

retainer contact zone heats up causing a othin film of PTFE/
metal reaction products about 500 to I000 A thick to form over
and adjacent to the wear as shown in Fig. 21.
307
_500 A, REACTION PRODUCT FILM
50 A SURFACE FILM
NO CONTACT
I CONTACT
PATN
\ \. \ /
/ MPOS,T,O.
\\_) \ / I ...............
\ \_ _(TRACK
i::,::,o I
II SMOOTH Fe, C,, O, F, Si, Cl, Na, K, Ca
ROUGH Fe, Cr, O, F, C, Si, CI, Nil, N, S
Fig. 21. Schematic Representation of a Liquid Oxygen

Cooled Ball Surface
3. This film layer does not prevent wear, as particles are even-
tually torn from the load path, mixed with the PTFE film, and
redistributed in the wear track region on the balls and
raceways.
4. Because the ball axis did not shift in the specimen represented
in Fig. 21, the surfaces of the balls' polar regions appear
similar to those of an unused bearing. Continued operation
could be expected to produce crossing, overlapping load paths,
distributing any films over the entire ball surface.
5. Of all the surface analysis techniques employed to date, AES

provides the most direct indication of lubrication conditions
on used bearings.
Continuin E Investisations
Ongoing efforts to increase the durability of liquid oxygen-cooled

bearings are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Materials
The wear characteristics of surface treatments for 440C and also

alternative ball and race materials are being evaluated for durability
in a liquid oxygen environment.
MetallurKical Characteristics
The metallography of balls with varying amounts of service time

and wear is being characterized using SEM and Energy Dispersive X-Ray
308
Analysis (EDAX). X-Ray diffraction is being used for determination of
residual stresses. Surface analyses are being conducted using AES for
identification of surface elements and Electron Spectroscopy for Chem-
ical Analysis (ESCA)for determination of surface compounds.
Surface Analysis
Initial evaluation of used SSME bearing components has shown that

the presence, thickness, and composition of thin, nonmetallic films
can be determined by a combination of ellipsometry, AES and PEE in-
strumental analysis techniques. The next step is to establish quanti-
tative criteria for the bearing component°s lubricant films. Current
work in this area is focused on (I) developing film thickness stan-
dards for oxides and lubricants, (2) improved interpretive techniques
for ellipsometry and PEE to increase confidence in the film thickness
measurements, and (3) AES identification of the presence of MoS 2
lubricants in the fo/_ of sputtered films and spray applied dry film
coatings.
Standard 440C specimens (balls and flat plates), unlubricated and

with known thicknesses of MoS 2 films, are being characterized by all
three instrumental methods. Energy Dispersive X-ray Analyses are being
used to augment the elemental composition identification provided by
AES. The EDAX method can determine which compounds of the oxides and
lubricants are present in the measured films. Surface conditions of
bearings operated under known conditions can then be compared with the
standards, yielding additional definition of the longevity and effec-
tiveness of the present lubrication techniques. This same method can
be adapted to evaluation of candidate new lubricants.
Recommendation
In view of the influence of friction on rolling bearing life,

there is a definite need for quantitative friction coefficient values
for bearing material pairs in propellant environments at low sliding
velocities. A test program should be conducted to determine these
coefficients for 440C vs 440C (and candidate replacements) in a liquid
oxygen environment, at sliding rates in the range from 0.I to 12 ft/
sec corresponding to the sliding velocities typical of locations in
contact ellipses. The currently available coefficients were taken at
much higher velocities (Ref II). To be usable, the testing must be
conducted in the presence of liquid oxygen; otherwise, the chemical
interactions will not be simulated, and the results will be
inapplicable.
References
I. Wycliffe, P. A., Ball Bearin_ Wear Studies, Interim Report, IDWA

R-9753, Rockwell International Science Center, January, 1985.
309
2. Jones, A. B., Analysis of Stresses and Deflections, New Departure
Engineering Data, New Departure Division, General Motors Corpora-
tion, Bristol, Connecticut, 1946
3. Tallian, T. E., Bails, G. H., Dalai, H., and Gustafsson, O. G.,

Roiling Bearing Damage Atlas, SKF Industries, Inc., King of Prus-
sia, PA, 1974.
4. Smith, J. 0., Liu, C. K., "Stresses Due to Tangential and Normal

Loads on an Elastic Solid With Applications to Some Contact Stress
Problems," Journal of Applied Mechanics, pp. 157-166, June 1953.
5. Brewe, D. E., Scibbe, H. W., and Anderson, W. J., Film Transfer

Studies of Seven Ball Bearing Retainer Materials in 60R (33K)
Hydrogen Gas at 0.8 Million DN Value, NASA TN D-3730, 1966.
6. Scibbe, H. W., Brewe, D. E., and Coe, H. H., "Lubrication and Wear
of Ball Bearings in Cryogenic Hydrogen," presented at the Bearing
Conference at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire Sept. 4-6,
1968.
7. Kannel, J. W., Dufrane, K. F., and Zugaro, F. F., Study of Methods

for Applying and Enhancing Transfer Film Coatings of Polytetra-
fluoroethylene (PTFE) to Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) High
Pressure Oxygen Turbo Pump (HPOTP) Bearings, Final Report, Bat-
telle Institute, Columbus Laboratory, Contract NAS8-33576, Task
107, Nov. 25, 1981.
8. Smith, T., SSME Bearing Lubrication Program, Interim Report, IDWA

R-6316, Rockwell International Science Center, June 1981.
9. Smith, T., Surface Properties of Balls and Races from Rocketdyne,

Interim Report, IDWA R-6316, Rockwell International Science Cen-
ter, September 1983.
I0. Smith, T., New Techniques for Characterization of Balls from Bear-
in_s of the Liquid OxYKen Pumps, Interim Report, IDWA R-9058,
Rockwell International Science Center, September 1982.
II. Report No. WADD TR-6-77 (AD259143), Propellant Lubrication Proper-

ties Investigation, Wright Air Development, June 1961.
310
IN89- 1264 lip
POWDER METALLURGY BEARINGS FOR

ADVANCED ROCKET ENGINES
B. N. Bhat, T. S. Humphries and R. L. Thorn

Materials and Processes Laboratory
NASA/MSFC
Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama 35812 U.S.A.
G. I. Friedman and V. Moxson

TRW Aircraft Components Group
Cleveland, Ohio 44117 U.S.A.
INTRODUCTION
The Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) is a high efficiency rocket

engine which uses high pressure liquid hydrogen as fuel and high pres-
sure liquid oxygen as oxidizer. Both liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
are pumped into the engine by low and high pressure cryogenic turbo-
pumps, operating at high speeds. At present service life of the high
pressure oxygen turbopump (HPOTP) appears to be limited by the life of
its cryogenic bearings, made from heat treated, corrosion-resistant
440C steel. Detailed analyses of bearing service life have indicated
that the service life is limited by fatigue and wear. Bearings
removed from the pump often showed discoloration, which indicated
oxidation and surface temperatures over 1000°F [I]. This heating is
partially due to microwelding and tearing resulting from inadequate
lubrication and partially due to the reduced cooling efficiency of the
liquid oxygen, some of which vaporizes upon contact with the frictionally
heated bearing.
Several approaches to improving bearing service life are being

pursued by NASA. One approach is to reduce frictional heating by use
of low coefficient of friction coatings [2]. This work is in progress.
Another approach is to improve lubrication and cooling, but this
approach requires design changes. Yet another approach is to use
improved bearing materials. Advanced powder metallurgy (PM) techniques
have the potential to develop bearing materials that are resistant to
oxidation, wear and rolling contact fatigue, and hence, afford a viable
solution to extending the service life of the SSME cryogenic bearings.
During powder manufacture, the individual powder particles solidify
very rapidly. As a consequence, the primary carbides are very small
and uniformly distributed. When properly consolidated this uniform
structure is preserved while generating a fully dense product, suitable
for bearing applications. Several PM alloys were studied by TRW Inc.,
as a part of contract NAS8-34763 and the results of this study are
reported in a different paper [3]. TRW has identified several promising
candidate PM alloys for further evaluation by NASA. The purpose of the
evaluation program is to select the top two or three candidate alloys
for making bearings which will be tested in the MSFC Bearing Materials
Tester and the best candidate material will be recommended for applica-
tion in the turbopumps. This paper presents the results of the
311
evaluation of the candidate materials in MSFCMaterials and Processes
Laboratories.
TESTPROCEDURE
ANDRESULTS
Six candidate powder metallurgy materials supplied by TRWwere:

X-405, MRC-2001,T-440V, 14-4/6V, WD-65, and D-5. The chemistries of
the alloys are given in Table I. Photomicrographs of heat treated
alloys are given in Figures 2 through 7. Photomicrograph of 440C is
given for comparison (Figure I). It should be noted that the PMmicro-
structures are finer and devoid of large carbides seen in wrought 440C,
and therefore, are expected to have improved rolling contact fatigue
(RCF) life.
ROLLINGCONTACT
FATIGUE(RCF) TESTS
The RCFtests in this investigation were run on a ball-rod rolling

contact fatigue device (madeby Federal-Mogul). A short description of
the tester will follow, while a detailed description of the tester can
be found in Reference 4. A schematic of the loading part of the tester
is shown in Figure 8. The test consists of radially loading three
1.27 cm (0.5 in.) diameter balls against a 0.9525 cm (0.375 in.) diame-
ter test specimen that is rotated at 3600 RPM. The three balls,
separated by a bronze retainer, are radially loaded by two tapered
bearing cups that are thrust loaded by three calibrated springs. An
accelerometer coupled to a shutoff device is used to measure the emer-
gence of a spall on the test specimen; the emergenceof a spall is
determined when a preset vibration level is exceeded. At that time the
motor is automatically stopped and the test is finished. The test
specimens were lubricated at a constant drip rate of 6 to 8 drops per
minute with MIL-L-7808, a jet turbine engine oil. The tests ran con-
tinuously 24 hours a day until a spall occurred or until 200 hours of
run time was reached. The specimens used for the tests were 0.9525 cm
(0.375 in.) diameter by about 8.25 cm (3.25 in.) long and were ground
to a surface finish of between 0.i to 0.2 _m (4 to 8 _in.) roughness.
All bearing alloys were tested in the fully heat treated condition.
Each sample was subjected to 14 individual rolling contact tests with
seven tests being conducted on each end of the rod with a distance of
0.4 cm (0.156 in.) kept between each wear track. The tests were con-
ducted at two stress levels, 5.42 GPa (786 ksi) and 4.04 GPa (586 ksi)
maximumHertzian stress. Each test specimenhad seven tests at the
higher stress and seven at the lower stress. The test runs of high and
low stress were alternated along the length of the test specimens so as
to avoid any chance of conflicting results due to the possibility of
having any type of a gradient effect.
The results of the RCFtests have been plotted on Weibull graph

paper and the BI0 lives were calculated for candidate materials (Figures
312
9, i0, ii, 12). Data for 440C were included for comparison. The BI0
lives are an indication of how long the material will last before a
spall (failure) occurs and indicates when 10%of the samples will have
failed or conversely when 90%of the samples are still running. Some
of the Weibull lines were calculated using the Weibayes analysis method
due to data that had too few or no failures. Thes tests were suspended
if a failure was not reached after 200 hours (102.9 x 106 cycles).
Basically, Weibayes analysis requires that the slope of the line be
fixed according to previous test data. This appears to be a good
assumption as the slopes of most of the lines with large run times are
very similar. A more detailed discussion on Weibull and Weibayes
analysis can be found in Reference 5.
RCFdata clearly show that the candidate PMalloys have improved
fatigue life comparedto 440C (Table 2). BI0 lives are better than 440C
by factors ranging from 1.2 to 5.0. Relative ranking of the candidate
materials depends on the maximumHertzian stress used in the tests. The
top three candidates are X-405, MRC-2001and D-5 at 786 ksi and MRC-2001,
T-440V and X-405 at 586 ksi. The final selection will be based on the
results of 5-ball tests to be run by TRW,the wear test results (3) and the
results of stress corrosion cracking, to be discussed next.
STRESS
CORROSION
CRACKING
(SCC)TESTS
SCCtests were run with round tensile specimens hardened and

tempered shown in Figure 12. The specimens were placed in small stress-
ing frames and strained a calculated amountusing an assumedmodulus of
30 x 106 psi to give the desired stress (50 or 75 ksi). The frames and
ends of the specimenswere dipped in a strippable maskant and the
reduced portion of the specimenswere wiped clean with alcohol. The
specimens were placed in a humidity cabinet at 100°F and i00 percent
relative humidity.
Results of a series of tests based on 3 months exposure to high
humidity are given in Table 3. Results for 440C are included for com-
parison. All the alloys except T-440V suffered failures at both 50 and
75 ksi. Alloy T-440V failed at 75 ksi, but no failures occurred at
50 ksi. Results for 440C steel are also included for comparison. From
Table 3, T-440V has the highest resistance to SCCand the alloy X-405
has the next highest resistance. But even other alloys seemto have
at least as much resistance to SCCas 440C. It is emphasized that
these results are preliminary and testing is still in progress.
SUMMARY
ANDCONCLUSIONS
Six different powder metallurgy bearing alloys, viz., X-405, MRC-

2001, T-440V, 14-4/6V, WD-65, and D-5, were tested for rolling contact
fatigue (RCF) life and stress corrosion cracking and the results were
comparedwith standard 440C. The RCFtest results clearly showedthat
313
the candidate PM alloys were superior to 440C; BI0 lives were better
by factors ranging from 1.2 to 5.0. Stress corrosion cracking resist-
ance of these alloys was as good as or better than that of 440C.
REFERENCES
lo
B. N. Bhat and F. J. Dolan, "Past Performance Analysis of HPOTP
Bearings," NASA-TM-92470, March 1982.
o
R. E. Maurer and R. A. Pallin, "Computer-Aided Selection of
Materials for Cryogenic Turbopump Bearings," Proceedings of 40th
Annual Meeting of ASLE, Las Vegas, Nevada, May 1985.
.
G. F. Friedman and B. N. Bhat, "Advanced Bearing Materials for
Cryogenic Aerospace Engine Turbopump Requirements." To be pre-
sented at the AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference,
Huntsville, Alabama, June 16-18, 1986.
o
D. Glover, "A Ball-rod Rolling Contact Fatigue Tester; Rolling
Contact Testing of Bearing Steels, ASTM STP 771." J. J. C. 400
Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, 1982, pp. 107-124.
.
R. B. Abernethy, J. E. Breneman, C. H. Madlin, and G. L. Reinman,
"Weibull Analysis Handbook," Government Report No. AFWAL-TR-83-
2079.
314
"6"
_J ,,-I
0
u_ _D _D
,.Q
Q)
I I I
u'_ 0 0 u'_ u_
• o • • •
0
0
r_
z
.-4
I
0
(--4
u'3
[---i
I I I I I
_4
rj
u'_ u_
0 0 0 _ 0
[--I
0
• • •
0 0 0 u'_ u'_ _ 0
rj
r/l _ _ O) OJ 0.) 0,) _.1

t_
o _
u'3 _,1 0 _ u_
_D
0 -_" I
I
-.-t _
315
TABLE 2. BI0 LIFE COMPARISON
Maximum Hertzian Stress
786 ksi 586 ksi
Candidate BI0 (Alloy) (BI0) Alloy

Alloy BI0 (106 cycles) (BIo) 440C BI0 (106 cycles) (BI0) 440C
440C 1.5 1.00 4.4 1.00
X-405 7.5 5.00 10.0 2.27
MRC-2001 5.7 3.80 12.3 2.80
T-440V 2.6 i. 73 i0.9 2.48
14-4/6V 1.8 1.20 6.2 1.41
D-5 3.5 2.33 7.2 1.64
WD-65 2.7 I .80 7.5 i. 70
316
TABLE3. SCCTESTRESULTSOF EXPERIMENTAL
BEARING
ALLOYSAND440C
Alloy Applied Stress

Designat ion (ksi) Failure Ratio Days to Failure
D-5 50 2/3 17, 42
75 2/3 4, 7
MRC-2001 50 3/3 36, 36, 37
75 2/3 4, 7
T-440V 50 0/3 -
75 2/3 17, 17
WD-65 50 3/3 17, 25, 37
75 3/3 7, 7, 17
X-405 50 I/3 21
75 3/3 17, 21, 25
14-4/6V 50 2/3 28, 56
75 3/3 7, ii, 17
440C (Trans) 50 2/3 3, 36
75 5/5 i, i, 6, 14, 21
440C (Long) 50 6/6 i, I, 2, 6, 14, 21
75 6/6 I, i, I, 2, 2
Results based on 3 months exposure to high humidity (100°F and 100% R.H.)
317
F
• j_. •
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
318
I
319
EST SPECIMEN
/
(.375 IN. DIAMETER)
_R!N0
THRUST
LOAD
Figure 8. Rolling contact fatigue test arrangement (Federal-Mogul machine).
320
O
,"4
r'-t
r@
_J
_J
"t:l
u_
.l.J
,--4
=
U)
_J
_J
.I.I
r_
08
(,LN3_)EI=Id) Q],LS3_L $N':ZVtl3:IdS _)kl
321
i o
_ 0
• O"
"----Q 0
o 0_
_J
r_
,--4
0
_ " _11 I
u,l '
l-
I-- ._
- "'
O I,-
''d
÷
I ! t t 1 f I I 1
o ,¢l_a r',- g _ qr
I.LN3_3d) G3 [$3J. SN3_I:33dS :31:1
322
8
8
>
o I
× × 0
.r-{
o
@
-I.-J
_ e_ a0 _
W . I
> > ._
o
.r-I
,," o_- ÷xO

u
_
I
_ 8
(LN3_)H]d) Q3J.S]J. SN]MI33dS 3H
323
$
$
I
16
oRi !
0.125 f 0.156
_-Lqlllllllllll
To
DIMENSIONS
1/8 R ARE IN INCHES
_-_.375--_ _.25C_ : .750 .250 'q-".375"--_
: 2.000 :
a. TEST SPECIMEN
FRAME
TEST SPECIMEN
b. SPECIMEN FRAME ASSEMBLY
Figure 13. SCC test specimen (a) and specimen frame and assembly (b).
325
X BEARINGS II
326
iN89- 12642p
Rolling Contact Fatigue Life of Zirconium and Molybdenum
Nitride Sputter Plated AMS 5749 Bearing Steel
Robert L. Thom and Fred J. Dolan

Materials and Processes Laboratory
Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama 35812
Abstract
Hardened k_S 5749 (Latrobes BG42) bearing steel test specimens were
reactively sputter plated with zirconium nitride or molybdenum nitride
to thicknesses of 0.5 _m and 1.O _m. The test specimens were
evaluated for rolling contact fatigue (RCF) resistance at stresses of
both 5.42 GPa (786 ksi) and 4.04 GPa (586 ksi) using a ball on rod
test setup. Significant improvements in RCF lives of over I00_ were
obtained for coated test specimens over the baseline uncoated A_S
5749. These results indicate improvements that can be made to
bearings using reactive sputter plating methods.
Introduction
The Space Shuttle Main Engine High Pressure Oxygen Turbopump

(HPOTP) has exhibited premature degradation of the _haft support
bearings. Bhat and Dolan (i) have reported severe surface distress of
the inner and outer raceways and prominent wear of the bails that had
undergone 2400 seconds of total run time. They attributed the cause
of such a rapid degradation in the bearings to be exacerbated by a
thermal runaway type mechanism.
The thermal runaway scenario proposes that during high loading on

the bearings the liquid oxygen coolant/lubricant is unable to remove
all the heat generated at the rolling element contacts. The bearing
then raises in temperature which at a certain point causes the coolant
to turn into two phases near the warmest areas. This would tend to
speed up the heat buildup process which in turn leads to thermal
expansion of the bearing elements. It is proposed that the bearings
expand to such a degree that all bearing internal clearance is lost
and extremely high stresses internal to the bearing result. This
thermal r_naway problem can be kept at bay if the liquid oxygen
coolant could be kept in its liquid phase as it flows through the
bearings.
A study _;as undertaken in an effort to reduce the coefficient of

friction between the bearing rolling elements and thus decrease heat
generation and subsequent thermal grov_h of the inner and outer
327
raceways and balls. The friction reducing method described in this
paper is the application of hard coats to the bearing surface. It is
believed that a hard coating will both reduce wear and friction of
bearing elements. The newest tec,hniques in vacuumsurface coatings
were used to apply thin coatings of zirconium nitride (ZrN) and
molybdenumnitride (MoN)hard coats to the surface of Latrobe's BG42
(AMS5749).
Experimental Procedures
A. Material Preparation
The substrate test specimens were prepared from a martensitic

stainless steel, Latrobe's BG42 (AMS 5749). The steel was vacuum
induction melted (VIM) and vacuum arc remelted (VAR). The test
specimens were 0.9525 cm (0.375 in) diameter by 8.25 cm (3.25 in)
long. They were ground to a surface finish between 0.i and 0.2 um
(4-8 _in) Ra (roughness average). The test specimens were fully
hardened to Rockwell C 60 or better prior to film deposition.
B. Coating
The test specimens were coated with ZrN and MoN by an outside
vendor using a reactive ion sputtering technique. Depending on the
coating a zirconium (Zr) or molybdenum (Mo) target was bombarded with
ions thus sputtering off the metal atoms. Some of the sputtered atoms
become positively ionized and are attracted to the negatively charged
substrate. At this time they also become attached to nitrogen
creating the desired nitride coating on the substrate surface. The
coating operation was performed in a vacuum of approximately 0.3
microns of mercury and the substrate had a negative applied bias of
400 to 500 volts. Prior to coating the test specimens were subjected
to a precleaning sputtering operation by creating an argon glow
discharge around the substrate.
C. Rolling Contact Fatigue Testing
The rolling contact fatigue (RCF) tests in this investigation were

conducted on a ball-rod type rolling contact fatigue unit. A short
description of the tester follows, however, a more detailed
description of this system can be found in reference 2. A schematic
diagram of the test un!t is shown in figure 1.
The test consisted of radially loading three 1.27 cm (0.5 in)

diameter hardened balls against a test specimen being driven at 3600
RPM. The three balls, equally separated by a bronze retainer, are
radially loaded by two tapered bearing cups which are loaded axially
by three calibrated springs. An accelerometer, coupled to a shutoff
328
device and magnetically attached to the tester in close proximity to
the test specimen, was used to determine the emergenceof a spall on
the test specimen which was governed by whena preset vibration level
was exceeded. At that time the motor was automatically stopped and
the test was finished. The test specimens were lubricated at a
constant drip rate of 6 to 8 drops per minute with MIL-L-7808, a jet
turbine engine oil. The oil is passed through the test system once
only. The tests were run continuously 24 hours a day until a spall
occurred or until 200 hours of test time was reached.
Each test specimen was subjected to 14 individual rolling contact

tests with 7 tests being conducted on each end of the rod. The tests
were conducted at two stress levels, 5.42 GPa(786 ksi) and 4.04 GPa
(586 ksi) maximumHertzian stress. Each sample was run with seven
tests at the high stress and seven at the lower stress which were
alternated along the length of the test specimens to avoid any adverse
statistical results due to a gradient effect or variation in the
coating along the length of the test specimen.
The balls that were loaded against the test specimens were
half-inch diameter AISI 52100 balls, AFBMAGrade lO. The surface
finish of the balls was roughened to 0.089 wm(3.5 win) roughness
average in order to obtain a more severe test of the surface coatings,
and to obtain failures before the 200 hour cutoff time.
Rolling Contact Fatigue Test Results
The failure of both uncoated baseline and coated test specimens

occurred by characteristic pit or spall formation. The size of spalls
was smaller for samples tested at lower contact stresses. The results
of the rolling contact fatigue (RCF) tests have been plotted on
Weibull graph paper and the BIO and B50 lives calculated. A detailed
discussion on the Weibull and Weibayes analysis used to calculate the
]ires can be found in references 3 and _. The BIO and B50 lives are
in general an indication of how long the material being tested will
last before a spall (failure) occurs but specifically, they indicate
how many stress cycles it requires to obtain failure of 10% and 50%
respectively of the test specimens statistical sample.
Figure 3 contains a baseline BG42 plot plus two plots of half

micron thick surface coated test specimens tested at 4.04 GPa (586
ksi). The plots clearly show the superior rolling contact fatigue
life of the zirconium and molybdenum nitride reactively sputter coated
samples with increases in BIO life of 207% and 97% respecttve!y.
Figure 4 contains two plots of one micron thick reactively sputter

coated surfaces plus the baseline plot for BG42 tested at 4.04 GPa
(586 ksi). The plots show significant increases in rolling contact
329
fatigue life of 58% and 101% for zirconium and molybdenum nitride
coated samples.
Figure 5 is a chart of half micron thick coated test specimens

tested at 5.42 GPa (786 ksi). The tests were run between the previous
wear tracks of the lower contact stress tests of figure 3. The
improvements in BlO life (50% and i0% for zirconium and molybdenum
nitride coated samples respectively) are not nearly as dramatic as in
the previous charts.
Figure 6 contains the results obtained from tests performed at

5.42 GPa (786 ksi) of one micron thick coated test specimens. These
tests were run between the previous wear tracks of the lower contact
stress tests of figure 4. The improvements in BIO llfe (29% and 19%
for zirconium and molybdenum nitride respectively) again are not as
substantial as in figures 3 and 4.
The confidence levels of the coated test specimens having a BlO

life greater than its respective baseline are given in Table 1.
4.04 GPa (586 ksi) 5.42 GPa (786 ksi)
0.5 _m ZrN 97% 73%

1.0 _m ZrN 75% 67%
0.5 um MoN 86% 57%
1.0 _m MoN 87% 60%
Table 1. Confidence levels at BlO life.
Figures 7 and 8 are scanning electron microscope (SEM) pictures of

Rockwell C hardness indentations into half and one micron molybdenum
nitride coated BG42 respectively. The one micron thick coating has
flaked off in the vicinity of the indentation whereas the half micron
coating appears intact. The micrographs fail to give the visual
impression that the BG42 substrate material has bulged up in the area
surrounding the indentation. The half micron coating was able to
follow the plastically deformed substrate without cracking and flaking
off, however, the one micron thick coating did not exhibit the same
adherence.
A micrograph of a typical spall is shown in figure 9. Figure lO

is a section of wear track on a one micron thick MoN coated sample.
These two _7/crographs further illustrate the greater adherence of the
half versus the one micron thick MoN coatings. There is no evidence
of the half micron coating flaking near the spall while in figure i0
the coating was not adherent enough to remain intact. An elemental
analysis (EDAX) was performed on the coatings both inside and outside
of the wear track. The one micron thick coating showed a strong
330
molybdenumpeak outside the wear track but indicated the absence of
molybdenumin the wear track area. For the thinner coating a reduced
but definite Mo peak was observed in the wear track area while outside
the wear track area strong Mo peak was observed. This indicates that
the thinner half micron thick coating did not flake off but underwent
wear. The one micron thick coating, however, flaked off leaving no
evidence of Mo in the wear track.
Figures ll and 12 are parallel to figures 7 and 8. In this case

the coatings are half and one micron thick, respectively, zirconium
nitride. As in the earlier figures the thicker coating has flaked off
where plastic deformation "bulging" of the substrate has occurred
while the thinner coating exhibits very good adhesion and no flaking
off of the coating.
Figure 13 is a typical spall on a half micron thick ZrN coated

substrate. This photomicrograph similar to figure 9 also does not
display any evidence of the coating breaking up. Elemental analysis
indicates an approximately 50%reduced Zr peak in the wear track
versus off the wear track. Figure 14 is a photomicrograph on the e_ge
of a wear track showing where the one micron thick coating has flaked
off. A Zr peak was not apparent in an elemental analysis of the wear
track.
Discussion of Results
The parameters considered by most investigators to be critical in

rolling contact fatigue are the maximum shear stresses. In these
tests the maximum shear stresses are located at depths beneath the
surface ranging from 50 m to 150 m for the two contact stresses of
4.04 GPa (586 ksi) and 5.42 GPa (786 ksi), see reference 5. Nahm and
Bamberger (6) have noted in RCF tests of M50 that the fatigue spalls
were subsurface initiated. This failure mode occurred whether the
lubrication regime was boundary, mixed, or fully elastohydrodynamic.
Thus, prior to RCF testing of samples coated with thin hard coatings
it was believed that no improvements in RCF life would occur, since
the coatings are less than 2 wm thick yet the maximum shear stresses
are located over 50 _m below the sample surface.
As the results show, improvements of the RCF life have been

obtained even though general belief was that thin coatings would have
no effect on the fatigue behavior. The cracks were thought to
initiate internally in the bulk of the material. The test results
however indicate that the principal mechanism of rolling contact
fatigue in this case is initiated at the surface and not subsurface.
The zirconium and molybdenum nitride coatings or the treatment the
test specimen undergoes while being reactively sputter plated appear
to arrest or at least retard the initiation of fatigue microcracks at
331
the test specimen surface. The thin nitride coatings being so
extremely hard and adherent to the substrate could essentially stop
the formation of precursor microcrack initiation.
The behavior of thicker coatings flaking off and thinner coatings

(<0.5 _m) staying intact even under extreme test loads and plastic
deformation of the substrate has been documentedpreviously (7). It
would be the most beneficial to have a coating thick as possible
without cracking and subsequently flaking off. This would allow for
the most margin due to wear.
References
1. B. N. Bhat and F. J. Dolan, "Past Performance Analysis of HPOTP

Bearings," NASA TM-82470, March 1982.
2. D. Glover, "Rolling Contact Fatigue Testing of Bearing Steels," J.

J. C. Hoo Ed., ASTM STP #771, 1982, p. 107.
3. R. B. Abernathy, J. E. Breneman, C. H. Medlin, G. L. Reinman,

"Weibu!l Analysis Handbook," Government report #AF_AL-TR-83-2079.
4. L. G. Johnson, "The Statistical Treatment of Fatigue Experiments,"

Elsevier Publishing Co., 1964.
5. E. N. Bamberger, J. C. Clark, "Rolling Contact Fatigue Testing of

Bearing Steels," J. J. C. Hoo Ed., ASTM STP #771, 1982, p. 85.
6. A. N. Nahm, E. N. Bamberger, Trans., ASME (J. Lubr. Technol.), 102

(1980), p. lO.
7. R. F. Hochman, A. Erdemir, F. J. Dolan, and R. L. Thom, J. Vac.

Sci. Technol. A 3(6), November/December 1985, p. 2348.
332
11 \
To
r To
SPRING
THRUST
LOAD
Figure i: Schematic diagram of RCF tester configuration
333
oRIGINAL PAC_ ;_
OF POOR QUALITY
C
oJ
o
0_
r_
4--I
CD
0
0
C
0
_C
t_
gl
_C
_C
334
as
as-
/
HALF MICRON THICKNESS
as_
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
LOAD: 586,000 PSI MAX
m°
rEED:
OIL:
3_X)
MIL-L-7801
RPM OF POOR QUALITY
/
TEMP: RA
_ E4.
MATERIAL 110 LIFE ILKSELIN_ /
ZIRCONIUM NITRiDE 7S.8
IdOLYBOENUM
IG42 BASELINE
NITRIOE 48,4
24.6
/
!
//
_J
10.
|-
I"
9-
I-
I-
4-
/
RC RIG DATA
//
; • . • u w I ! ; i i e ! ; v u 1 e
! 3 4 i 6 7 8010 M m 4O 6O I as IO0
RC SPECIMEN LIFE IMILLIONS OF STRESS CYCLEEI
Figure 3: Weibull plot of half micron thick, 586 ksi data

|m
m
as.
ONE MICRON THICKNESS
LOAD: 686,000 PSi MAX

N •
SPEED: 3600 RPM /
OIL: MIL-L-7808
70-
BASELINE/
TEMP: RA
as-
N-
/
MATERIAL BT0 LIFE
ZIRCONIUM NtTRIDE X.9

49-
_z
Q m"
MOL
DG42
YBDENUN
BASE LINE
NITfllDE 49.4
24.0 //
Wn-
|
u
tO-
O"
I-
I-
e-
6"
4-
RC RIG DATA
/
I • , • • • w i • 1
I
i i
4
i
|
..... I
4 ; |110
L! .......
N U 40 SO 00 N 100
RC IIIECliI(N LIFE IMILLION_ OF iTREII CYCL|i}
Figure 4: Weibull plot of one micron thick, 586 ksi data
335
gS
W-
HALF MICRON THICKNESS
LOAD: 788,000 PSi MAX
70- SPEED: 3iN)0 RIM ORIGINAL PAGE IS

OIL: MI L-L-?80• OF POOR QUALITY
m°
TEMP: RA
-- N- MATERIAL B10 LIFE

BASELINE
ZIRCONIUM NITRIDE 21Jl
MOLYBOENiJM NITRIDE 16,0
BG42 BASE LINE 14.6
O m-
MoN
!
rN
10.
S-
B-
I-
IF-
is.
4-
RC RIG DATA
11.
! 2 ) 4 6 I 7 1110 m 44 f_ Im 141 IN
RC SPECIMEN LIFE IMILLIONS OF STRELS CYCLEE!
Figure 5:
Weibull plot of half micron thick, 786 ksi data
IHIT|
Ii"
ONE MICRON THICKNESS
LOAD: 786,000 PSI MAX

N*
SPEED: 3600 RPM

BASELINE
OIL: MIL-L-7801
TEMP: RA
MATERIAL B10 LIFE
ZIRCONIUM NITRIDE
MOLYBDENUM NITRIDE
BG 42 BASELINE
RC RIG DATA
, 2 ) . s B ,S,,B 2e m ,O ,.m U 1,0

NCSPECIUEN
LIFEtMILLIONS
OF.mEn CVCL.I
Figure 6:
Weibull plot of one micron thick, 786 ksi data
336
ORIGINAL p_:_ _.,
OF
POOR Q ,_-ilY
Figure 7: Half micron thick molybdenum nitride coating,

Rockwell "C" hardness indentation
Figure 8: One micron thick molybdenum nitride coating,

337
Figure 9: Half micron thick molybdenum,
typical rolling contact fatigue spal]
Figure i0: One micron thick molybdenumnitride,

wear track area
ORIGINAL "_''"'"_"
338 OF POOR QUALITY
ORIGINAL _"'_"_ '_"
POOR QUALiI'/
Figure ii: Half micron thick zirconium nitride,

Figure 12: One micron thick zirconium nitride,

339
ORIGINAL PAGE I$
OF POOR QUALrrY
Figure 13: Half micron thick zirconium nitride,

typical rolling contact fatigue spall
Figure 14: One micron thick zirconium nitride,

edge of wear track area
340
|N89-12643
MEASUREMENT OF ROTORDYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS

FOR A HYDROSTATIC RADIAL BEARING
B. T. Murphy and M. N. Wagner
Rockwell InternationallRocketdyne Division

Abstract
Measurement of rotordynamic coefficients is presented for

a hydrostatic radial bearing, including direct and cross-
coupled stiffness and damping. Two different hydrostatic
configurations were tested: (i) an externally fed bearing
74.9 mm (2.95 inches) in diameter with a nominal direct
stiffness of approximately 210 MNIm (1.2 million Ib/in.) and
(2) an internally fed bearing 54.6 mm (2.15 inches) in diam-
eter with a nominal direct stiffness of approximately 88 MNIm
(0.5 million Iblin.). Each bearing had six equally spaced
hydrostatic pressure pockets, stationary for the externally
fed bearing and rotating for the internally fed bearing.
Also, both bearings had extended exit regions to provide
additional damping. The top rotational speed was 378 Hz
(22,700 rpm) and the maximum axial Reynold's number was
50,000 using a freon derivative (Freon-ll3) as the working
fluid. The test apparatus was a "synchronous rig" as an in-
tentionally eccentric journal was used as the sole source of
excitation. The beating's stator element was flexibly and
asymmetrically supported by strain-gage type load cells.
While the load cells provided the primary force measurements,
eddy current probes were used to measure the elliptic rela-
tive motion between stator and journal. Coefficient reduction
was done by performing a matrix solution on the data of each
tester speed to separate damping from stiffness and inertia.
Results show the externally fed bearing to be 20% less stiff
than predicted, and to have a significant amount of damping
that agrees well with predictions. The internally fed bearing
was found to be approximately 60% less stiff than predicted,
and to be roughly neutral in terms of damping, as predicted.
Introduction
The ball bearings that support the rotating shafts of the Space
Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) high pressure turbopumps have demonstrated
their reliability based on numerous hot-fire tests and actual flights
of the Space Shuttle. In spite of this, one of the major goals for
upgrading the performance of the SSME is to increase the life of the
high pressure oxidizer turbopump bearings beyond the current six-
mission limit. These bearings operate at extremely high DN values,
and also react very large static and dynamic loads. Numerous design
341
modifications have been made to the high pressure turbopumps to effec-
tively increase the beating's capacity, and also to reduce loads. As
part of the ongoing effort to extend turbopump bearing life, the work
reported here describes test results obtained on a high-speed, high-
pressure, liquid-fed hydrostatic bearing. The potential application of
a hydrostatic bearing to turbopump technology is threefold: (I) it
can produce extremely high stiffness, which can be used as a long-life
replacement for mechanical element bearings, (2) it can be used as a
load-sharing device when used in conjunction with a mechanical bear-
ing, and (3) through proper design, it can be an effective damping
device, thereby reducing dynamic bearing loads and increasing rotor
stability.
The Rocketdyne hydrostatic bearing test apparatus has been de-

signed, fabricated, and used to measure the rotordynamic stiffness and
damping, both direct and cross-coupled, for two kinds of hydrostatic
bearings: externally fed and internally fed. A high-density freon
derivative was used as a surrogate fluid due to its hydrodynamic simi-
larity to cryogenic turbopump fuels. Forced dynamic motion across the
bearing fluid film is generated by mounting the bearing journal eccen-
trically on the test shaft (Fig. I). Thus, the test apparatus is oper-
ated with a synchronous excitation only. The relative whirl orbits
across the fluid film are made to be elliptic with asymmetric stiff-
ness in the test bearing's supporting structure. This elliptic nature
is utilized in the data reduction process.
STRAIN GAGED
STIFFNER
/ STATOR
--[J _ / FLEXURE ARM
I m. I--Jl
__ ...
y{t), z(t)
ROTOR
Fig. I. Measurement technique of hydrostatic bearing

tester using an eccentric journal to provide
synchronous excitation.
342
Other test results for a hydrostatic bearing have been reported
by Goodwin, et. al. I Their experiments were for a combination hydro-
static/hydrodynamic bearing, and do not apply to the types of config-
urations being tested here. No other test results, particularly direct
damping, have been noted in the literature for these types of bearings.
Method of Measurement
The test method for determining dynamic coefficients of hydro-

static bearings involves generating a forced dynamic motion across the
bearing fluid film and measuring the resulting fluid film displace-
ments and forces. These displacements and forces provide the means
for computing the active set of rotordynamic coefficients.
The forced dynamic motion is generated as depicted in Fig. i. The

overhung test bearing is located on the outboard end of a test shaft
supported by two duplex pair of ball bearings (Fig. 2). The rotating
part of the test bearing has been given an intentional eccentricity
(i.e., runout) at the test bearing location. When the shaft rotates,
the eccentricity generates an orbital pattern synchronous with shaft
speed. This orbital pattern is measured with a pair of eddy current
displacement probes mounted directly in the stator of the test bearing
(Fig. 3). In this way, with the stator element in motion, the
Fig. 2. Cross section of tester. Test element shown is a

hybrid bearing with ball and hydrostatic bearings in
series (not tested).
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
343 DE POOR QUALITY

/ LOAD SENSOR
DISPLACEMENT
SENSOR
B2Y "_"
DISPLACEMENT
SENSOR
B2Z
/
/
LOAD SENSOR
F45
_ F225
Fig. 3. Arrangement of load and displacement sensing devices.

The stator is flexibly supported by four preloaded
load sensors.
displacement probes will directly measure the desired relative deflec-

tion across the fluid film.
The stator element is supported by eight tubes (flexure arms), one

of which is shown in Fig. I. These tubes supply fluid to the exter-
nally fed test bearing. In addition to the stiffness of the flexure
a_s, the stator element is elastically constrained in the radial
direction by two pair of preloaded, strain-gaged load cells (Fig. 1
and 2). The load cells were calibrated for load sensitivity and stiff-
ness by applying known static loads directly to the stator at midplane
of the test bearing. Under test conditions, the strain gage readings
will then reflect the sum of the fluid film forces an___ddthe inertia
force of the statoc mass. As data reduction to cotordynamic coeffi-
cients requires the fluid film force by itself, the stator inertia
force must be subtracted from the load cell readings. With the mass
of the stator known, this is done as follows:
Fy = -Fy + m s (d2/dt 2) (-Fy/Ksy) (I)
Fz = -Fz + ms (d2/dt2) (-Fz/Ksz) (2)
where
Fy,z = components of load cell reaction force acting on stator
Fy,z = components of fluid film force acting on stator
344
ms = stator mass
Ksy,s z = stator support stiffness, can be asymmetric

The technique of using strain gage load data to compute the iner-
tia term was found equally effective to using stator mounted acceler-
ometers, and was employed here since it involves processing fewer data
channels.
The most general type of relative fluid film displacement orbits

permissible in linear systems are elliptic in nature. Therefore, the
goal of the measurement process is to identify the ellipse that de-
scribes the relative displacement as a function of time in the follow-
ing form (relative = rotor - stator):
y(t) = a(cos_t) + b(sin_t) (3)
z(t) = g(cos_t) + h(sin_t) (4)
The four coefficients "'abgh" are termed Fourier coefficients, and

is the tester speed in radians per second. They are obtained from
the synchronous component of a complex frequency spectrum computed for
each of the two displacments.
The same procedure is applied to the load data to obtain Fourier

coefficients in the following form:
Fy = m(coswt) + _(sin_t) (5)
Fz = p(cos_t) + _(sin_t) (6)
The equations correcting for stator inertia now become:
Fy = - [m(cos_t) + _(sin_t)] + (_s/Ksy)(_w2(cos_t)
+ nw2(sin_t)) (7)
Fz = - [_(coswt) + _(sin_t)] + (_s/Zsz)(_w2(cos_t)
+ _w2(sinwt)) (8)
or
Fy = m(cos_t) + n(sin_t) (9)
Fz = p(cos_t) + q(sinwt) (I0)
where
m = _(-I + (m s_2/Ksy)), etc.
345
mnpq = Fourier coefficients for fluid film force
(acting on stator)
With the fluid film force and the displacement across the fluid
film now specified as functions of time, rotordynamic coefficients can
be computed. The generally accepted form for the relationship between
these three sets of quantities is:
!II lllllll
•
iFzi
Fy
l MII I
= K
Kzy
yy yz
zzj
y
z
+
B
Bzy
YY
By z
Bzzj
#
z
+
tMzy
Myy
Mzz
yz
(II)
The displacements and forces were defined above using Fourier

coefficients. The velocities and accelerations are obtained by differ-
entiation with respectto time. There are several ways to approach the
problem of identifying the 12 unknown rotordTnamic coefficients. It
should be noted that the measured force and displacement orbits will
vary with tester rotational speed, and complete sets of Fourier coef-
ficients can be made available for any rotational speed within the
tester's speed range. Thus, one approach for computing the K's, B's
and M's would be to rearrange the above matrix equation into the fol-
lowing alternate form (substituting in the Fourier coefficients):
Myz
B
YY
2 2
1
0 0 0 0
-b_2 -h_2 -a_ -g_ b h 0 0 0 0 0 0 YY I

K (12)
2
0 0 0 0 0 -aoJ 2 -g_0 boJ hoJ a g M yz
2
0 0 0 0 0 -b_ 2 -he -aoJ -g_ b h r Mzyl
zz|
Bzy
Bzz
Kzy
\Kzz _
The 12 rotordynamic coefficients are now the unknowns in this

matrix equation, and the two equations of the former relation have
each been resolved into sin_t and cos _t components. Since there are
more unknowns than equations, one could use data from multiple values
of tester speed, writing four equations for each. Data from three
different speeds would yield 12 equations, and Gaussian elimination
could be used to find the solution. Or, more than three speed points
could be used, along with a least-squares equation solver, to find the
346
"best fit" coefficient solution. Neither of these approaches will
prove successful, however, since the coefficient solution will not be
unique. To circumvent this problem, the inertia coefficients must be
eliminated from the list of unknowns. This yields the following:
Byy
I Iml
Byz
-a_
ha00011
-g_
0
0
b
0
0
h
0
0 -a_
0
b_
0
h_
-g_
0
a
b
Kyy
Kyz
Bzy
Bzz
Kzy
Kzz
= n
P
q
(13)
Since data from multiple speed points must be used, it is neces-

sary that the speeds span as wide a range as possible to give the best
definition of the coefficients.
This type of coefficient solution yields one general asymmetric

set of constant stiffness and damping coefficients to fit the given
data. In practice, however, these coefficients could vary appreciably
with speed. Efforts to expand the set of unknown coefficients to in-
clude speed dependent te_us will once again be unsuccessful due to
nonunique solutions. This occurs because a speed dependent set of
skew-symmetric coefficients and a set of constant asymmetric coeffi-
cients can both be solutions for the same data.
For the type of fluid film element being measured here, the fluid
inlet is made circumferentially uniform by using six equally spaced,
identical hydrostatic pressure pockets, while the test bearing is cen-
tered in its clearance space with no applied static load. These con-
ditions dictate that the rotordynamic coefficients will be skew-
symmetric (i .e ., Ky = Kzz , Ky z = -Kzy , and similarly for B and M).

This reduces the nu_er of unknowns so that the matrix equation for
rotordynamic coefficients becomes:
b h a g B
YY
-a -g b h B
yz
2 (14)
h -b g -a K -M co
YY YY
2
-g a h -b K - M co
yz yz
where
co is the excitation frequency (rad/sec)

is the shaft rotation frequency (rad/sec)
for all "synchronous only rigs" _ = _ always and
all coefficients are functions of _.
347
De fine :
Kyy = Kyy - _2Myy (15)
Ky z = Kzy - _2My z (16)
Note that the two unknown inertia coefficients have been combined
with the stiffness coefficients to fozun a combined pair of unknowns.
This is necessary to ensure a unique solution to the matrix. Since
there are now only four unknowns, the matrix solution can be carried
out with data from only one speed point. Also, for convenience, the
shaft speed has been placed in the unknown column vector instead of in
the matrix elements.
The coefficients Kyy, Ky z, Byy, Byz, Myy, and Mzy will, in gen-
eral, vary with rotational speed _, and since only linear model char-
acteristics are desired, they do not vary with excitation frequency,e).

Tester data can be used with the above matrix to determine how K ....
Kyz, Byy, and By z vary with synchronous frequency _ = _ . Note that _e

damplng terms are completely separated from the stiffness tetmts with-
out the need to vary tester speed. However, this requires that the
fluid film displacement orbit be elliptic. If only circular orbits
were possible, the above 4 by 4 matrix would become 2 by 2, and the
stiffness and dampi, g terms would need to be combined.
To show how such a separation is possible, and how effective this

separation is, consider the displacement orbit shown in Fig. 4. Any
displacement ellipse can be transformed into the ellipse of Fig. 4
without any loss in generality, and without altering the coefficient
solution (a special result for the skew-symmetric coefficient arrange
ment). The same transformation is also enacted on the corresponding
force ellipse. This transfo[_ation (in space and time) results in
b = g = 0 fo= the fluid film displacements, and establishes an easy
solution for the unknown coefficients as follows:
Byy_ = -(an + hp)/(a 2 - h 2) (17)
By z_ = (aq - hm)/(a 2 - h 2) (18)
Kyy = (am - hq)/(a 2 - h 2) (19)
Ky z = -(ap - hn)/(a 2 - h 2) (20)
It is now apparent that for a circular displacement orbit (i.e.,

a = h) the solution becomes undefined, and for a nearly circular orbit
the solution is ill-defined. An adequate solution thus requires a suf-
ficient amount of ellipticity in the displacement orbit.
348
-- y
COORDINATES OF DISPLACEMENT ELLIPSE: CORRESPONDING FORCE ELLIPSE
y = a cos,_t +)_0sin_t Fy = m cor._t + n $in_t
z =j0cos_t + h sin_t F z = P cos_t + q sinwt
Fig. 4. Any displacement ellipse can be transformed through

space and time into the above form without altering
the skew-symmetric coefficient solution.
A further understanding of this is gained by rearranging the above

solution into a slightly different form:
By z_ + K;y = (m + q)l( a + h) (21)
By z_ + K;y = (m - q)l( a - h) (22)
Byy_ + Kyz = (p + n)l(-a + h) (23)
Byy_ + K;z = (p - n)/( a + h) (24)
In this "sum and difference form", half of the solution is well

defined even for circular orbits, while the other half is not. Syn-
chronous excitation test rigs specifically designed to deliver circu-
lar orbzts (e.g., see Ref.2) can be used only to measure (Byz _ + Kvv)__
and (Bvv_ - K'v_). The remainder of the solution cannot be identifled
_ _ . • • .
from clrcular orblts. The quantity (Kvv + Bvz _) is often referred to
• , J . S
as the net effectlve stzffness, and _e quantity (Byy_ - Kyz)l_ as
the net effective damping.
An error analysis has been performed on the coefficient solution

to quantify the sensitivity of the computed coefficients to experimen-
tal error as a function of the ellipticity ratio defined as follows:
ellipticity ratio = f = h/a (25)
Small percentage changes in the data become excessively magnified

during solution when f approaches one (i.e., when the displacement
349
orbit approaches a circle). Ks a function of f, this error magnifica-
tion is approximated as follows:
error magnification = (f/2)/(l - f) (26)
Figure 5 shows this magnification plotted versus f. For the work

reported here, f was required to be outside the range 0.87< f<1.175
so the magnification would be less than 3.5. When f is outside this
range, stiffness and damping constants can be separated and quoted
along with the net effective values. When f is inside this range, only
the net effective stiffness and damping values can be obtained. With
the test apparatus used here, the stator elastic support was made in-
tentionally asymmetric, Ksy # Ksz, in order to generate the required

ellipticity.
"- 4
n-
O
z
o
3
\
lJ
m
<
2 \\
\.
m
I I I I l
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8
ELLIPTICITY RATIO, f
Fig. 5. Measurement error magnification factor for computed

rotordynamic coefficients versus the relative dis-
placement ellipticity ratio.
Testing Procedure
During data acquisition, the bearing supply pressure was held con-
stant while the rotational speed was slowly ramped across the desired
speed range at a rate of 3.3 to 8.3 Hz/sec (200 to 500 rpm/sec). The
speed range of the tester operating in Freon was 0 to 378 Hz (22,700
rpm). The duration of any one test was limited to approximately I
minute by the capacity of the Freon tank.
350
Analog data was stored on FM tape, and then digitized and down-
loaded to a minicomputer. Complex frequency spectrums were then com-
puted for each channel to provide the synchronous Fourier coefficients
described earlier. The frequency analysis was performed all along the
speed ramp, essentially providing a sequence of snapshots at discrete
values of tester speed.
After correcting for stator inertia, the data was then ready for
use in computing rotordMnamic coefficients via the matrix analysis
methods previously described. Test results are obtained directly from
the output of this program.
Test Results
Testing was performed using Freon 113 at ambient temperature as

the working fluid. Both an externally fed and an internally fed bear-
ing configuration was tested (Fig. 6 and 7). The dimensions of each
configuration appear in Table I.
Fig. 6. Cross section of externally fed bearing. Freon

flows right to left through flexure arms, and
into stationary manifold.
To date, two successful tests have been conducted for both the
externally fed and internally fed bearing. The externally fed bearing
tests were done with bearing inlet pressures of 3.4 and 10.3 MPa (500
and 1500 psi). The internally fed bearing tests had the same 10.3 MPa
(1500 psi) inlet pressure, but the first test produced insufficient
351
Fig. 7. Cross section of internally fed bearing. Freon
flows right to left through hollow shaft, and
outward into rotating manifold.
Table I. Externally and Internally Fed Hydrostatic Bearing

Design Description
ITEM INTERNALLY EXTERNALLY

FED FED
BEARING BORE 54.61 mm 75.04 mm
BEARING LENGTH 25.4 25.4
RADIAL CLEARANCE .0432 .0670
ORIFICE DIAMETER 1.333 1.270
ORIFICE LENGTH 6.73 1.80
WIDTH (CIRCUM) 8.18 11.41
LENGTH (AXIAL) 8.90 8.89
DEPTH .2032 .2286

RECESS
DESCRIPTION SURFACE RECESSED JOURNAL BEARING
NUMBER OF RECESSES 6 6
NUMBER OF ROWS 1 1
AREA RATIO .10 .10
352
ellipticity to permit separation of stiffness from damping via Eq.
(14). For this reason, the second test of the intetmally fed bearing
was conducted with two load cells replaced by eddy current displace
ment probes (F135 and F315 in Fig. 3). The load in that axis was iden-
tified by applying the stator displacement measured by the replacement
probes to the measured stiffness of the flexure arms (shown in Fig. I
and 2). This increased the stator support stiffness asymmetry ratio
from 1.88 with four load cells to 4.48 with two load cells. The in-
creased support asymmetry resulted in sufficient ellipticity for the
latter test of the internally fed bearing.
Externally Fed Bearin_
The ellipticity ratio and the computed set of skew-symmetric

rotordynamic coefficients are shown for both upramp and downramp in
Fig. 8 through I0 for the externally fed bearing operating with an
inlet pressure of 10.3 MPa (1500 psi), see Table 2. Also shown in the
figures are the predicted values for these coefficients obtained
numerically with the computer program HBEAR described in Ref.3. The
ellipticity ratio is seen to satisfy the criteria of being greater
than 1.175. Thus, separated stiffness and damping terms can be ob-
tained. All measured coefficients exhibit the same trends versus speed
as the predicted coefficients. The measured direct stiffness values
1.4
1.35
J_, 1.3
,,,,J
1.25
_Z
a
_d la
<
1.15
j-
_ 1.1
ut
"J.O_ --
I I I I I I
8O 120 160 200 240 280 320
SPEED, Hz
Fig. 8. Displacement orbit ellipticity ratio for the

externally fed bearing at 10.3 MPa (test I0).
353
28O
240 PREDICTED _-'-'-"_'-'_
200 -
Z
o _eo -
_1
,-i
120 -
Z
_ 80
u,.
I,-
m 40 PREDICTED
-6O
80 120 160 200 240 380 320 360 40O
SPEED, Hz
Fig. 9. Measured and predicted direct and cross-coupled

stiffness coefficients for the externally fed
bearing at 10.3 MPa (test I0).
80
6O
£3
z 40
<[
o3
0
"r-
_ 20
_ o
z
a.
<
-20
-4O
-60
8O 120 160 2_ 240 280 320 3_ 4_
_EED, Hz
Fig. 10. Measured and Predicted direct and cross-coupled

damping coefficients for externally fed bearing
at 10.3 MPa (test I0).
354
Table 2. Hydrostatic Bearing Test Descriptions
10 28 31
BEARING TYPE EXTERNAL EXTERNAL INTERNAL INTERNAL
INLET PRESSURE 3.4 MPa 10.3 10.3 10.3
RADIAL CLEARANCE .0432 _tm .0432 .067 .067
ECCENTRICITY .0064 mm .0064 .022 .022
TEMPERATURE 309 K 312 296 295
DENSITY 1540 kg/m 3 1516 1579 1583
FLOW RATE .39 kg/s .61 .48 .47
VISCOSITY .593 cp .571 .708 .712
LOAD CELLS USED 4 4 4 2
Ksy/Ksz 1.88 1.88 1.88 4.48
f>i.175 YES YES NO YES
are about 20% less than predicted, and the measured direct damping
values are roughly equal to the predicted values. The measured cross-
coupled stiffness is less than predicted, and is actually a stabiliz-
ing influence at low speed where Ky z < 0.
The analytical code does not predict cross-coupled damping, where

as the test measurements show what appears to be a significant amount
of cross-coupled damping. It should be noted that one effect of cross
coupled damping is to either add to, or detract from, the apparent
amount of asymmetry in the direct stiffness. The coefficient reduction
method employed here assumes symmetric direct stiffness. One way asym-
metry in the direct stiffness can manifest itself is by the prediction
of nonzero cross-coupled damping coefficients. In this particular
case, roughly 17.5 MN/m (I00,000 ib/in.) of asymmetry could produce
the type of cross-coupled damping coefficients shown.
Since neither of the stiffness curves show a strong variation with

speed squared, it is concluded that the bearing does not possess a
significant inertia effect over this speed range.
Orbit ellipticity makes it possible to separate the stiffness from

damping. If the orbits were too nearly circular, only net effective
stiffness and damping defined by Eq. (21) and (24) could be deter-
mined. Figures II and 12 show a comparison of the measured and pre-
dicted net effective stiffness and damping values for the bearing of
Fig. 8 through I0. For use in analytical rotordynamic models, net
effective values will suffice for performing unbalance response
studies of syn_etrically supported rotors, but they are less than ade-
quate for performing rotordynamic stability studies, or for unbalance
studies of asymmetrically supported rotors.
355
2OO
180
160
10.3 MPa
150
Z
0
=J
120
Keff
E
I--
4O
2O
o I i I
100 200 300 400
SPEED, Hz
Fig. II. Comparison of measured net effectiveness stiffness
for externally fed bearing with low and high inlet

pressure (tests 8 and I0).
100
0
Z
D
0 60
-I-
I,- Beff
10.3 MPa
z
d
z 40
[
20 3.4 MPa
0 1 I I I
0 100 200 300 400
SPEED, Hz
Fig. 12. Comparison of measured net effective damping for

externally fed bearing with low and high inlet
pressure (tests 8 and i0).
356
The bearing of Fig. 8 through 12 was tested with a bearing inlet
pressure of 10.3 MPa (1500 psi). The same bearing was tested with an
inlet pressure of 3.4 MPa (500 psi). Figures 13 through 15 show the
ellipticity ratio and comparisons of measured and predicted stiffness
and damping. The data ace similar to the data for 10.3 MPa except for
the correspondingly lower magnitudes due to the lower inlet pressure.
Also, agreement with the predictions is not as close as for the higher
pressure. Figures II and 12 directly compare the net effective values
and show them to be very nearly proportional to inlet pressure.
1.4
1.36
1.32
i 1.28
_ 1.24
d
_ 1.2
_ 1.16
_ 1.12
1.08
1.04 I I I ] I I
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
SPEED, Hz
Fig. 13. Displacement orbit ellipticity ratio for

externally fed bearing at 3.4 MPa (test 8).
In Fig. 13, note that as tester speed surpasses 200 Hz, the ellip-
ticity ratio falls below the 1.175 criteria for separable data. As
this occurs, the curves for the separated coefficients become more
erratic (Fig. 14 and 15). Also note that the net effective values of
Fig. II and 12 should not, and are not, affected by the orbit becoming
too circular.
Internally Fed BearinR
In the first test of the internally fed bearing the ellipticity

ratio was extremely close to I, and thus only net effective values can
be quoted. The cause for small ellipticity is that the internally fed
bearing produces a much lower overall stiffness than the externally
357
toO
60 KW
z
9
40
i
v
u_
z
u.
_o
0 loO 200 3oO 4OO
_EED, Hz
FiE. 14. Measured and predicted direct and cross-coupled
stiffness for externally fed bearing at 3.4 MPa

(test 8).
5O
40
Byy
30
a
Z
o.,e 20
i,.-
z Byz
a.
<
-10
-20
5O 1_ 250 3_
_EED, Hz
Fig. 15. Measured and predicted direct and cross-coupled damping

for externally fed bearing at 3.4 MPa (test 8).
358
fed bearing, and thus generated less motion of the asymmetrically sup-
ported stator. It is forced motion of the stator that causes the rela-
tive orbits to be elliptic. Figures 16 through 18 show the ellipticity
ratio and the measured and predicted net effective stiffness and damp-
ing for this test. The noted differences between predictions and mea-
surements are qualitatively the sa1,_e as the differences noted for the
externally fed bearing. The net effective stiffness was overpredicted
by I00 to 150% versus about 20% for the externally fed bearing. The
net effective damping was both predicted and measured to be very
small, and was underpredicted as it was for the externally fed bear-
ing. Meaningful percentage differences cannot be quoted in this case
as the measured and predicted values are of opposite sign.
1.4
1.35
1.3
1.25
d 1.2
_ 1.15
m
1.1
,.J
w
1.05
40 80 120 160 200 240 280
SPEED, Hz
Fig. 16. Displacement orbit ellipticity ratio for

internally fed bearing (test 28).
Figures 19 through 21 show the ellipticity ratio and all measured

and predicted coefficients for the test of the internally fed bearing
with two load cells removed. The separated stiffness and damping coef-
ficients do not exhibit the qualitative agreement with predictions
that the externally fed bearing shows. The measured and predicted
direct stiffness actually agree quite well in magnitude near 220 Hz
(13,200 rpm) shaft speed, but the measurements show a major speed de
pendency contrary to predictions. The direct damping was measured to
be negative at low speed, and it also shows a major speed dependency
not predicted.
359
260
220 EXTERNALLY FED _f
Z
0
.._ 180
-J
m
z
. 14o Keff
z
Ub
lOO
P...,
_ INTERNALLY FED__'-_"
6O
.... %,.., .._x.._ -" T28
2O I I
100 200 300 400
SPEED, Hz
Fig. 17. Comparison of net effective stiffness for externally

fed bearing (test I0) and internally fed bearing
(tests 28 and 31).
lOO
L_
8o
a
z
_00
D
o Beff
T10
_, 40
d
z
l,I
2O
4OO
SPEED, Hz
Fig. 18. Comparison of net effective damping for externally

fed bearing (test (I0) and internally fed bearin_
(tests 28 and 31).
36O
1,4
1.35
w 1.3
.J
Z
O
Z
,,, 1.25
C3
v
d 1.2
1
k-
<
rr
>
1.15
p.
.J
_ 1.1
W
1 I I I I I I I I
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
SPEED, Hz
Fig. 19. Displacement orbit ellipticity ratio for internally

fed bearing with two load cells (test 31).
160
140
120 Kyy
100
m
-J
_ 80
Z
u: 40
2O
Kyz
-10
0 100 2O0 300 4OO
SPEED. Hz
Fig. 20. Heasuced and predicted direct and cross-coupled

stiffness coefficients for internally fed bear-
ing with two load cells (test 31).
361
100
50
/
0
¢3
Z
-so
O
T
v Byz
E -100
Z -150
a
-200
-25O
-3OO
0 100 200 300 40O
_EED. Hz
Fig. 21. Measured and predicted direct and cross-coupled

damping coefficients for internally fed bearing
with two load cells (test 31).
The net effective stiffness and damping values for this test com-
pare favorably to those of the other internally fed bearing test, and
had consistent correlation with theory.
Two potential causes exist for the prominent speed dependency ex-
hibited in the skew-symmetric coefficients by the internally fed
bearing:
I. The effect of fluid tangential velocity induced by the rotating

recesses may have more influence than predicted by the analysis.
2. Although feeler-gage checks of the test bearing clearance in-

dicated that the bearing was centered within 0.0076 n_ (0.0003
inch), misalignment of the statoc with the shaft centecline
will result in speed dependency for the skew-symmetric coeffi-
cients.
The data reduction process of Eq. (14) assumes the rotordynamic

coefficients to be skew-symmetric. If, in fact, they are not skew-
symmetric, this condition can manifest itself in the data reduction
process by causing the calculated skew-symmetric coefficients to vary
with speed.
362
Speed Dependency vs Asymmetry
If the data of the second internally fed bearing test are reduced
according to the asymmetric method of Eq. 13, the following set of
stiffness and damping values are produced:
yy yz = MN/m
- .9 34.6
zy zzj
Iiyy
L
yzl096
213]
zy Bzz_ [-0.62 13
kN-s/m
These values are dependent on the arbitrary orientation of the yz

coordinate system. Stiffness and damping values computed for the yz
coordinate system of Fig. 3 have been rotated to make the cross-
coupled stiffness values of equal magnitude and opposite sign. In
this case the required rotation is 28 degrees counterclockwise. The
resulting direct stiffness values are different by a factor of 1.55,
and the direct damping values are different by a factor of 13.5, and
are of opposite sign.
The same procedure applied to the 10.3 MPa (1500 psi) externally
fed bearing test results in:
I:
L
:I[
211
6yy
zy
yz
zzj
=
-46 174J
] M1q/m
I:yy
L
lyz
[2O.5o98
3°:132
zy zz
kN-s/m
Asymmetry in the direct stiffness and damping is much less pro-

nounced in this case with ratios of only 1.2 and 1.6 respectively.
Both reduction methods applied to both tests result in stiffness and
damping values which produce excellent correlation between the mea-
sured forces and displacements. Choosing between the two methods in-
volves choosing between general asymmetry and speed dependency for the
rotordynamic coefficients. One set of coefficients contains asymmetry,
but is constant versus speed. The other set assumes skew-symmetry,
but yields a direct measure of speed dependency. The choice must be
dictated by which condition is expected to be most significant.
363
The predicted coefficients according to Ref. 3 are, in all cases,
skew-symmetric and vary with speed. Figures 9 and I0 show that the
measured speed dependency parallels the predicted speed dependency for
the 10.3 MPa (1500 psi) externally fed bearing. The asymmetric coef-
ficient set for this test also exhibits direct stiffness and damping
which are very close in the y and z directions. Figures 20 and 21 for
the internally fed bearing, however, show a dramatic difference be
tween measured and predicted speed dependency for skew-symmetric
coefficients. Also, the asymmetric coefficient set for this test shows
large differences in the direct stiffness and damping.
Thus for the internally fed bearing, either the coefficients are
approximately skew-symmetric and the measured speed dependency is
real, or the coefficients are in reality asymmetric and the measured
speed dependency in the skew-symmetric coefficients is part real and
part due to asymmetry.
The only plausible source of significant coefficient asymmetry is

static miscentering of the stator about the bearing journal. The
feeler-gage checks already mentioned indicated that the bearing was
centered within 12% of the clearance. Analysis of generic fluid film
components has shown that miscentering must be as much as 40% of the
clearance to produce significant asymmetry. Thus, the internally fed
hydrostatic bearing may be more sensitive to miscentering than other
types of fluid film elements.
Conc lus ions
Figures 17 and 18 show the net effective stiffness and damping for
the three tests run at a common bearing supply pressure of 10.3 MPa
(1500 psi). The internally fed bearing was physically smaller than
the exte/mally fed bearing, and also had larger clearance. Both these
differences, which tend to lower the stiffness and damping, are
accounted for in the predicted values. The most important aspects of
a direct comparison of the internally versus externally fed configur-
ations are as follows:
I. Both configurations had measured net effective stiffness values

which were lower than predicted, but the externally fed bearing
was only 20 to 25% lower whereas the internally fed bearing was
60% lower.
2. Both configurations had net effective damping values which were

higher than predicted. The externally fed bearing was pre
dicted, and shown, to have significant direct damping. The in-
ternally fed bearing analysis predicted low damping, and the
bearing was subsequently shown to have practically neutral net
effective damping.
364
The poor net effective damping qualities of the internally fed
bearing are likely due to the fluid swirl condition. This condition
results from the fact that the pressure pockets are rotating with the
shaft. Fluid enters the bearing through holes in the pressure pocket
recesses, and thus immediately has the full tangential velocity of the
journal surface. Circumferential flow of this nature is known to have
a detrimental effect on net effective damping. The damping performance
of the internally fed bearing may be significantly enhanced by provid-
ing some type of circumferential flow attenuating device, or by giving
the stator increased surface roughness, or both.
References
I,
Goodwin, M. J., J. E. T. Penny, and C. J. Hooke, "Hydrostatic
Supports for Rotating Machinery - Some Aspects of Oil Film Non-
Linearity," American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Paper No.
85-DET-123, September 1985.
2, Childs, D. W. and C. H. Kim, "Analysis and Testing for Rotor-

dynamic Coefficients of Turbulent Annular Seals with Different,
Directionally Homogeneous Surface Roughness Treatment for Rotor
and Stator Elements," NASA Conference Publication 2338,
Proceedings of the Workshop on Rotordynamic Instability Problems
in High-Performance Turbomaehinery, Texas A&M University, 28-30
May 1982.
3. Artiles, A., J. Wallowit, and W. Shapiro, "Anaysis of Hybrid,

Fluid Film Journal Bearings with Turbulence and Inertia Effects.
Advances in Computer-Aided Bearing Design," Proceedings of
ASME-ASLE Lubrication Conference, American Society of Lubrication
Engineers, New York, New York, October 1982.
365
N89-12644
SURFACE MODIFICATION FOR WEAR RESISTANCE IN A

LIQUID OXYGEN TURBOPUMP ENVIRONMENT
Lillian Ng

Yngve Naerheim
Rockwell International/Science Center

Thousand Oaks, California
Abstract
Bearing elements for the Space Shuttle Main Engine oxi-

dizer turbopumps operate in the low viscosity environments
of liquid oxygen, which results in an operating condition
of poor lubrication. High transient axial loads and high
coefficient of friction due to lack of lubricant in the
high pressure oxidizer turbopump bearings has resulted in
surface wear. Hard coatings have been utilized to lower
the coefficient of friction and increase the wear resis-
tance of steels. In this study, three bearing alloys (AMS
5618 (VIM-VAR), AMS 5900, and AMS 6491) were coated with
TiN or thin-dense Cr for evaluating the effects of surface
modification on wear. Testing was performed in a cone-
three ball tester modified to provide both rolling and
sliding friction that simulates operating conditions. Also,
a liquid oxygen environment was used to simulate the opera-
ting environment. Test results including detailed Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM), Electron Spectroscopy for Chemi-
cal Analysis (ESCA), and optical analysis will be presented.
Introduction
The liquid hydrogen (LH 2) fuel and liquid oxygen (LO 2) oxidizer for
for the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) is provided by low and high
pressure turbopumps. The low-viscosity cryogenic liquids that are
very poor lubricants flow through the rolling element bearings of the
turbopumps. Although solid lubricants in the bearing cage provide
some lubrication early in the bearing life, these bearings operate
essentially in an unlubricated condition. The High Pressure Oxidizer
Turbopump (HPOTP) operates at 30,000 rpm and has a design operational
life of 27,000 seconds (7.5 hours) or 50 missions. However, the bear-
ings can begin to wear after operating periods of a few thousand
seconds. Advanced turbopump bearings, which will operate at II0,000
rpm, will present an even more rigorous materials challenge.
366
Since the bearings must have good corrosion resistance, the nor-
mally used high-speed bearing materials based on tool steels (i.e.,
;[MS 6444, AMS 6491) cannot be used. Stainless steel bearing alloys
such as AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) and AMS 5749 have inferior wear and fatigue
properties when compared to AMS 6491.
The objectives of this study were to (I) design a tester for eval-
uating HPOTP bearing wear in a cryogenic service environment, (2) de-
termine the necessity for testing in LO 2, and (3) extend the life of
the HPOTP bearings by choosing materials or coatings having better
inherent wear resistance than AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR).
The three bearing materials chosen for the study were AMS 5618
(VIM-VAR), AMS 5900, and AMS 6491. AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) is currently
being used in the SSME bearings. It was chosen for its high strength,
high hardness (Rc58-62) and corrosion resistance. AMS 5900 is also a
stainless steel with compositions almost identical to AMS 6491 except
for the amount of chromium (Table I)o AMS 5900 combines the tempering,
hot hardness and hardness characteristics of AMS 6491 steel with the
corrosion and oxidation resistance of AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR). It can also
attain a higher hardness (Rc61-64) than AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR), which in-
dicates higher strength and wear resistance. AMS 6491 is a tool grade
steel commonly used for aircraft gas turbine engine bearings. This
alloy has proven good wear properties and good fatigue life. However,
due to a low chromium content, there is little corrosion resistance.
Table I. Chemical Composition of Materi_is (Wt%)
C Mn Si Cr Mo V Ni Fe
AMS 5618 0.95-1.20 1.00 1.00 17.00 0.50 -- 0.75 BAL.

(VIM-VAR)
AMS 5900 1.05-1.15 0.40 0.30 14.00 2.00 1.00 -- BAL.
AMS 6491 0.80-0.85 0.25 0.20 4.10 4.20 1.00 0.08 BAL
Two hard coatings were evaluated, thin-dense-chromium (TDCr) plat-

ing and physical vapor deposi£ed (PVD) titanium nitride. The chromium
plating is electrodeposited in a proprietary bath using a high current
density resulting in a thin (2 to 2.5 microns), dense, adherent coat-
ing. This coating is successfully being used to provide corrosion
resistance, low wear, and improved fatigue life in AMS 6444 lubricated
bearings. Full-scale bearings were tested in water-based lubricants
and without lubricant. All cases exhibited improvements in bearing
life over unplated bearings. This coating is also reported not to
peel or crack under cryogenic conditions. I
Titanium nitride (TIN) hard coatings have been reported to provide

improved wear, corrosion resistance, and fatigue life in bearings. 2,3
367
Titanium nitride was applied by (i) Radio Frequency (RF) sputtering 4
and (2) Reactive Plasma Ion Bombardment(RPIB). 5 Both titanium nitride
coatings were 0.5 micron thick because other investigators have found
that thick coatings are likely to crack under high loads. 6
Experimental Procedure
A four-ball lubrication tester was converted to uniquely simulate

the operating conditions of the SSME HPOTP bearings. Three i/2-inch-
diameter balls machined to the same size and specification as the SSME
HPOTP balls are placed in a test cup. The fourth ball in the tester
is replaced by a cone that pyramids upon the three balls in the cup.
The configuration is shown in Fig. i and 2. The 45-degree cone angle
produces a spin/roll ratio of 1.27 (HPOTP turbine bearing has a spin/
roll ratio of 0.7). A 45-kg weight applied through a cantilever arm
provides a mean Hertz stress of 2.12 GPa (the mean Hertz stress in the
HPOTP turbine bearing can be as high as 1.72 GPa). Based on Archard's
wear equation, wear is proportional to PV where P is the contact
Fig. I. Schematic of Cone-Three-Ball Tester
Fig. 2. Picture of Cone-Three-Ball Test Specimens
368
stress in GPa and V is the sliding velocity between the contacting
surfaces in meters/second.7 Because the tester runs at 3600 rpm,
the maximum achievable PV level is 0.62 GPa x m/s while the SSME PV
level is 3.78 GPa x m/s. Therefore, a ratio of rig test time to turbo-
pump service time of 6:1 provides similar PV levels. A comparison of
HPOTP bearings and cone-three-ball parameters is shown in Fig. 3. The
environment is provided by sealing the cone-ball-cup assembly and
pumping a constant flow of liquid oxygen or liquid nitrogen through
the enclosed chamber. Tests were initially performed in liquid nitro-
gen for safety reasons to evaluate the tester and to determine the
reproducibility of the results.
l
RPM CONE-BALL SSME BEARING
SPIN VELOCITY, RPM 2546 63,000
ROLLING VELOCITY, RPM 2006 31,500

ITEM CONTACT TYPICAL OPERATION
_2546 ', / SPIN/ROLL RATIO 1.27 0.7
MEAN HERTZ STRESS, GPa 2,12 1.72
TIME SCALE 6 1
2O06
RPM
Fig. 3. Comparison of HPOTP Bearing and Cone-Three-Ball

Parameters
Subsequent tests were performed in LO 2 for 6 hours to simulate i

hour of HPOTP turbine bearing service. Tests could be accelerated, if
needed, by increasing the cone contact angle, which would increase the
ball spin/roll ratio, or by increasing the axial load to induce a
higher Hertzian contact stress.
The test matrix is shown in Table 2. All test hardware were rough
machined, heat treated to final hardness, final machined, lapped, then
coated. In all cases, it was necessary to keep the deposition temper-
atures below the tempering temperature of the alloys (AMS 5618 (VIM-
VAR) = 150 C, AMS 5900 and AMS 6491 = 538 C) to minimize distortion
Table 2. Test Matrix
AMS 5618
SURFAGE TREATMENT/ALLOY (VIM-VAR) AMS 5900 AMS 6491
RF SPUTTERED TiN 2
RPIB TiN _ _
TDCr
BASELINE V _ J
369
and loss of hardness. The AMS6491 was coating with RPIB TiN only
because the RF sputtered TiN process could not be used to coat the
balls. Due to the poor corrosion resistance of AMS6491, this alloy
can only be used in the HPOTPenvironment if all surfaces were coated.
After testing, the wear tracks on the cones were measured with a pro-
filometer and the wear surfaces examinedusing SEM,Auger, and ESCA.
Results and Discussion
Initial testing was performed in liquid nitrogen (LN2) on baseline

AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) and TDCr plated AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR). As shown in
Fig. 4 and Table 3, TDCr-plated AMS
5618 (VIM-VAR) had substantially
AMS 5618
lower wear resistance then baseline (VIM-VAR)
AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR). SEM micrographs

in Fig. 5 show that the initial coat- = i
ing had numerous voids and mudcracks;

i
!
testing caused it to flake off. This
coating was also not reproducible. =
TDCr was therefore eliminated from
O
further testing in the more severe

LO 2 environment. However, the tester
performed well giving reproducible
I IAMS 5618
lVIM-VAR)
results on AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR).
TDCr BASELINE
Testing in LN 2 was followed by Fig. 4. Comparison of Wear of

testing of AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) in LO 2 TDCr Coated and Uncoated
and the wear morphology was compared AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR)
Table 3. Cone-Three-Bali Test Results
MAX. DEPTH OF CROSS SECTION

MATERIAL/SURFACE TREATMENT TRACK (_um) WEAR TRACK (_m 2)
AMS 5900/RF SPUTTERED TiN 0.2 105
I AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR)/RF SPUTTERED TiN 2.0 550
AMS 6491 BASELINE 4.0 1,600
AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) BASELINE* 9.5 1,698
AMS 5900/RPIB TiN (CONE & BALLS) 10.6 6,200
AMS 5900 BASELINE 12.0 7,650
AMS 5900/RPIB TiN (CONE ONLY) 12.4 6,750
AMS 6491/RPIB TiN 14.4 8,950
AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR)/TDCr* 50.0 50,000
AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) BASELINE 101.6 196,800
AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR)/RPIB TiN (OVERHEATED) 1092.2 --
"TESTED IN LN 2
with the HPOTP bearing wear features to establish how well the cone-
three ball tester simulated the HPOTP bearing wear characteristics.
Typical micrographs of HPOTP bearing balls and cone specimens are
shown in Fig. 6. The HPOTP bearing had run a total of 3267 seconds and
370
OF POoi_ _,.',Lffy
o
i
L_._.,J
lOpm 20/_m
Fig. 5. Typical Morphology of TDCr Coating Before Wear

Testing. Note voids and "mudcraeks".
10 um I0/J m
A. AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR,)
B. HPOTP BALL WEAR (3267 SECONDS)
CONE WEAR TRACK-.-L.--_-(6 HOURS LO2)
|,, | • I
101/m 10/./m
c. Ares s618 (vim-vAt)
D. HPOTP BALL WEAR (3267 SECONDS)
cOnEwEAr TRACK----(6 Hours LO2)
Fig. 6. Typical Morphology of Wear Tracks
371
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
POOR QUALITY
the cone for 21,600 seconds,

which simulates 3600 seconds of
HPOTP operation. The amount of
wear in the test specimen (25
to i00 micrometers) is of the
same order as the HPOTP ball
wear. In both cases, wear
occurs by surface delamination
as shown in Fig. 7. Material
loss occurs by removal of thin,
plastically deformed flakes
from the surface. Typical ESCA
spectra of surface oxides in LO 2

test specimens and HPOTP balls ..... !0 m
are shown in Fig. 8 and 9 for
Fe and Cr, respectively. In Fig. 7. Cross Section of Wear
both cases, the oxides are Track From Fig. 6A
Fe203 and Cr203 . The similar Showing Delamination
wear mechanisms and surface
TEST BALL
Fe2(P)3/2
Fe2(P) 1/2
0
0
i I I I
726.0 696.0
BINDING ENERGY, eV
Fig. 8. Typical Fe2p ESCA Spectra of HPOTP and Cone-Three-

Ball Tester Wear Surfaces
oxides indicate that the tester provides a good simulation of the

HPOTP bearing wear. Using such a tester enables more economical eval-
uation of potential bearing materials without having to build and test
complete bearing assemblies.
A comparison of wear of AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) in LN 2 and LO 2 in Fig.

I0 shows that the wear rate in LO 2 is more severe than in LN 2. There-
fore, materials for LO 2 service must be evaluated in LO 2.
The data given in Table 3 and Fig. II show how the different mate-
rials and surface treatments perform in LO 2. AMS 5900 and AMS 6491 were
superior to AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) in the uncoated condition. Although the
372
TEST BALL LO 2
O
Cr2(p)3 / 2 <
Cr2(p) V2
p-
rr
uJ
k-
<
u.
0
z
a.
ul
a
HPOTP BALL
<
LN2
AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) BASELINE
I I I I I
596.0 566.0
Fig. I0. Comparison of Wear
BINDING ENERGY, eV
of ALMS 5618 (VIM-
Fig. 9. Typical Cr2p ESCA Spectra of VAR) in LO 2 and

HPOTP and Cone-Three-Ball LN 2
Tester Wear Surfaces
AMS 6616 AMS 5618 _
(VIM-VAR) (VIM-VAR)
mira
|
t_
O
<[
I-
<[
Iu
u.
0
-l-
p-
w
a
< AMS 5900 I AMS 5900

AMS 6491
AMS 6491
AMS
(VIM-VAR)
5618
AMS 5900 rln
BASELINES RF TiN RPIB TiN
*SPECIMEN OVERHEATED
Fig. II. Cone-Three-Ball Wear of Materials and Surface

Treatments Evaluated in this Program
miccographs in Fig. 12A and 12B indicate that the wear mechanisms of
the uncoated AMS 5900 and AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) are similar, the delam-
inations seem to be thinner for the AMS 5900. Hence, when they flake
off, it results in less wear.
The RPIB TiN coating on AMS 5900 does not significantly affect its
wear resistance, whereas it actually increases the wear of AMS 6491.
This appears to be related to the poor, inherent corrosion resistance
of AMS 6491, which accentuates the wear when the protective coating of
RPIB TiN begins to deteriorate.
373
OF poOR QUALt'TY
lO/_mi
A. AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) BASELINE B. AMS 5900 BASELINE
10/._m
C. RF TiN ON AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) D. RF TiN ON AMS 5900
Fig. 12. Typical Morphology of Wear Surfaces
The RPIB TiN coated AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) wore even more than the
uncoated material. This is due to the substrate being overheated and
softened during deposition of the coating. Hence, no final conclusion
as to the effectiveness of RPIB TiN on &MS 5618 (VIM-VAR) can be drawn
at this time.
Figure II shows that an RF TiN coating is very effective in reduc-

ing wear of AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) and AMS 5900. The observed difference
in wear of RF TiN coated &MS 5618 (VIM-VAR) and &MS 5900 would not
normally be expected since the substrates have very similar hardness
and microstructure. However, the temperature of AMS 5900 during RF
TiN deposition was higher than for AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR). This could pos-
sibly have resulted in a better coating/substrate bond on the AMS 5900
substrate. Some evidence of more flaking of the coating on AMS 5618
(VIM-VAR) compared with the AMS 5900, which indicates a lower bond
strength, is evident in Fig. 12C and D.
374
The data on AMS 5900 in Fig. II illustrate how important the coat-
ing process and process parameters are for the performance of the
coating. Both the RPIB TiN and RF TiN coating had the characteristic
gold color. Although, the RF TiN coating was somewhat darker than the
RPIB TiN coaling, indicating a higher N/Ti ratio of the former, no
significant difference in composition could be determined from ESCA
analysis.
The better performance of the RF TiN coating could be due to it

having a lower coefficient of friction and/or better inherent wear
resistance than RPIB TiN. This will be determined by measuring the
coefficient of friction in LO 2.
Conclusions
The results of this study indicate that it is possible to simulate

the condition in cryogenic bearings using a simple cone-three ball
tester. This is exemplified by similar wear morphologies and composi-
tion of the surface oxides.
It was also demonstrated that wear in LO 2 is much more severe than

wear in LN 2. Hence, evaluation of HPOTP bearing materials and surface
treatments must be performed in LO 2 to be meaningful.
Both RF TiN coated and uncoated AMS 5900 have substantially better
wear resistance than the coated and uncoated AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR), re--
spectively. However RF TiN coated AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) has better wear
resistance than uncoated AMS 5900. AMS 6491 also performed better
than AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR). Thin-dense chromium coated AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR)
wears more than uncoated AMS 5618 (VIM-VAR) possibly due to voids,
cracking, and poor adhesion.
The method used and the process parameters for depositing TiN are
important for the performance of the coating. In this study, radio-
frequency sputtered TiN performed better than the reactive plasma ion
bombardment TiN coating.
AcknowledKement
This work was performed under the Rockwell International Indepen-

dent Research and Development programs.
References
1, Waskiewicz, W., "Extending Bearing Life in Off Highway Equipment,"

Proceeding of SAE Congress and Exposition, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
Paper No. 841124, September 1984.
2. Hinterman, H. E., A. J. Perry, and E. Horvath, "Chemical Vapor

Deposition Applied in Tribology," Wear [, p. 405-415 (1978).
375
3. Dill, J. F., M. N. Gardos, and H. Hinterman, "Rolling Contact
Fatigue Evaluation of Hardcoated Bearing Steels," Proceedinss of
3rd International Conference on Solid Lubrication, Denver
Colorado, 5-9 August 1984.
4. Pitt, C. W., "The RF Sputtering Process," ProceedinKs of

Conference on Ion Platin8 and Allied Technology, Edinburgh,
Scotland, p. 149-156, June 1977.
5. Bunshah, R. F. and A. C. Raghuram, Journal of Vacuum Science

Technology 9, p. 1385 (1972).
6. Ramalingam, S., "Tribological Characteristics of Thin Films and

Application of Thin Film Technology for Friction and Wear
Reduction," Proceedings of International Conference on
Metallurgical Coatings, San Diego, California, p. 335-349, April
1984.
7. Archard, J. F., Journal of Applied Physics 24, p. 981-988 (1953).
376
IN8 9 - 12 6 4 5 t
SSME BEARING HEALTH MONITORING USING A

FIBEROPTIC DEFLECTOMETER
Michael E. Hampson, J. J. Collins, M. R. Randall,

and Sarkis Barkhoudarian

Abstract
A fiberoptic deflectometer was used to investigate

rocket engine turbopump bearing health monitoring. Two
Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) high pressure oxidizer
turbopump turbine-end bearings (16-ball configuration) were
operated in a tester under simulated high pressure oxidizer
turbopump conditions of speed, axial load, and coolant
flowrates: 30,000 rpm, approximately 550 pounds (2448 N),
and 30 gpm (114 Lpm) of liquid nitrogen, respectively. The
deflectometers measured outer raceway deflection, due to
ball passage, in the radial direction. The test data were
analyzed and plotted several different ways: deflection at
shaft synchronous frequency vs time; synchronous histogram;
deflection at second and third cage (2C and 3C), or ball-
train, frequencies vs time; 2C and 3C histogram; product of
deflections at 3C and synchronous frequencies vs time; his-
togram of product of 3C and synchronous; ratio of ball pass
frequency at outer race to synchronous (BPO/Sync) vs time;
histogram of BPO/Sync; and cumulative time that BOP/Sync
spent above a threshold level. Accelerometer data from the
tests were also analyzed and plotted for comparison. The
results determined that bearing health could be success-
fully monitored using the deflectometer. Several algorithms
stood out as the most useful. 2C and 3C vs time consis-
tently showed increases as bearing condition degraded.
Indications became obvious approximately I00 seconds before
the accelerometers began to register changes. BPO/Sync,
and its time spent above threshold, also clearly indicated
degrading conditions. This processing provided a measure
of the onset and duration of ball slip in the bearing, a
strong driver of wear. Indications became obvious approxi-
mately 400 seconds before the accelerometers began to reg-
ister changes.
Introduction
With the progressive development of the reusable rocket engine and

vehicle, it has become evident that there is an in_ediate need for a
system to provide information about the health of engine components
and a method to predict their remaining useful life. A judiciously
377
developed system of condition monitoring instrumentation to provide
such information on a turbopump could allow substantial reductions in
cost and turnaround time by reducing or eliminating the requirements
for routine scheduled disassembly and inspection, as well as generally
premature component replacement. The benefit is twofold in that it
reduces scheduled disassembly and inspection procedures and determines
replacement of components for cause, thus minimizing the checkout time
and cost between operational cycles. The key factors required to de
velop a Condition Monitoring System (CMS) are the determination of the
life-limltlng modes present within the turbopumps and the measurement
and interpretation of the mode characteristics.
The specific objectives of this program are to design, fabricate,

and deliver the components to provide a condition monitoring system
for use with Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) or similar high pressure
turbopumps. The effort is conducted under contract NAS3-23349 with
the NASA-Lewis Research Center under the direction of Mr. Robert M.
Masters. This paper will describe that portion of the study pertaining
to the results of bearing monitoring with the fiberoptic deflectometer.
Test Fixture and Instrumentation Description
The bearing monitoring tests were baselined to the SSME High Pressure
Oxidizer Turbopump (HPOTP) shown in Fig. I. The baseline operating
conditions were identified as follows:
I. Rotating radial loads up to 2000 Ibf

2. Axial loads up to 6000 Ibf
3. 30,000 rpm
4. Coolant flowrate to 30 gpm
A bearing tester was used that emulated all of these conditions except
the rotating radial loads. Also, liquid nitrogen was used as the cool-
ant instead of liquid oxygen.
The tester is shown in Fig. 2. It incorporates two 16-ball config-

uration turbine end bearings, part number RS007787, mounted to a shaft
and installed in a housing. Each bearing can be monitored with six
deflectometers monitoring radial motion of the outer raceway caused by
individual ball passage. The bearing to the left is also monitored
upstream and downstream by pressure and temperature probes. Accelerom-
etevs are mounted to the housing in three perpendicular planes for
real-time test monitors and for correlation to the deflectometer data.
Axial loads are provided either by pressurizing a pneumatic piston
located to the right of the right-end bearing or by loading the piston
with a belleville spring. Liquid nitrogen flows in from the left and
exits from the right.
Monitoring of bearing condition by the fiberoptic deflectometer is

accomplished by utilizing reflected light from the bearing outer race
378
/
Fig. I. High Pressure Oxidizer Turbopump
Fig. 2. Bearing Monitoring Tester
surface; Fig. 3 illustrates this principle. Light is transmitted by a

portion of the fibers in the probe to the race surface. Some of this
light is reflected off the surface and is received by the remainder of
the fibers. This light is then processed through a photodetector to
379
(L.E.D.) " --''I DETECTOR
I LIGHT SOURCE
RECEIVING
[
ITTING OPTICAL
OPTICAL FIBERS
FIBER
I T_ANSM _ PHOTO
OUTER
RACE ALL.EAF,,N
I--( ,,,LL
INNER RACE ...,,.__
SHAFT
OUTER INNER ]
RACEWAY RACEWAY /
Fig. 3. Fiberoptic Deflectometer
provide an electrical signal proportional to bearing race surface de

flection. Frequency and amplitude content analysis of the signal pro-
vides information on bearing condition. The probe tip is 0.125 inch
in diameter and 3 inches long. The probe is made by MTI, Latham, New
York.
Wear of the raceway of the left-end bearing is also monitored

using an Isotope Wear Detector (IWD). The ball track in the outer
race is irradiated to a low-level and the change in radioactive count-
rate is correlated to a wear depth by the IWD. The IWD is made by
Spire Corp., Bedford, Massachusetts, which also provides the irradia-
tion service.
Knalysis of Test Data
The analysis focused on the data from Bearing Monitoring Test No.
3 (BMT3), in which the bearing nearly failed during the third of three
tests. It was concluded that this test was the most representative of
bearing life in an actual turbopump.
Shown in FiE. 4 is a plot of the shaft synchronous amplitude versus

time. Test BMT3.1 began at 0 and ended at 732 seconds. Test BMT3.2
began at 732 and ended at 1454 seconds. The final test, test BMT3.3,
began at 1450 and ended at 1917 seconds. "Spikes" in the data of Fig.
4 occured at the beginning/endpoint of each test during the start/stop
38O
2O
"' 15
Z
o
Z
ui
Q
_ 10
I--
.J
n
0 I I I
0 500 1000 1500 2000
TIME, SECONDS
Fig. 4. Synchronous Amplitude vs Time
transient. The data in this figure do not follow any specific trend
and were used mainly to verify continuity between tests.
Shown in FiE. 5 is the sync amplitude versus time for test BMT3.3
only. The data show no significant changes prior to the very end of
the test.
A histogram of the data from Fig. 4 is shown in Fig. 6. As indicated

in the figure, the amplitude at this frequency spent almost all of its
time at low levels, mostly below 4.792 microinches (halfway between
the midpoint values of 4.343 and 5.241 microinches). It was determined
during the course of the data analysis that the best utility of the
histogram was in determining redline or cutoff values; once the par-
ameter exceeded the value at which it spent most of its time the test
would be cut. This cutoff value would be emperically determined for
the application under consideration, e.g., a turbopump. In the case
of the tester, use of the histogram in this manner indicates that the
test should have been cut around the beginning of test BMT3.3 (see
Fig. 5). (The start/stop transient spikes were eliminated from consid-
eration for cutoff indicator due to their short duration and associa-
tion with the start/stop transient.)
Figure 7 shows the amplitudes of the second and third cage (2C and
3C) harmonics of the fundamental cage rotation frequency versus time.
381
2O
TIME, SECONDS
FiE. 5. Synchronous Amplitude vs Time (Test BMT3.3 Only)
1.0
0.8
o
O
o 0.6
Z
U.J
0
ILl
,'r
" 0.4
l--
.J
gJ
" 0.2
AMPLITUDE, MICROINCHES
Fig. 6. Synchronous Amplitude Histogram (Entire Test)
382
50
_E--J-- 2C AMP
3C AMP
4O I
£0
w
O
Z
3O
O
n-
O_
i/
2O
J
D.
0 500 1000 1500 2000
TIME, SECONDS
Fig. 7. Second- and Third-Cage Rotation Harmonics

vs Time (Entire Test)
These values are actually harmonics of the ball-train rotation fre-

quency. Shown in Fig. 8 are the same data for test BMT3.3 only. Note
the large amplitude increases in the data well before the end of the
test. These frequencies were monitored real-time during actual testing
and provided a cutoff indicator when their amplitudes began to in-
crease significantly.
Shown in Fig. 9 and I0 are histograms for the 2C and 3C data, re-
spectively, for the entire test series. Using the same reasoning used
for the sync amplitude histogram, the test should have been cut when
2C exceeded 9.785 microinches, or when 3C exceeded 8.386 microinches
(again ignoring the transient spikes). Both exceeded these values at
about the same time, around 1840 seconds (Fig. 8). Use of 2C and 3C
data for cutoff was preferable to using sync data because the in-
creases that occured in 2C and 3C were larger in amplitude and dura -=
tion and consistently appeared during the beating's final moments,
whereas the sync amplitude did not. Also, the sync amplitude histogram
indicated that the bearing should have been pulled from service at the
beginning of test BMT3.3, whereas 2C and 3C indicated that the bear-
ing's condition was still acceptable at that point. All other data
indicated that the bearing was still useful at the beginning of test
BMT3.3.
383
5O
4O
LU
1-
(J
Z
5
__ 3o
IE
ui
o
i-
ff 2o
IE
10
T-
TIME, SECONDS
FiE. 8. Second- and Third-Cage Rotation Harmonics vs Time

(BMT3.3 Only)
1.0
o
O 0.8-
o 0.6
z
W
0
W
m 0.4
>_
-J
W
" 0.2
384
1.0
o 0.8
O
v-
>:
o 0.6
Z
W
o
W
" 0.4
uJ
,<
..I
UJ
0.2
Fig. I0. Third-Cage Histogram (Entire Test)
The product of the sync amp and 3C is shown in Fig. II. The histo-
gram of this product is shown in Fig. 12. The product provides a
stronger signal than either the sync or 3C alone, but also multiplies
its error. The data indicate that the bearing should have been pulled
from service at the same time that 2C and 3C indicated. No advantage
is seen in using this type of processing over 2C or 3C alone.
The ratio of the ball pass frequency at the outer race (BPO) to
the sync frequency is shown in Fig. 13. This ratio is a measure of
the amount of slip occurring between the balls and the outer race.
The actual ratio occurs within the "actual range" shown due to the
limited resolution of the processing used to obtain the BPO and sync
frequencies. The upper and lower limits of the "ideal range" are de
termined from histograms of the upper and lower actual range values,
respectively; these histograms are shown in Fig. 14 and 15, respec-
tively. Theoretically, the \_value of the BPO/Sync ratio is somewhat
lower than shown by the ideal range, around 6.8. However, this value
is dependent on loading, actual geometry of the beating's components,
contact angle, etc., and therefore it is expected that the bearing
will not operate exactly where predicted. The histograms of Fig 14
and 15 were used to determine the range of ratios in which the bearing
prefers to operate, and these values were then transformed to the
ideal range values shown in Fig. 13.
As Fig. 13 shows, slippage occured at the outer race at the begin-

ning of test BMT3.2 and for the first half of test BMT3.3. These
385
150
¢/)
100
U
_z
O
o_
:E
I
I
_P I
..I
=. 50
<¢
2000
TIME, SECONDS
Fig. Ii. Product of Third Cage and Synchronous (Entire Test)
1.0
o 0,8
O
T-
u 0.6
z
UJ
o
uJ
" 0.41
_>
I--
<¢
J
UJ
" 0.2
Fi B . 12. Histogram of Product of Third Cage and Synchronous

(Entire Test)
386
8.0
7.8
tL
7.6
{ "\
_o
_- 7.4 IDEAL ACTUAL ,,_li
i "-_ /
RANGE RANGE , t,
n- I{ +,
7.2 ......
J I" \'/-
!
I /--i
7.0
6.8
500 1000 1500 2000
TIME, SECONDS
Fig. 13. Ratio of Ball Pass Fcequency at Outer Race to

Synchronous Frequency (Entire Test)
1.0
o
O 0.8
T-
O 0.6
z
iJU
O
MJ
u. 0.4
u.l
>
I--
<C
..I
-, 0.2
n,.
FiE. 14. Histogram of BPO/Sync, Upper Limit

(Entire Test)
387
1.0
Fig. 15. Histogram of BPO/Sync, Lower Limit (Entire Test)
periods of increased activity correspond to periods of decreased

activity in 2C and 3C amplitudes (Fig. 7). One possible explanation
of this curious phenomenon is associated with the failure mechanism of
the bearings during these tests. Every bearing that failed during the
testing was due to a failed, or almost failed, cage in which one or
more cage pockets had been severely damaged due to ball contact. Those
cage pockets that were severely damaged contained a ball that was
smaller by several ten-thousandths of an inch than the rest of the
ball train. The smaller ball rolled faster on the inner race than the
larger balls and therefore pulled the rest of the ball train around at
a faster-than-normal speed. This theory was validated by posttest
inspection of the bearing cages which showed that cage pockets with
small balls had the front of their pocket (leading side) severely worn
and deformed by ball contact, and those pockets with normal sized
balls had the back (trailing side) of their pockets worn, indicating
that they had been pulled around. The cage from the left-end bearing
after test BMT3.3 is shown in Fig. 16. This nonuniform loading caused
the BPO/Sync ratio to increase beyond its normal value; the ball train
was skidding on the outer race. Energy that would normally have been
transmitted to the outer raceway by the balls due to rolling contact
was now being dissipated at the ball/cage interfaces due to contact
there. The 2C and 3C amplitudes were therefore quieter during periods
of slipping.
Aside from this correlation, the BPO/Sync ratio indicates that

destructive wear due to ball slip was starting to occur at the begin-
ning of test BMT3.2. Isotope wear detector data at the end of this
test did not indicate any significant changes, so it is inferred that
388
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
SMALL BALL POCKET
Fig. 16. Bearing Cage After Test BMT3.3
the wear occurring was minimal. The ratio also indicates that signifi-
cant changes had occurred in the beating's geometry at the beginning
of test BMT3.3, probably the reduction in diameter of one or more of
the balls in the ball train, leading to an increase in the ratio (in-
creased slippage). This increase is significant in that it is a rela-
tively large change in the ratio that exists for a long time, making
it a good parameter to monitor.
With tighter tolerances on the processing techniques used to de--

termine the BPO and sync frequencies it would be possible to reduce
the ranges shown in Fig. 13. This could either be done manually, as
was done to establish the data base from which Fig. 13 was developed,
or automatically. Automating the procedure would require developing a
softwear package to process the data. Such softwear development is
beyond the scope of the current program, but is not beyond the capa-
bilities of Rocketd]rne's Analog Data Processing facility.
Finally, Fig. 17 shows the cumulative difference between the lower

limit of the actual range in Fig. 13 and the upper limit of the ideal
range versus time. This plot also illustrates when slipping was occur-
ring, but in addition it tells how long the bearing operated with a
given amount of slip-induced wear, similar to a "damage fraction"
value. It is basically the same information as that in Fig. 13 but is
presented in a format in which probable bearing condition is easier to
assess. Determining a cutoff value for Fig. 17 would have to be deter-
mined empirically for the specific application, but it appears that a
389
0.8
0.6
J
o
z
u)
UJ
k-
I
OZ 0.4 i
>-
I
J
o
O.
m
0.2 -
/
/
.__'_,,-nJ__.._
_r__..,_..__. _ l,-Tn-,__ ,.._ J I
0 500 1000 1500 2000
TIME, SECONDS
Fig. 17. Time Spent Over Threshold BPO/Sync (Entire Test)
good measure would be the rate of change at which the slippage is

occurring. In Fig. 17, the cutoff would probably be between 1650 and
1750 seconds during the period of high slippage. Based on the other
data obtained, this cutoff would occur before 2C and 3C began to reg-
ister large changes, and long before sync began to register changes.
The bearing, at this point, was probably at the end of its useful life
but was not at the point of severe damage, which would eventually re
suit in damage to the tester.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the algorithms deemed most useful for processing

deflectometer data are the following:
I. 2C and 3C versus time, using histograms to determine cutoff

values (Fig. 7 through i0).
2. BPO/Sync versus time using histograms to determine ideal range

(Fig. 13 through 15).
3. BPO/Sync time over threshold versus time (Fig. 17).
390
Used together it is possible to produce a fairly clear picture of
bearing condition with these algorithms. Eventually, through the em-
pirical correlation of data, it may be possible to determine the
weighting factors for 2C, 3C, and BPO/Sync versus time and its time
over threshold to provide more reliable figures of merit for condition
monitoring.
More importantly, though, is that the health of the bearing can be

directly detected by installing the deflectometer in the turbopump.
It will no longer be necessary to disassemble or borescope the bear-
ings to determine their condition; the deflectometer data will provide
this information. Significant reductions in maintanance and turnaround
costs can be recognized by implementing the deflectometer into the
turbopumps since bearing health will be easily known without disassem-
bly or manual inspection. At the present time, the deflectometer is
to be installed on a high pressure oxidizer turbopump for the SSME
Technology Test Bed Program.
Bibliography
Barkhoudarian, S. and A. T. Zachary, Condition Monitoring for Space-

Based Reusable Rocket Engines, presented at the ASME Winter Annual
Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, December 1984
Hampson, M. E. and S. Barkhoudarian, Reusable Rocket Engine Condition

MonitorinK, presented at the Advanced High Pressure Oxygen/ Hydro-
gen Conference, Huntsville, Alabama, June 1984.
Hampson, M. E. and S. Barkhoudarian, Reusable Rocket Engine Condition

Monitoring, presented at the SAg Aerospace Congress and Exposi-
tion, Long Beach, California, October 1984.
MacGregor, C. A., Reusable Rocket Engine Maintenance Study, Final Re-

port, NASA CR-165569.
391
XI COMBUSTION
ANDCOOLING
PROCESSES
I
392
N89 - 1264 6}
Aeroj et TedlSystems
Contribution to LOX/HC Ccmbustion
and Cooling Tedmology
S. D. Mercer
D. C. Rousar
Aerojet TechSystems Company
I. INTROI_JCYION
Developing the capability to econcmically deliver large

payloads to orbit has taken on national priority. This new
heavy lift capability will require development of a new
oxygen/hydrocarbon (IDX/HC) propellant booster engine. A
development program could start as early as 1988-89.
Space Transportation Arv2Litecture Studies are underway

to define both the vehicle and engine requirements. Engine
concept studies are also in place that have as their objective
the selection of fuels and engine power cycles; both near and
far term concepts will be considered. The final design
selections at the engine level will be dcmdnated by technical
issues associated with cooling and combustion devices.
Aerojet TechSystems Cumpany (AE_) has been a leader in

the field of LOX/HC technology. This paper addresses the
LOX/HC combustion and cooling data generated by ATC programs of
the past ten years. In addition, ATC is currently conducting
IOX/HC combustion technology programs that could have a
significant _pact on future engine development. The scope and
preliminary results frcm these ongoing p_x/ran_ are presented.
Finally, _tions are made in terms of how future
technology programs might be focused in order to have maximum
benefit to the engine development program.
II. SUMMARY OF PAST ATC _IEGY _/RESULTS
Aeroj et has over 30 years of experience on

oxygen/hydrocarbon propulsion systems. The Titan I program
started in 1955. Over 240 engines were fabricated and tested.
There were two basic configurations: the 150K ibf first stage
engine, (shown during operation in Figure i), and the 70K Ibf
second stage engine.
From 1970 to 1985, Aerojet corducted scme 20 oxygen/

hydrocarbon engine technology programs - about 2/3 of the
programs funded during that time by the NASA and the Air Force.
These programs can be classified into three technical
categories: cooling technology programs, combustion devices
programs, and engine system studies. They are _ized in
the following paragraphs.
393
A. COOLING TECHNOLOGY VRDGRAMS
There were five cooling technology programs that

generated technology potentially applicable to future
oxygen/hydrocarbon engines: (i) heated tube tests on propane,
(2) heated tube tests on liquid oxygen, (3)a transpiration
cooled thrust chamber, (4) a "trans-regen" chamber, and (5) a
graphite lined regeneratively cooled thrust chamber. These
programs are _ized on Table 1 and in the following
pa g p .
i. PropaneHeated Tube Tests
Tests on propane flowing in electrically

heated tubes were conducted at the range of conditions
summarized below. This work was part of the program reported
in Reference 1 and is summarized in Refersrc_ 2.
Pressure: 450 to 1800 psia,

Temperature: -250 to 250 F,
Velocity: 50 to 150 ft/sec,
Heat Flux: up to 12 Bt_in. 2 sec,
Wall Temperature: up to 1200 F,
Tube Diameter: 1/8 and 3/16 in.
This test program produced the following

results relevant to forced convection, critical heat flux, flow
oscillations, and coolant side coking.
a. Forced Convection Heat Transfer
Data were correlated with the equation

shown on Figure 2. This type of correlation is complicated but
it works. It is particularly good for matching the observed
decrease in heat transfer coefficient at supercritical pressure
as the wall temperature is increased. This characteristic is
shcwn in Figure 3.
b. Flow Oscillations
Flow oscillations were observed at

p/pcr values < i. 65. They correlated with velocity and wall-
to-bulk temperature ratio (Ref. 2).
c. Critical Heat Flux
The critical heat flux or burnout heat

flux at subcritical pressure was fc_nd to be significantly
higher than indicated by low velocity data generated during the
1960's. The following correlation was established but should
be used with caution at temperatures less than -180 F.
394
0BO = 0.5 + 0.000271 V_Tsu b
d. Coolant Side Coking
The coking characteristics of propane

at 1800 psia were evaluated by oonducting long duration tests
at fixed heat flux conditions (see Figure 4) with a tube that
is chemically compatible with hydrocazbDns (Monel K-500). The
results, summarized in Figure 5, show (i) that the coking
characteristics of propane are about the same as RP-I and (2)
no significant improvement was obtained with high purity
propane (natural grade is 95% pure, instrument grade is 99.9%
pu_).
2. Liquid Oxygen Heat Transfer
The heat transfer coefficient of

supercritical liquid oxygen was measured at the following range
of conditions and the correlation derived frcm the data is
shown on Figure 6 (Ref. 3). This correlation was subsequently
verified during LO 2 oooled thrust chamber tests at IeRC (Ref.
4).
Pressure: 2500 to 5000 psia

Bulk _ture: 173 to 391 R
Wall _ture: 220 to 1714 R
Heat Flux: 1.2 to 55 Btu/in2-sec
1.5 x 105 to 3.2 x 106

Reynold' s Number:
3. Transpiration Cooled Chamber
A water transpiration cooled chamber

fabricated from photo-etched platelets was designed and
fabricated for use at the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Lab. as a
re-entry nosetip test devioe (Ref. 5). The _O coolant flow
rate was approximately 10% of the hot gas flow rate. The
design was based on the ARES thrust chamber, shown on Figure 7.
This chamber proved to be extremely durable as it was
subsequently fired over 200 times with oxygen/Benzonitrile
(C_5CN) at a nominal chamber pressure of 3000 psi. A test
firing is shown on Figure 8. Carbon deposition occurred in
significant amounts but never interfered with the transpiration
cooling effectiveness.
4. Trans-Regen Chamber
The concept of a regerm/-atively cooled

chamber which has a transpiration cooled throat was
395
suocessfully demonstrated during the test program reported in
Reference 6. The transpiration coolant was G_.
5. Graphite-Lin e mber
A gra;hite-lined regeneratively cooled

chamber was tested with FLOX/methane propellants very
successfully in the test program reported in Reference 7.
Twenty firings were oonducted at 500 psia chamber pressure for
a total duration of 540 seconds. The chamber wall operated at
a temperature over 4000 F and no wall erosion occurred. A
post-test photogral_h of the chamber is shown in Figure 9.
B. _STION DEVICES PROGRAMS
Aerojet has conducted an extensive list of

combustion devices programs - all within the past i0 years.
They are summarized on Table 2 and described in the following
pa g p .
i. Carbon Deposition
The generation and deposition of carbon were

studied using subscale hardware with IDX/RP-I propellants.
Deposition on a turbine simulator at preburner or gas generator
conditions was evaluated at fuel rich mixture ratios of 0.25 to
i.0 and chamber pressures of 750 to 1500 psia. Deposition on
the cc_m/stion chamber wall was investigated at main chamber
mixture ratios of 2.0 to 4.0 and chamber pressures of i000 to
1500 psia (Ref. 8).
Fuel Rich Preburner Tests - Ignition on all

tests was reliable and smooth. The measured _tion
efficiencies were consistent with previous test programs and
were within about 5% of predictions frum a fuel rich _ion
model. The carbon content in the exhaust plume varied with
mixture ratio as shown in Fig. i0. Pre and post test
examination of the turbine sim/lator showed that significant
soot build-up occurred in all but one test, and that the
buildup increased at the higher mixture ratios. No deposition
was observed during a i00 sec test at 0.25 mixture ratio and
750 psia pressure.
Subsequent follow-on tests have been

conducted at fuel rich mixture ratios and are discussed in the
next section. Future tests are also planned which will include
testing with propane and methane fuels.
Main Oumbustion Chamber Tests - Ignition on

all tests was reliable and smooth. Very high combustion
efficiency, >99%, was achieved at the _i design mixture
396
ratio of 3.0. Efficiency dropped slightly at both higher and
lower mixture ratios but still remained relatively high
ccmpared to the 90-93% range of the operational LOX/RP-I
engines developed during the 1955 - 1965 era. No carbon
oontent was ever visible in the exhaust plume during steady
state operation.
The approach used to determ/ne carbon

deposition for main chamber operating conditions was to measure
heat flux versus time. This approach was suocessfully used
previously (Reference i) for IDX/propane testing at 300 psi
chamber pressure.
The measured heat flux did not decrease with

firing time as expected for any of the locations in the chamber
over the range of operating conditions tested and no
significant carbon build-up was noted on the chamber walls
during post test inspection. Measured heat fluxes were typical
for "clean wall" operating conditions and followed expected
"clean wall" trends. Tnis lack of carbon deposition is not
consistent with the experience of the industry during previous
LOX/RP-I development p_, Titan I and F-I for example, and
is probably due to the higher presto/re and higher oumbustion
efficiency.
2. Dual Throat Thermal Model
A program to determine heat flux

distributions at critical locations in a dual nozzle chamber
with series throats is currently being completed at Aerojet and
key results will be published in Reference 9. The dual nozzle
concept, heat transfer issues, and the dual throat calorimeter
chamber test setup are shown on Figure ii. This engine concept
offers a low weight approach to achieving both high thrust -
low area ratio operation and low thrust - high area ratio
operation.
3. Ignition Characteristics
This program defined the ignition

characteristics and thruster pulse mode capabilities of the
GOX/ethanol propellant combination which was chosen based on a
systems analysis of the spaoe shuttle.
Ignition limits were defined in terms of

m/xture ratio and cold flow pressure using a spark initiated
torch igniter. Igniter tests were run over a wide range of
cold flow pressure, propellant temperature and mixture ratio
(Figure 12). Tne product of cold flow pressure and igniter
chamber diameter was used to correlate mixture ratio regimes of
ignition and non-ignition. Engine ignition reliability and
pulse mode capability were demonstrated using a 620 IbF
397
thruster with an integrated torch igniter. The ncminal chamber
pressure and mixture ratio were 150 psia and i. 8, respectively.
%Tu_uster tests were run over a wide range of chamber pressures
and mixture ratios. _m feasibility of thruster pulse mode
operation with the non-hypergolic GOX/ethar_l propellant
combination was demonstrated with pulse durations and coast
times as low as 60 milliseconds. Igniter designs for
oxygen/propane and oxygen/methane were also fabricated.
4. Oxygen Compatibility
Oxygen oompatibility studies were conducted

as part of the Aerojet OTV program. Rubbing and particle
i_pingement tests were performed at White Sands and the results
were correlated using a burn factor parameter. Scme of the
rubbing test results, and a definition for the burn factor are
shc_n on Figure 13.
5. High Pressure _er
High-pressure combustion of fuel-rich and

oxidizer-rich LOX/RP-I propellants was experimentally evaluated
using 4.0-inch diameter prototype preburner injectors and
chambers. Testing covered the pressure range of 1292 to 2540
psia. Fuel-rich m/xture ratios ranged from 0.238 to 0.367;
oxidizer-rich mixture ratios rar_ed from 27 to 48.
Performance, gas temperature uniformity, and

stability data were measured for two fuel-rich and two
oxidizer-rich preburner injectors. One was a conventional
like-on-like design, and the other was a platelet design
inj r.
The performance data are summarized on

Figure 14. Measured fuel-rich gas composition and C*
performance are in excellent agreement with kinetic model
predictions indicating kinetically-limited _tion. The
oxidizer-rich test rsults i/Kiicate equilibrium ccmbustion as
predicted.
6. LOX/RP-I Injector and IDX/Methane Injectors
During these programs, 40K ibF injectors

were designed for LOX/RP-I and LOX/Methane propellants,
fabricated, and delivered to MSFC for testing. The IDX/RP-I
injector was subsequently tested at MSFC and the results are
_ized in a recent JANNAF paper by Rex Bailey. The
LOX/methane injector is scheduled to be tested soon.
Fnotographs of both injectors are shc_n in Figure 15.
7. High Density Fuel Program
398
The objective of this program was to
determine the combustion and heat transfer characteristics of
IDX/RP-I propellants in the i000 and 2000 psia chamber pressure
range. This was accomplished through the design, fabrication,
and testing of injectors with two different patterns. Testing
was conducted with both uncooled and cooled "workhorse"
chambers and with a calorimeter chamber over a range of
pressures and mixture ratios. A IDX/RP-I torch spark igniter
was also designed and demonstrated.
The thrust chamber testing was conducted in

2 parts: an injector test series with water-cooled and
graphite '_orkhorse" chambers and a calorimeter chamber test
series. Test durations up to 30 sec with multiple mixture
ratio points were included in this series. Other test
variables included chamber pressures ranging frcm 1040 to 1960
psia, fuel temperatures of 50 ° to 250°F, and chamber lengths of

ii and 15 in.. Hot fire test l_hotographs are shown on Figure
16. Heat flux data are summarized in Figure 17.
The calorimeter chamber data showed that

local heat fluxes were below those predicted near the injector
and 70% greater than those predicted in the throat. Although
the calorimeter chamber was blackened by the testing, the heat
transfer data, combined with the very light to nonexistent
sooting near the injector, gave no indication of the existence
of a soot thermal barrier.
The measured injector performance ranged

from 95 to 97.5% ERE (energy release efficiency) deperding on
the injector pattern and operating conditions. Analysis of the
performance data indicated the primary loss mechanism to be low
mixing efficiency. The PAT pattern was stable under all
operating conditions. However, there were several instances of
spontaneous I-T instability encountered with the TLOL pattern.
. Oumbustion Performarce and Heat Transfer

Pro/ram
This program consisted of the three major

task areas described below.
Task I - Regenerative Cooling

Characterization
Forced convection and nucleate boiling heat

transfer data and correlations available in the literature for
candidate hydrocarbon fuels were reviewed. Those candidates
included propane, methane, RP-I, and axmnonia. Regenerative
chamber cooling analyses were then conducted to compare the
39_
cooling capabilities of each fuel and determine the operating
point (thrust and chamber pressure) limits imposed thereby.
Tasks II and IV - Subscale Injector

Characterization
Tasks II and IV involved the design,

fabrication, testing and data analysis of subscale hardware,
i.e., nominal thrust of 1000-1bF, to evaluate the combustion
performance, stability, and gas-side heat transfer
characteristics of liquid oxygen/hydrocarbon propellants. Four
injector patterns were tested, including oonventional OPO
triplets and like-on-like doublets, and platelet injector
patterns. Heat sink and water-oooled calorimeter chambers were
utilized, and a _le chamber section was used with the
former to allow evaluation of chamber length effects. A fuel
film coolant ring was used in conjunction with the triplet and
platelet injectors. An adjustable acoustic cavity section
provided cambustion stability. Both propane and ethanol fuels
were tested as shown in Figure 18.
Task III - Preliminary Engine System

Characterization
In Task III numerous engine operating points

were analyzed to determine engine performance and weight
figures for orbit maneuvering reaction control system
thrusters. The work built upon the regenerative cooling
studies of Task I and extended to include turbomachinery for
pump-fed systems, alternative chamber materials for the orbit
maneuvering thruster, and film cooling for the reaction control
thrusters. Thruster envelopes were defined by the current
engines on the Space Shuttle.
9. Rlotcgraphic Cnmbustion
An experimental and analytical program was

oonducTx_ to determine if high-speed photography techniques
could be utilized to increase the analytical understanding of
oxygen/hydrocarbon combustion. The program was conducted in
two phases. The objective of Phase I was to demonstrate the
advantages and limitations of using high-speed photography to
identify potential cumbustion anomalies (e.g., pops, fuel
freezing, reactive stream separation [RSS], carbon formation).
The objective of Phase II was to develop ccmbustion evaluation
criteria for evaluating p_mnising low-cost propellant
ccmbinations and injector elements.
Carbon formation and RSS mechanisms and

trends were identified by using high-speed color photography at
speeds up to 6000 frares/sec. Single element injectors were
tested with IDX/RP-I, LOX/_, IDX/Methane and iOX/Ammonia
400
propellants. Tests were conducted using seven separate
injector elements. OFO Triplet; Rectangular Unlike Doublet
(RUD) ; Unlike Doublet (UD) ; Like-on-Like Doublet (LOL-EDM) ;
Slit Triplet, Transverse Like-on-Like Doublet (TLOL), and the
Pre-Atumized Triplet (PAT). All seven injectors were fired at
main engine conditions. The _ and IDL-EDM were also fired at
gas generator mixture ratios. Chamber pressure ranged frcm
125-1500 psia, fuel temperatures ranged frcm -245°F to 158°F,

and fuel velocities ranged frum 48-707 ft/sec. High speed test
photographs of the testing are shcwn on Figure 19.
i0. Analysis of Carbon Formation Mixing
This study was an attempt to verify the

hypothesis of fuel-vaporization limited carbon formation
through analysis of the data frcm the photographic combustion
program.
By applyingthe Priem-HeidmannGeneralized-
I_ vaporization correlation, the ccmputer model developed
predicted the observed spatial variation of propellant
vaporization rate, using injector cold-flow results to define
the stream tubes. The calculations show thattheoverall and
local propellant vaporization rate and mixture ratio change
drastically as the injection element type or the injector
operating condition is changed. These results were compared
with the regions of carbon formation observed in the
photographic combustion testing. Thecorrelation showed that
the fuel vaporization rate and the local mixture ratio produced
by the injector element have first order effects on the degree
of carbon formation. Low fuel vaporization rates significantly
increase the degree of carbon formation. Also, fuel rich zones
containing vaporizing liquid fuel are sources of carbon
formation. For similar injector operating conditions, propane
produced less carbon formation than RP-I because of its higher
vaporization rate. Chamber pressure also appeared tohave an
effect on carbon formation which is observed to decrease with
increasing presmme.
ii. Dual Throat Cold Flow
The dual throat concept provides a means to

obtain a large area ratio adjustment within a single thrust
chamber assembly without the need for extendable nozzles. The
concept was evaluated with cold flow (nitrogen gas) testing and
through analysis for application as a tripropellant engine for
single-stage-to-orbit type missions.
Three modes of operation were tested and

analyzed: (i) Mode I Series Burn, (2) Mode I Parallel Burn,
401
and (3) Mode II. Primary emphasis was placed on the Mode II
plume attachment aerodynamics and performance.
The conclusions from the test data analysis

are as follows: (i) the concept is aerodynamically feasible,
(2) the performance loss is as low as 0.5 percex%t, (3) the loss
is minimized by an optimum nozzle spacing corresponding to an
AF/ATS ratio of about 1.5 or an Le/Rtp ratio of 3.0 for the
dual throat hardware tested, requiring only 4% bleed flow, (4)
the Mode I and Mode II geometry requirements are compatible and
pose no significant design problems.
C. ENGINE SYST_4 S_LK)IES
The more significant engine system studies which

were conducted are summarized in Table 3.
i. Advanced Oxygen/Hydrocarbon Engine Study
This study, ocm_pleted in 1981, is currently

being updated. It consisted of an evaluation of the
hydrocarbon engine options based on the technology available at
that time.
Parametric engine data were generated over a

range of thrust levels from 200K to 1.5M ibF and chamber
pressures from i000 to 5000 psia. Engine ooolants included RP-
i, refined RP-I, CH4, C3H8, LO2, and LH 2.
Oxygen/RP-I G.G. cycles were found to be not

acceptable for advanced engines. The highest performing
oxygen/RP-i staged combustion engine cycle identified utilized
oxygen as the coolant and incorporated an oxidizer-rich
preburner. The highest performing cycle for oxygen/CH 4 and
o Vc3H utilized fuel cooling and incorporated both fuel-
and oxidizer-rich preburners. Oxygen/HC engine cycles

permitting the use of a third fluid (hydrogen) coolant and a
hydrogen-rich gas generator provided higher performance at
significantly lower pump discharge pressures. The oxyger_C
dual-throat engine, because of its high altitude performance,
was found to deliver the highest payload for the vehicle
configuration investigated.
,
Dual Fuel, Dual Throat Engine, and Dual
Nozzle Aerodynamics and Cooling
In these two programs, the dual nozzle

engine idea was explored and identified as a viable SSTO
candidate. Two basic dual nozzle configurations were
evaluated: series throat, and parallel throat.
4O2
. Advanced High Pressure Engine For Dual Mode
Applications
In this pioneering study, engines for mixed

mode SSTO propulsion systems were evaluated. The mode 1 engine
operated with oxygen and a high density fuel. Tne mode 2
engine propellants were oxygen-hydrogen. Five mode 1 fuels
were considered: RPI, PJS, hydrazine, MMH, methane. Cooling
with propellants and auxiliary coolants were considered.
Preliminary designs were established for the mode 1 engine and
a dual fuel engine.
III. STA_JS OF ONGOING ATC TECRNOLOGY
ATC is currently under contract for four IDX/HC

programs, two engine studies and two combustion technology
programs. The two combustion technology programs are i) Carbon
Deposition Model for Oxygen-Hydrocarbon Combustion; NAS8-34715,
and 2) Oxygen/_n Injector Characterization; F04611-85-
C-0100. The status and scme recent results from the two
ccmbustion programs are presented in the following paragraphs.
A. CARBON DEPOSITION
Testing was resumed on the program in the fall of

1985. The purpose of this testing was to confirm the earlier
test results with LOX/RP-I and investigate the impact of the
shutdown transient on test-to-test carbon build-up. The 2.38
inch diameter test rig is shown schematically in Figure 20.
Figure 21 shows the test set up. Thirty data points were
gathered covering a range of gas generator operating conditions
of mixture ratio (.20 to .40) and chamber pressure (750 to 1500
psia).
The data confirmed the earlier results in terms of

deposition rates and demonstrated that the test-to-test carbon
build-up can be significantly affected by the shutdown
transient. The recent data also show that there appears to be
a very arrow mixture ratio band where carbon deposition is
minimized or perhaps even eliminated. Figure 22 shows the
ratio of pressure across the turbine simulator at the beginning
and end of the individual tests. As shown, a mixture ratio of
0.28 minimizes the rate of carbon build-up.
A post-test photograph of the turbine simulator is

in Figure 23. The carbon build-up is significant but of
interest is the presenoe of the small hollow beads lodged
between the tubes of the turbine simulator. It is believed
that these are the remnants of tube-like formations that have
around the fuel streams at the injector face. similar
_on have been noted at ATC using metalized propellants.
403
The program recently has been expanded to include
testing of the samehardware using propane and methane fuels.
The objective of this testing is to compare the carbon
deposition characteristics of these fuels with RP-I. A second
objective will be to obtain performance and gas temperature
data at gas generator conditions. The latter data does not
exist for propane.
B. OXYGEN HY_I_OCARBC_ INJFEIDR CHARACTERIZATION
The Air Force through AFRPL has taken a

significant step _ solving the major technical issue
associated with IDX/HC propellants; namely, injector
performance and combustion stability. This three year program,
which represents a significant investment by the Air Force, was
undertaken by ATC in _ of 1985 and has as its objective
the establishment of a generic ccmbustor characterization
methodology. Tnis methodology, if successful, could ultimately
eliminate the need for TCA level testing and associated
facility costs on future engine development programs. The
methodology will greatly reduce the risk of encountering
ccmbustion stability and performazK_ problems and eliminate the
need for full-scale injector design iterations.
Other program objectives include the follc_ing:

the methodology will consist of only analysis tools and
reduced-sized hardware testing; can be used by industry; is
applicable to large size engines; and, finally, it mlst be
valid for different fuel types, design and operating
conditions. Testing is planned on all the hydrocarbon fuels of
interest including RP-I, C_ 4 and C3H8, chamber pressures of up
to 2000 psia and thrust levels of up to 300,000 ibf.
The program consists of two phases and associated

technical objectives as follows: Fnase I - Formalize tb_
Methodology, Fnase II - Validate the Methodology. Tne overall
program schedule is shown in Figure 24. As shown, the
validated methodology will be available for the potential
engine development, and we have ccmpleted Phase I.
The methodology which we will begin to validate

with test data begi_ December of this year is described in
the following.
The entire injector design process, defined by the

methodology, is shown in Figure 25, and considers a large
number of requirements and involves several technical
disciplines. We have grouped the activities into five elements
shown graphically in Figure 25 and defined in Figure 26. The
methodology then is really a procedure that prescribes how the
five elements will be performed, what analysis tools will be
4O4
used, and how the analysis models will be anchored with test
data. Figure 26 shows the models that have been selected, the
four levels of rsduced size testing that have been specified,
and the interrelationship between the testing and the analysis
models. The testing anchors the specified models which are
used to calculate performance and stability and make
predictions for the next test level.
The four test levels include uni-element cold

flow, multi-elen_nt hot fire testing, three-dimensional,
reduced size testing and _ional chamber hot fire
tests. Uni-element cold flaw tests (full size element) provide
(a) relative droplet size, (b) an estimate of atmmization
distance, (c) mixing efficiencies, (d) O/F profiles, and (e)
element pressure drop. Multi-element tests are conducted to
(a) define energy release efficiency, (b) define the mixing and
vaporization characteristics, (c) film or barrier cooling loss
trends, and (d) _ts of the combustion profile. The
combination of three and two-d/mensional testing allows the
stability characteristics of the full-scale element to be
evaluated over the entire acoustic frequency range of the full-
scale engine. The three-dimensional reduced size ocmbustion
chamber is sized such that the first tangential mode
corresponds to the third tangential mode of the full size
engine. Likewise, the two-dimensional chamber is sized such
that the first width mode corresponds to the first tangential
mode of the full-size engine. Damping devices can also be
evaluated as appropriate. In addition to stability data the
three-dimensional chamber data confirms the ability to
extrapolate performance data with thrust level. As /nd/cated
previously, the specified analytical models are anchored with
specific data with each test series. The concluding activity
then is the projection of the full-scale injector performance,
cc_patibility and stability characteristics.
As discussed, the methodology will be validated

with test data on Fnase II of our program beginning in December
of this year. Approximately 120 tests using RP-I, CH 4 and C3H 8
using multi-element, three-dimensional and two-dlmensional
hardware will be conducted. Triplet (F-O-F), like doublets and
coax injection elements, will be included in the validation
program as well as acoustic cavities and baffles.
IV. _JIURE TECHNOLOGY ISSUES_TIONS
At this time, it is not clear what the design concept of

the next generation booster engine will be or even which
hydrocarbon fuel will be selected. It is clear, however, that
the design requirements will include long life and minimum
maintenance. It is also unfortunate that only a limited
investment has been made in LOX/HC propulsion technology due to
405
other priorities. If the next generation engine is to meet the
necessary development and operational goals, then the
that are available must be focused and key issues addressed.
Table 4 presents a list of _ed technologies and the
rationale for their selection. Included in the table are
technology issues oovering the areas of cooling, combustion,
turbcmachinery and health monitoring. Clearly, this represents
a shopping list which _ust be continuously reviewed as the time
available prior to engine development diminishes.
References
lm Michel, R. W., "Combustion Performance and Heat Transfer

Characterization of iOX/Hydrocarbon Type Propellants,"
Vol. i, Final Report, 15958T-1548-MA-129T-003F, Aerojet
Liquid Rocket Ccmloany, Contract NAS 9-15958, April 1983.
. D. C. Rousar, R. S. Gross, "Supercritical Convection,

Critical Heat Flux, and Coking Chara_istics of
Propane," _-84-1263, June 1984, Cincinnati, OH.
. Spencer, R. G., Rousar, D. C., and Price, H. G., "LOX

Cooled Thrust Chamber Technology Developments," Journal
of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 17, No. i, Jan.-Feb.,
1980.
. Price, H. G., "Cooling of High Pressure Rocket Thrust

Chambers with Liquid Oxygen," Journal of Spacecraft and
Rockets, Vol. 18, No. 4, July-August 1981.
. Hickman, J. E., "AERES Nosetip Thrust Chamber Assembly

Tester," AFRPL-IR-76-25, 1976.
. H. W. Valler, "Performance of A Transpiration-

Regenerative Cooled Rocket Thrust Chamber," NASA CR
159742, 1979.
. V. R. Stubbs, "A Graphite-Lined Regeneratively Cooled

Thrust Chamber," NASA CR-120853, NAS 3-13315.
. M. F. Lausten, D. C. Rousar, "Carbon Deposition With

IDX/RP-I Propellants," AIAA-85-1164, July 1985,
Monterey, CA.
. R. L. Ewen, C. J. O'Brien, "Dual Throat Thruster Test

Results," AIAA-86-1518, June 1986, Huntsville, Alabama.
i0. B. R. Lawver, D. C. Pmusar, "Ignition Characterization

of the GOX/Ethanol Propellant Cumbination," AIAA-84-
1467, June 1984, cincinnati, OH.
406
ii. L. Schoenman,"Selection of Burn Resistant Materials for
Oxygen-Driven TtLvbc_t_0s," AIAA-84-1287, June 1984,
Cincinnati, OH.
12. B. R. Lawver, "Test Verification of LOX/RP-I High

Pressure, Fuel/Oxidizer-Rich Preburner Designs," AIAA-
82-1153, June 1982, Cleveland, OH.
13. L. Schoenman, R. S. Gross, "Design, Fabrication, Test

and Delivery of a High-Pressure Oxygen/RP-i Injector,"
NAS 8-33651, Report 33651F, 1979.
14. H. W. Valler, "Design, Fabrication, and Delivery of a

High Pressure IOX-Methane Injector," NAS 8-33205, Report
33205F, 1979.
15. R. J. LaBotz, D. C. Rousar, H. W. Valler, "High-Density

Fuel Cnmbustion and Cooling Investigation," NASA CR
165167, 1980.
16. D. C. Judd, "Photographic Combustion Characterization of

IOX/Hydrocarbon Type Propellants," NAS 9-15724, Report
MA-262T, 1980.
17. J. Fang, "iOX/Hydrocarbon Fuel Carbon Formation And

Mixing Data Analysis," CR 169006, NAS 3-22823.
18. R. B. Lundgreen, G. R. Nickerson, C. J. O'Brien, "Dual

Throat Thruster Cold Flow Analysis," NAS 8-32666, Report
32666F, 1978.
19. C. J. O'Brien, R. L. Ewen, "Advanced Oxygen-Hydrocarbon

Rocket Engine Study," Report 33452F, NAS 8-33452, 1981.
20. C. J. O'Brien, "Duel-Fuel, Dual-Throat Engine

Preliminary Analysis," Report 32967F, NAS 8-32967, 1979.
21. G. M. Meagher, "Dual Nozzle Aerodynamic and Cooling

Study," Report 33553-F, _ 8-33553, 1981.
22. W. P. luscher, J. A. Mellish, "Advanced High Pressure

Engine Study for Mixed-Mode Vehicle Applications," NASA
CR 13514, NAS 3-19727.
407
Tablel-_X/_nCool_Technology_
Refer-
Proqram Coolant ence Date s_e/r_nn_
_tion Heated tube _

C3H 8 i, 2 1980
perfor_zqnce Supercritical
and heat
Subcritical HL
transfer Coking same as RPI
3, 4 1977 Hearted tube tests

Ox-ygen heat LO 2
transfer _==iti_
_R_ _X_P1
20K/2000 psi
Leak OK
5 1976 Transpiration cooled
chamber
Re-entry nosetip
test device
50K 3000 psi, 200
firings
_ox/c_5c_
6 1976 Transpiration cooled

Trans-regen GH 2
throat
Concept demonstrated
7 1972
Gr_te-lined _4 5000 ibF, 500 psia
regeneratively Chamber - CH4 regen

Cooled thrust cooled
chamber 9ra_t_
lined
No erosion, 540 sec
(20 Firings)
> 4ooo°F
408
Table 2 - LOX/HydrocarbonCumbustion Devices Programs
Refer-
Proqram Fuel enoe Date Scope/results
Carbon RPI 8 1986 MC - no deposit,

deposition 1000-2000 psia
98% efficiency
GG - deposits measured
- no test-to-test
b_Idup
9 1986 Q/A measured, mode 1

Dual throat H2
thermal model and mode 2
Data analysis in
progress
Ignition Ethanol I0 1984 Ox/ethanol igniter

chaz_cter- C3H 8 Ox/ethanol thruster
istics C_ 4 Future tests at JSC
02 Cumpati- - ii 1984 Rubbing, particle
bility (OTV)
Burn factor
correlation
Applicable to Ox-rich
turbine drive
High pressure RPI 12 1982 Fuel rich/ox rich

preburners preburners
1981 Pc = 1300 - 2500 psia
pe Is blt p
mx/Rpl RP1 13 1981 40K/3000 psi
injector Recent test, MSFC
14. 1979 40K/3000 psi
injec r Future test, MSFC
High density RPI 15 1979 20K/2000 psi

fuel Igniter
Inj r
Chamber
_ion C3H 8 1 1983 1K/300 psi
performance C2HsOH Injector
and heat Chamber

transfer
409
Table 2 - IO_n _tion Devices Programs (cont.)
Refer-
Program Fuel ence Date Scope/results
Photographic RPI 16 1979 Uni-element injector

tests
ccmbustion C3H 8
7 element types
NH 3
Ph phic study
Analysis of above 17 1983 _tionanalysis

carbon Carbon formation
formation related to fuel
vaporization rate
Dual throat 18 1978 Cold flow testing

cold flow Aerodynamic feasibility
410
Table 3. IDX/Hydrocarbon Engine System Studies
Refer-
Programs Fuel ence Date Scope/results
Advanced RP-I 19 1981 Evaluation- IDX/HC

oxygen CH 4 engine options
hydrocarbon Chamber pressure limits

Engine C3H 8 Potential performance
Payload Capabilities
- 2 stage HLLV
Conventional, dual
throat nozzles
20 1979 Parametric study

Dual fuel, RPI/H 2
dual throat Preliminary baseline
defined
Viable SSTO candidate
Dual nozzle 21 1979 Dual throat, dual

aerodynamics expander ooncepts
feasible
analysis
Advanced RP-I 22 1977 SSID mixed mode

high pressure RJ-5 propulsion
engine for C_ 4 2 sets of engines
Dual Mode Mode 1 - high density

Applications Mode 2 - high per-
formance
Series and parallel
burn
Parametric study
Preliminary design
-Model
- dual fuel
411
Table 4
Technology Issues/Recommendations
Technology Area Issue Rationale/Objective

i i
Cooling Hydrocarbon Fuel Copper High Pressure LOX/HC Thrust Chambers will
Alloy Compatibility be Fabricated from Copper Alloys
Existing Data Shows Corrosion of Copper by

HC Fuels (Failure in -- 10 Missions)
LOX Cooling If HC Fuel Cooling is not Acceptable, then

Demonstration LOX Cooling is the Only Alternative to
Tripropellant Systems.
Has been Shown to be Technically Feasible
Thrust Chamber Cooling Show Lile and Performance Goals can be

Demonstralion Achieved with LOX/HC Syslems
Low Cost/Long Life Show Life Objectives can be Met within Cost
Constraints Prior Io Development
Combustion Heavy HC Performance Heavy Hydrocarbons (RP-1) have Shown

and Compatibility Higher than Predicted Thrust Chamber Heat
Fluxes Coupled with Low Performance
Alternative Ignition Low Maintenance, Reusable Engines will

Require a Reliability and Nondamaging
Ignition Source
Turbomachinery Uniform Drive Fluid Turbine Life Historically Controlled by Drive

Fluid Temperature Uniformity and Start and
Shut-Down Transients
Long Life/Low Cost Long Life Bearings and Seals will be Required
Stale of the Art Design/Fabrication Processes

must be Applied in Order to Reduce Costs
Health Monitoring Sensor Compatibility with Anticipated Operational Requirements will

Rocket Engine Environment Require Diagnostic Measurements
412
oRIGINAL _'_"_" I._
04: POOR QUAL|TY
1st Stage - 300K 2nd Stage - 80K
Figure i. Titan I Launch
413
ORIGINAL pAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
I° --I
0
0
0
0
'0 i=
0
0
03
00
03
0
i°
0 _J
O,I
_J
.O
000_ L_
O.
cO
oO
EI':ISINFIN 1-1:ISSFIN "IVIN::IINIU::IdX:I 'qN/pq rr
0
0
414
'0
0 _J
-- t,,,_
_ a. I-.-
0 O0 I,,I,-
'P"" '_'=" I,/")
"- O0 0
II "P" v" 0
E_
0
II IJ
0
q)
b_
_J
_J
_J
I--
q_
Cl,
i I 1 I I
I
I I I | ! 0
0 0 0
T--
qJ
O=IS-_'NI/A18 - ¢ _0
415
0
I
C_
z
0
0
co
r W
.J 0
eq
0
0
1
4J
0 0
_D
fy.
_4 C_
H "I" E_
I-
e T-
m
u_
H o
e
H
1/t 0
_r
e
H
I
0
0
l J I 1
'1/tl
0
0
0
:1o '3tlNIV_I3dlAi31 11VM
416
o.
0 0 e¢-
0
O_
I_0 _b ill <_ /O / O

[]
OtDO _. / p O_T--
0 <] O I,I. <] / 0

0 / [3 0
,r- i'll
o_ /
/ [] A
-J
i i 0 [] co o
n 0 / o Lo
0 c_
ey. U'_ / 0 --otM 0
v-- /
o
/ 0 0
/
0
.4
_r
o
,,,q
I ! I I L I,, , , I,,, I
000 0
_ •
T--
"NIIN-NIEi/O=IS _'NI - El
=IIVEI dNQTIN8 =IONVISIS:II:! "IVINId=IHI =13400
417
ORIGINAL PAGE L".,
OF POOR QUALITY
,q
Z
t_
_J
L-
_-_o
o
(D c_
<
O_
,.-]
0 '_"
==
P
0 c_ ._
"rI _
_ .22 _
•,. _J E_ ::>
q-_dq_l SZO0'
qnw
418
C_IAL PAGE 1_;_
OE pOOR QUALITY
C
o
Ul
,-_
0
0
CD
I
C
0
C_
U_
C
419
POOR QUALITY
"0
m ,12
0 c.D
0
U
t- 0
0
O C.)
im
L_ 0
am
Q.
t-
in
L_ co
I-
0 E_
E-4
"r <
L2
Z
<
0
m
|m
(#J
Q.
u_
o
o
o
u_
m C_
|m
im CI
C
0 0
N Z
C
0
x
0
.J
420
ORiGI,rVAL _ _.......
,..;
OF POOR QUALITy
0
_-_
U_
c0
r_
,.c:
GJ
x
o
"0
,.c:
C_
GJ
421
OF POOR QUALn_
u3
O
il O
m,.
:E o.
II r_
m,,
:E
O
Q
,.,..
E
:3 _e
O4 I-- o
4J
X o
¢5
II
m,.
:E o o. E
x _
0
.J _
m
,x:
_ N
c;
SD
(M
_a0
n-
=E
L I ! I I
C_ _ Q
o o
O
o
co
(:9o) Ol '3URIVB3d_31 NOllSnS_OO
422
OR,GIM._..__':_
.......
OF.. POOR QUALITY
f:::
0
©
Z
c'J
0
/ oO
e-
423
OnIGINAL PAGE '_
OF POOR QUALrl'Y
.r.t
r-_
L_
o
L_
(u
_0
r._
424
C
0
13. W l-
ix3
r.z3 _ C_.
0 L.m
o_ _
Q_' {-I 0
.IJ
,.-I
k-
0J
._ , w
k.
0° _U
. N . . I . . . o _Z
_J Ck
E _4
(D
C
w
O
-,-I
i- Cr
_gP, > O
O w
_., rn
U
'_ fD
U_ CI
CD
e- ,__,
_J
o:1
ll-Jll I I I J. I I:I I I I I ,I I III I I I ]
o _._
o 0 c)
.o l_lnlV_]dN]l N_lrlg IV _OlgvJ N_IA9

ORIGINAL PAGE I_
OF POOR QUALITY
425
4000 EDM Injector 4000 Platelet Injector
3000 1 Predicted C_ _ r_ 3°°°r- J FRCM
2000
1 2000
1000 L I [ I 1000 / I I 1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Mixture Ratio Mixture Ratio
Fuel-Rich Combustion is Kinetically Controlled
3000 -
A
fJ
U') e:,ctoO *
i,I.
2000
4=
r,.)
1000 ' , , , , ,
25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Mixture Ratio
Oxidizer Rich Preburners Exhibit Equilibrium Combustion
Figure 14. Oxygen/RP-I Preburner Performance
426
OF POORQUALITY
O
I..--
0 O
0 m_
¢-
-r
! O
rr X
O
X _I
0
_I ©
4-}
U
(U
-r-1
Cl
-,3"
u_
O
O
O
C}
427
E
r=
0
4.J
"0 C_
m 4J
oo 0
0 0
im
r=
im
!
n o
_0
rro,1
X 11 XC/J 11
Oo
0 0
_in ._1 Z I_.
-,--_
_2
_,x:l
°H
,--.i
°_
428
I"
_N
_N
GO cM
0
0
0
04
u U
E
'M u 0
0-_
Z
0 5.- _2
\ 00 _j
g
\ E
\ \ N
- CO
\ \ e-
I g 0 Q
m
r=- U
u
c- C
C_ i=--
I
io r-- I_
,_..
uJ OCO0 _" 0
O0
eI N
04
L_ ._1 bO
II II I) It oo _E
X
c,- 0
0
0 >-
_o I--- (-)
,,,z
_JO
LsJO
_0
0 0
11
I I I I I I
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0
%O
I I I I dl I l I I
0 0 0
0 0 0
%D N
00 p..
_0s- u.t/n_,_ 'v/b
429
0
CD
_D
_U
_Z
_D
"0
©
.Q t-
0 o
_m
©
Dm
_O
0 0
mm
mm
0
=L 0 a
Lf_r-
"rD o
Oo
X-Q xO
O_ OO
430
ORIC-!;_JAL p_'_'.
,'_'.: _ _.,.
_,L_
OF POOR QUALITY
,_1
I
0 u_
I 4-1
--I u_
E-_
u)
.I-J
ul
e-
(II
L_
I-
u_
,.C
C_
c_
_:_
0
cD
uo
m ,.C
Q. O0
"r'_
.B
¢--
0 I-
m
Q.
.m
I,--
I- N
=m
0 E
I 0 O,0
I,I.
I ,,¢
0 G,I
I
L_
a.
431
"o
o
o
_J
c_
E-_
(J
J_J
e_
_J
_J
.o o
m _
m _
._
,21 ,._
c;
1,4
432
OF POOR r.,,,,,.
o _-_
0 _
•r..t r'_
•_ -.T
•r-t r¢3
Ul !
0 _
Z
0 rJ
r..) "-._
Cxl
r-_
433
100.0 []
o 2
99.0
0 [] 0
[]
98.0
Z_
97.0
e"
0 96.0
O
95.0
P
94.0
93.0
0
92.0 0 Pc -- 1000
[] Pc -- 750
91.0 ,_ Pc-- 1500
90.0 I I I I
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Mixture Ratio
Figure 22. Turbine Simulator Build-Up As Function Of

Mixture Ratio And Pressure
434
t _,_;E IS
OF POOR QUALITY
©
.r-4
_J
©
C.j
J.J
qJ
E-_
4J
b]
©
O
_J
_3
E
CJ_
_J
.r4
E-_
c-J
(U
C_
.r-I
L_
435
0
m
m
0')
m m
0
0') m
0 0
g i
_D
0") =_ i
_-_
..o
i
._I
\
>
.<
cD
•,-4 IZL
:_ o
>-,(D
o
(D
o
If)
>,.
0
(D
g_
_:a a,--?
I= e'- .--
<Oww _.
436
OF POOR q,UALITY
bO
0
0
.r-I
N
.r-I
_J
,r-_
437
0
0
-- I 0
I u
c
0_
r 4,_ 0
e=
0_
..-, .--_ t-"
._
-- -'_-- 0
8 >
0 tin_,
I-
--,_m
cO N ,x::
0 O=_o
E
0 0
r..)
'10
fr-
_"
'_ •
-_ _
E
0
o
0
o_
o
0
0 o') 0_
m
0
0
¢'-1
o 0 0 --*
u
_ 00 m
_._
gs< .. 0
0 tr" IZI < _
o_
E
m
I,N
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
438
{N89 - 1264
SURVEY OF LOX/HYDROCARBON COMBUSTION AND COOLING
A. I. Masters, W. A. Visek & R. G. Carroll
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft
United Technologies Corp.
ABSTRACT
Achieving high chamber pressure in oxygen/hydrocarbon booster

engines will require different approaches to regenerative cooling,
propellant injection, and combustion stabilization than engines of the
past. Comparisons are made with substantiated oxygen/hydrogen
combustion technology which has resulted in demonstrated high pressure
capability. Means of applying this technology to hydrocarbon booster
engines are discussed including: tripropellant cycles with hydrogen
cooling, injection techniques for stable efficient combustion and use of

acoustic liners as combustion stabilization devices.
INTRODUCTION
The successful development of the Space Shuttle Main Engine has
demonstrated both the feasibility and advantages of rocket engines
operating at 3000 psia and higher. The superior cooling characteristics

of hydrogen were a key factor in this achievement. Additional vehicle
performance gains are possible if high combustion chamber pressure can
be achieved using a denser hydrocarbon fuel such as methane, propane or
RP-I. This paper reviews some of the new concepts and recent
developments which now make a high pressure LOX/hydrocarbon engine
practical.
THRUST CHAMBER COOLING
The earliest rocket developers recognized the advantages of high
combustion chamber pressure for minimizing vehicle size and increasing
439
vehicle payload. High pressure reduces dissociation losses and, more
importantly in booster engines, it increases the exhaust nozzle
expansion ratio which may be used without flow separation.
Though the need for high chamber pressure was well understood
during the intensive rocket development of the 1950's and 60's, the
combustion chamber pressure of new oxygen/RP-I engines increased at a
rather modest rate, as shown in Figure I (data from Reference I). This
trend is in dramatic contrast to the I0-to-1 increase in pressure for

oxygen/hydrogen engines in the 1960's and 70's. The two main reasons
for this different trend are the improved thrust chamber cooling
achievable with hydrogen, and the new thrust chamber construction
techniques which were developed in the late 1960's and early 1970's.
4000 --
SSME
3000 --
LOX/Hydrogen Engi__
Chamber
Pressure
(psia)
2000-
F ssos2"iT
F-1
1000 --
I
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
Year Qualified
Figure I. History of Production Engine Chamber Pressure
Hydrogen is an excellent coolant by virtue of its high specific

heat, high thermal conductivity and low viscosity. These properties
combine to give hydrogen a much higher coolant film coefficient than
hydrocarbon fuels such as RP-I or methane. The high specific heat of
hydrogen allows a great deal of heat to be absorbed with only a modest
increase in temperature and hydrogen is thermally stable to very high

temperatures. In contrast, RP-1 has only one-seventh the heat capacity
per unit weight of hydrogen and may begin to decompose and foul cooling
passages at fuel temperatures as low as 300 degrees F.
440
POOR (_iJ_LITY
Liquid hydrogen is a deep cryogen with a liquid boiling point of
only 37 degrees R. The development of liquid hydrogen production and
handling techniques in quantities sufficient for rocket propulsion needs
was, in itself, a significant technological accomplishment. The RL 10
(Figure 2) was the first rocket engine developed for use with liquid
hydrogen. It is a tribute both to the engine design and the inherent
Figure 2. RL IO-A3 Oxygen/Hydrogen Rocket Engine
advantages of hydrogen cooling that the RL 10 is still in use. As of
late, 262 engines have been fired in space without a single in-flight
fai Iure.
441
Prior to 1970, most large regeneratively cooled thrust chambers had
been fabricated from brazed tube assemblies. In the late 1960's and
early 1970's, a number of new construction techniques were investigated
which provided much greater flexibility in tailoring cooling passages to
provide maximum heat flux capability with minimum coolant pressure

drop. P&W and Rocketdyne fabricated forged copper thrust chambers with
machined cooling passages that were tested with oxygen/hydrogen

propellants at pressures up to 3000 psia. Based upon the success of
these tests, copper thrust chambers with machined cooling passages were
incorporated in the SSME. Analysis conducted by P&W at that time
indicated about a 50% increase in upper limit chamber pressure over

conventional tubular chambers with this type of construction.
Transpiration cooling is another method of accommodating very high
heat fluxes. It has the advantage of low coolant pressure drop and the
adaptability to cool regions where regenerative cooling is difficult.
One disadvantage is a potential performance loss, although this loss is
incurred primarily with main chamber cooling and does not generally
apply to injector faceplate cooling or to most auxiliar component
cooling. In some applications, control of coolant flow distribution may

be difficult.
Transpiration cooling has been used by P&W in a number of high
pressure oxygen/hydrogen engine components. In early development of the
XLR-129, an entire thrust chamber assembly was transpiration cooled in
3000 psia tests (Figure 3). Other transpiration cooled components
included the mainburner and preburner injector faceplates and preburner

ducting. Suitable cooling of all components was accomplished with
minimal difficulty.
Satisfactory coolant flow distribution is dependant upon the
sensitivity of the coolant flowrate to variations in coolant density.

In general, transpiration cooling with hydrogen has worked well. With
denser gases, it has been more difficult, and with liquids the problems
have generally been severe.
442
Figure 3, XLR-129 Transpiration Cooled Combustion
Chamber
Another factor that has aided cooling of more recent rocket engines
has been the trend toward higher engine thrust. High thrust simplifies
cooling needs in two ways. First, as shown in Figure 4, for a fixed
combustion pressure the peak heat flux in the critical throat region is
reduced as the throat diameter (and consequently, the thrust) increases.
Secondly, as thrust increases, propellant flow increases

proportionately; but the cooled chamber surface upstream of the nozzle
throat increases only by the square root of thrust. The result is a
substantial increase in available coolant flow per unit area as thrust
increases. This increase in coolant flow is only an advantage where
allowable coolant temperatures begin to be exceeded, but can be an
important consideration in some situations. Using several engines with
reduced thrust may enhance reliability by providing engine-out
capability, but the offsetting disadvantages of more difficult engine
cooling should not be neglected.
443
I OO%
I
/
75%
Relative
5O% -- Relative coolant I
value I
available per unit area --_ Relative gas
J° film
25% __ jS
coefficient
10K 100K 1000K 10,000K

Thrust - Ib
Figure 4. Effect Of Thrust on Chamber Pressure Limit
Three hydrocarbon fuels are currently under consideration for the
Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle: Methane, propane and RP-I. As shown in
Table I, methane is a cryogenic fluid with a relatively high specific
impulse and low density. Propane has a slightly higher density than
methane and also has a wide liquid range. Subcooling propane to near
its melting point, greatly increases its density so that it provides a
good density-specific impulse product. RP-I has, of course, long been
the standard hydrocarbon fuel for rocket applications.
Melting Boiling Fuel IVAC

point point density (theoretical)
Fuel (OR) (°R) (Ibm/if-') (Ibf/Ibm/sec)
CH4 163 201 26.5 382.6
C3H8 154 416 45.0" 376.7
RP-1 420 882 49.7 371.8
Pc= 3000 psia
_= 77
* Subcooled to 155OR
AV31E'g_ _ 0475b
Table I. Hydrocarbon Fuel Comparison
444
Prediction of rocket heat flux is not the exact science one would
desire. Uncertainties exist in both the hot gas side and coolant side
film coefficients. Heated tube measurements of coolant side film
coefficient have proven to be a useful way of reducing this
uncertainty.
Recent experimental programs at Aerojet, Rocketdyne, and United
Technology Research Center (Reference 2,3 and 4) have provided valuable

heat transfer data at conditions applicable to high pressure engines.
Such data have eliminated much of the uncertainty in the coolant film
coefficient and will allow a valid assessment of the relative coolant
capabilities of the hydrocarbon fuels of interest.
Heated tube testing has also been used to explore the thermal
stability of the fuels of interest. Data from Reference 4, shown in
Figure 5, indicate the relative stability of methane, propane and RP-]

in terms of the rate of carbon deposition on heated tube walls. As
shown, methane was the least susceptible to decomposition while propane
was the most susceptible.
12.0 p = 2000 psia

._" V = 100ft/sec
10.0 ._" TFuel = 60°F
-- Copper tubes
8.0
-- Nickel tubes
Rate
6.0 -- Commercial-
(Ib/ft 2 - grade
hr x 10.4) 4.0 -- propane
1.0
I
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temp ..-_F
Figure 5. Heated Tube Deposition Data
445
Copper can catalyze the decomposition rate of many hydrocarbon
fuels. Dissolved copper is a known contributor to fuel fouling in
aircraft gas turbine engines burning JP-4 and JP-5. This is
particularly a problem for the Navy where copper is the material of
choice for many shipboard fuel storage components. As shown in Figure
5, copper also has a detrimental effect on the stability of propane and

RP-I.
TRIPROPELLANT ENGINES
The newly available hydrocarbon fuel heat transfer data allow a
more reliable quantification of the design limits on combustion chamber
pressure for oxygen/hydrocarbon booster engines. These limits are well

below those established for oxygen/hydrogen. As shown by the cross
hatched bars in Figure 6, for a given thrust, the upper limit chamber
pressure with oxygen/RP-I is about half that of oxygen/hydrogen, and

oxygen/methane and oxygen/propane fall somewhere in between.
Normalized Coolant
heat
flux
limit
0
H2 CH4 C3H 8 RP-1
Fuel
Figure 6. Comparison of Combustion Chamber Pressure

Limits
446
Configuration studies of the Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle are based on
the use of oxygen, hydrocarbon and hydrogen propellants to power a
number of oxygen/hydrocarbon and oxygen/hydrogen engines. Since both
hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuel will be available, it has been suggested
that hydrogen be used to cool the oxygen/hydrocarbon engines as well as
the oxygen/hydrogen engines (Reference 5). This approach would employ

the superior cooling characteristics of hydrogen to allow operation of
the oxygen/hydrocarbon engines at much higher chamber pressure. The
shaded bars in Figure 6 indicate the relative increase in chamber
pressure that can be achieved with hydrogen cooling of the three
hydrocarbon fuel combinations. Since the hot gas film coefficient is
lower with oxygen/hydrocarbon combustion than with the oxygen/hydrogen

combination, higher pressure is possible than with the reference
oxygen/hydrogen case. It should be pointed out that in order to keep
the hydrogen coolant flow low and, consequently, keep the propellant
bulk density high, a high engine thrust is desirable.
Several tripropellant cycles have been suggested; two are shown in
Figure 7. In the first, hydrogen is used as the coolant and is then
used in the gas generator. The hydrocarbon is used as the fuel in the
primary combustor. In the second cycle, hydrogen is used to cool the
3 r_
CH4 + H2 _ _
02 02
mp
mp
_/-
02
H2
H2 OH 4 H2 O2
turbine RP-'J
turbine turbine
RP-1
pump
Hydrogen cooled - bi-I_opeltant combustsion Td-lmrope_lant combustion
Figure _ Typical Tripropellant Cycles
447
main chamber and methane is used to cool the exhaust nozzle. The two
are then mixed and injected in both the mainburner and gas generator.
Since care must be taken to mix the hydrocarbon with hydrogen at
conditions below the hydrocarbon freeze point, this scheme would have
limited application to RP-I. The second scheme is a little more
complex, but provides enhanced combustion and improved specific impulse

from the addition of hydrogen into the main chamber.
There are several advantages to adding hydrogen to the oxygen/
hydrocarbon combustion process. Even a small amount of hydrogen can
increase the combustion flame speed, reduce ignition lag and expand
flammability limits (Figure 8). These improved combustion
characteristics would lead to simplified ignition, improved combustion
efficiency and inherently more stable combustion. This concept of

adding the hydrogen to the main combustion process to stabilize the
combustion and improve the efficiency was developed under a
company-funded program.
1.5 --
1_4 --
Relative
flame
speed
1.3-
1.2
1.1
Relative
ignition
delay
l
0.8
0.6-
1.0
I I I J J L l I I I
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
% H 2 Added % H 2 Added
Figure 8. Effect of Hydrogen Addition on Flame Speed

and Ignition Delay
448
One problem with oxygen/RP-1 engines in the past has been the large
amount of carbon in the gas generator exhaust. The exhaust smoke has
been tolerated, but a portion of the carbon is deposited on the turbine.
Deposit rates are so severe that turbine operation is effected. This
problem would be magnified by the higher horsepower requirements of a
high pressure engine and would become intolerable in a reusable engine.

Turbine erosion caused by the carbon particles is also predicted to be
severe in a high pressure reusable engine.
As shown in Figure 9, based on theoretical equilibrium

calculations, as much as 45% by weight of the exhaust of an oxygen/RP-I
gas generator may be solid carbon. With methane, the theoretical carbon
is reduced to about 12% by weight. Solid exhaust concentrations may be
somewhat different than equilibrium calculations indicate, but the
relative levels are believed to be representative. The inherently lower
carbon content in methane combustion products is confirmed by the
experimental work of Bailey (Reference 6). Hydrogen addition also

reduces exhaust carbon content. As shown in Figure 9, the improvement
is dramatic with methane. Below 1900 degrees R, no theoretical carbon
is present. Inefficiencies may produce some carbon at these conditions,
but probably not enough to affect turbine operation or life.
50--
40-- LOX/RP-1 J
Wt percent 30 --
carbon 20-
LOX/CH4-_
10 -
1 LOX/CH4/H2 I
0
1800 1900 2000 2100
Equilibrium temp - °R
Figure 9, Solid Carbon Concentration in Gas Generator

Exhaust (Chemical Equilibrium Assumed)
449
Table II compares the theoretical vacuum specific impulse and
propellant bulk density of the three hydrocarbon fuels with and without
hydrogen addition. The performance of oxygen/hydrogen is also included
for comparison. The hydrogen percentages shown are appropriate for
engines in the I,O00,O00 lb. thrust range.
Bi-propellants Tri-propellants
Propellant Propellant
bulk densi_ bulk densi_
Fuel IVAc (Ib/ft 3) % H2 IVAC (Ib/if3)
CH4 382.6 52.0 7.0 392.0 45.5
C3H8" 376.7 62.9 7.0 388.5 52.3

RP-1 371.8 64.5 7.0 384.6 52.8
H2 465.1 22.6
Pc= 3000 psia

ge= 77
* Subcooledto 155°R
Table II. Tripropellant Performance Comparison
Since methane can be readily combined with hydrogen and the
resulting combination makes a good gas generator fuel as well as a
mainburner fuel, the oxygen/methane/hydrogen tripropellant cycle with
mixed methane/hydrogen fuel appears quite feasible. Fuel-hydrogen
mixing is more difficult with RP-1 and RP-I presents a problem as a gas
generator fuel in reusable engines. The bipropellant cycle with

hydrogen cooling is, therefore, more applicable with RP-I.
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY AND STABILITY
Achievement of stable combustion has been one of the most difficult
oxygen/RP-I engine development problems. The inherent difficulty in

achieving stable combustion increases at high thrust. Baffles have been
used to stabilize combustion with success at low thrust; but at high
thrust, it has been necessary to compromise combustion efficiency to
increase the combustion time lag even when baffles have been used. As
450
shown in Table 3, several oxygen/hydrocarbon engines have demonstrated
characteristic velocity efficiencies above 97%, but the efficiency of
the F-I was below 94% (data from Reference 2). The reduced efficiency
was primarily due to design changes to improve combustion stability
through increased combustion time lag and to provide baffle cooling.
Higher chamber pressure may also have been a contributing factor.
F
(1000 Ibf) tic *
Jupiter 150 94.7
Thor, MB-3 170 95.7
Atlas booster 165 95.5
Atlas sustainer 57 96.4
Titan I booster 180 97.8
Titan I sustainer 80 98.9
H-1 204 97.3
F-1 1550 93.8
Table Ill. Oxygen/RP-I Production Engine Efficiencies
Many approaches to combustion efficiency estimation predict that
increased pressure will accelerate droplet burning rates and thereby

increase efficiency. Spaulding (Reference 7) and Rosner (Reference 8)
have shown how these theories break down at pressures above the reactant
critical pressure. Figure 10 indicates the trend in combustion

efficiency versus chamber pressure based on constant propellant
atomization (droplet size). The curve indicates the increased
difficulty of achieving efficient combustion at supercritical pressures
and the need for more efficient droplet atomization at these conditions.
451
oRIGiN/_L pAGE IS
OF poOR QUALTTV
98--
LOX/RP-1
97--
rlc* _ % 96 --
oplet size
95--
94--
I 1 I
1 2 3 4
Pc/Pcritical
Figure I0. Effect of Supercritical Pressure on Combustion

Efficiency
Where they are applicable, coaxial injectors have been shown to
provide inherently stable efficient combustion. The RL 10 (Figure 11)
was the first production rocket engine to employ coaxial injection. The
concept has proven especially attractive for gas-liquid injection.
While many design arrangements are possible, the only production engine
coaxial injector applications in this country have been limited to
liquid oxygen/gaseous hydrogen with transpiration cooled faceplates.
i_!ii
Figure II. RL lO Coaxial Injector
452
The most severe limitation on the use of coaxial injectors stems
from the use of fuel transpiration cooling of the faceplate and
geometric limitations on the fuel annulus. A low density gaseous fuel
is highly desirable to meet these limitations. The fuel flow area is
set by the oxidizer spud diameter and the fuel annulus height. A
favorable combination of low oxidizer-to-fuel ratio and low fuel density
is necessary to maintain an adequate annulus height. Otherwise,

dimensional tolerance limitations will lead to severe fuel
maldistribution. Reversing the fuel and oxidizer to overcome these
geometric limitations was done by Herch at NASA Lewis Research Center
(Reference 9). The results, with regard to combustion, were entirely
satisfactory, but faceplate cooling with oxygen would be very difficult
at high pressure.
A great deal of work has been done to define the limits of
stability with coaxial injection. Figure 12 shows the results of one
early investigation (Reference I0). This study, as most of the work

done in this area, tied stability to hydrogen injection temperature and
several other injection and combustor design parameters. High injection
momentum ratio and high contraction ratio are shown to be stabilizing.
Other studies have used hydrogen velocity, fuel-to-oxidizer flow area
and hydrogen density as correlating parameters (References 10 & 11). In
virtually all cases, coaxial injection with oxygen/hydrogen has been

stable at hydrogen injection temperatures above about 100 degrees R.
4.0 --
Contractionratio = 1.5
3.0
Injection
momentum 2.0
ratio (F/O)
1.0
- '_ Stabl_1
Unstable I I
50 1oo 150
Hydrogen injectiontemp, °R
Figure 12. Coaxial Injector Stability Limits
453
Of:. POOR QUALITY
The trends established by the low pressure test results presented

in Figure 12 have also been found to apply at high pressure where
hydrogen density is much higher. High pressure tests at P&W have
consisted of low oxygen- to-hydrogen ratio preburner tests and oxygen

burned with the preburner exhaust in mainburner tests. All high
pressure tests at both 50,000 and 250,000 lb. thrust demonstrated stable
combustion. The injector used in the 250,000 lb. thrust tests is shown
in Figure 13.
Figure 13. XLR-129 Injector
Light hydrocarbon fuels including methane and propane have also
been tested using coaxial injectors with both oxygen and oxygen/fluorine
mixtures at pressures up to 500 psia (References 12,13 & 14). All

tests with coaxial injectors were dynamically stable. Tests at similar
conditions with impinging injectors were unstable. These limited data
provide one strong indication that the inherent stability of coaxial

injectors applies to fuels other than hydrogen.
Even using such advantageous design techniques as coaxial

injection, light hydrocarbon fuels and hydrogen addition does not
provide complete confidence that stable oxygen/hydrocarbon combustion
can be achieved without the use of an additional stabilizing device.
Baffles have been used on most previous oxygen/hydrocarbon booster
454
engines. Baffles have been generally successful, but they are difficult
to cool and typically result in reduced combustion efficiency due to
fewer injection elements and non-uniform propellant distribution.
In the 1960's, Garrison and Russell pioneered the development of
acoustic liners for suppression of combustion instability (References 15
through 24). Acoustic liners are perforated surfaces that absorb a
portion of a reflected pressure wave, thereby damping the intensity of
the reflected wave and decoupling the wave from the combustion process
(Figure 14). The fraction of the incident energy absorbed is termed the
absorption coefficient. For successful combustion stabilization, the
liners must be tuned to provide adequate absorption at the frequency or
frequency range of concern.
X Solid wall
Mechanical analogy
Resonant cavity
i i i t
\'_k- Spring
t i" i___-_ Perforated liner
Reflected Mass of gas
kLRMesaSs_ance
Incident
wave
Absorption
coefficient
Energy absorbed
Absorption coefficient = Frequency
Incident wave energy
Figure 14, Acoustic Liner Principles
Except for acoustic cavity type designs mounted on or near the
injector, acoustic liners have not been used in production rocket
engines. They have, however, been successfully employed in many
experimental evaluations. They have been used successfully with all of
the propellants listed in Figure 15. Uncooled, regeneratively cooled
and ablation cooled liners have been tested with equal success.
455
• LOX/H2 (low fuel temp)
• N2 04/aerozine
• FLOX/butene
• LOX/RP-1 (F-1 vernier)
• Uncooled, regeneratively
cooled & ablation cooled
Figure 15. Acoustic Liner Rocket Applications
Most rocket acoustic liner testing has been done at relatively low
thrust. Some concern has been expressed that acoustic liners might not
be adequate for stabilization of large diameter thrust chambers because
of lower surface-to- volume ratios and the increased difficulty in
stabilizing the lower frequencies inherent in these devices. These

concerns should be allayed by the total success of acoustic liners in
stabilizing combustion in jet engine afterburners. Every afterburning
engine produced by P&W used an acoustic liner for combustion
stabilization (Figure 16). Every afterburner in use has been
dynamically stable. Most afterburners tested without an acoustic liner
have been unstable. (The unstable data are limited because liners are
now so routinely used.) The same theory is applied to the design of

both rockets and afterburners, and the acoustic frequencies encountered
in afterburners are typical of large rocket engines.
OF POOR QUALi'i'¥
456
:S_ :I,
_,_ _. •
OF POOR QUALITY
• J57
• J58
• J75
• TF30
• FIO0
• PW5000
Figure 16. Acoustic Liner Turbojet Experience
SUMMARY
Significant increases in oxygen/hydrocarbon engine combustion
pressure are possible through the use of advanced thrust chamber cooling
techniques. Even higher pressure is possible by using hydrogen as the
main chamber coolant in a tripropellant cycle.
If hydrogen is used as the primary coolant, it offers additional
advantages if introduced into the combustion process. Easier ignition,

higher combustion efficiency and more inherently stable combustion are
predicted. Other design features which are predicted to enhance
combustion stability include use of coaxial injectors, acoustic liners
and injection of gaseous light hydrocarbon fuels rather than liquid

fuels. Turbine fouling downstream of the gas generator can be
eliminated by use of methane, hydrogen or a hydrogen-methane mixture as

the gas generator fuel.
457
REFERENCES
I °
"Liquid Rocket Engine Injectors", NASA SP-8089, March 1976.
2. Michel, R.W., "Combustion Performance and Heat Transfer
Characterization of LOX/Hydrocarbon Type Propellants," Report

1548-MA-129T-OO3F, Aerojet Liquid Rocket Company, April 1983.
o
Morinishi, R. and Cook, R.T., "Methane Heat Transfer
Investigation," Final Report, Contract NAS8-34977.

.
Geovanetti, A.J., Spadaccini, J.H., and Szetela, E.J., "Deposit
Formation and Heat Transfer in Hydrocarbon Rocket Fuels, NASA CR

168277, United Technologies Research Center, October 1983.
,
Martin, James A., "Effects of Tripropellant Engines on
Earth-To-Orbit Vehicles," Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol.
22, No. 6, Nov.-
Dec. 1985.
.
Bailey, C.R., "High Pressure LOX/Natural Gas Staged Combustion
Technology," 1984 JANAF Propulsion Meeting, 2/8/84.

.
Spaulding, D.B., "Theory of Particle Combustion at High Pressure,"
ARS Journal, November 1959.
.
Rosner, D.E., "On Liquid Droplet Combustion at High Pressures,"
AIAA Journal, Vol. 5, No. I, January 1967.
.
Hersch, Martin, "Effect of Interchanging Propellants on Rocket
Combustor Performance with Coaxial Injection," NASA TN D-2169,
February 1964.
I0. Harrje, D.T., et al, "Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion
Instability," NASA SP-194, 1972.
11. Wanhainen, J.P., Parish, C.H., and Conrad, E.W., "Effect on
Propellant Injection Velocity on Screech in 20,000 Pound
Hydrogen-Oxygen Rocket Engine," NASA TN D-3373, April 1966.
12. Masters, A.I., "Investigation of Light Hydrocarbon Fuels with Flox
Mixtures as Liquid Rocket Propellants Final Report," PWA FR-1443,

Contract NAS3-4195, NASA CR-54445, 9/I/65.
458
,, • ation of Light Hydrocarbon Fuels with
A I , Investlg _ Final
13. Masters, " " ,<_,,_d Rocket Propellants
_ • res as LieU,
Fluorine Oxygen MlXtU - -296 NASA CR-72147, 9/15/67.
Report," PWA FR-2227, Contract NAS3-b ,
14. Masters, A.I., ,,investigation of Light Hydrocarbon Fuels with
' s as Liquid Rocket Propellants - Final
Fluorine-OxYgen M_xture .... _ _noaa NASA CR-72425 11/15/68.
Report," PWA FR-2872, Contract m_-_:'_' -

15. Garrison, G.D., ,,Acoustic Liners for Storable Propellant Rocket
Chambers Phase I Final Report," Pratt & Whitney Report,
AFRPL-TR-67-205, July 1967.

16. Garrison, G.D., ,,Acoustic Liners for Storable Propellant Rocket
Chambers -
Phase II Final Report," Pratt & Whitney Report PWA FR-2812,
(AFRPL-TR-68-118), August 1968.

17. Garrison, G.D., "Absorbing Liners for Rocket Combustion Chambers
Theory and Design Techniques," Pratt & Whitney AFRPL-TR-66-234,
August 1966. ,,Absorbing Liners for

18. Russell, P.L., Garrison, G.D., et al, ,,
Storable Propellant Rocket Engines, Part I Uncooled Liner Tests,
Pratt & Whitney FR-2554 (no date).

19. Russell, P.L., Garrison, G.D., et al, "A study of the Suppression
of Combustion Oscillations with Mechanical Damping Devices," Pratt
& Whitney FR-2596, 11/20/67.

20. Garrison, G.D., Russell, p.L., et al, "Acoustic Liners for Storable
Propellant Rocket Chambers - Phase II," Pratt & Whitney
AFRPL-TR-68-118, August 1968.

21. Garrison, G.D., Russell, P.L., et al, ,,Suppression of Combustion
Oscillations with Mechanical Damping Devices," Pratt & Whitney
FR-3299, 8/8/69.
22. Garrison, G.D., Russell, P.L., et al, "Acoustic Liner Design and
Demonstration Final Report," Pratt & Whitney AFRPL-TR-71-75,
8/28/71. ,,Investigation of Damping

23. Garrison, G.D., Russell, P.L., et al,
Methods for Augmentor Combustion instability," Pratt & Whitney
AFAPL-TR-72-84, 8/30/72.
459
24. Garrison, G.D., Russell, P.L., et al, "Suppression of Combustion
Oscillations with Mechanical Damping Devices," Pratt & Whitney
FR-4993, 6/12/72.
460
N89-12648b
LOX/HYDROCARBON COMBUSTION AND COOLING SURVEY
R. T. Cook and F. M. Kirby

Abstract
Liquid oxygen (LOX) and hydrocarbon fuels (methane, pro-

pane, and RP-I) are very attractive for booster rocket en-
gine applications because of their high bulk density and
respectful performance. Vehicle payload capability is de-
pendent on the attainable engine chamber pressure and the
combustion efficiency of the selected propellant combina-
tion. The chamber pressure is limited by the cooling capa-
bility of the main combustor. Therefore, the aspects of
(I) combustion as related to combustion stability and effi-
ciency and (2) coolinK as related to cooling effectivity
and combustor materials compatibility are key factors in
selecting a hydrocarbon fuel and engine cycle for maximum
payload. This survey of LOg/hydrocarbon combustion and
cooling presents the results of pertinent company-sponsored
activities and NASA/MSFC and LeRC contracts conducted by
Rocketdyne.
Combustor design approaches are presented to attain max-

imum cooling, stability, combustion efficiency, and reusa-
ble life. Experimental combustion efficiency and hot-gas
heat-transfer rates are discussed as related to combustor
contour, thrust level scaling, and injector characteristics
including mixture ratio biasing and film cooling. These
experimental data are compared to theory, and empirical
relationships are derived. Convective cooling relationships
and coking limits are presented for potential hydrocarbon
fuels as derived from high heat flux and high pressure
electrically heated tube experiments. Experimental results
of combustor coolant liner materials compatibility with
hydrocarbon fuels are discussed. The application of the
results of these studies to future LOX/hydrocarbon engines
are delineated.
Introduction
LOXlhydrocarbon propellants are attractive for booster engines

because of their high propellant bulk density and moderate perform-
ance. LOX/RP-I was utilized for booster engine propulsion systems
during the Apollo and Saturn programs. The chamber pressure and per-
formance levels of these engines were relatively low compared to
today's technology standards. The next generation LOX/hydrocarbon
booster engine is trended toward a reusable, high-performance, high
461
chamber pressure engine similar to the LOX/hydrogen Space Shuttle Main
Engine (SSME).
The performance level of the next generation booster engine will

be dictated by the attainable combustion efficiency and the cooling
limits of the main combustion chamber. The selection of a hydrocarbon
fuel and engine cycle will depend greatly on the cooling capability
and attainable combustion efficiency.
Propellant Considerations
Desirable requisites are high performance and high bulk density.

The propellant bulk density and performance is shown in Fig. i for the
considered hydrocarbon propellants and compared to LOX/hydrogen for
various mixture ratios. The performance presented in Fig. i represents
a fixed chamber pressure at a fixed nozzle area ratio, and accord-
ingly, a fixed nozzle exit pressure. The delivered vacuum specific
impulse represents a staged combustion engine cycle with far-term
technology. The performance of a gas generator cycle for a similar
engine would be approximately I0 seconds lower. The performance and
bulk density of the hydrocarbon propellant combinations are presented
at their maximum thrust chamber specific impulse. Similarly, a mixture
ratio of 6.0 represents the maximum specific impulse for the LOX/
hydrogen propellant combination. The benefits of a hydrocarbon engine
over a high mixture ratio (high bulk density) LOX/hydrogen engine is
readily observable.
46O
LOXlH 2
L_ 6.0MR
\
440 --
\
\
=42:1 |
(_ 8.0
420
-G
l
D 4O0
D q 10.0
<
>
a
uJ
380
uJ
> @ MAX I s M'.R.
J
12.0
LOX/C3H 8 (NBP)
36O LOX/C3H 8 {SUBCOOLE D)

LOX/RP-1
_ LOX/CH 4 (NBPI
340 I
2O 3O 4O 50 60 70
BULK DENSITY (Ib/ft 3)
Fig. I. Propellant Bulk Density and Performance Comparison
462
Numerous vehicle studies have shown payload and gross liftoff
weight to be extremely sensitive to performance. In fact, some studies
have shown LOX/hydrogen at its peak performance to be competitive.
Therefore, there appears to be an imaginary band intersecting the
hydrocarbon propellants and LOX/hydrogen at their maximum specific
impulse mixture ratio that results in a near-equal trade between per-
formance and propellant bulk density. This makes it very difficult to
select a hydrocarbon propellant combination. Therefore, the hydro-
carbon propellant combination to be selected for the next generation
booster engine will probably depend on the logistics of propellant
handling, combustion stability, combustion efficiency, heat transfer
characteristics, and main combustion chamber materials compatibility
with the selected fuel.
The selection of a hydrocarbon propellant combination is further

complicated by the fact that the lower density propellant, being more
akin to LOX/hydrogen, is most favorable for combustion stability, com-
bustion efficiency, and cooling capability. Methane is most favorable
for providing the desirable combustion and cooling characteristics and
provides the minimum development risk. RP-I is the most characterized,
but at low performance values, and may be a high risk for high per-
fot_ance and with questionable cooling capability. Subcooled propane
looks attractive because of its high bulk density, but the logistics
of propellant handling and thermal management may be very costly. The
combustion and cooling characteristics of propane are the least de-
fined for high pressure booster engines.
Thrust Chamber Cooling Limits
Vehicle payload capability is dependent on the attainable engine

chamber pressure and the combustion efficiency of the selected propel-
lant combination. The chamber pressure is limited by the cooling capa-
bility of the main combustor for a specified turbopump technology
level (turbine gas temperature and turbine tip speed). The cooling
requirements of the thrust chamber nozzle is insignificant since it
can be cooled with about I0 percent of the coolant pressure drop re-
quired to cool the main combustor. The regenerative cooling capability
of all potential coolants are depicted in Fig. 2 for a 600,000 pound
thrust engine with LOX/hydrocarbon combustion. This is applicable for
any LOX/hydrocarbon propellant combination and reflects theoretical
heat transfer rates equivalent to 70 percent of LOX/hydrogen, base-
lined to the SSME without film cooling or mixture ratio biasing. These
coolant delta-P requirements are for a reusable life of I00 missions
and realistically assumes no carbon deposit on the combustor hot gas
wall. The coolant wall temperatures are below the coolant surface
coking limits specified later.
The maximum attainable chamber pressure for RP-I is approximately

2200 psia and requires a high pump discharge pressure even for a gas
generator cycle. The chamber pressure limits of the other hydrocarbon
463
500O
• F = 600K S.L.
• REUSABLE LIFE/4 = 100 CYCLES
• NO CARBON DEPOSIT
• 1B60R TURBINE GAS TEMPERATURE
4000
SUBCOOLED C3H 8
C3H 8 (NBP)
.w
LOX
3000
Z
GG
o
RP-1
2000
ao
Pd =
8000 PSIA
1000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
CHAMBER PRESSURE, pzia
Fig. 2. Thrust Chamber Cooling Technology
fuels and for liquid oxygen are in the 3000 to 4000 psia chamber pres-
sure range. Hydrogen cooling is most attractive but requires an auxil-
iary propellant to be carried aboard the vehicle. Gas generator cycle
and staged combustion cycle chamber pressure cooling limits are noted
for a current technology pump discharge pressure of 8000 psia.
Although the gas generator cycle can achieve a higher chamber

pressure for a specified pump discharge pressure, the maximum specific
impulse occurs at a considerably lower chamber pressure, approximately
the same chamber pressure as the staged combustion cycle engine, as
discussed below.
Engine Cycle Performance
The engine cycle selection will depend on the performance benefits

to be gained, the propellant combination, and the complexity of the
engine system. These benefits and trades are depicted in Fig. 3 as
related to specific impulse gains available as a function of chamber
pressure. The optimum chamber pressure is the chamber pressure where
the maximum specific impulse is obtained for a specified level of
tucbopump technology. This occurs at approximately two-thirds of the
cooling limit for the gas generator cycle because the combustor cool-
ant delta-P noted in Fig. 2 increases significantly with chamber pres-
sure and requires a larger percentage of propellant to drive the
turbine. Although the nozzle area ratio is increasing as associated
464
1%-4% H2
H
2O -- f
I"
f
f
/fGAS GENERATOR CYCLE
O9 / H 2 COOLED
/
O
Z
O 10
STAGEDCOMBUSTmN 1_ N2 = -1_ [
CYCLE FUEL COOLED BULKDENS TY ]
0
k-
GAS GENERATOR CYCLE
FUEL COOLED
-10
I I J I
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Pc_c OPTIMUM
Fig. 3. Hydrocarbon Engine Cycle Performance
with a fixed nozzle exit pressure, the larger percentage of gas gener-
ator turbine drive gases being dumped into the nozzle overcomes the
specific impulse gain of the larger nozzle area ratio. In the staged
combustion cycle, the turbine drive gases are introduced into the main
combustor and there are no secondary flow losses. Therefore, the opti-
mum chamber pressure for the staged combustion cycle occurs at the
cooling limit established for a specified turbopump technology level.
The optimum (maximum) chamber pressure for the staged combustion cycle
engine is approximately the same as the optimum chamber pressure for
the gas generator cycle engine. The tcadeoff is a considerably lower
pump discharge pressure for the gas generator cycle at a sacrifice of
approximately 3 percent in specific impulse.
A high performance engine cycle is provided by" the use of LOX/

hydrogen turbine drive gases. High chamber pressures ace afforded by
the high cooling capability of hydrogen. A minimum hydrogen flowrate
is desirable to maintain a high propellant bulk density. The required
hydrogen flowrate is dictated by the turbopump power requirements and
the combustoc/nozzle cooling requirements. The minimum hydrogen flow-
rate required to cool the combustor/nozzle varies between 1 and 2 per-
cent of the total propellant flowcate, depending on the chamber pres-
sure level. The hydrogen flowrate dictated by turbopump requiements
varies between 1 and 4 percent, depending on chamber pressure level
and propellant combination. The effectiveness of this cycle favors the
465
LOX/RP-I propellant combination for the minimumbulk density degrada-
tion. One percent hydrogen flow relates to approximately i0 percent
decrease in propellant bulk density.
Combustion Performance Goals
The combustion performance goals and chamber pressure levels for

near-term and far-tet_ hydrocarbon engines are considerably higher
than the LOX/RP-I engines of the 1960s, as shown in Fig. 4. The com-
bustion efficiency goals of the various on-going hydrocarbon studies
are a function of propellant combination and near/far term capability.
The lower performance is associated with RP-I and the higher perform-
ance is associated with methane, which reflect the confidence of
achieving high performance with hydrocarbon combustion. The chamber

pressure levels achievable with the various coolant media are noted in
Fig. _° An RP-I cooled combustor is limited to approximately 2000
psia chamber pressure and a methane cooled combustor can approach 3500
psia chamber pressure for similar turbopump technology.
100
FAR TERM
98
96
• H-1 ENGINE
92 • F-1 ENGINE
90
1 [ I 1 I
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6OOO
CHAMBER PRESSURE, PSIA
Fig. 4. Hydrocarbon Performance Goals
The LOXIRP-I engines of the 1960s were operated at relatively low

performance and low chamber pressure. Stability aids were utilized
that also reduced the performance levels. Injector end fuel film cool-
ing was employed and resulted in low thrust chamber heat transfer
rates because of the extensive carbon deposition on the hot gas wall.
466
Cooling Requirements
The heat transfer level of the LOX/RP-I engines of the 1960s were
very low as associated with low chamber pressure and low combustion
efficiency, which provided a carbon thermal barrier on the thrust
chamber hot gas wall. Future high performance hydrocarbon engines
will not be afforded this thermal barrier and as a result will require
combustion chamber designs similar to the high performance LOX/hydro-
gen SSME. The theoretical heat transfer rate of high performance LOX/
hydrocarbon combustors is 70 percent of LOX/hydrogen combustors and do
not possess a carbon thermal barrier.
The throat heat flux and chamber pressure levels of the next gen-
eration hydrocarbon engines are compared to the past generation en-
gines in Fig. 5. The throat heat flux of past engines was about one-
tenth of future hydrocarbon engines. Therefore, it is obvious why
tubular steel constructed thrust chambers sufficed for the 1960s but
future combustors will need to be fabricated of a channel-configured

copper-base alloy.
//1_: FAR TERM _/C *
80 EXPERIMENTAL ,,t_ / _FF//'///V I THEORETICAL
• 60
X
.J
u,.
,<
_ 4O HIGH Pc, EXP, DATA

,<
O
re. Q RP-1 AEROJET
",r RP-1 NASA-LeRC
I,-
CH 4 ROCKETDYNE
CH 4 NASA-MSFC (R)
211
CH NASA-MSFC (R)
• F-1
H-1Q
I I I I I
2000 3000 4000 5000
CHAMBER PRESSURE, PSIA
Fig. 5. Hydrocarbon Cooling Requirements
The cooling assessment presented in Fig. 2 is based on the theore-

tical hot gas heat transfer rates noted in Fig. 5. These theoretical
heat transfer conditions are 70 percent of those derived from subscale
and full-scale SSME experimental data without film cooling or mixture
ratio biasing.
467
A number of high performance, high chamber pressure, LOX/hydro-
carbon subscale injectors have been fabricated and tested over the
past 6 years. These consisted of several 20,O00-pound thrust LOXIRP-I
injectors fabricated by Aerojet and NASAILeRC, and several 40,O00-
pound thrust LOX/CH 4 injectors fabricated by Rocketdyne. All of these
injectors, with the exception of the last LOXICH4 injector, displayed
heat transfer rates 40 percent higher than theoretical, equivalent to
the high performance LOXlhydrogen SSME without film cooling or mixture
ratio biasing. This anomaly is not fully understood. These high heat
flux injectors displayed combustion efficiencies slightly lower than
anticipated. Only recently was a high performance (98 to 99 percent
_c.) LOX/CH 4 injector tested that displayed theoretical heat transfer
rates without film cooling or mixture ratio biasing. This coaxial ele-
ment injector was designed by Rocketdyne for LOX/CH 4 operation at 3000
psia chamber pressure. It was tested between 1700 and 2400 psia cham-
ber pressure at MSFC and displayed heat transfer characteristics 70
percent of the SSME throughout the combustor length.
The previous two LOX/CH 4 injectors were SSME 40,000-pound thrust

injectors with modifications to accommodate the higher density methane
fuel. One each was tested at Rocketdyne and NASA/MSFC. Both displayed
the heat transfer characteristics of LOX/hydrogen, similar to the pre-
vious tested LOX/RP-I injectors by Aerojet and NASA/LeRC. The combus-
tion performance was lower than the latter LOX/CH 4 injector. Both in-
jectors were successfully modified to reduce their heat flux level to
the theoretical value. The MSFC-tested injector utilized mixture
ratio biasing of the injector elements adjacent to the combustor wall
and the Rocketdyne-tested injector utilized injector end film cooling.
Both modifications resulted in a slight performance degradation.
The high heat transfer rates experienced with high performance

hydrocarbon injectors cannot be theoretically quantified nor can the
large suppression of the heat transfer rate by film cooling or mixture
ratio biasing. The chamber pressure cooling limit for the higher heat
transfer rates would be 50 percent of the theoretical value as can be
seen in Fig. 5 by comparing chamber pressure level for the equivalent
theoretical heat flux. This is definitely an area of concern and is
probably influenced both by injector design and propellant combination.
The methodology utilized for defining the hot gas heat transfer
rate of a combustor for scaling from lower calorimetric chamber
pressures and subscale hardware is depicted in Fig. 6 and discussed
below. The methodology is identical to that used and verified during
the SSME development. Local heat transfer rates were determined using
a 40,000-pound thrust calorimeter combustor at chamber pressure levels
between 1500 and 2000 psia chamber pressure. Chamber pressure scaling,
or more correctly pV scaling, adhered to (PV) 0-8. The 40,O00-pound
thrust regenerative combustor heat load was verified at the calorim-
eter chamber pressure level and (PV) 0.8 scaling verified up to 3000
psia chamber pressure. The full-scale SSME combustor heat load and
local thermal characteristics were projected by scaling local Oov) 0.8.
468
..,,,p--- BOUNDARY LAYER
PROGRAM SOLUTION
I
I
/"_"_ EXTRAPO LATE D FROMf _
I I I I I
0
AXIAL DISTANCE FROM THROAT, INCHES
Fig. 6. Hot Gas Heat Transfer Coefficient Profile
This approach was confirmed on full-scale combustor testing. An alter-

nate approach is the Nusselt pipe flow relationship that applies a
diameter correction of (I/D) 0-2 However, this approach would have
resulted in a 30-percent reduction in the hot gas heat transfer coef-
ficient for the full-size SSME combustor, representing nearly 400 F
lower hot gas wall temperatures. The SSME combustor scaling test
results negate the use of a diameter correction.
Combustor DesiKn Considerations
Combustion chamber geometry (liner hot gas wall contour) affects

the weight, performance, heat transfer, and life. Influencing param-
eters are length, contraction area ratio, and wall contour. The opti-
mum combustion chamber design is one with minimum engine weight, mini-
mum hot gas wall temperature (maximum life), and maximum performance.
In addition, engine constraints are imposed on the chamber design as
related to coolant pressure drop and flowrate requirements established
for .an engine with minimum oxidizer and fuel pump discharge pressures.
The optimum coolant passage geometry for maximum life normally
approaches the minimum wall thickness and minimum channel and land
widths which are dictated by manufacturing limits.
The selection of combustor length and contraction area ratio is

primarily dictated by heat transfer, system weight, and combustion
performance. The combustion chamber coolant pressure drop is primarily
a function of the chamber length and contraction area ratio.
Typical designs use a cylindrical section at the injector end and

a large radius to convergence that provides injector-to-combustor wall
469
compatibility. A generous upstream convergence radius joining the
cylindrical combustion chamber section with the throat entrance ramp
provides a smooth transition to avoid flow separation at the turn or
impingement at the initial portion of the chamber convergence ramp on
the hot gas wall. It also prevents degradation of the coolant film
coefficient due to reverse curvature effects.
Steep throat entrance angles result in late boundary layer attach-

ment and consequent high throat heat flux; whereas, shallow entrance
angles (< 30 degrees) result in continuous boundary layer growth with
minimum throat heat flux. Shallow entrance angles do, however, impose
a slightly greater integrated heat load due to a lower average con-
traction area ratio. A 25- to 30-degree convergence angle is typical,
favoring a lower throat heat flux for maximum life.
The radius of curvature relative to the throat radius (rc/r t) en-

tering the throat transonic region affects both the distortion and
location of the sonic line and the distribution of the transonic flow
field in the throat region. A desirable throat radius ratio varies
between 0.5 and 1.0.
Typical combustor contours used for high pressure, high perform-

ance hydrocarbon engine studies are shown in Fig. 7. These contours
are identical to the SSME combustor. Slight variations in combustor
contraction ratio (2.6 to 3.0) may be traded for combustor cylindrical
length and throat radius for the same _P/Pc cooling relationship. Com-
mon hydrocarbon engine study guidelines are noted in Table I.
z
< 10
O
R/R T 0.50
] Pc
Rc/Rcz
3000 1.00
PSIA 1
5
0
THROAT -20 -10
COMBUSTOR LENGTH. INCH
Fig. 7. LOX/Hydrocarbon Main Combustion Chamber
470
ORIGINAL ._D,_< "
OF POOR QUALITY
Table I. Hydrocarbon Engine Study Guidelines
Parameter Guidelines
Propellants • LOXIRP-I at (MR)TC = 2.8

• LOX/CH at (MR) = 3.5
4 TC
• LOXlC3H 8 at (MR)TC = 3.1
_ngln_ Size • 200K to 2000K pound thrust level
• Nozzle _ for 6 psia exit pressure
Performance
• Baseline _c* = 98% (heat transfer parametrics corrected for other _c* as noted I
Thrust Chamber Geometry • Tubular nozzle
• Channel combustor
• Minimum channel width 0.030 inch
• Minimum land width 0.030 inch
• Maximum channel height/channel width = 5:1
Combustion Chamber Liner • NARIoy-Z with electrodeposited nickel closeout
Coolant Wall Coking Limits • RP-[ 1060 to 1200 R (function of mass velocity)
• C3H 8 1320 H
• CH 1760 R
4
Hot Gas Heat TT'_TIsfev • No carbon deposition
• Empirical relationships
Coolant Heat Transfer • A PiP relationships based on latest coolant correlations

c
• Coolants evaluated
• Fuels (RP I, C3H8, CH 4)
• Oxy&en
• Hydrogen auxiliary cooling
• Surface roughness
• 20 microinches for main combustion chamber
• 40 mlcroinches for nozzle
• Coolant inlet temperatures, R
s RP-I 530
• C3H8(SC) 160
(NBP) 420
• CH 210
4
• Hydrogen I00
• Oxygen 165
• Coolant flow split
• Approximately 50/50 (main combustion chamber/nozzle)
Reusable Life • i00 missions
• Nf/4 = I00 cycles
S t14 = 8 hours
Experimental HiKh Pressure CoolinK Data
Convective cooling heat transfer relationships and coking limits

of hydrocarbon fuels are typically determined with an electrically
heated tube apparatus as shown in Fig. 8. The cooling medium is passed
through the tube while the tube is heated by electrical power. Local
heat transfer measurements define the cooling capability of the fluid
over a wide range of thermal and fluid conditions representing the
combustor thermal operating levels. A summary of the high pressure
(5000 psia) hydrocarbon fuel experimental data is presented in Table 2.
471
0.103 X
\
0.073_(MATERIAL: MONEL K-,_O)
,-h ,,[o,,,.o, 0.083 / _-

-TUBE
(MATERIAL:
10.005 WALL)
OHFC COPPER)
A-A
Fig. 8. Experimental High Pressure Cooling Data

(Electrically Heated Tubes)
Table 2. Experimental High Pressure Cooling Data
M_ximum Q/A,
2
Evaluator Tube Material Fuels Btu/in. -sec
Rocketdyne Stainless Steel

CH4, C3H8, RP-I 35
Rocketdyne (NASA/MSFC) K-Monel/Copper CH 85
4
UTRC K-Monel/Copper
CH4, C3H8, RP-I 8
Rocketdyne developed convective cooling relationships and thermal

decomposition (coking) limits for the three hydrocarbon fuels under a
company-sponsored effort approximately 6 years ago. These experimental
data were obtained from electrically heated stainless steel tubes with
a heat flux limit of 35 Btu/in.2-sec. These data were used for the
parametric cooling studies shown in Fig. 2, with the coking limits
noted in Table I.
United Technology Research Center (UTRC), under a NASA/LeRC con-

tract, conducted experiments using a bimetallic tube configuration
(noted in Fig. 8), which exposed the coolant medium to a heated copper
surface typical of high chamber pressure combustors. Although the
experimental data were at low heat flux levels, they did report the
observance of coking, particularly for RP-I and propane. However,
more importantly was the indication of a chemical incompatibility be-
tween the hydrocarbon fuels and the copper surface.
This effort was followed by a Rocketdyne study, under a NASAIMSFC

contract, evaluating methane in a similar bimetallic tube configura-
tion but at heat transfer rates to be experienced in high performance,
high chamber pressure combustors. The advantages of the bimetallic
tube configuration can be readily seen in the attainable heat transfer
level. The convective cooling correlation was typical of that obtained
from the previous stainless steel tube experiments. Again, coking was
not detected even at the elevated heat flux. However, severe erosion/
corrosion of the copper surface was experienced. This phenomenon
appeared to be a function of heat flux, surface temperature, and cool-
ant mass velocity. This phenomenon generally started at operating
conditions typical of a combustor operating level of approximately 30
Btu/in.2-sec. The erosion process progressed rapidly at elevated
thermal conditions where up to 0.003 inch of the copper surface was
472
eroded away in a period of several minutes. This experiment was veri-
fied to be a materials compatibility problem with the methane by con-
ducting similar heat transfer tests with hydrogen that produced no
surface deterioration. However, it is not known at this time whether
this phenomenon is only associated with the electrical heating of a
copper surface in the presence of a flowing hydrocarbon fuel.
Conclusions
Hydrocarbon engine studies conducted over the past 8 years by the

NASA, Air Force, and rocket propulsion contractors have identified the
next generation hydrocarbon engine to be more akin to the SSME than to
past generation LOX/RP-I engines, such as the H-I and F-I. The over-
whelming attractiveness for high performance and reusability demands a
sophisticated main injector with a main combustor design typical of
the high performance Space Shuttle Main Engine.
Experimental investigations have identified two areas of concern.

These are the predominantly high heat transfer rates of the main com-
bustor and the potential hydrocarbon fuel incompatibility with a
copper-base main combustor liner.
473
| N8 9 - 12 6 4 9P
LIQUID OXYGEN COOLING OF
HIGH PRESSURE LOX/HYDROCARBON
ROCKET THRUST CHAMBERS
H. G. Price
Lewis Research Center

Cleveland, OH 44135
ABSTRACT
An experimental program using liquid oxygen (LOX) and RP-I as the

propellants and supercritical LOX as the coolant was conducted at 4.14,
8.274 and 13.79 MN/m 2 (600, 1200 and 2000 psia) chamber pressure. The
objectives of this program were to evaluate the cooling characteristics
of LOX with the LOX/RP-I propellants, the buildup of soot on the
hot-gas-side chamber wall and the effect of an internal LOX leak on the
structural integrity of the combustor.
Five thrust chambers with throat diameters of 6.6cm (2.6 in.) were
tested successfully. The first three were tested at 4.14 MN/m 2 (600
psia) chamber pressure over a mixture ratio range of 2.25 to 2.92. One
of these three was tested for over 22 cyclic tests after the first
through crack f_om the coolant channel to the combustion zone was
observed with no apparent metal burning or distress. The fourth chamber
was tested at 8.274 MN/m 2 (1200 psia) chamber pressure over a mixture
range of 1.93 to 2.98. The fourth and fifth chambers were tested at
13.79 MN/m 2 (2000 psia) chamber pressure over a mixture ratio range of
1.79 to 2.68.
474
Liquid Oxygen Cooling of High Pressure
LOX/HydrocarbonRocket Thrust Chambers
Introduction
Preliminary design studies by NASA and its contractors (references

I, 2, 3, 4) for vehicles such as the mixed-mode, single-stage-to-orbit
(SSTO) and the heavy lift launch vehicle (HLLV), have shown a requirement
for a new high pressure (27.58MN/m 2 - 4000 psia chamber pressure)
booster engine using a hydrocarbon fuel and oxygen for propellants.
Furthermore, ongoing studies are evaluating hydrocarbon fueled propulsion
systems applicable to operations for a quick response, highly
maneuverable launch vehicle. These systems would ultimately lead to a
truly economical means of accomplishing many of the space missions
envisioned in the 1990 time period and beyond. The candidate hydrocarbon
fuels for these assumed systems appear to be RP-I, propane and methane.
One specific hydrocarbon fuel or propulsion system has not been selected
at this time.
One characteristic of LOX/RP-I and LOX/propane combustion over the

mixture range (O/F) of interest is the formation of soot and the buildup
of a carbon layer along the hot thrust chamber wall. This carbon layer
acts as an insulator reducing the heat transfer into the combustor
walls. The carbon layer thickness will vary with different axial
locations and may be affected by chamber pressure level and by the start
and shutdown sequences of the test firings. A reasonable assumption,
supported by experimental evidence, relating to hot gas deposits is that
an equilibrium is reached between the depositing layer and that which is
being eroded away. There is evidence that chemical reaction plays a
significant role in determining the equilibrium when molecular and/or
atomic oxygen is present in the hot gas stream. However, some deposit
would likely flake off the wall by the erosion effect of the gas moving
over the deposit surface resulting in hot spots.
The requirements for a very high chamber pressure, (very high heat
flux) hydrocarbon fueled rocket engine has necessitated that the engine
designer consider evaluating the cooling capability of both the fuel and
the oxidizer. An inherent disadvantage of RP-I and even the lighter
paraffinic hydrocarbon propane, is the tendency for these hydrocarbons to
undergo decomposition (coking) in the coolant passages. They form
barrier coatings from the decomposition (coking), thereby greatly
reducing their cooling capability. A further complication with
hydrocarbon propellant cooling recently identified in reference 5 is the
corrosion of copper by chemical attack caused by trace metallic
impurities in the fuel.
Because of the coking cooling limitation and chemical attack

problems associated with using a hydrocarbon as the regenerative coolant,
it is necessary to consider the oxidant (oxygen) as a possible coolant
option for the advanced LOX-hydrocarbon engine. Supercritical liquid
oxygen is a desirable heat transfer candidate due to its generally
favorable thermodynamic and transport properties. However, a concern
475
with the use of oxygen as a coolant is what would happen if a
through-crack formed in the wall allowing oxygen to enter the combustor.
One hypothesis offered is that the oxygen upon entering the combustion
chamber through the crack could potentially oxidize the carbon layer or
react with the fuel rich combustor products which in turn could heat the
thrust chamber wall to its ignition temperature and cause a catastrophic
failure. Another scenario offered is that the LOX entering through the
crack would film-cool the carbon layer with no oxidation of either the
carbon layer or the metal wall.
The purposes of the present program were to evaluate the cooling

characteristics of liquid oxygen with LOX/RP-I propellants, determine the
buildup of soot on the hot-gas-side chamber wall, and observe the effect
of an internal LOX leak on the structural integrity of the combustor.
This program focused on LOK/RP-I propellant combustion and achieved

test results at a chamber pressure approximately half the chamber
pressure of an advanced system. The effort concentrated on the design
and test of small thrust chambers (22,241 to 75,619N-5,000 to 17,000 Ibs.
force thrust) and involved developing procedures for smooth starts and
shutdowns and the design of resonator hardware for combustion stability
as well as injectors to assess combustion efficiency comparisons.
A series of experimental tests in which soot deposit on the wall was

determined were conducted at 4.14, 8.27, and 13.79 MN/m 2 (600, 1200 and
2000 psia) chamber pressure with LOX/RP-I as the propellants and using
LOX as the coolant. The 4.14 MN/m 2 (600 psia) chamber pressure tests
covered an O/F range of 2.2 to 2.9, the 8.274MN/m 2 (1200 psia) chamber
pressure tests covered an O/F range of 1.9 to 3.0 and the 13.79 MN/m 2
(2000 psia) chamber pressure tests covered an O/F range of 1.8 to 2.7.
To evaluate the effect of a LOX leak on structural integrity, a cyclic
hot fire test series at 4.14 MN/m 2 (600 psia) chamber pressure was
conducted until a crack developed in the hot gas wall.
Heat Transfer Correlation
Heat transfer to supercritical oxygen has been investigated (Ref. 6)

with a series of heated tubes at high pressures ranging from 17 to 34.5
MN/m 2 (2000 to 5000 psia) and bulk temperature of 96 to 217K (173 ° to
391°R). From this test data and previously existing data (Ref. 7 & 8),
a multiple regression analysis was conducted as part of the work done in
Ref. 6 which led to the following design correlation for calculating
supercritical oxygen heat transfer coefficients:
HUb = 0.0025 Re b Pr 0.4 [pb_½fKb ]½ C[_.qp._i/3 [Pb 71_
where:
Cp constant pressure specific heat
C-p- integrated average specific heat from Tw to Tb
476
D inside tube diameter
h heat transfer coefficient
K thermal conductivity
L heated tube length
Nu Nusselt number, hDIK
P pressure (local static)
Pr Prandtl number, Cp p IK
Re Reynolds number,pDV/_
T temperature
V fluid velocity
p viscosity
O density
Subscripts:
b evaluated at bulk temperature
cr critical state
w evaluated at wall temperature
The thrust chambers used in this investigation were designed and

fabricated using this cooling side heat transfer correlation. Refer
to Ref. 9 for design details. This correlation was validated by the
work of reference I0, where the measured wall temperatures agreed
with the analytically predicted wall temperature.
Apparatus and Procedures
In_ectors
A typical injector used in this program (Ref. II) at 4.14 MN/m 2

(600 psia) chamber pressure is shown in figure I. This injector is a 37
element oxidizer-fuel-oxidizer triplet injector with an impingement half
angle of the oxidizer onto the fuel of 30 °. The triplet element
pattern was arranged to provide mutually perpendicular LOX fans.
To obtain a more uniform flow distribution behind the injector face
477
for the higher chamber pressures, a 61 element injector as shown in
Figure 2 was used for the 8.274 MN/m 2 (1200 psia) chamber pressure
testing. This injector was originally fabricated with the 61 elements as
triplets arranged in a pattern to provide LOX tangential fans. However,
this injector pattern resulted in a high temperature of the hot-gas
wall. As a result, the injector was modified in the outer ring of
elements by welding closed all the holes and then redrilling the fuel
holes and inner LOX holes as showerheads. The outer zone then consisted
of 24 fuel holes and 24 oxidant holes. This pattern provided 25% of the
total fuel flow and 13% of the oxygen flow in the outer zone. At an
overall O/F of 2, there was an O/F of 1.03 in the outer zone and an O/F
of 2.32 in the core.
Figure 3 shows a 61 element injector used for the 13.79 MN/m 2 2000
psia chamber pressure testing. This injector was modified in the outer
ring of elements as the 8.274 MN/m 2 (1200 psia) chamber pressure
injector was. The outer ring of elements were welded closed and the fuel
holes and inner LOX holes redrilled as showerheads. This pattern
provided 30% fuel flow in the outer zone and 18% oxygen in the outer
zone. At an overall O/F of 2, there was an O/F of 1.18 in the outer zone
and an O/F of 2.35 in the core. The hole sizes, areas, and pressure
drops for the three injectors are shown in Table I.
Combustion Chambers
The thrust chamber hot gas liners were fabricated of an oxygen-free,

high-conductivity (OFHC) copper and contained I00 axial milled slots for
the coolant passages. The passages were closed out with electroformed
nickel. The details of the coolant channel dimensions are given in Ref.
9.
Because of the higher heat releases at 8.274 MN/m 2 (1200 psia) and
13.79 MN/m 2 (2000 psia) chamber pressure, a shorter combustion chamber
was used at these chamber pressures than at 4.14 MN/m 2 (600 psia)
chamber pressure. The dimensions of the thrust chambers are shown in
Figure 4 and Table II.
Five thrust chambers were used during this program. A photograph of

a chamber in the test stand being fired vertically downward is shown in
Figure 5. A photograph of a chamber, resonator, and injector is shown in
Fig. 6. The thrust chambers were instrumented with Chromel/Constantan
thermocouples imbedded in the rib between coolant channels approximately
1.27 mm (.05 in.) from the hot gas wall as described in Ref. 12. All of
the chambers had 16 thermocouples evenly spaced circumferentially in four
axial positions, two upstream of the throat, one at the throat, and one
downstream of the throat. In the shorter chambers, the two planes
upstream of the throat were at 16.5cm and 26.0cm (6.5 and 10.25 in.), the
throat was 29.2cm (11.5 in.), and the downstream plane was 31.8cm (12.5
in.) from the injector face. In the longer chambers the two planes
upstream of the throat were at 26.0cm and 36.2cm (10.25 and 14.25 in.),
the throat was 39.4cm (15.5 in.), and the downstream plane was 41.9cm
478
(16.5 in.) from the injector face. These positions provide temperature
instrumentation in the cylindrical, convergent, throat, and divergent
portions of the thrust chamber. The instrumentation can be seen in the
thrust chamber portion of Fig. 6.
Resonators
A water-cooled resonator, as shown in the middle portion of Fig. 6,

was used in this investigation to provide stable combustion. It was
composed of sixteen cavities arranged evenly around its inside surface.
The resonator was coaxial with, and placed between, the chamber and the
injector. The cavities were in line with the thrust chamber at its edge
and were 3.63cm (1.43 inch) long. The injector formed the inner wall of
the cavities which were 2.54 cm (I inch) long (see Fig.4). This
corresponded to a quarter wave tube to dampen the 2nd tangential
frequency of 9700 cycles/sec which was the expected frequency of the
combustion oscillations causing the instability. The same type of
resonator had been used in the work described in Ref. 13.
IKniter
Propellant ignition was accomplished with a hydrogen/oxygen spark

torch igniter inserted through the resonator wall just downstream of the
cavities. This igniter was started just prior to the main propellant
flow and supplied the energy necessary to start the LOX/RP-I combustion.
After LOX/RP-I combustion was initiated the torch flows were turned off
and a small inert purge gas flow started to prevent hot combustion gas
from backing up into the igniter.
Test Facility and Procedures
This program was conducted in a 222 410 N (50,000 ibf) thrust,

sea-level rocket test stand equipped with an exhaust-gas muffler and
scrubber. The facility used pressurized propellant storage tanks to
supply the propellants to the combustion chamber. The propellants were
liquid oxygen (LOX) and ambient-temperature RP-I. A separate source of
LOX was used as the coolant. Installation of the thrust chamber on the
facility thrust stand can be seen in Fig. 7.
TWO types of tests, cyclic and steady state, were performed during
this program. In the cyclic tests, the chamber was brought up to the
desired pressure and maintained at that pressure for .5 second and then
the propellant valves were closed for a duration of 2 seconds. The fuel
valve was closed first to avoid fuel contamination of the LOX portion of
the injector when cyclic tests were performed. This was followed
immediately by a second cycle to the same operating condition. As many
as 25 consecutive cycles at a time were performed in this manner. The
LOX coolant flow continued during both firing and non-firing portions of
the cycle. This type of test was used to first produce a crack into the
combustion chamber and then to investigate the effect of a LOX leak
through the crack on thrust chamber wall integrity with the chamber still
firing.
479
In the steady-state tests, the pressure was brought up in the
chamber and maintained at the desired level for a duration from 1.3 to I0
seconds. The heat transfer information was obtained from this type of
test. The thermocouples imbedded in the channel ribs reached steady
values in approximately 1 second and remained constant while the data
were recorded.
Test cycles were programmed into a solid-state timer that was

accurate and repeatable to within + 0.001 second. Fuel and oxidizer
flows were controlled by fixed-position valves and propellant tank
pressure. Coolant inlet pressure was controlled by coolant tank
pressure. Coolant exit pressure was kept constant by a closed-loop
controller modulating a back pressure valve. With this arrangement, the
coolant flow rate started high and decreased to the desired value as the
final combustion conditions were reached. The coolant was vented after
use.
Control room operation of the test included monitoring of the test

hardware by means of three closed-circuit television cameras. The output
of one television camera was recorded on magnetic tape for later playback.
Data was recorded every 0.02 second, averaged over five recordings,
and the average reported every 0.I0 second.
Test Results
Test Conditions
Five thrust chambers were tested during this program. The

conditions for these tests are shown in Table II. Chambers S/N i, 2, and
3 were operated at 4.14MN/m 2 (600 psia) chamber pressure. Chamber S/N
4 was operated at 8.274 MNIm 2 (1200 psia) chamber pressure and chamber
S/N 4 and 5 were operated at 13.79 MN/m 2 (2000 psia) chamber pressure.
One of these thrust chambers (SIN 3) was cyclically tested until a crack
through the cooling channel to the combustion chamber was observed. The
crack developed sometime between the 42nd and 71st cycle. It was further
tested until 93 cycles had been accumulated. At this time testing was
stopped, but further tests could have been run. Chamber S/N 1 was tested
9 times, chamber S/N 2 - 13 times, chamber S/N 4 - 31 times, and chamber
S/N 5 - 1 time. Only chamber S/N 3 developed a crack. Thus, successful
cooling with LOX was demonstrated with no catastrophic failures.
In_ector Performance
Figure 8 is a plot of the C* efficiency which was determined from

chamber pressure versus the mixture ratio tested. The measured
performance of three different injectors are plotted on this graph. The
differences in these injectors were explained in the In_ector section.
Except for some data scatter, it can be seen that the 4.14 MNIm 2
(600 psia) injector developed over 99% efficiency, the 8.274 MN/m 2
480
(1200 psia) injector 95% efficiency, and the 13.Z9 MN/m 2 (2000 psia)
injector 96% efficiency. The lower efficiency for the two higher chamber
pressures resulted from the injector modifications to reduce the wall
temperatures and the shorter chamber lengths. Ref. 14 gives a further
explanation of why zone cooling of a rocket thrust chamber can reduce the
injector efficiency.
Soot Thickness Analysis
Because of uncertainty of effects of startup and shutdown on soot

deposition, an analytical approach was utilized to determine the deposit
thickness. A calculation was performed to predict the temperature
distribution in the thrust chamber walls at the four axial locations
where the instrumentation was located. This was done with a modified
SINDA (a two-dimensional, finite difference, relaxation heat transfer)
computer code for a slotted copper liner configuration with an
electroformed nickel close-out as the thrust chambers used in this
program were fabricated. The predictions were performed at the chamber
pressure and mixture ratio operating conditions that were experimentally
run. A value of .00125 cal/cm.sec°c (TxlO -6 BTU/in. sec.°F) was
used for the thermal conductivity of soot. The axial locations were in
the cylindrical section, the converging section, the throat, and the
diverging section. A soot coating of various (I, 2, and 3 mils i.e.,
.001, .002, and .003 inches) thickness was assumed on the hot gas wall.
From these calculations, figures 9 (a, b, c, d and e) for the cylindrical
section, figures I0 (a, b, c, d, and e) for the converging section,
figures Ii (a, b, c, d, and e) for the throat, and figures 12 (a, b, c,
d, and e) for the diverging section were constructed showing the
predicted wall temperature at the location of the rib thermocouples for
various soot deposit thicknesses. Then the plot was entered with the
experimentally measured rib temperature and the soot thickness determined.
Figure 13 (a, b, c, d, and e) is a plot of the soot thickness at the

various chamber axial locations for the chamber pressure and mixture
ratio range experimentally covered in this investigation.
Figure 14 (a, b, c, and d) shows the soot thickness over the chamber
pressure range covered at an O/F of nominally 2.8. Figure 14a shows the
soot thickness in the cylindrical portion of the chamber to be uniform at
4 mils thick. Figure 14b shows that in the convergent section, the soot
thickness decreases from 2 mils at 4.14 MN/m 2 (600 psia) chamber
pressure down to 0 thickness at 13.79 MN/m 2 (2000 psia) chamber
pressure. Figure 14c shows the same conditions at the throat over the
pressure range, and Figure 14d indicates that the soot thickness
decreases from around 4 mils at 4.14 MN/m 2 (600 psia) down to I mil at
13.79 MN/m 2 (2000 psia) chamber pressure in the divergent section.
Figure 15 (a, b, c, and d) shows the soot thickness over the mixture
ratio range covered at a nominal chamber pressure of 8.274 MN/m 2 (1200
psia). Figure 15a shows the soot thickness in the cylindrical portion of
the chamber to decrease from 6.5 mils thick at an O/F of nominally 2 down
481
to a thickness of 4 mils at an O/F of nominally 3. Figure 15b shows that
in the convergent section, the soot thickness decreases from just over 2
mils at an O/F of nominally 2 down to a thickness of I mil at an O/F of
nominally 3. Figure 15c shows that at the throat the thickness varies
from a thickness of 1.5 at an O/F of nominally 2 down to a thickness of
just over .5 mil at an O/F of nominally 3. Finally, in the diverging
section Figure 15d shows that the thickness varies from a thickness of 3
mils at an O/F of nominally 2 down to a thickness of 1.5 mils at an O/F
of nominally 3.
Effects of LOX Leaks on the Thrust Chamber Integrity
Cyclic test operation was performed to determine what effect a crack

in the combustion chamber wall would have if it allowed oxygen to enter
the combustion zone. It was postulated that there would be no effect if
the metal wall were maintained below its ignition temperature. From
Table II it can be seen that one of the chambers was operated until
cracks developed. These cracks were in the throat region. Leakage
through these cracks was very evident by observing the large amounts of
vapors leaving the chamber between cycles and at the beginning of the
tests. This was particularly true from cycle ?I to cycle 93 after the
cracks had been visually identified. The chamber showed no signs of
apparent metal burning or distress. In fact, upon post inspection the
lack of discoloration revealed that the area around the crack was
overcooled by the leaking oxygen. This was also observed in thrust
chamber tests with cracks in which hydrogen was used as the coolant, and
thrust chamber tests with cracks in which LOX was used to cool
hydrogen/oxygen propellants (Ref. i0). There was no catastrophic failure.
Concluding Remarks
The present phase of the LOX cooling program has demonstrated that
supercritical LOX is capable of cooling thrust chambers using LOX/RP-I as
the combustion propellants. These propellants were thought to perhaps
present a more severe operating environment if a small crack developed in
the chamber wall because of the presence of a soot layer. The concern
was that the leaking coolant, LOX, entering the combustion chamber
through the crack, could oxidize the soot film which could in turn heat
the chamber wall to its ignition temperature. From the soot analysis at
the 4.14 MN/m 2 (600 psia) chamber pressure, a soot layer was indeed
present in the area where the cracks developed (the throat), however,
this did not aggravate the situation. The metal wall was maintained
below its ignition temperature and no catastrophic failure resulted.
482
Sun_ary of Results
Five thrust chambers with identical coolant passage geometries were

tested with LOX/RP-I as the propellants and LOX as the coolant. Three of
these thrust chambers were tested at 4.14 MN/m 2 (600 psia) chamber
pressure and over a mixture ratio range of 2.25 to 2.92. One thrust
chamber was tested at 8.274 MN/m 2 (1200 psia) chamber pressure over a
mixture range of 1.93 to 2.98. Two of the thrust chambers were tested at
13.79 MN/m 2 (2000 psia) chamber pressure over a mixture ratio range of
1.79 to 2.68. The results of these tests were as follows:
I. Successful cooling with LOX was demonstrated.
2. One chamber was cyclically tested 93 times. During this

testing, cracks appeared in the hot-gas wall that permitted
oxygen to flow into the combustion region with no catastrophic
failures. With this chamber, more than 22 cyclic tests were
made after the first through- crack was observed with no apparent
metal ignition or distress.
3. The LOX passing through the crack in the hot-gas wall did not
react with the carbon layer at the throat on the combustion
wall, thereby, raising the metal wall temperature to its
ignition temperature and causing a catastrophic failure. It
also did not react directly with the metal wall.
4. The thrust chamber wall cracks that formed as a result of the

cyclic testing with LOX as the coolant, appeared to have similar
characteristics as those from a previous program where liquid
hydrogen was the coolant.
5. The LOX cooling of LOX/RP-I propellants was very similar to the

LOX cooling of hydrogen/oxygen propellants.
6. At a nominal O/F of 2.8, soot thickness decreases as chamber

pressure increases, except in the cylindrical portion of the
thruster where it remained a constant thickness.
7. Soot deposition was the least in the throat region at all

chamber pressures and mixture ratios.
8. Soot thickness decreased at a given thrust chamber axial

location as mixture ratio increased in the range from 2 to 3.
483
References
. Luscher, W. P., and Mellish, J. A., "Advanced High Pressure Engine

Study for Mixed-Mode Vehicle Applications," Aerojet Liquid Rocket
Company, Sacramento, CA, January 1977. (NASA CR-135141)
2. Haefeli, R. C., Littler, E. G., Hurley, S. B., and Winter, M. G.,

"Technology Requirements for Advanced Earth-Orbital Transportation
Systems," Martin Marietta Corp., Denver, CO, June 1977. (NASA
CR-2866)
3. Hepler, A. K. and Bangsund, E. L., "Technology Requirements for

Advanced Earth Orbital Transportation Systems," Boeing Aerospace
Co., Seattle, WA, July 1978. (NASA CR-2878)
4. Caluori, V. A., Conrad, R. T., and Jenkins, J. C., "Technology

Requirements for Future Earth-to-Geosynchronous Orbit Transportation
Systems," Boeing Aerospace Co., Seattle, WA, April 1980. (NASA
CR-3265)
. Giovantetti, Anthony J., Spadacinni, Louis J., and Szetela, Eugene

J., "Deposit Formation and Heat Transfer in Hydrocarbon Rocket
Fuels," United Technologies Research Center, East Hartford, CT,
October 1983. (NASA CR-168277)
6 .
Spencer, R. G., and Rousar, D. C., "Supercritical Oxygen Heat
Transfer, "Aerojet Liquid Rocket Company, Sacramento, CA, November
1977. (NASA CR-135339)
7 °
Rousar, D. C., and Miller, E., "Cooling with Supercritical Oxygen,"
AIAA Paper 75-1248, September 1975.
° Powell, W. B., "Heat Transfer to Fluids in the Region of the

Critical Temperature," Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA,
Progress Report No. 20-285, 1956.
9. Spencer, R. G., Rousar, D. C., and Price, H. G., "LOX-Cooled Thrust

Chamber Technology Developments," AIAA Paper 78-1035, July 1978.
I0. Price, H.G., "Cooling of High Pressure Rocket Thrust Chambers with
Liquid Oxygen," NASA TM 81503, 1980.
II. Pavli, A. J., "Design and Evaluation of High Performance Rocket

Engine Injectors for Use with Hydrocarbon Fuels," NASA TM79319, 1979.
484
12. Hannum, N. P., Kasper, H. J., and Pavli, A. J., "Experimental and
Theoretical Investigation of Fatigue Life in Reusable Rocket Thrust
Chambers," NASA TMX-73413, 1976.
13. LaBotz, R. J., Rousar, D. C., & Valler, H. W., "High Density Fuel
Combustion and Cooling Investigation," Aerojet Liquid Rocket
Company, Sacramento, CA, September 1980. (NASA CR-165177)
14. Winter, Jerry M., Pavli, Albert J., and Shinn, Jr., Arthur M.,
"Design and Evaluation of an Oxidant-Fuel-Ratio-Zoned Rocket
Injector for High Performance and Ablative Engine Compatibility,"
NASA TN D-6918, 1972.
485
m
i
i
,U.l'lvnb _1oo¢1 _!0
Si 3_Vd lVNFOI_IO
• m
_°
Ol
r=-
486
.ib
i.n_.
-s
r_J r_o n .-.i i.-0

_D _i =l- =111--{-_
4b.b_
_L.n
0
A (_. '_ Z "_ :_" 0

.-....J -.._ (:D
i_(.o 0_ -,-3 w 3 -_.
O'-J
v.Ib
-4
I-"
I
ZZ
_ _o ,-_, 0
r_ r_
• ° • ft' • • I.,4' °
o_ o ..J _0 r.) ,,,,4
CD
--I
I%1 _I, e, z
_n b_
I 0
-,h
..(
Lo_
r,.n --_ vt._
_Z
A
NI .,-_
O0
--." aO "-'0
•.-.- b.I
•le -i_
A_ • '_ Z "I ¢_OZ
(.no
0
_ c+-,_
487
NASA
C-80-4707
,2
0
e-
ffl
L--
L--
°_
e_
0
0 •
• o •
• t
I'-
,a=C,.....u
_4
,_1:U"D
O
489
POOR QUALIT'Y
0
r-
OR
cD
L--
E
I-
U
0
0
0
E
Z
u
I
I
o,.
_,.-0
Zoo
0
I
U
L
U.
490
,OF POOR QUAU'r_
®
"o
o
L m
II --
C •
0 II o
o ®
Q o I
n.
¢ ¢
• Oq,
I c
® ___--
.o E
E u
C
,Iz m
u _ _-__
4 _ c-
0 _ O
ffl
,Q
E
L_
I,-
!
,i
@
°_
U.
x E
W
?
lid
491
Figure 5. - Lox cooled chamber Iring prope
8.274 MNIm = (1200 psia) chamber pressure.
492
OF POOR QUALITY
I
0,.
ORiG!..'_;_L ;_ACE ;'.; 4,,*

L-
OF POO;-_ QUALITY 0
(1.
k,,
q)
4=*
¢:
m 0
r-
'I0
C
m
0
4k_
t-
O
lid
I,.
(D
L_
I--
L_
_e
I'*o
i
U
493
NASA
C-83-1_88
J
Figure 7. - Thrust chamber mounted in test facility.
494
OF Pf.,4i;;_ _U_,Li,,,"
I
I
®
I "_ _
_ z'__l .o
® LI6
I a
® (.)
X c
®B
I E
I 0
q)
o
[] I
0
I
@
c
[] !
(3 @
=1
U.
...,8
q-
L,LJ
rJ
495
0 t
l _U
- 'I. .c_
E ,-
E
0
i,.,
gJ
GP
I,,-
._ I1 .S
I,.- o,.°
t,,,- tO
E
0
G}
X e,,-
e,,-
O
O
O !
°M
X o)
o
L_
0
II
496
¢-
E
0
r-
¢J
U')
E
¢.)
U')
r"
°_
t-
¢0
_m
-I
o_
u.
r
i.-
oi
497
o
_=.
0
._
e-
°_
E
0
e-
.c
tO
_D
E
o
¢0
al
x c-
O
°_
c3 c-
c_
o
0o
I
O_
I,.
o_
U.
t-
i--
cm
498
8
=
E
0
o
¢-
_D
E
o
_D
Q)
X
o
°_
Q
0
b,.
._
U.
499
U
E
o
.C
U
r-
In
E
U
It)
U
.1=
o
o
rd)
I
0
u.
.1=
5OO
8
0
0
•
"o
•
Q
l L_
0
0
_ e °_
@
E
0
0_" ®
Z =
_'_
,,-_
t
.
--
g /
.
l @
¢J
_4 x 2 / lid
2 II _ /
_m
E
0
|
Q
e,,
w,
0
0
0
0
t,.
0)
, , , , , ,
501
o. (3
al
o L_
0
Q=p
(3
@
e=
1o= !
1=
O
__z
GO
@
,.c
c
_ x
Z II
0
(3
_D
m
o
@
c
(3
l-
0
O
0
L_
al
14..
502
@
L_
0
@
o_
t=
o_
E
0
so
0
.C
U
c
tO
d
_p_
00
so
0
C
t.-
0
0
co
I
Q
L-
Q
L,_
503
a
L,.
0
0
C
E
0
t__
nO
0
im
@
C
¢J
0
0
504
@
al
0
o,.q
e-
E
0
e..
C_
u
.c
0
0
G_
U.
5O5
¢,1
a
t..
0
q.d
@
°l,i
e"
t
E
0
Oral
¢)
=
tO
LO
e.)
o
L--
0
C
t-
O
(/)
I
OI
tA.
, , , , , • ,I!il
__= ,I ._
506
L_
0
I,)
Q
c
E
0
E
¢J
al
0
@
c
0
¢0
,4
_m
507
0
O
4too
U
| 0
C
E
O
A
Q
0
f.
_o
O
r-
@
r-
r-
_o
O
O
5O8
0
0
L_
0
c
E
0
h,.
0
c
iO
E
0
GO
0
e.
v.
u
-d
0
L_
IL
509
|
@
0
cO
L_
_¢
I=
o
o_ @
J¢
_¢
E
0
,,a
0
L_
J_
@
c
J¢
¢J
J¢
0
CO
I
I,I.
510
o
0 • >, u
o
C
o _- < /
E
C o
,-.z : / o
u
e.
°_. x /
ID
o
c
QI u
X
o
o
.pQ
X
@
13
u.
ali ., I , I , I
c
.._ o 0 0 0
u4 d
¢-
I--
0
0
511
|
Q
L_
0
@
c
E
0
L,-
E
(,1
@
e-
o
o
I
O
,4
.e,I
Z
o
L_
m
(11 I | I I I
v o 0 0 0
u4 el
r-
0
0
512
i
=-
Io
q)
0 "
r.
.I,=*
o
1=m
9
(_ I i I * I . I •
513
514
II
o
0 q_
0_
O
r_ 0
o r-
E
o
@
E t-
o
• Z c
E
a
r. _1,
o
w E
= II U
.c
Vm
0
c
.c
Q
L_
°_
r-
k-
0
0
Ul
515
0
o)
×
II
0
×
c_
,_
W
C3L
0
0
CO o
0 t ×
m
v- CD 0
C
E
t-
Ez
w 'q' x
_- II
J
×
< > _
o
L--
I ! • I ! Q._ =
!', 0
,i' _ N
0 Q
d
u.
516
0
II
X
° !
U.
o =..
X _o £
Q.
O
o
I X
I
o
c
,x
,- E
Q ,IZ
.0 Z I,-
o
(3 O0
0
X C)D
_- Q u
.Q
.=,.l
X _3 o
q=¢ 0
X
QO ._
a3
x
c,'J
I S I a | l t • l • l • l •
d
517
II
×
m
° !
•- II
_- a.Q
"0
.Q
X 0
_m
U.
? ? ? -
518
¢_1
O_
11,,,
II
X
° i
LI.
0
cCl
°_ X
w
i-i
C)
it)
o
m X
10
_r _" ®
ILM e.
..11
u
.0 Z
I-
E
c_
o
,- II
I'-1- rl _
w i_ "
r.i
X
•,_ 0
X o
m
COl
x
,¢
I
¢g
0
i_
I I I I I • I • I • I • I •
°_
9 9 1.6
519
_, x
4=0
.,-J _
_ x
0._
"5
× 0 *-,
,_ 0
X o
°_
x
,<
I
! o"
L_
l * I i ! • I , ! , I • I • Q_ 0
._
,R
520
m
o
Q
m =
¢_1 u
I.I. 0
0 co
X
)_
C _
_ °_'
1 I
@
L--
II i . i . I i I a I , I,L
j-
I--
0
0
u1
521
/
S, !
-_° 0
.£
I--
522
@
00 C
I-=
I.I.
0
0 ¢0
==
S .
(,J w
Q
c 0
(.1 *"
r-
4,d
,_ °-
I
0
tm
[:D
S, I ! I , I C3 U.
0 0 a
u_ c;
523
"{0
OI
@
CO c
.1=
u.
0 ®
X
i1 i_-
_° (.1
_ C
•,-, @
0 _
®
L_
I • I • I a I • I • o_
._o o. o o o. o
524
U'J
525
ul
iii
L'_ el
Q. '-
o z
0
oj ...
0
0
0
_.U x iii
c_
X w 13
m .c
• 0
L--
t- @
e. 0
,4
LO
111
._ I • I • I i I • I • I • I • o_
ur_ cl uS _ iii l_l .-: cl
526
r-
_i o
o
o
nu x
0 =
(:D L
J=
0
0
Ul
527
U1
OI
_4
IIml eO
(4 @
c
Q.
0 I-
0 F-
4me
5"1" o
o
e)
0
i1.° X
i
o
U.. ,- =
C:) -- "-
oi @
Q _ E
o w
_ • " >
L • c
X c u
'_ 0 @
Z m
w _
• c
ev, N
,._
_ •
a _ ->
N -"
o @
o e-
!
4i
.0,4 LO
X
o
L--
ill
i . l . I . I . i . I , i a
o
d o
u] 0.
,_ ._ o
_i o.
.- o-
d
r.
l-
a.)
o
o
ul
528
9-12650
RP-I AND METHANE COMBUSTION AND COOLING EXPERIMENTS
C. R. Bailey
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama
ABSTRACT
A program was conducted to investigate ignition, combustion and

heat transfer characteristics of liquid oxygen and either RP-1 or
methane fuel applicable to advanced booster engines. Experimental data
for both staged combustion and gas generator cycles were obtained for
methane. Testing using RP-I was conducted in support of the gas gen-
erator cycle. A pressure-fed combustion system rated at 40,000 pounds
thrust was used for all testing. Preburner and gas generator combustion
data for both propellant combinations were obtained at pressures ranging
from 1500 to 3100 psia and temperatures from 1600 to 2000 degrees
Rankine. Main injector evaluations were accomplished primarily with
test firings using a water-cooled calorimeter main combustion chamber.
With this chamber, heat flux profiles and combustion performance were
obtained at pressures to approximately 2200 psia. Several tests were
conducted using a methane-cooled combustion chamber.
INTRODUCTION
During the past several years, interest has increased in the

potential use of hydrocarbon fuels in combination with liquid oxygen
for advanced launch vehicle booster engines. Several fuels have been
considered including RP-1 and methane. Although neither of these
generate a specific impulse as high as hydrogen, the greater densities
and reduced tankage weights associated with the hydrocarbon fuels offer
the potential of payload increases.
The Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) has underway a long-range

effort to provide a combustion devices technology base adequate to
initiate an advanced Lox-hydrocarbon engine development program. The
data base is intended to include methane fuel for either gas generator
or staged combustion engine cycles and RP-I fuel for the gas generator
engine cycle. These engines are expected to operate at main combustion
chamber pressures at least 2000 psia. The goal of this program has
been to provide supporting data primarily applicable to ignition,
combustion performance and heat transfer.
BACKGROUND AND APPROACH
The program was structured to make maximum use of a residual sub-

scale space shuttle main engine (SSME) combustion system used several
years ago to investigate low cycle fatigue characteristics of the main
combustion chamber liner. Model SSME components used included preburner
chambers and nozzles and a water-cooled calorimeter main combustion
529
chamberused for main injector evaluation. The injectors were either
procured by competitive contract or designed and fabricated at MSFC.
The basic preburner assembly used for all preburner and gas gen,
erator testing is shown in Figure i. The combustion chamber is 11 in.
long with a 3.5 in. I.D. and is drilled at six places in the downstream
flange for thermocouples to be inserted into the gas stream. A 4 in.
chamber extension was available to provide longer combustor lengths if
needed. A chlorine trifluoride torch igniter is mounted in the upstream
flange. Several different sized nozzles were available to allow cham-
ber pressure to be varied independent of propellant flow rate. Accom-
modations for flush-mounted high frequency pressure transducers for
stability measurementsare provided in the combustion chamber and both
fuel and oxidizer manifolds.
Figure i. Preburner Components
The calorimeter main combustion chamber used for main injector

evaluation is shown in Figure 2. The chamberhas a copper alloy inner
liner with 116 milled circumferential cooling water channels. The
channels are manifolded into groups of two, providing 58 individual
coolant circuits for heat transfer measurementalong the length of the
chamber. The length from the injector to the throat is 14 in. and the
throat diameter is 3.31 in.
All testing was conducted at Test Position 116, Marshall Space

Flight Center, AL. This Js _ high pressure facility used primarily
for acoustics and combustion devices testing. Liquid propellant tank
working pressures are 5000 psi, and natural gas which was used as a
substitute for methane was supplied from I0,000 psi storage bottles.
The selection of natural gas instead of methane was madeprimarily
because of the availability of high methane content liquified natural
gas (LNG) at low cost. Methane content of the purchased LNGranged
from 95 to 97 mol percent with the remainder being ethane and propane.
53O OR!Gi3;fi. i " ..,:. __

OF POOR QOALITY
'_,_.ITY
Figure 2. Calorimeter Combustion Chamber Installation
LOX-METHANE STAGED COMBUSTION
Preburner Performance
The preburner injector was obtained by contract (Reference i) and

is pictured in Figure 3. The design has 49 shear coaxial elements.
The I.D. of each oxygen tube at the point of injection is 0.088 in.
The tube O.D. is 0.1355 in. and the fuel port diameter is 0.1730 in.
Figure 3. LOX-Methane Preburner Injector
531
Initial attempts to ignite the propellants at planned steady-state
mixture ratio were unsuccessful. It was concluded that propellant
ignition with this injector could be accomplished only by using a higher
mixture ratio during the start transient and shifting to the planned
mixture ratio only after propellant burning was fully established. It
was determined that a mixture ratio equivalent to a combustion tem-
perature of approximately 2000°F was required for reliable ignition.
Combustionchamber pressure and temperature traces for a typical test
are shown in Figure 4. Comparisonof characteristic velocity and com-
bustion temperature tests data to ODEtheoretical predictions is pre-
sented in Figures 5 and 6. Combustionperformance was generally as
expected, and the goal of combustion temperature uniformity within
±50°F across the chamberwas achieved in five of the eight tests.
Combustionpressure oscillations expressed as a percentage of chamber
pressure ranged from 1.3 to 4.2 percent as comparedto a program goal
of 5.0 percent maximum.
Tim2• (_GF)
3500
3000¸
LL
_2soo
c_
,ooo
500
0
O0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5 0 6.0 7_0 8,0 9.0 100
T i me-Second_
Figure 4. LOX-Methane Preburner Test Data
42OO
>"
EOUIL. • o• • • • •
w
>
o
3600-
_3_-
<
Pc = 2000 - 3500 PSIA
.2o ._s .3_ .:& .,_ .,'5 ._

MIXTURE RATIO
Figure 5. Comparison of Test Data to Theoretical

Characteristic Velocity
532
220O
EQUI L. ---_ __
2000
¢_0O0
o
w MAX
_- 1600
t MEAN
t MIN
1400
20 25 30 .35 40 45 50
MIXTURE RATtO

Combustion Temperature
Staged Combustion Performance
The main injector used for staged combustion testing was a slightly
modified version of the subscale SSME main injector which used full size
SSME coaxial elements. The only significant modification was a reduc-
tion in fuel sleeve I.D. to compensate for the difference in density
between methane and hydrogen. A photograph of the injector is shown
in Figure 7. The assembly consists of 61 coaxial elements plus a
coaxial igniter element located in the center of the face. Primary
fuel is the fuel-rich preburner exhaust gas. In addition, ambient
temperature methane is supplied to a cavity between two porous metal
mesh faceplates and serves as the transpiration coolant for the face-
plates plus the fuel supply for the igniter. Liquid oxygen flow con-
trol for each of the 61 oxygen posts is provided by a metering orifice
at the entrance to the post. At the injection plane, Lox post I.D. is
0.188 in. and the O.D. is 0.230 in. The fuel sleeve I.D. which serves
as the fuel injection annulus initially had an I.D. of 0.310 in. for
all elements.
Figure 7. LOX-Methane Staged Combustion Main Injector
533
Nine staged combustion tests were conducted using the calorimeter
combustion chamberwhich provided both combustion performance and heat
transfer data. Chamberpressures ranged from 1400 to 2135 psia and
mixture ratios varied from 2.38 to 3.52. The first five tests were
conducted with the baseline uniform mixture ratio (UMR)injector.
Characteristic velocity (C*) efficiency exceeded 98 percent for each
test but showeda trend of decreasing efficiency with increasing cham-
ber pressure. Heating rate in the throat region was approximately 18
percent higher than had been predicted. The predicted heat transfer
profile was calculated using standard Nusselt Numberscaling from
oxygen-hydrogen data previously obtained with the samecombustion
chamber. Both the predicted and measuredheating rate profiles, scaled
to 3000 psia, are shown in Figure 8. In addition, Figure 9 showsboth
predicted and measurednozzle throat heating rates expressed as a
fraction of the equivalent rates using oxygen-hydrogen at a mixture
ratio of 6.0. This was a convenient way to non-dimensionalize the
information for comparative purposes.
TEST DAtA / MR • 3 S
4
t
$CALEO TO 3000 P$1A OOOOOOO
i 40-
o 0 o°° 000 o_ oo PREDICTED
00
• • _ALL MR - 2S •
CORE MR o 3 3 •
_o
14 - ,'2 -1 'o '
-_E -! ' '
-4 - _, ....
0 _ 4 6
AXIAL StATiON iN
Figure 8. Heat Flux Profiles, LOX-Methane Staged Combustion
10,
o o
08 oo
PREDICTED
qr <
O O
J 0.4
< <
0 UNIFORM MIXTURE RATIO
ZONED MIXTURE RATIO
0.2
0
115 2!o _is 31o 31_ .io
Wo/WcH4
Figure 9. Nozzle Throat Heating Rates
534
Note in Figure 9 the agreement between prediction and UMRdata at
low mixture ratio, and the divergence between the two as mixture ratio
increases. It was decided to bias the outer injector element ring fuel
rich in an attempt to reduce heating rate, provided the expected reduc-
tion in specific impulse performance was not excessive. The results of
this analysis are shown in Figure 10. For a 600,000 ib thrust engine
having a nozzle area ratio of 42, specific impulse peaks at a mixture
of 3.5. If all of the injector outer ring elements were biased to a
mixture ratio of 2.5 and the overall mixture ratio remained at 3.5,
the remainder of the injector elements would have to operate at a
mixture ratio of approximately 3.7. Figure I0 showsgraphically the
effect of this modification on specific impulse assuming no mixing
between the two stream tubes. Engine vacuum specific impulse would be
reduced 3.8 seconds. This reduction in performance could be minimized
by operating the core of the injector at the peak performance mixture
ratio of 3.5 and allowing the overall mixture ratio to drop to approxi-
mately 3.3. For this condition, the compromise in performance is only
about 2.0 sec. Performance losses within this range were considered
to be tentatively acceptable, and the injector was modified to provide
an outer zone mixture ratio of 2.5. The results of the zoned mixture
ratio tests are shown in Figures 8 and 9. They indicate that outer
zone mixture ratio biasing is effective in controlling heating rate.
BOOK TIIRUS!
LOX/CH 4
AREA RATIO = 42
zoi_¢
[ £ .....
_70
|..
2• 3: 3I, 4:0 _.$ $.0

MIXTUni IIA I"iO
Figure i0. Performance Loss Using Zoned Combustion
Four tests were conducted using a single up-pass liquid methane

cooled combustion chamber. The test objective was to operate at cham-
ber pressures greater than the approximate 2200 psi limit of the
calorimeter chamber. These tests were characterized by a sharp reduc-
tion in combustion efficiency as propellant flowrates were increased.
The decrease in efficiency as a function of oxidizer flowrate is shown
in Figure ii. During the final firing, localized wall overheating
535
O
O
o5
O
• + , , ,
4o so 6o 7o |o
ox OIZEm FLOWRATE LBISEC
Figure ii. LOX-Methane Staged Combustion Main Injector

Performance
occurred in the nozzle throat and testing was terminated. It was believed
that the low combustion efficiencies were caused by the reduced fuel
injection velocities associated with using methane instead of hydrogen,
and that the resulting delays in oxygen vaporization and mixing disrupted
the boundary layer and increased the throat heating rate.
Neither of the main combustion chambers was designed for use with
pressure transducers capable of monitoring acoustic mode instability.
However, the absence of pressure oscillations as measured by the pre-
burner high frequency transducer is at least a qualitative indication
that main chamber combustion was stable.
LOX-METHANE GAS GENERATOR CYCLE
Main Injector Performance
Two main injectors applicable to the gas generator cycle were

obtained by the contracts listed in References 2 and 3. Test prepara-
tions to evaluate the Reference 3 injector are now underway. This
report describes the test results of the Reference 2 injector which is
pictured in Figure 12. The injector was designed and fabricated by
Rocketdyne Division of Rockwell International. The design has 82 shear
coaxial injector elements: this is a significantly finer pattern than
was used in the staged combustion main injector. The igniter is a
chlorine trifluoride/methane torch located in the center of the injector.
Eight test firings using this injector and the calorimeter com-
bustion chamber were conducted over a chamber pressure range of 1200
to 2100 psia and a mixture ratio range of 2.5 to 3.6. The performance
goal of 97 percent minimum C* efficiency was exceeded in all tests, and
the combustion chamber heat flux profiles were essentially as predicted.
Characteristic velocity efficiency is shown in Figure 13 as a function
of mixture ratio and in Figure 14 as a function of fuel injection
velocity minus oxidizer injection velocity. Efficiency was not strongly
affected by either of these variables. Nozzle throat heating rates
536
.OE POOR c_..,, :.
Figure 12. LOX-Methane Main Injector for Gas

Generator Cycle
13
100
13 G
I=1
r:l
El 0
El
13
_ga
2'.s s:o s'.s

MIXTURE RATIO, Wo/Wf
Figure 13. Main Injector Performance as a Function

of Mixture Ratio
expressed as a fraction of the equivalent rate with oxygen-hydrogen is

shown in Figure 15. Measured heating rates were slightly lower than
predicted at all test conditions. There was no acoustic mode combus-
tion instability during any of the tests, but oxidizer feed system
oscillations were evident during some of the firings at lower chamber
pressures. Pressure amplitudes ranged from 250 to 500 psi peak-to-peak.
Relatively minor erosion at the outer edge of the faceplate occurred
during several of these periods of instability.
537
0
100-
V 0
O 0
V O
98-
V _ 0.233 IN. FUEL SLEEVES

9_-
0.115 IN. LOX POST RECESS
Q _ 0.224 IN. FUEL SLEEVES
0.200 IN. LOX POST RECESS
4Go ,_o _ 7_ 8_ 9Go

INJEC]ION VELOCITY DIFFERENTIAL, Vf - Vo, FT/SEC
Figure 14. Main Injector Performance as a Function of

Injection Velocity Differential
I
°
1
=,
08
(_
Q@
_ PREDICTED
il ;q[t O6
0.4
02
0
,'_ 21o 21s 3o' 31_ ,!o
Wo/WcH 4
Figure 15. Throat Heating Rates Using Shear

Coaxial Injector
One test was conducted using a liquid methane cooled combustion

chamber at a chamber pressure of 2380 and a mixture ratio of 3.3.
Significant chamber erosion occurred along a cooling passage which had
a low cycle fatigue crack resulting from a previous test series. The
cause of this damage is still being investigated.
538
LOX/RP-I GASGENERATOR
CYCLE
Gas Generator Performance
The program objectives were to demonstrate C* combustion efficien-

cies and gas temperature profiles adequate for engine operation at
chamber pressures ranging from 2000 to 3000 psi with stable combustion.
Specific program goals included gas temperature uniformity across the
combustion chamber within ±50°F and combustion pressure oscillations
not to exceed ±5 percent of chamber pressure.
Two gas generator injectors were evaluated in this task. The first
injector, shown in Figure 16, has 39 fuel doublets and 37 oxidizer
shower head elements and was designed and fabricated at Marshall Space
Flight Center. A total of 28 tests were conducted using this injector.
The first nine tests were igniter system demonstrations and attempts to
use a low-flow bypass system for main propellant ignition. This
system proved to be neither successful nor needed. Reliable ignition
was achieved by ramping the main propellant valves open using a 40
millisecond fuel lead after igniter operation was verified. Neither
pressure nor temperature spikes was a problem. A comparison of charac-
teristic velocity and combustion temperature data to both theoretical
one-dimensional equilibrium and nonequilibrium predictions is presented
in Figures 17 and 18. The nonequilibrium method resulted from work
Figure 16. Fuel Doublet LOX/RP-I Gas Generator Injector
539
ORIGINAL F;;. i_
POOR ,-,,,,,, ,-..
FUEL DOUBLET - LOX SHOWERHEAD
IEOUI (_JILIIkqlUiil
L
/
W
_mm-
U.
0 tl IJ_ 0.3 0.4 O r, 04 m7 U

IlIXTUiq| RATIO
Figure 17. Characteristic Velocity Performance
FUEL DOUBLET - LOX SHOWERHEAdD
• 24m
.
i__
LIIIJRIUM
Im
0 0.1 02 0.3 0.4 OA llJ 0.7 0i

MIXTURE RATIO
Figure 18. Combustion Gas Mean Temperature
reported in Reference i. Gas temperature uniformity and combustion

stability were both strong functions of fuel injection pressure drop.
The gas temperature nonuniformity as measured by a six-thermocouple
rake I0 in. downstream of the injector face is presented in Figure 19.
The two design modifications noted on this figure represent plugged
injection ports to increase differential pressure. Low frequency
stability characteristics are shown in Figure 20, and indicate a chug
threshold for the doublet injector at a fuel pressure drop to chamber
pressure ratio of approximately 12 percent. The program goals from
both gas temperature uniformity and combustion stability standpoints
were achieved during the three final firings using the Mod. 2 injector.
No attempt was made to measure carbon deposition on the chamber walls
or nozzle. It was generally observed that the amount of carbon
deposited did not vary with chamber pressure.
540
Q BASIC DESIGN
<_ MOD 1
[] MOD2
x
<
©
0
II
u
5_
FUEL INJECTION PRESSURE DROP, PSI
Figure 19. Doublet Injector Gas Temperature

Nonuniformity
II
0
o
I.Zn I
a_o
0
0
I
© °'!I
I I
o: 0
,+i
181
I []
I I
I
I I
D
, (i_QQQ_, 000 O, 0 0
A PIIPc
Figure 20. Low Frequency Stability Characteristics
The second injector design had triplet injection elements and was
obtained through the Reference I contract. A photograph of the injec-
tor face is shown in Figure 21. A total of 66 F-O-F elements was used.
Fuel port diameter was 0.0560 in. and oxidizer port diameter was 0.456
in. Ten mainstage data firings were conducted. This injector exhibited
a strong tendency to generate chugging unless an abnormally high fuel
injection pressure drop was maintained. Attempts were made to minimize
the problem by adding resistance in the fuel feed system to decouple
the resonance. First, an orifice was installed in the inlet flange to
the fuel manifold to add approximately 200 psi pressure drop. The
change had no effect on the instability. Next, the single orifice was
removed and individual orifices were installed in each of the twelve
radial fuel feed passages in the injector body. Again, the increase in
pressure drop was approximately 200 psi. Any changes in chugging
characteristics were insignificant, and it was concluded that the design
541
ORIGIL'_AL i:! .
OE POOR QU_._a ,
Figure 21. Triplet LOX/RP-I Gas Generator Injector
is inherently deficient in this respect. The problem could possibly be

minimized by an injector redesign to reduce fuel manifold volume, but
it was not attempted in this program. Stability threshold for the
injector is shown in Figure 20.
Characteristic velocity and combustion temperature data are com-

pared to theoretical predictions in Figures 22 and 23. The data agreed
reasonably well with the nonequilibrium model predictions, although the
mean gas temperature shows more scatter at the higher mixture ratios
than desired. This is probably due in part to a reduction in venturi
LOX/RP- 1 TRIPLET
m,
£ELOUILIORI_
_m
o G1 O.2
MIXTURE RATIO

Characteristic Velocity
542
LOX/RP- 1 TRIPLET
211oo
ac 2400
-.'m
!
lOOO
12oo-
• 01 0.2 0.3 04 05 0.4 07 O|
MIXTURERATIO

Combustion Temperature
flow control and measurement accuracy during chugging. Seven of the

ten tests satisfied the gas temperature uniformity goal of ±50°F and
three tests did not. In general, the gas temperature was more uniform
at lower mixture ratios and was not affected by a 4-in. increase in
chamber length. Carbon deposition to the chamber and nozzle was com-
parable to that previously observed with the doublet injector.
Main Injector Performance
The LOX/RP-I main injector was obtained through the contract listed
in Reference 4 and was designed and fabricated by the Aerojet Liquid
Rocket Company. The design used preatomized triplet (PAT) elements
which consisted of two fuel fans impinging on one liquid oxygen fan.
This type of injector element had been tested previously (Reference 5)
using lox and RP-1 at 2000 psia chamber pressure, and had produced
stable combustion with moderately high efficiencies. However, a very
serious deficiency discovered during the program was the generation of
nozzle throat heating rates approximately 50 percent greater than pre-
dicted. The injector mixing efficiency was also discovered to be low
(73 percent), and was attributed to reactive stream separation (RSS)
whereby the effects of initial combustion force the propellant streams
apart and reduce mixing. A major goal of the subject program was to
experimentally determine the effects of injector design changes made
to minimize the nozzle heating rate problem and to improve propellant
mixing.
A sketch of the injector and resonator installation is shown in

Figure 24, and a photograph of the injector and resonator are shown in
Figure 25. The injector face was fabricated using a stack of thin,
photo-etched nickel plates bonded and electron-beam welded to a stainless
steel body. Eighty percent of the propellant flow is injected through
72 PAT elements. The remaining 20 percent of the flow is injected
through unlike preatomized doublet elements which are supplied from
543
oi: poo QUAU' ox,o,zE.
FUEL
Figure 24. LOX/RP-1 Main Injector and Resonator

Installation
Figure 25. Injector and Resonator
the two outer propellant rings. The doublets were known to be low per-
formance elements but were incorporated into the design to serve as
compatibility elements and reduce nozzle heating rates. Since the
percentage of total propellant flowrate to the compatibility elements
would be significantly reduced in a large booster engine, the predicted
one-half percent compromise in specific impulse efficiency was con-
sidered acceptable. Two PAT element design modifications were made
544
relative to the Reference 5 configurations. The fuel impingement angle
was increased from 60 degrees to 90 degrees total included angle to
improve intra-element mixing, and the element angle relative to the
wall was changed to improve inter-element mixing.
Three firings which provided meaningful mainstage data were con-

ducted using the PAT injector and calorimeter chamber. Chamber pressure
ranged from 1726 to 2263 psia, and mixture ratios varied from 2.0 to
2.8. The test series was prematurely terminated when the uncooled
resonator body overheated and failed. Test results are characterized
by a sharp reduction in nozzle throat heating rates compared to those
previously measured using this type of injection element. This was a
primary program goal; however, the heating rate reductions were
achieved at the expense of characteristic velocity efficiencies which
were significantly lower than expected. Predicted C* efficiencies were
approximately 98 percent for the PAT core elements and approximately
95 percent for the doublet barrier elements. Had these element effi-
ciencies been achieved, an overall efficiency of approximately 97 per-

cent would have resulted. The actual overall efficiencies ranged from
91 percent to 94 percent. It was concluded that the performance of
both the core and barrier elements was lower than predicted.
The chamber heating rate data shown in Figure 26 was obtained from
Reference 5 and illustrates the extreme rates in the throat region
which the subject program attempted to minimize. The same throat data
are presented in Figure 27 as a function of mixture ratio. Note that
the heating rates with the subject injector were greatly reduced from
those previously obtained.
LOXIRP-I COMBUSTION DATA /!

2000 PSI PAT'INJECTION
ALRC, I_&A$3-21_ /
4O
//!
U SO
m//*
//
// /q,
30
_,/,
_ PREDICTED _r
B
I I CYLINOMICAL _ l CONVERGENT _" STATION
o 2 4 e w 10 12 14 16 INCHES
Figure 26. Chamber Heating Rates
545
I
NAS3- 21030
P_&T I_IOECTOR
I;1 PAT IN.NECT(_I

PREdiCTED
1.6 2.0 2 S 3.0 3.6
Wc_WRp_ 1
Figure 27. Nozzle Throat Heating Rates
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
LOX-Methane Propellants
Preburner or gas generator performance data met or approximated

program goals from the standpoints of gas temperature uniformity and
combustion performance at chamber pressures to 3100 psia. Carbon accu-
mulation was minor. Additional work will probably be required to
minimize the high temperature excursions required for ignition.
A reduction in element size for shear coaxial main injector elements

is required for LOX-methane as compared to LOX-hydrogen propellents.
The smaller elements yielded characteristic velocity efficiencies
ranging from 98 to i00 percent at chamber pressures to approximately
2400 psia. Theoretical combustion chamber heating rates were experi-
mentally verified using the high performance injector. A lower per-
forming injector generated throat heating rates approximately 18 percent
higher than predicted. Biasing the outer ring of injection elements to
a lower mixture ratio proved to be an effective method of reducing
heating rates.
LOX/RP-I Propellants
Two gas generator injector designs were tested to chamber pressures

of 3100 psia and both produced C* efficiencies and mean gas temperatures
as predicted by a nonequilibrium combustion model. Both injectors were
marginally acceptable from the standpoint of gas temperature uniformity
particularly at high mixture ratios. Low frequency stability was a
problem with one of the injectors unless abnormally high injection
pressure drops were used. The technology base for lox/RP-i high
pressure gas generators is considered adequate to support an engine
development program. No problems surfaced during this effort which are
546
considered unique to high pressure operation or which would not be
considered readily solvable during a normal development program.
The main injector testing did not achieve the program performance
goal. Measured C* efficiencies ranged from 91 to 94 percent as com-
pared to a goal of 97 percent. Nozzle throat heating rate goals were
achieved. The desired combination of stable, high efficiency combustion
with moderate nozzle heating rates using high pressure lox/RP-I main
injection has not yet been demonstrated. Until this is accomplished,
advanced vehicle planning using RP-I as the fuel should limit efficien-
cies to levels demonstrated by developed engines.
547
REFERENCES
14 Huebner, A. W., "High Pressure Lox/Hydrocarbon Preburners and Gas

Generators," Final Report, Contract NAS8-33243, Rockwell Inter-
national, Rocketdyne Div., April 1981.
0
Wheeler, D. B. and Kirby, F. M., "High Pressure LOX/CH 4 Injector
Program," Final Report, Contract NAS8-33206, Report No. RI/RD79-
278, Rockwell International, Rocketdyne Div., Sept. 1979.
0
Valler, H. W., "Design, Fabrication and Delivery of a High Pressure
LOX-Methane Injector," Final Report, Contract NAS8-33205, Report
33205F, Aerojet Liquid Rocket Company, November, 1979.
0 Schoenman, L., Gross, R. S., "Design, Fabrication, Test and

Delivery of a High-Pressure Oxygen/RP-I Injector," Final Report,
Contract NAS8-33651, Report 33651F, Aerojet Liquid Rocket
Company, September 1981.
0 LaBotz, R. J., Rousar, D. C., Valler, H. W., "High Density Fuel

Combustion and Cooling Investigation," Final Report, Contract
NAS3-21030, NASA CR-165177, Aerojet Liquid Rocket Company,
September 1980.
548
XII COMBUSTION
ANDCOOLING
PROCESSES
II
549
9 - 1265 lh
RESULTS OF COAXIAL INJECTOR ELEMENT TESTING
S. C. Fisher

ABSTRACT
The Turbine Drive Combustor Ignition and Durability

Technology Program (NAS8-34928) was created to develop new
technology that can be utilized to support the design and/
or modification of reliable and durable future generation
high performance oxygen/hydrogen rocket engine turbine
drive combustors. The general objective was broken down
into the two specific tasks of developing a new analytical
code for liquid rocket engine combustion systems and
gathering part of the data required to anchor/verify this
code and future codes. Hot fire tests were conducted to
gain insight into the low mixture ratio ignition and com-
bustion characteristics of coaxial elements as well as to
collect data to support the code work. This paper discusses
a portion of the recent hot fire testing conducted on this
program.
After conducting over 115 low pressure oxygen/hydrogen

ignition tests, it became Obvious that the flame-holding
characteristics of coaxial injector elements operating with
gaseous propellants play a very important role in the igni-
tion and combustion processes of these types of injectors.
As a result, a new hot fire test series to study the flame-
holding characteristics of coaxial elements was structured
and conducted. A total of 51 low pressure (I00 to 200 psia)
hot fire tests were run on a single Space Shuttle Main En-
gine oxidizer preburner element injector. The results of
these tests are the main topic of this paper.
Two high speed optical diagnostic systems were utilized

to observe and gather data on the processes within the
actual combustion zone of an experimental hot fire test
chamber fitted with large fused-silica windows. A high
speed (up to II,000 frames per second) laser Schlieren cin-
ematography system was utilized to observe the fluid
motions, flame propagation, and varying temperature zones
during the ignition and "steady-state" combustion. In addi-
tion, a high speed ultraviolet (up to 4000 frames/see)
cinematography system was employed to locate and observe
the zones in which the combustion reactions were actually
occurring.
550
!
By combining the results from the two diagnostic visual-
ization techniques, it was possible to observe the motion
of the fluids, flame propagation, and combustion zones.
These observations have lead to new information on the
ignition, flame propagation, flame holding, and sustained
combustion characteristics and mechanisms of the coaxial
injector elements with gaseous oxygen and hydrogen propel-

lants. These new insights are presented and discussed.
Introduction and Background
The present start requirements of the Space Shuttle Main Engine

(SSME) dictate that the prebur_lers, utilized to power the high pres-
sure turbopumps, ignite at overall mixture ratios as low as 0.3 (oxi-
dizer/fuel), which is substantially below the well mixed flammability
limit for the oxygen/hydrogen propellant combination (Fig. I). The
preburner coaxial elements have regularly accomplished ignition under
these conditions, however, repeatability is sensitive to small engine
flow control variations and some delayed ignitions have occurred. The
physical mechanisms that allow ignition and sustained combustion of
the propellant flows from a coaxial element ignition at very low mix-
ture ratios, and subsequently contribute to this sensitivity, were not
well understood.
1600
1400
1200
cc
D 1000
I-
<
rr
MABLE REGION
_. 800
i.u
600
(3 400
uJ _ FLAMMABILITY LIMIT
× 20O NONFLAMMABLE
_ o
-200
REGION
-400
I I I I I I I ' '
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
MIXTURE RATIO (O/F)
FiE. i. Flammability Limits for Mixed Oxygen/Hydrogen
Technology advancements ace required, which will increase the un-

derstanding of the physical mechanisms that influence low mixture
551
ratio coaxial element operation, leading to analysis and design tech-
niques that will improve the ignition characteristics of turbine drive
combustors for current and future liquid rocket engine systems.
The Turbine Drive Combustor Ignition and Durability Technology

Program includes a combination of computer modeling analysis and hot
fire testing that will lead to a better understanding of the physical
mechanisms affecting turbine drive combustor ignition. This paper dis-
cusses a portion of the hot fire testing performed to study the igni-
tion and flame-holding characteristics of coaxial elements and the
laser Schlieren and ultraviolet diagnostic setup utilized to gather
the visualization data, which has lead to some new insights on the
operation of these elements. The low pressure testing was conducted
at Rockwell International's Thermodynamics Laboratory at the North
American Aircraft Operations Division. All of the testing utilized a
4-inch diameter solid wall combustor with 4-inch diameter fused-silica
windows on opposite sides of the combustion chamber. The ignition and

combustion process was viewed through the windows and recorded on high
speed motion picture film utilizing both a laser Schlieren and an
ultraviolet camera system.
A total of 51 ambient oxygen/ambient hydrogen low pressure igni-

tion/flame-holding hot fire tests were conducted. All of the tests
were conducted with a single SSME Oxidizer Preburner (OPB) coaxial
element injector. The targeted chamber pressure for all of the tests
was I00 psia, the mixture ratio was targeted between 0.3 and 1.5 (oxi-
dizer/fuel), and the total flowrate was targeted for either 0.01 of
0.02 Ib/sec.
Hardware Description
The combustor assembly used for the test series is shown in Fig. 2
and 3. An injector utilizing a single SSME OPB element injector was
used for all of the flame-holding tests. The coaxial design of the
SSME OPB element is shown in the cutaway view of Fig. 4. During main-
stage operation on the SSME, high velocity hydrogen gas flows through
the fuel annulus surrounding the liquid oxygen (LOX) post. The LOX
flowing through this center tube is then atomized by the stripping
action of the high velocity fuel shroud. The coaxial element design
has proven to be one of the most successful injector element configur-
ations for LOX/hydrogen combustors. However, during the the initial
phase of the start sequence on the SSME, gaseous oxygen flows through
the LOX post. It is this gas/gas ignition phase that the flame-holding
test series is based on.
The solid-wall, uncooled combustion chamber has two unique fused-

silica window assemblies through which the combustion process can be
viewed optically. Two instrumentation ports are located 90 degrees to
both of the windows. These ports were used for special instrumentation
552
ORIGINAL PAGE _S
OF POOR QUALITY
/SINGLE
I' _{:;l_
_ / ELEMENT
PROBE
Fig. 2. Turbine Drive Combustor Technology Test Chamberr
Fig. 3. Combustion Chamber Assembly
requirements. Separate fittings were designed to accept pressure

transducers, ignition probes, thetnnocouples, and thezmlocouple rake
assemblies.
The chamber pressure was controlled by the back-pressure nozzle

diameter. The nozzle is a nickel insert, which is sealed to the exit
housing by sercations machined into the housing and exit flange. Sev-
eral nozzles of different diameters were fabricated for the various
targeted mixture ratios and flowrates. All of the inlet flows were
controlled externally by the facility, utilizing calibrated critical
venturis and regulated upstream pressures.
553
OXIDIZER
_..Y_:::_J,.. _\_1_ _ FUEL INLETS
FUEL SLEEVE
Fig. 4. SSME Preburner Injector Element
All of the combustoc assembly details were designed to permit the

test configuration to be easily changed. The facility mounting holes
in the chamber body allow any detail to be removed and replaced with-
out removing the assembly from the test stand.
Diagnostic system Description
The high speed cinematography diagnostic system is shown in Fig.

5. The diagnostic system was made up of 4 separate subsystems:
I. High Speed Ultraviolet Cinematography System
2. High Speed Laser Schlieren Cinematography System
3. Polaroid Laser Schlieren System
4. Vidicon TV Monitor System
Speed Ultraviolet Cinematography System
The high speed ultraviolet cinematography system was used to view

the OH specie concentrations in the combusting flow. The ability to
view only the OH concentration is very useful in studying the oxygen/
hydrogen combustion process. The OH radical is very short lived, kin-
etic (at the test conditions), and exists mainly as a part of the
overall chain of kinetic reactions in the combustion process. There-
fore, the OH concentrations are a direct indicator of the locations
where the actual combustion reactions are taking place. At the low
mixture ratios (temperatures) typically run, OH concentrations are
insignificant in the equilibrium combustion products.
554
J K 51.5 IN. j,_
D,_x_. J
H) FLAT TURNING MIRROR N) COMBUSTION CHAMBER

A) 4 x 5 WITNESS CAMERA
I) FLAT TURNING MIRROR FUSED-SILICA WINDOWS
B) IMAGING LENS
J) 60-IN. FL SPHERICAL MIRROR O) 60-IN. FL. SPHERICAL MIRROR
C) IMAGING LENS
K) TV MONITOR P) FLAT TURNING MIRROR
D) VARIABLE BEAMSSPLITTER
L) FASTAX CAMERA QUARTZ Q) 10 x MICROSCOPE OBJECTIVE AND
E) HYCAM CAMERA
LENS AND SAPPHIRE PRISM 25-MICRON PINHOLE ASSEMBLY
F) SCHLIEREN FILTER
M) FASTAX FILTER R) ARGON ION LASER
G) SCHLIEREN OBSTRUCTION
Fig. 5. Diagnostic System Setup
In a typical oxygen/hydrogen combustion process, the reactions are

in part characterized by various species that emit radiation between
0.2 and 1.2 micron wavelengths. As can be seen in Fig. 6, OH is a
predominate contributor to the radiation emitted from the combustion
process.
1000
w>-
H20 >,-
OH H20
H20
H20 uJ
STANDARD COLOR FILM \

h. i
I ' I I I I I
_III,-
QUARTZ AND SAPPHIRE OPTICS
I I I I I I I
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
SPECTRAL WAVELENGTH - MICRONS
ULTRAVIOLET I BLUE I GRN I YEL IORGI RED I INFRARED
Fig. 6. Typical Spectral Transmission Response, and Optical

Spectrum for Oxygen/Hydrogen Combustion System
555
The OH species emits at a wavelength of approximately 0.31 micron,
which is in the ultraviolet range and can be detected with standard
color film. However, standard "glass" type optics typically will not
transmit below a wavelength of 0.38 to 0.4 micron. Because of this,
all of the optical components in the ultraviolet diagnostic system
were either quartz, fused silica, or sapphire.
On some of the previous ignition tests conducted on the same pro-

gram, a special ultraviolet filter (0.25 to 0.35 micron) was used. On
later tests, because of exposure problems and the fact that the filter
only transmitted 60 to 70% of the light in its narrow band, the filter
was not used. Since the OH intensity is much higher than the H20
intensities (Fig. 5), the high framing rates effectively filtered all
but the OH radiation. This was verified by comparing films of identi-
cal conditions with and without the filter. Because of the previous
success with the filter removed, it was not used during most of the
tests in this series.
A Milikan camera fitted with a special quartz lens was used to

record the ultraviolet data. Very good results were obtained even on
the lower mixture ratio tests with 400 ASA film and a camera speed of
approximately 400 frames per second.
High Speed Laser Schlieren Cinematography System
The high speed laser Schlieren cinematography system has proven to

be a very useful diagnostic for studying the oxygen/hydrogen combus-
tion process. Run at very high framing rates (9,000 to II,000 frames/
see), the system was able to record flow patterns, spark heated gas
"puffs," spark ignition, propagation of the ignition process, flame-
outs, and steady-state combustion/flow patterns.
The Schlieren system utilized a 0.5-watt argon-ion laser, standard

Schlieren/laser optics, and a Hycam camera with 400 ASA film. Figures
7 and 8 show the actual diagnostic setup. The use of a laser light
source for the Sehlieren work was advantageous for two reasons. First,
the intensity of the laser made it possible to record Schlieren data
at high framing rates on standard film. Second, it was possible to
filter out the illumination created by the combustion process and view
only the narrow band wavelengths of the laser/Schlieren system flow
field data. An additional side benefit was that the laser system was
easier to work with optically.
Most of the tests were conducted with a camera speed of 9,000

frames/see and gave very good results. A few tests were conducted
with framing rates of II,000 frames per second, but camera problems
precluded running at these rates on a regular basis. However, it would
be possible to record at much higher framing rates with the proper
camera equipment.
556
':3
OF pOOR QUALITY
Fig. 7. Laser Schlieren Source Setup
Fig. 8. Laser Schlieren Recording System
557
Polaroid Laser Schlieren System
To determine and correct setup or test problems without waiting for

processed film from the Hycam camera to be returned and viewed, a par-
allel Polaroid camera system was used to witness the Schlieren tests.
The Polaroid system was set up such that the exposure requirements
were similar to those for the Hycam system. Following a test, the
Polaroid film was reviewed to determine if the test should be rerun
with different adjustments.
Vidicon Monitor System
A real-time TV monitor and recording system was set up to remotely

monitor the hot fire tests from the control room. No direct view of
the test cell was available from the control room. The monitor was
observed for real-time discrepancies during the tests. The tape was
played back and studied following test stand securing. The monitor
was very useful in discovering spark probe problems just prior to
test, during tests, and post test, and for detection of ignitions and
flameouts.
Description of the Flame-Holding Tests Conducted
The basic objective of the flame-holding test series was to gather

high speed laser Schlieren and ultraviolet data on the flame-holding
mechanism of coaxial elements operating with gaseous propellants. The
testing was directed at gaining a better understanding of the flame-
holding phenomena observed during the previous ignition test series.
A total of 51 ambient oxygen/hydrogen low pressure (Pc approximately
100 psia) tests were conducted on the single SSME element coaxial in-
jector. Both fuel lead (Fig. 9) and oxidizer lead (Fig. 10) sequences
were run. A summary of the flame-holding test series is presented in
Table 1.
For these tests, the optics were adjusted to "zoom" in on the

flame-holding area near the tip of the LOX post in an effort to visu-
alize the flame-holding phenomena. The view of the diagnostic systems
is shown in Fig. II.
All of the tests utilized the "point" ignition probe developed

earlier in the program during ignition test series. The i/8-inch diam-
eter probe was located 0.385 inch from the injector face and 0.25 inch
from the chamber centerline (Fig. II).
The first series of flame-holding tests were targeted for condi-

tions that had repeatedly produced ignitions during the previous test-
ing. All of the tests had total flowrates targeted for either 0.01 or
0.02 Ib/sec and a chamber pressure of I00 psia. Laser Schlieren and
ultraviolet film data was collected to determine the actual location
of the flame holding mechanism.
558
SEQUENCE
START CUTOFF
V V
FUEL VALVE
OXID VALVE
SPAR KS
FUELPURGEVALVE
OXID PURGE VALVE
CAMERAS
TIMER SETTINGS
T 1 = 20SEC (MANUAL) T 4 = 3.0 SEC
T 2 = 0.50 SEC T 5 = 20 SEC
T 3 = 2.00 SEC T 6 = .75 SEC
Fig. 9. Fuel Lead Sequence
CUTOFF
SEQUENCE
START
V
®
J \
FUELVALVE
z I \
OXID VALVE
SPARKS
i [
f
f '\ i
FUELPURGEVALVE _
f /
OXIDPURGE VALVE
CAMERAS
I I
@ ,I
TIMER SETTINGS
T 1 = 20 SEC (MANUAL) T 4 = 2.0 SEC
T 2 = .75 SEC T 5 = 4.__5SEC
T 3 = .50 SEC T 6 = 20.O SEC
T 7 = 4.._.?SEC
Fig. I0. Oxidizer Lead Sequence
559
ORIGINAL PAGE 1,5
OF POOR QUALITY
Table I. Summary of Flame-Holding Tests
Numbec
Target Conditions
Test No. MR (olf)] W, Iblsec Sequence Objectives of Tests
OX LD Checkout tests 4
2.1-2-4 0.5 0.02
3.1-3.2 0.5 0.02 OX LD Checkout Tests 2
4.1-4.3 0.3 0.02 OX LD Flame+holding data 3
4.4 1.5 0.02 FL LD Flame-holding data 1
5.1-5.2 1.5 0.02 FL LD Flame-holdlng data 2

6.1 1.5 0.02 FL LD Flame-holdlng data 1
6.2 1.3 0.02 FL LD Flame-holding data 1
6.3 1.5 0.02 FL LD flame holdin 8 data 1
7.1 1.5 0.02 FL LD Fiame-holdin 8 data 1
8.1-8.2 1.5 0.01 FL LD Flame-holding data 2
8.3-8.4 1.3 0.01 FL LD Flame-holding data 2

9.I 1.3 0.01 FL LD Flame-holding data 1
i0.I-I0.5 0.5 0.01 OX LD Flame-holdlng data 5
11.1-11.3 0.5 0.01 OX LD, Flame-holdlng data 3

Reduce MR
12.1 0.5 0.01 OX LD Flame-holding data 1
12.2 0.4 0.01 OX LD Flame-holding data 1
12.2-12.3 0.5 0.01 OX LD, Flame-holding data 2
Reduce MR
13.1 0.5 0.01 FL LD Flame holding data 1
14.1-14.? 1.5 0.02 FL LD Flame-holdlng data 2

15.1-15.3 0.5 0.02 OX LD, Flame-holdlng data 3
Reduce MR
16 .I 0.5 0.02 OX LD Flame-holdinK data 1
17.1-17.3 0.5 0.02 OX LD Flame-holdinE data 3
17.4-17.5 0.3 0.2 OX LD Flame-holding data 2
18.1-18.2 0.5 0.2 OX LD LOX Post Extension 2
18.3 0.3 0.018 OX LD LOX Post Extension 1
18.6 0.64 0.17 OX LD, LOX Post Extension 1
Reduce MR
NOTE: OX LD = Oxidizer Lead

FL LD = Fuel Lead
FUEL_ /_, OXIDIZER FLOW
j/. COAXIAL ELEMENT

FLOW __';_U/L /INJECTOR FACE
......
_ --y--1
- k_-l'/ / / //_ v / / /
_ // / ./ / _,1
__./_1PROPELLANT
Jk.._--------I_ I FLOW
I
I
I
I
/SPARK
PROBE
"1
V (_)-_-----
I
DIAGNOSTIC
SYSTEM
1 IN. i VIEW
FiE. ii. View of Diagnostic System
560
Oi_IGINAL PAG_ !_
OF POOR QUALITY
Next, in an effort to determine the sensitivity of the flame-

holding mechanism to reduced mixture ratios, a series of mixture ratio
reduction tests was run. In these tests, following ignition at an
ignitable mixture ratio, the mixture ratio was reduced by bypassing a
portion of the oxygen flow away from the injector with a bleed valve.
The mixture ratio was effectively ramped down from the start of the
test through cutoff.
On all of the tests, the flame zone appeared to extend up inside

the coaxial element recess. The standard SSME preburner element has a
recessed tip, which is hidden from the view of the diagnostic system
by the injector face (Fig. II). As a result, the actual start of the
flame zone and the flame-holding mechanism was not visible to the
diagnostic systems. Because of this, the last six tests conducted
utilized a special LOX post tip extension that was bonded to the tip
of the SSME element, shown in FiE. 12. By adding the special tip
extension, which extended the end of the LOg post approximately 0.040
inch beyond the injector face, the relation of the flame-holding zone
and the LOX post could be directly viewed with the diagnostic systems.
FiE. 12. LOX Post Tip Extension
Results and Conclusions
The data from the high speed laser Schlieren and ultraviolet diag-
nostic systems has lead to a much better understanding of the ignition
and steady-state combustion process of gas/gas coaxial injector ele-
ments operating at low mixture ratios.
561
Flame-Holdin K Mechanism of Gas/Gas Coaxial Elements
During the earlier ignition tests, the combustion zone was ob-
served to extend up to the face of the injector. Because of the grain-
iness of the 400 ASA film, the faint intensity and the small diameter
of the combustion zone, it was impossible to determine much detail
about the flame-holding mechanism. The actual flame-holding mechanism
was not known but was hypothesized to be either the recirculation zone
at the outer edge of the fuel sleeve and the injector face or the re
circulation zone at the tip of the LOX post.
The flame-holding tests which "zoomed" in on the area near the end
of the coaxial element shed some additional light on the flame-holding
zone but did not answer all of the questions. Figure 13 is a typical
frame of the ultraviolet film showing the combustion zone extending up
into the cup recess area. It was clear that the flame-holding mechan-
ism was somewhere up inside the recessed cup and that the combustion
zone was the diameter of the LOX post.
Fig. 13. Combustion Zone in Cup Recess
On some of the tests, a reddish glow was observed and appeared to

be coming from a zone up inside the cup as shown in Fig. 14. It was
theorized that this glow might be coming from the LOX post tip, which
might be heated by the combustion process. As a result, the injector
was removed from the test stand and carefully inspected. As suspected,
the LOX post tip was discolored and showed signs of over heating.
This seemed to support the theory that the wake or recirculation
created at the tip of the LOX post was providing the flame-holding
mechanism.
OF,, POOR QUALfir
562
OF POOR QUALI_Y
Fig. 14. Glow in Cup Region
Finally, the extended LOX post tip tests provided additional evi-
dence that the flame-holding mechanism was actually the recirculation
zone at the tip LOX post. Figure 15 clearly shows the combustion zone
"hanging" from the tip of the LOX post. However, the overheating or
reddish glow observed on the recessed tip test was not present in any
of the six extended tip tests.
Fig. 15. Combustion Zone with Extended LOX Post
563
After reviewing the data from over 200 gas/gas low pressure tests
(from previous ignition tests, the flame-holding tests, and more re-
cent testing) is appears that once the flame-holding zone at the end
of the LOX post tip is ignited, it will remain ignited and the combus-
tion process will sustain itself even at extremely low mixture ratios.
On the tests during which the mixture ratio was reduced, the combus-
tion process was sustained at mixture ratios less than 0.01 (oxidizer/
fuel) which is an order of magnitude less than the well mixed flamma-
bility limit (see Fig. I). The flame zone on the mixture ratio reduc-
tion tests gradually shrank shorter and shorter until they disappeared
up inside the cup or the intensity of the OH zone was not visible on
the film. There was no evidence of flameout or blowoff of the flame-
holding zone.
Ignition of Gas/Gas Coaxial Elements
The conclusions described in this section are drawn from the over
200 low pressure tests conducted to date, which includes the 51 flame-
holding tests. The flame-holding mechanism described previously plays
a very important function in the ignition process for gas/gas coaxial
elements. The ignition process is not complete until the flame-holding
zone is ignited and able to sustain the steady-state combustion. The
terms successful ignition used in this discussion in reference to the
ignition of the coaxial propellant flow will mean the successful com-
pletion of the ignition process including the sustained combustion
required for steady-state operation.
To have a successful ignition of the gas/gas coaxial element system,

the flame-holding zone must be ignited. The ignition of this zone
with gaseous propellants at low overall mixture ratios (less than 1.5
oxygen/hydrogen) is not easily accomplished. Without an ignition
source at the tip of each coaxial injector element, the recirculation
of the propellants and combustion products outside of the coaxial jet
flow must provide the propagation of the flame from the ignition
source to the flame-holding zone.
If the recirculating gases, which are relatively well mixed, do

not have a mixture ratio much greater than 1.0 (oxygen/hydrogen), the
combustion will not propagate from the ignition source through the
recirculating gases (see Fig. I). This was well documented on the
previous fuel lead sequence ignition tests. If the mixture ratio was
lower than 1.0, the spark probe was unable to even ignite the slow
moving recirculating gases. It should be noted, that on the fuel lead
tests, the initial mixture ratio of the recirculating gases is 0.0 and
once the oxygen is flowing it gradually increases until is matches the
mixture ratio flowing through the injector. There were no successful
ignitions on fuel lead tests with injector mixture ratios less than
1.0.
564
Once the recirculating gases are ignited, the combustion must the
propagate through the recirculating gases, through the high velocity
fuel jet at the tip of the coaxial element, and then ignite the com-
bustible gases in the flame-holding zone at the tip of the LOX post.
Once this is accomplished, the combustion process will then sustain
itself. The real problem comes in the penetration of the high velocity
(I000 to 2000 ft/sec) gases at the tip of the element to ignite the
flame-holding zone.
The flame propagation speeds for mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen

are in the range of I00 to 600 ft/sec. Therefore, the combustion zone
is not likely to propagate upstream through the mixing zone of the
element jet flow to the tip of the LOX post. There was no noted indi-
cation that the flame was able to propagate up the jet flow to the LOX
post tip on any of the tests conducted to date. Several tests were
conducted in the earlier ignition series with the spark probe located
directly below the injector element to determine if the combustion
process could propagate upstream in the jet flow. The film data showed
that the combustion zone ignited in the high mixture ratio jet flow
was blown downstream away from the injector each time.
The only observed mechanism that allowed for successful ignition of

the flame holding zone of the coaxial injector elements, and resulting
steady-state combustion, was a pressure surge.
This mechanism was observed on both the fuel lead and oxidizer
lead tests. The pressure surge, created by the combustion of the mixed
gases in the recirculation zone slowed down the jet flow (and actu-
ally reversed it on several tests) and allowed the combusting gases to
ignite the flame-holding zone at the LOX post tip. On the fuel lead
tests the mixture ratio had to be 1.4 or higher to generate a fast
enough pressure rise. If the pressure rise was too slow, the combus-
tion zone propagated through out the mixed recireulating gases without
igniting the flame-holding zone. This phenomena is shown in the
sequence of frames from the laser Schlieren film of a fuel lead test
in Fig. 16. This was a typical fuel lead test with a fairly high mix-
ture ratio (I.I oxidizer/fuel). After all of the recirculating gases
were combusted, the combustion went out without igniting the flame-
holding zone. The extinguishment of the combustion process was con-
firmed by reviewing the ultraviolet data on the same test.
This sequence of photos (only 15 frames out of a 400-foot roll)

also gives a representation of the type of information available from
the laser Schlieren films. Every fifth frame of the actual sequence
was printed. The sequence goes from left to right. The actual framing
rate was near 9000 frames per second. The reproduction of the film for
this paper unfortunately does not portray the quality and the informa-
tion available from these films.
565
NONCOMBUSTING
SPARK PROBE JSTION ZONE
PROPELLANT
FLOW
¢, ¢,
¢, ¢, ¢, ¢,
,C>
Fig. 16. Fuel Lead Schlieren Sequence
On the fuel lead tests, which had successful ignition, the injec-
tor mixture ratio was in range of 1.4 or higher. The combustion of the
higher mixture ratio jet along with the recirculating gases produced a
sufficient pressure surge to slow the jet flow enough to allow igni-
tion of the flame-holding region.
Figure 17 is a collection of photographs made from the high speed

ultraviolet film from a typical oxidizer lead test with a targeted
mixture ratio of 0.5 (oxidizer/fuel). It should be noted that in an
oxidizer lead test, the mixture ratio of the recirculating gases goes
from infinity and gradually reduces when the fuel flow starts until it
reaches the mixture ratio of the element flow. As a result, the high
mixture ratio of the recirculating gases is easily ignited even on
tests with fairly low steady-state injector mixture ratios. The high
mixture ratio also creates a strong pressure surge during ignition and
slows or reverses the element jet flow.
OF POOR QUALC_V
566
OF |_'C. " ._
COAXIAL
ELEMENT ¢,
SPARK
PROBE
¢, ¢,
¢,
Fig. 17. Oxidizer Lead Ultraviolet Sequence
The flow reversal phenomena is clearly seen in Fig. 17. The se-
quence goes from left to right and the framing speed is near 400
frames/sec. The series starts out just after the recirculating high
mixture ratio gases have been ignited by a previous spark. The spark
in the first frame (after the initial spark that ignited the gases)
has illuminated the chamber and the single coaxial element is clearly
visible. In the first two frames, the element flow has actually been
reversed, pushed back up in the element, by the pressure surge created
during the ignition of the high mixture ratio cecicculating gases. In
the third frame, the element flow is observed starting to flow back
out of the cup area and is already ignited. The flow continues to
build up through the rest of the sequence.
Again, this sequence is a series of only 9 frames out of a lO0-

foot roll of film and is presented to give a representation of the
type of information available from the ultraviolet films. Again, the
reproduction of the film for this paper unfortunately does not portray
well the quality and the information available from these films. To
study any of the phenomena described, the actual test films must be
reviewed.
ORIG!NAL PAGE IS
567 OE P_3R QUALITY
This pressure surge or "pop" may also account for some of the late
ignitions observed on the SSME oxidizer preburner. The pops experi-
enced during the start sequence and the change in chamber pressure
before and after the pop seems to fit the observed phenomena in the
Turbine Drive Combustor Ignition and Durability Technology testing.
The following scenario is offered as a possible description of the
sequence of events in the late ignition or pops of the SSME oxidizer
preburner.
The SSME start sequence requires the OPB mixture ratios to be very
low during the ignition phase. Because of the low mixture ratios in
the OPB during the start phase, not all of the elements may have their
corresponding flame-holding zones ignited. As the sequence proceeds
and the unburned propellants accumulate, they are finally ignited by
either the augmented spark igniter or the combustion products from the
other ignited elements. The rapid combustion of the unburned propel-
lants then creates a pop or pressure surge which in turn slows down or
reverses the element flow and allows the remaining element flame-
holding zones to be ignited.
Summary of Observations from Flame-Holdin K Tests
The following is a list of the most important observations and

conclusions from the coaxial gas/gas flame holding and ignition test-
ing completed to date on the Turbine Drive Combustor Ignition and Dur-
ability Technology Program.
I. There is a flame-holding zone located in the recirculation or

wake area at the tip of the LOX post.
2. This flame-holding zone is required to sustain steady-state

combustion at mixture ratios less than 1.0 (oxidizer/fuel) with
gaseous propellants.
3. Once this flame-holding zone is ignited, the mixture ratio of

the element flow can be lowered to values well below the mixed
flammability limit.
4. If the ignition system relies on combustion propagation through

the recirculating gases or the jet flow for ignition of this
flame-holding zone, the element jet flow must be temporarily
slowed down to allow for ignition of the zone at the end of the
LOX post.
Future Plans
Because of the successful application of these techniques and the

large amount of insight gained, additional refined studies into low
mixture ratio oxygen/hydrogen ignition and combustion are planned
568
which should be very productive in helping to further understand the
mechanisms involved in the ignition and combustion processes of co-
axial injectors. The additional planned effort will include testing
with different LOX post geometries to try and establish the sensitiv-
ity of flame-holding zone to the width of the LOX post tip. Also,
testing of new variable geometry fuel sleeves, smaller element sizes,
and higher pressures tests with LOX are planned. These efforts are
scheduled to be conducted over the next 18 months.
569
N8 9- 1265 2
COMBUSTION MODELING: PROGRESS AND PROJECTIONS
P. Y. Liang

Abstract
In 1985 Rocketdyne's ARICC combustion code entered oper-

ational phase from developmental phase with a successful
engineering analysis of the SSME preburner injector element
flows. The cases studied correspond to two design geome-
tries and two engine operation conditions. Based on this
experience, a much better understanding of the unique chal-
lenges of combustion modeling for multiphase flows and of
the weakest links in the physical model is obtained. This
presentation will discuss the nature of combustion model
development and highlight the results of the injector
study, especially the qualitative features of the problem
that pertains to the choice of the numerical methodology.
Numerical issues encountered that are peculiar to the sim-
ulation of combustion flows will be briefly discussed.
Finally, the plan for future refinement of ARICC and its
subcomponents into a reliable combustion model, as con-
ceived at Rocketdyne, will be outlined.
Introduction
The complex flowpaths of the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) con-
tain many sections in which significant chemical processes take place
within the fluid medium. These are the sections for which combustion
modeling, and not just fluid dynamic simulation, must be employed. To
name a few, the fuel and oxidizer preburners, the Augmented Spark
Igniters (ASI) and individual injector elements contained therein, the
Main Combustion Chamber (MCC), and possibly the main nozzle boundary
layers are all flow regions that fall under this category (Fig. 5).
To model and analyze these components adequately, a number of physical
processes must be incorporated into the computational fluid dynamics
scheme. The interactions between these physical submodels and the
basic approach for solution of the fluid dynamic governing equations
must be a subject of careful study, for herein lies the art of the
computational fluid dynamicist turned combustion modeler.
It may be instructive to review the tt_e nature of the distinction

between the so-called basic _ovecnin_ equations and the physical sub-
models. The former supposedly are derived from the "fundamental"
principles, such as Newton's laws of mechanics or the laws of thet-mo-
dynamics. The latter are intended to represent physical processes
whose detailed mechanisms are still too obscure to be rigorously
570
r[ll_in,.¢_'-
poor QUAu 'C
_.
Fig. I. Some SSME Flow Components that Require
Combustion Modeling (White Dots)
described, but the net effect of their presence are at least partially
known. Such are the processes of atomization, evaporization, and chem-
ical kinetics. Some processes, such as turbulence, may be described
rigorously in principle but the resulting equations would be too ex-
pensive to solve on a practical scale. Thus, semiempirieal models are
employed to simulate the effect of these processes on the flow.
The simplest method of incorporating these models into the overall

solution is to treat them as perturbations to the computed flow field
in the form of distributed source terms (Fig. 2A), essentially
neglecting the dependence of the model on the t_zP_fiof flows that it is
perturbing except for local parameters. The physical models are thus
nothing more than point transfer functions. When exothermic chemical
reactions are modeled as distributed heat sources, such is the ap-
proach adopted. Sometimes, however, the details of the physical
mechanisms are partially resolved by the finite differencing scheme
and hence the basic CFD solution provides insight as to how the semi-
empirical model should be constructed to broaden its general applica-
bility and enhance its realism (Fig. 2B). If the droplets are treated
as discrete particles, the transport process taking place across the
drop/ambient interface is by definition not resolved by the finite
difference grid. Yet whether the evaporation rate should be expressed
as primarily being concentration driven, or heat transfer driven, or
drop breakup driven can be determined with the help of the CFD scheme
itself through some parametric calculations. The resultant, more-
sophisticated model is then reincorporated into the "global" model to
cover a broader range of phenomena. This iteration process can be
repeated many times between the "CFD" and the "empirical" sides of the
571
CFD _'_ FLowPERTURBED ]
I CFD
/ CFD
PHYSICAL
r PHYSICAL
MODEL e.g.. HEAT SOURCE TERMS MODEL
e.g., EQUILIBRIUM CHEMISTRY e.g., SPRAY EVAPORATION
A. ONE-WAY PERTURBATION B, TWO-WAY SINGLE ITERATION
CFD
l r.
IPHYS,CAL
J MODELS
e,g., TURBULENCE, ATOMIZATION
C. MULTIPLE ITERATIONS
Fig. 2. Three Modes of Interaction Between Basic Governing

Equations and Physical Submodels
model (Fig. 2C), the former being characterized by partial differen-

tial equations and the latter by tables, algebraic expressions, or
ordinary differential equations. As the iteration progresses more and
more, the empirical models become amenable to a "rigorous" field
description from fundamental principles, which can then be solved
finite difference fashion as additional governing equations rather
than merely as uncoupled source terms. The net result is decreased
empiricism. This relationship between the two parts is analogous to
that between hypothetization and experimentation (to verify or dis-
prove it) in development of scientific theories. The CFD is the in-
strument for numerical experimentation, guided by physical understand-
ing. The experimental results in turn enrich the theory (the physical
model). The iteration skillfully employed greatly accelerates the
rate of progress. The present author has found this to be precisely
the path followed in the continuing evolution of the atomization model
in the Advanced Rocket Injector Combustor Code (ARICC) described below.
Initially treated as mere injection species source tet_s as in

most combustion models, the ARICC atomization model then developed
into more-refined local transfer functions with various empirical con-
stants. When the liquid-gas multiple free surface capability became
available in ARICC, atomization was then treated as a spatially dis=
tributed process. Flow field inside the liquid jet is actually
572
resolved, although the drop formation criteria and initial drop char-
acteristics are still determined empirically. As more physical under-
standing of the drop formation mechanism is acquired through two-fluid
simulations by ARICC, the entire atomization process will then be
modeled rigorously, occurring as a natural result of solving the set
of governing equations.
From the modeling point of view, combustion modeling places many

additional requirements on the task of the modeler. These are summar-
ized in Table I, and fall into three major areas that call for con-
certed research efforts.
Table i. Special Requirements of Combustion Modeling
_ca[ Requirements
• Physical Properties
• Multicomponents
• Supercritica[
• Drop Dynamics
• Chemical Kinetics/Turbulent Diffusion
Numerical Requirements
• Stiffness
• Real-Time Accuracy
• Multiphase Treatment
Data Base and Diagnostic Requirements
• Concentration and Temperature Data for Anchoring
• Controlled Experiments of Drop Dynamics Processes
Physically, since chemical reactions inevitably involve more than

one chemically active species, physical properties for a mixture of
multiple species must be somehow estimated and supplied to the code.
Determining the effective viscosity of a gaseous mixture, for in-
stance, can be far from a trivial task. Although rigorous estimates
can be obtained through molecular kinetic theory, that path is usually
too tumultuous and the computational load too large to warrant the
trouble on a point-to-point basis. Simple interpolation "mixing" laws
are instead employed. On the other hand, for the case of high pressure
liquid rocket engines, supercritical spray properties are necessary
and are generally not available from standard handbooks. Closely re-
lated to this is the modeling of droplet dynamics, including the proc-
esses of drop formation, drop transient heatup and evaporation, and
secondary drop breakups. The presence of a droplet phase and possibly
a liquid phase adds a whole new dimension to the complexity of the
finite difference codes.
Another important physical requirement in combustion modeling is

the description of the chemical reactions themselves. Strictly speak-
ing, all reactions should be formulated as finite rate kinetic equa-
tions with temperature- and pressure-dependent coefficients. In prac-
tice, the choices of which reactions to include, how many to include,
573
the expressions for the rate constants, and the best available esti-
mates of the values of the coefficients are always difficult tasks
unique to each modeling situation. Chemical kinetics are also closely
tied to the correctness of the turbulent diffusion calculations, for
which very little understanding is still available when combustion is
present.
Numerically, the additional challenges can be categorized into the

areas of stiffness, accuracy in real time, and the ability to handle
multiphase flows. Finally, as in all complex modeling work, a vast
body of well documented and reliable data is required for code anchor-
ing purposes, which points to the need for extensive development of
modern nonintrusive diagnostic capabilities. In particular, species
concentration and temperature data are necessary for proper assessment
of a certain numerically predicted flow field, in addition to the
standard point velocity measurements done for nonreactive flows. When
the hot fire environment extends into extremely high pressure regimes,
as in the case of liquid rocket engines, the test hardware require
ments are often overwhelming. Many physical submodels used in a com-
bustion code and expressed as empirical correlations are themselves
also in need of anchoring. Most notab]e among them is the need for
better-controlled experiments on the drop dynamic processes such as
atomization and breakup.
The impact of all these different sources of complication, as con-

trasted with a "simple" hydrodynamic situation, can be understood from
the perspective of the governing equations. In Fig. 3, a "generalized"
Navier-Stokes equation for an arbitrary field variable has been writ-
ten. Each of the te_,_ on the right-hand side of the equal sign repre-
sents the major physical processes of convection, diffusion, and pro-
duction (or consumption) of that particular quantity, respectively.
From the above discussion, it may be pointed out then that numerical
stiffness and/or stability is affected when many different coupled
physical processes are incorporated into the model described by many
different but coupled partial differential equations. The presence of
multiple phases primarily change the convection terms, since a means
to determine how much of one phase is convected across a cell boundary
s(_) + s_
I CONVECTION I IDIFFUSION I
ICREiTIONI
MULTIPHASE VISCOSITY CHEMICAL |

THERMAL CONDUCTION KINETICS
(INTRAPHASE) ]
STIFFNESS,
STABILITY ATOMIZATION, /
EVAPORATION
(INTERPHASE)
Fig. 3. Impact of Physical Submodels on the Generalized

Navier--Stokes
574
versus another phase must now be formulated. Turbulence modeling af-
fects momentum,heat, and species diffusion. Furthermore, chemical
kinetics leads to the appearance of certain "intraphase" source terms.
Their values are usually a function of the concentration of the spe-
cies themselves. Finally, certain creation processes take place across
phase boundaries, such as liquid jet atomization or droplet evapora-
tion. An interphase source term may not even be a direct function of
the local values of the variable under consideration. Thus, in other
words, the additional challenges of combustion modeling enter into
play through all aspects of the fluid flow represented by different
terms of the governing equations.
The ARICC Combustion Code Development Experience
A first-hand experience of most of the abovementioned challenges

was obtained in the course of Rocketdyne's development of the NASA/
MSFC ARICC, I which may be considered to typify a first-generation
computational capability of its kind in multiphase combustion model-
inK. The objective of the effort is to achieve a multiphase, multispe
ties, transient-reacting flow modeling capability with physical sub-
models to represent all major physical processes in liquid rocket
engine components. Table 2 sunm_arizes the existing features of the
basic version of ARICC as well as some advanced features that are
recommended for incorporation in future code development activities.
They reflect the needs of the liquid rocket engine designers. The
major advancement over previously available CFD models lies in the
ability to simulate atomizing liquid jets and a dense, supercritical
spray.
Table 2. Summary of ARICC Development Status
Operational Features Features to Add
• Injector Flow Configuration • Surface Tension
• Auto Grid Generation • High Accuracy Scheme
• 2-Phase ARICC • Improved Drop Breakup Models
• Liquld-Gas Properties • Nonreflective Boundary Condition Options
• Finite Size Drops • Adaptive Griddin_
• 3-Phase ARICC • Vectorization
• VOF Liquid Jet
• Dense/Supercriticel Spray Refinement•
• Variable Drop Densities
• Drop Coagulation
A demonstration of the intricate relationship among the different

combustion processes can be obtained from the results of a recent
study 2 conducted using ARICC on the reactive flow field of an SSME
preburne? injector element (Fig. 4 through 6). One objective of the
study was to determine tile overall mixing efficiency of the coaxial
injector element in hot fire. A "body-fitting" curvilinear grid de-
picting a center post with tapered tip inside an annular "sleeve" with
cup recess is generated. Low velocity liquid oxygen (LOX) is injected
575
Ir
TH = 378O K
TL = 546 K
Fig. 4. Isotherm Plots of SSME Ejector

Flow Field
4O0O O_H20
- -- 0.9
0.8 t 9
-18 STOICHIOMETRIC
¢0 /
3000
" _
e_
o._; -i_'_ C
w x
2000
w _ - _
lOOO _
"'
0 2
-0.2 12
1 ,.._...., _ ,.___. _. 0.1 -I1
TLOX
0 = =0
o.s 1.o
RADIAL DISTANCE (X), cm
Fig. 5. Cross-Sectlonal Profiles of Gaseous Temperature, Density,

Species Mass Fractions, and Mixture
through the center post while high velocity gaseous hydrogen is in-
jected through the annulus. The large shearing forces break up the
liquid stream rapidly into a dense spray, which then vaporizes within
0.75 inch corresponding to the size of the combustion zone. The iso
therms in Fig. 4 reveal these details never before obtainable in hot
fire measurements, and lead to the conclusion that the flame is of an
external group combustion type. In Fig. 5, cross-sectional profiles
of various thez_odynamic variables and species concentrations across
the widest portion of the flame display clearly turbulent diffusion
flame characteristics. Figure 6 shows the H20 mass fraction contours.

A careful analysis 2,3 of the numerical results indicated that droplet
evaporation is a key rate-controlling step in determining characteris-
tics of the flame. Furthermore, a feedback type of coupling exists
576
ORIGINAL PAGE _3
OF POOR QUALITY
J C H = 0.782
C L = 0.087
Fig. 6. Contour Map of H20 Mass Fractions in SSME

Ejector Flow Field
among the processes of atomization, evaporation, and combustion. Large

shear velocities enhance atomization as well as evaporation especially
through the process of secondary droplet breakup, which in turn in-
creases the local combustion rate. The highly exothermic reaction
inputs energy into the flow, which in turn accelerates the local gas
velocity. Thus, a positive feedback loop is established, and such
intermittent outbursts of rapid activity could in some case contribute
to combustion instability.
In summary, the experience in developing ARICC and applying it to

the SSME injector element flow may be stated as follows:
I. Atomization and droplet breakup are processes that are impor-

tant and poorly understood. While including them in a combustion model
significantly increases the computational load, the improvement in the
model's realism and versatility is definitely necessary (Fig. 7A). A
vast amount of detailed information is generated and their interrela-
tionships came to light in the SSME case cited. However, although the
increase in the degree of realism and the overall decrease in the
degree of empiricism go hand in hand, the latter changes in stages
rather than continuously (Fig. 7B). Whenever a new physical submodel
is first included, the amount of empirical data required initially
increases. They may be problem-specific coefficients in a turbulence
model, rate constants in a chemistry package, or atomization rate con-
stants in a two-phase model. As these models are refined through
usage, their sophistication level increases and constants give way to
expressions making the models applicable to a wider range of condi-
tions. Eventually, the algebraic expressions will be replaced with
ordinary differential equations and then perhaps partial differential
equations. By then, description for the phenomenon passes from the
realm of physical modeling to that of the "basic" governing equations.
Hence, in light of this, it is found that a most profitable means of
577
INFORMATION
O
O
LOAD _
0 EMPIRICISM
A, COMPLEXITY OF GOVERNING EQUATIONS GOES UP ARITHMETICALLY

BUT AMOUNT OF INFORMATION GENERATED GOES UP GEOMETRICALLY
. / TURBULENCE
Lu_
0o.
DEGREE OF REALISM
B. NUMBER OF EMPIRICAL PARAMETERS ALSO INCREASES LINEARLY

WHEN NEW PROCESSES ARE ADDED
FiE. 7. Relationship Among the Computation Load,

Degree of Empiricism, and Degree of
Realism in a Combustion Model
using such codes is in a "dual-use" mode, both as a "global model" to

simulate entire hardware components and also as an apparatus for
numerical experimentation to improve the physical submodels. Such is
the path that would be pursued in future refinement of the atomization
model in ARICC.
2. Positive feedback mechanisms exist in liquid injection rocket

engines that can be the cause of combustion instabilities. To ade-
quately simulate such phenomena, however, further improvements in
real-time accuracy and computational efficiency may be necessary.
This is the motivation for some of the recommended refinements listed
in Table 2.
3. In a complex situation such as multiphase combustion flow, in-

tricate interactions take place between the numerics and physics of
the model. This important topic is the subject of another paper 3 to
be published. Here, it suffices to say that the modeler must have a
full appreciation of not only the different physical phenomena and of
the numerical algorithm, but how they affect each other. In other
words, the effects of physics and of the choice of certain numerical
schemes are not separable. The relationship between numerical diffu-
sion and physical diffusion is exemplary of this statement. Much still
remains to be learned.
578
Future Challenges
In conclusion, i£ may be profitable to point out what the present

author believes to be some of the most-pressing needs in the different
elements that make up the whole combustion model, or the most-
desirable objectives in the near term. They may guide the directions
for research in the near future. They are:
I. Numerical verification of classical combustion theories
2. Reduction of the degree of empiricism of critical processes,

e.g., atomization
3. Conquering of numerical stiffness issues
Some promising approaches to tackling the last objective are the

development of adaptive gridding methods, the use of "smart" algor-
ithn_ that are "mission-configured" according to the stiffness charac-
teristics of the local flow situation, and the incorporation of
improved boundary conditions including the use of nonreflective
"acoustic" boundaries to facilitate convergence to steady state. All
these areas, within the domain of the art of computational fluid
dynamics models, are ready for significant advances and should be
vigorously pursued.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank Mr. D. Pryor and Dr. McCay of MSFC
for their guidance in original development of the ARICC.
References
1.
Liang, P. Y., S. Fisher, and Y. M. Chang, "Comprehensive Modeling
of a Liquid Rocket Combustion Chamber," J. Prop. and Power, Vol.
2, No. 2, Mar/Apt (1986).
.
Liang, P. Y., R. J. Jensen, and Y. M. Chang, "Numerical Analysis
of SSME Preburner Injector Atomization and Combustion Processes,"
AIAA-86-0454, Jan (1986).
3. Liang, P. Y., "Analysis of Coaxial Spray Combustion Flames and

Related Numerical Issues," AIAA-86-1511, Jun (1986).
579
|N89- 1265 3m
Effects of Oxygen/Hydrogen Combustion Chamber

Enviro_t on Copper Alloys
M. Murphy
R. E. Anderson
D. C. Rousar
J.A. Van Kleeck
Aerojet TechSystems Company
I. INTRODUCTION
Main chamber liner deterioration in SSME engines

frequently is sufficient to cause local chamber wall failures
in the form of cracks through the copper alloy chamber wall.
This deterioration has been termed "blanching" and is
characterized by an increase in local wall roughness and a
bright, shiny, "new penny" type appearance. Test experience
has shown that the increase in surface roughness leads to
increased heat transfer rates, oonsequently postfire SSME
operations include inspection of the main chamber liners and
hand-polishing of the blanched areas. Sketches of the
blanching and main chamber wall damage found on three SSME's
after a recent shuttle flight are shown on Figure i.
One of the objectives of the Main Chamber Combustion and

Cooling Technology Study, Contract NAS 8-36167, is to develop
an understanding of the blanching ph_n. The specific
scope of this program has included:
lo
Thermochemical analysis of the copper-oxygen-
hydrogen system,
o Th_vimetric analysis (TGA) oxidation tests

of NARIOY-Z copper samples,
o
Metallurgical analyses of samples from 40K and
full-scale SSME chamber liners, and
o TGA surface study tests under oxidation-reduction

conditions with NARIOY-Z, NARIOY-A, O_C, and
1
zirconium copper alloys.
The results of the above activities and a discussion of

the impact of the test results on the design of main chamber
assemblies for advanced, high pressure oxygen-hydrogen engines
are presented in the following sections of this paper.
_cmfinal compositions listed at the end of this paper.
580
II. BA_
Main chamber blanching has been found in 40K and full

scale SSME chambers and it appears to be a major life limiting
factor for copper alloy main chamber liners in high pressure
oxygen/hydrogen rocket engines. Previously it was postulated
that blanching is caused by oxidation-reduction reactions, but
no systematic evaluation of that hypothesis was conducted (Ref.
i). similar surfaoe roughening, termed "orange peeling", has
been observed during research programs at the NASA Lewis
Researc_h Center that have tended to focus on thermal racheting
or "dog-housing", another major life limiting factor for copper
chamber liners (Ref. 2).
Testing experierce has shcm_ that a blanching threshold

exists for the SSME. Many firings at 90% power level produce
no blanching, then severe blanching occurs at higher thrust
levels even though the calculated wall temperature increase is
only 50°F. During the recent Space Shuttle Engine Study at

Aerojet, it was found that blanching and cracking appear to
correlate with the position of the hot gas manifold inlets and
is, therefore, possibly related to local mixture ratio (MR)
maldistributions produced by the manifold (Figure 2). A nickel
plated SSME main chamber liner has been tested with mixed
results: after a series of test firings the chamber showed no
evidence of blanching, but 200-300 holes developed in the
chamber wall and many transverse subsurface cracks were found
to have formed within the wall.
III. METAL//IRGICALANAYSIS
A. EFFECTS OF _ AND GAS _ITION ON

NARIoy-Z
Chemical thermodynamic analyses and _ behavior

studies of the copper-hydrogen-oxygen system provided an
approach for predicting which _ species or phases should
be stable at various temperatures in atmospheres containing
_O, _, and 02. The results of the analyses performed are
shown on Figures 3 and 4 and 51 . The reliability of these

predictions, particularly as applied to NARIoy-Z, was then
subjected to laboratory verification testing using a
sophisticated thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) apparatus.
Using this device, small NARIoy-Z samples (approximately i00 mg
each) were exposed to tightly controlled conditions of
_ote: EquivalentMR (MR eq) is defined asthe equivalent hot

gas oxygen-hydrogen mixture ratio at 3000 psia,
excluding high temperature dissociation effects.
581
temperature and _ition of the surrourdirg atmosphere while
sample weights were monitored continuously with high precision.
The NARIoy-Z samples were taken from a scrapped SSME main
chamber which had not been test fired. The total pressure for
all tests was ncm/nally 15 psia.
The first series of TGA tests were conducted in

five different atmospheres ranging from inert to reducing to
oxidizing gases and included: (i) ultra-pure helium, (2)
hydrogen, (3) H2/H20 (36:1 by volume), (4) water vapor, and (5)
H20/O 2 (i0:i by volume). In these tests, the specimens were
heated from approximately 25 to 950°C at a rate of 10°C/min. in

each of the slowly flowing test atmospheres while the sample
temperatures and weights were electronically recorded. The
resulting data were processed and plotted using a mini-computer
system to yield data plots such as that shown in Figure 6 for
the H20/O 2 (i0:i by volume) test gas.
The pertinent data from this first series of TGA

tests are summarized on Figure 7. The significant facts to
observe from this plot are: (i) only the atmosphel_ containing
H20/O 2 caused NARIoy-Z to gain any appreciable weight and is
indicative of an oxidation reaction, (2) the hydrogen

atmosphere caused a very small weight loss which suggests the
reduction of a trace of initial surface oxide on the specimen,
and (3) H2/H20 and H20 atmospheres had vitually no effect.
These facts are in very good agreement with the theoretical
stability predictions given by Figures 3 and 4. For example,
the upper curve in Figure 7 for H20/O 2 represents an atmos_ere
containing oxygen at a partial pressure of about 3 x 10 -3 arm.

and Figure 4 predicts CuO(s) is the stable phase at
temperatures up to about 840°C and Cu20(s ) is the stable _hase
from about 840-1220°C at that oxygen partial pressure. Thus,
copper surfaces exposed to the H20/O 2 test gas should oxidize

and cause specimen weight gain. similarly, the two lower
curves in Figure 7 for _ and H2/H20 represent atmospheres
having H20/H 2 volume or pressure ratios of zero and 2.8 x 10 -2,
respectively. Although those values are off Figure 3 on the

left-hand side, they clearly are in the region where Cu(s) is
the stable phase up to its melting point. Thus, fresh copper
surfaces should remain unchanged and oxide surface layers
should be reduced and cause the specimem_' weights to remain
constant or decrease slightly. The curve for _O in Figure 7
actually represents water vapor containing a trace of
582
contaminating oxygen (02 partial pressure of less than 4 x 10 -5
atm. ). _he stability diagram in Figure 4 indicates CtK)(s) is
the stable phase at that oxygen partial pressure and up to a
temperature of about 700°C but at higher temperatures tends to
convert to C_O(s). Therefore, copper surfaces exposed to the
slightly O2-contaminated _O vapor would be expected to surface

oxidize to CuO and gain a slight amount of weight up to a
temperature in the vicinity of 700°C then lose scme of that
weight gain as the surface CuO decc_ to C_O with the loss
of oxygen. The curve for _O in Figure 7 shows just such

behavior but it may be only a fortuitous indication since the
weight changes are extremely small and difficult to measure.
S_4 and visual examination of the TGA samples

a distinct difference in surface morphology between the
samples exposed to an oxidizing env_t vs. a reducing
environment. This is shown in Figure 8.
The first series of TGA tests generally verified

the validity of the stability diagrams (Figures 3 and 4) and
showed that copper is attacked only when free oxygen is present
in the test gas. Subsequently, a second series of TGA tests
was conducted to determine the effects of temperature and
oxygen concentration on the initial surface oxidation rate of
NARIoy-Z. These oxidation rate tests involved heating NARIoy-Z
specimens rapidly (100°C/min) to a specified temperature in
ultra-pure helium then switching to a specified oxygen-
containing test gas while maintaining a constant temperature
for an extended period of time (about 1 hour). The test gases
contained oxygen at partial pressures of 0.003, 0.20, or 0.95
atm. and water vapor at a partial pressure of .027 atm. along
with same helium or nitrogen to give a total pressure of
slightly more than 1 arm. Test temperatures varied from about
300-i000°C (about 600-1800°F). A typical test data plot is
shown in Figure 9.
The pertirm_t data frcm the oxidation rate tests

are _ized in terms of surface reaction rate versus
temperature in Figure i0. The significant facts to observe
frcm Figure i0 are: (I) reaction rates increase more or less
logarithmically with temperature, although not in the classical
Arrhenius fashion and (2) contrary to expectations, oxygen
partial pressure did not affect the reaction rate in any simple
analytical fashion. Perhaps, these results partially reflect
the limitations of a TGA apparatus for obtaining readily
interpretable surface kinetics data and the inherent difficulty
of elucidating applicable rate equations. The surface reaction
583
rates depicted by Figure i0 probably cannot be directly applied
to a rocket chamber liner environment because they do not
include the effects of high heat flux and shear stress produced
by the hot gas stream. They do, however, clearly show that
oxidation rate is a strong function of temperature. For
example, between 1000°F and 1700°F, the rate increases by an
order of magnitude.
B. CHAMBER SPECIMEN ANALYSES
i. 40K SSME Chamber
Visual Description
An entire _t of the 40K SSME chamber,

residual from the program reported in Ref_ 3, was provided
by MSFC for analysis, Figure ii. The specimen had one obvious
area of blanching on the cylinder wall. The unblanched area
was dull black-brown in color, indicative of cupric oxide, and
exhibited alternating smooth and rough streaks corresponding to
areas over channels and lands respectively. The blanc/%ed area
was considerably rougher than the over-land areas, and had a
dull copper sheen. This chamber specimen dates hack to 1976,
and has been exposed to the atmosphere since then.
Rouqhness Measurements
The surface roughness _ts obtained

for the 40K chamber are _ized below. The values shown are
center line averages and expressed in micro-inches.
Longitudinal Circumferential
Direction Direction
Bl_Area 250-320 360-400

UnblanchedArea 90 180-220
Scanninq Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Samples were removed from blanched and

unblanched areas for S_4 examination. A typical example of the
blanched surface morphology is shown in Figure 12. The severe
interoonnected porosity appears to be the primary
characteristic of blanching. This figure also shows streaks of
solid copper overlaying portions of the porosity. _ solid
layer is interpreted as evidence of melted copper on the porous
layer. The streaking is evidence of flow of the molten metal
induoed by the combustion gas stream. The area shown in Figure
13 is of a visually unbl_ area considerably remuved from
the blanched area and includes both _i_channel and c_er-land
areas. The smooth surface_ corr_qxmding to over cooling
584
channels show no obvious damage. The rough surfaces oorrespond
to areas over lands and exhibit surface features similar to the
areas oonsidered to be blanched exoept that the rough surface
is more granular in appeaz-ance than the blanched area and the
solid metal streaking is missing. The areas over the lands
between channels appear to have been subjected to an
environment similar to that which causes bland_ but the
maximum wall temperature would seem to be considerably less.
ab_ boundary between smooth and _ svL-_aces _,,ggest
that scme geometrical effect may effect the rc_ening
mechanism. Currently the most plausible theory is that the
over-land areas are subject to high compressive stresses during
to a blanching environ. Therefore, it would seem
that blanching involves high wall temperatures, high
compressive stresses, and an environment which induces the
surface porosity.
Optical Microscopy
Cross sections of blanched and unblanched

areas were examined to determine the depth of the blanching
effect and the corresponding metallurgical changes to the
substrate. Figure 14 shows a cross section of blanching frcm
the center of a land to the center of a channel. The surface
porosity can be seen to extend to a depth of approximately
.0015 inches over the land and to a negligible depth over the
channel. Figure 15 shows the characteristic "dog house"
deformation previously reported (Reference 2). It can be seen
that the gas side surface of this sample shows a larger grain
size than the bulk of the alloy and that there is an absence of
precipitates at the surface. Sinc_ the solution temperature of
the (Cu_)3Zr intermetallic precipitate oocurs at approximately
1700 F, this establishes the lower limit wall temperature at
this location within the 40K chamber.
2. SSMEMainCcmbustionChamber
Visual Description
Ten sections of an SSME chamber which had
been tested extensively were supplied for analysis. 2 Five of

the specimens contained major longitqzlinal cracks, hc_ever, the
gas-side surface of these specimens had been polished (abraded)
_nit No. 0007:96 starts and 21,705 sec of main stage

operation (5538 sec at 100% RPL, 6700 secat 104%, and 4695
sec at 109%).
585
per routine post-test chamber inspection procedures which
removed direct surface indications of blanching. The remaining
unblanched specimens showed faint indications of the over-land
patterns observed on the 40K chamber.
Scanning Electron Microscopy
The unblanched samples from the SSME chamber

do not show any of the worm holes or surface roughening
observed in the 40K specimen, Figure 16. The surfaces show
scratches running parallel to the chamber axis and may
represent erosion from the combustion gas stream. The surface
of a polished blanched area, Figure 17, shows an undulating
morphology suggestive of general deformation. Several defects
are present which may correspond to grain boundary cracks.
Photomicrographs of a large longitudinal crack shows that the
interior surface of the crack contains some of the
characteristics of blanching "worm holes" (porosity), Figure
18. Significant surface damage was also observed in samples
not identified as being blanched, Figure 19. Pitting or
cratering has occurred which appears roughened with a
suggestion of worm-holing.
Optical Metalloqraphy
Because of the post-test polishing, cross

sections of reportedly blanched areas of the MCC specimens fail
to reveal the porous layer noted in the 40K samples as
expected. However, these samples show an enlarged surface
grain and evidence of precipitate resolutioning in the vicinity
of longitudinal cracks in blanched sa_01es, Figure 20. Samples
from the throat area specimens show "dog house" deformation
with adjacent intergranular subsurface cracks, Figure 21. The
subsurface cracks run parallel to the gas wall surface, and
occur near the top of the ooolant channels. They do not appear
to be directly related to the amount of channel deformation but
rather to be localized to several adjacent channels in the
samples. Three of the four throat specimens supplied showed
these subsurface intergranular cracks. Subsurface cracks were
not observed in any other areas (cylinder, convergent, or
nozzle), including blanched specimens. Several areas of crack
coalescence were observed with associated surface craters or
pits extenltng frcm the gas-side surface to the ooalesced
cracks, Figure 22. These craters seem to correspond to the
crater/pits observed in the S_M photnmicrographs, Figure 19.
C. TGA SURFACE S'IUDIES TESTS
Oxidizing - Reducing Conditions
A series of TGA tests were run by sequentially

oxidizing with air and reducing NARIoy-Z samples at various
586
temperatures. The oxidizing gas was air saturated with water
at rocm temperature, and the reducing gas was hydrogen. The
duration of the oxidizing atmosphere _ was controlled by
the specimen weight gain, typically a few tenths of a percent.
Typical test data are shown on Figure 23. Subsequent SEM
_tion revealed several pertinent facts: (i) certain
specimem_ oxidized to form a relatively thick c_harent oxide
scale, and subsequently reduction formed a ccntJ_nuous skin of
copper over a partially reduced oxide _e, ( Figure 24),
(2) specimens oxidized under less severe conditions, and then
reduced, formed a porous surface (Figure 25). The porosity of
these latter specimens was very similar to the blanched chamber
specimens except for the size of the '%_rm holes". This
porosity phenomenon was c_served for several conditions as
on Figure 26. The scale of the porosity was not always
repeatable. Multiple oxidation/reduction cycles at conditions
shown to produce the porous surface effect did not have the
anticipated cca/serd/_ effect, Figure 27. Oxidation/reduction
of OFHC copper, NARIoy-A copper, and zirconium copper produced
similar results, as shown in Figure 28.
The thin layer of metallic copper which formed on

top of the oxide layer during the reduction cycle in certain of
these tests wDuld probably not form on a main chamber wall
because of the high heat flux and wall shear conditions which
exist in a rocket engine. Thus the tests in which a porous
layer formed are considered more typical of actual main chamber
surface conditions.
D. WALL DETERIORATION }_Cff/%NI_S
The two types of damage observed in the NARIoy-Z

40K and full scale SSME chamber walls are: (i) longitudinal
through-wall cracking associated with blanching, and (2) gas
side surface pits and craters associated with subsurface
cracks. Both forms of damage appear to be related to excessive
wall temperatures, bx_ever, they are representative of
different _echazds_s and different conditicms.
The correlation between longitudinal

cracking and blanching has been reasonably well established by
the SSME MCC wall damage maps, Figure i. Inspections of the
cracked coolant channels have revealed the characteristic
deformation referred to as "dog housing". Finite element
stress analyses have demonstrated that this type of deformation
is thermal ratcheting and is due to cyclic exposure to high
wall temperatures and heat fluxes.
NARIoy-Z, OFHC, zirconium copper, and

NARIoy-A specimens exposed to oxidizing, reducing, and
587
oxidizing/reducing environments show that the characteristic
porosity of blanched surfaces is due to exposure to oxidizing
then reducing conditions, (Figure 28). Since the porosity
formed in the TGA tests approximates the morphology of the
blanched surface, but not the severity, the exact mechanism of
porosity formation is not known.
Copper exposed to oxygen will normally form

cupric oxide, CuO. Cuperous oxide, Cu20 , forms only at high
temperature, Figure 5. A mixture of these two oxides can form
either as a subscale below a continuous CuO layer, or if the
combustion gas is highly turbulent and near stoichiometric so
that the local wall mixture ratio oscillates. If these mixed
oxides are exposed to hydrogen, for instance if the CuO scale
spalls during fuel rich shutdown or if the mixture ratio at the
wall fluctuates between fuel rich and oxidizer-rich values,
then the different reduction kinetics of the two oxides, ar_or
the differential volume contraction of the two oxides during
reduction could form the characteristic worm holes.
The inability of the TGA tests to reproduce

the severity of the worm holing suggests that a rapidly
fluctuating local gas mixture ratio is possibly the cause of
the worm holes.
The metallographic analysis performed on the

blanched surface of the 40K subscale chamber has provided some
indication that the temperatures at the blanched walls are at
least 1700 F, as indicated by the resolutioning of (CuAg)3Zr

precipitates, Figure 15, and possibly greater than the melting
point of copper (1981 F), as indicated by the unusual surface
features, Figure 17. The severe porosity of the blanched
surfaces correspond to a very high roughness indicating that
these surfaces probably have a higher heat transfer coefficient
than smoother surfaces. NASA-IeRC test experience has shown
that an _ in surface roughness to 300 microinches can
in_ the heat transfer ooefficient by 24% (Ref. 2). Wall
temperatures calculated by accounting for the effect of
roughness on heat transfer coefficient fall short of the
estimated temperatures of blanched areas, Figure 29, but the
effect of porosity was not accounted for in these calculations
and it would tend to increase wall temperature even further.
Therefore, it appears that blanching

roughness in itself does not cause longitudinal cracking but it
does appear to produce locally high wall temperatures which
lead to premature failure of copper chambers.
588
2. Pitting, Cratering, And Subsurface Cracks
The secondary form of damage observed in the

SSME MCC is the pitting/cratering observed primarily in the
SSME throat region. The surface pits appear to result frcm
local melting of the surface over areas where subsurface
intergranular cracks have coalesced to form a thermal barrier,
Figure 21. Metallographic evaluation of the areas of
subsurface cracking do not reveal the extreme temperatures
(>1700 F) associated with blanching as evidenced by the lack of
precipitate resolutioning observed in the blanched substrates.
However, there does appear to be a oorrelation between wall
temperature and stress, and subsurface cracking. Finite
element stress model predictions indicate that the region of
cracking corresponds to areas where the local stress exceeds
the yield strength of the alloy.
The grain boundaries themselves do not

appear embrittled, as witnessed by the bluntness of the cracks.
The mechanism of subsurface crack formation is unknown. These
cracks have not been reported associated with blanching, and
therefore are not directly related solely to high stress and
temperature. This type of damage may be some form of gradual
hydrogen degradation of the alloy, but the effect has not been
reported in the literature. While it is certainly secondary to
blanching and longitudinal cracking, it represents a damage
mechanism which may beccme more evident and life limiting if
the blanching mechanism can be eliminated.
Similar but much more extensive subsurface

cracks were observed to have developed in the nickel-plated
SSME main chamber after it had been subjected to a series of
test firings. In this chamber, the cratering was severe enough
that 200-300 hydrogen leaks developed in the cooling channels
(Ref. i).
E. METAI//3RGICALOONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be made regarding

the two types of copper chamber liner damage observed in the
40K subscale chamber and the SSME MCC.
manching/LongitudinalCracking-
i. Blanching can be superficially described on

the microscopic scale as severe interconnected porosity, with a
surface roughness of approximately 400 microinch CIA.
2. Copper and copper alloys will oxidize at

temperatures as low as 600 F, if free oxygen is available. The
oxidation rates are exponential with temperature.
589
3. Blanching of copper and copper alloys is
caused by an oxidation reduction reaction and is possibly
associated with local fluctuations in the cc_m_tion gas
ccmposition which represent alternating oxidizing and reducing
oonditions.
4. Blanched areas are indicative of surface

1981 F, and substrate temperatures
greater than 1700 F.
5. Longitud/nal crackir_ is caused by the high

wall temperatures and increased heat transfer ooefficient
associated with blanching.
Subsurface Inter_ar Cracking-
i. Subsurface intergranular cracks can

coalescence sufficiently to reduce regenerative cooling
efficiency locally which results in small burn through pits or
craters.
2. Subsurface cracking is not associated with

the extremetemperatures connected withblanching.
3. Cracked grain boundaries are not embrittled.
4. Subsurface crack coalescence appears to

proceed very slowly.
5. Finite element modeling shows that wall

temperatures of 1400 F result in operational stresses greater
than yield in zones which correlate to areas of intergranular
cracking.
IV. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Avoidance of blandling is an important design

consideration for high pressure oxygen/hydrogen engines, since
blanching degrades chamber life significantly. Blanching
results in porosity at the hot gas surface and a surface
of 300-400 microinc21es, oc_oared to a _ of
30-40 microi/Ehes. T_e porosity reduces wall conductance and
the roughness Lncrsases the gas-side heat transfer coefficient.
The result is higher wall temperature and a corresponding order
of magnitude decrease in life. Tne actual life of the SSME
chamber is 2-10 cycles. The previously predicted design life,
excluding blanching effects, is 80-100 cycles at full power
level (Ref. 4). Recent analyses at Aerojet yield non-blanching
life predictions of 46 to 56 cycles (Ref. 5).
The results of our TGA tests and _ sa_01e ar_lyses

indicate blanching is caused by an oxidaticn-rsducticn
590
reaction. It will occur in copper and copper alloy chambers
whenever free oxygen is present in the combustion gas adjacent
to the wall and the wall is subsequently exposed to a fuel rich
gas. To prevent blanching it is necessary to either eliminate
the possibility of free oxygen at the wall or provide a means
of protecting the wall frum the oxygen.
At the range of temperatures a copper chamber wall can

withstand, free oxygen does not exist in O2_ combustion gas
until the stoichicmetric mixture ratio of 7.94 is exceeded.
Due to high temperature dissociation effects, free oxygen and
hydroxyl radicals are present in the SSME free stream
combustion gas at mixture ratios as low as 6 as shown in Figure
30. During numinal SSME operation the chamber operates at an
overall MR -- 6, with MR = 4.5 at the wall due to peripheral
film coolant and local mixture ratio adjustments. If the
engine were operating as designed we would not expect blanching
unless the free stream was so turbulent that it penetrated the
kxm/r_ layer and impacted the wall before the rapid re-
association reactions could occur.
Since the engine does blanch, this gives us evidence

that free oxygen is present at the wall and that the wall
mixture ratio is at least > 6 and possibly >7.94 depending on
the extent of re-association. It is possible that local flow
nonuniformities in the injector and upstream manifold exist
that manifest themselves in locally high mixture ratios at the
wall. It is considered unlikely that the injector element
would produce the asymmetric blanching pattern noted in the
chamber, although it is possible that local element to element
fabrication tol_oes could produce scme mixture ratio
variations. If the problem were inherent to the injector
element type we would expect more uniform chamber bl_.
Since t_he pattern is asynm_tric (Figure 2) it is most likely
produced by maldistributed flow generated in the upstream
manifold where evidence of extreme turbulence currently exists,
Ref_ 6.
In the design of future engines, both manifold and

injector should be scrutinized carefully in light of the
blanching phenomena. To avoid chamber blanching either the
suspected cause of maldistributions must be eliminated or the
chamber wall must be protected from the ox-rich gases, or both.
The history of liquid rocket engine development shows it is
difficult to produce a high performance injector which produces
a perfectly uniform mixture ratio _tion gas.
Consequently, both m/xture ratio control and oxidation
resistant coatings are _ed to eliminate blanching.
The gas mixture ratio at the wall can be controlled in a

variety of ways: element type, element mixture ratio, film
591
coolant and manifold changes are typical. A benign,
controllable injector element should be chosen at least at the
injector periphery. Tnis will help avoid oxidizer impingement
on the wall. Fuel film cooling will help though may nut be
sufficient in avoiding the problem especially if it is
manifold related. Significant amounts of film cooling will, of
course, degrade performance. In conjunction with careful
injector design the manifold should be given special attention
to avoid nonuniformities and excessive velocities especially at
the periphery. Analyses performed during Aerojet's Space
Shuttle Engine Study indicate that, due to high cross flow gas
velocities, the mixture ratio at the wall wDuld be >7 if film
coolant were not injected. Flow straighteners and/or screens
should be incorporated to ensure flow uniformity.
If the injector/manifold cannot be designed to

inherently eliminate copper blanching then the chamber must be
crutched to withstand it. Since test results indicate that
oxidation-reduction surface damage will probably occur at
temperatures > 600°F, lowering the design wall temperature
will probably not eliminate blanching, though it will raise the
expected LCF and plastic instability life, and probably
decrease the blanching rate. Smaller channels, and thermal
coatings are desirable from this standpoint. The best single
chamber design feature to minimize blanching effects would be
the addition of an oxidation resistant treatment to the gas-
side surface. Considerable development may be required to
develop and minimize the risk of using oxidation resistant
coatings. Past experienc_ with the Nickel plated SSME
indicates the potential for other unrelated problems to occur
when coatings are applied.
V, RE_TIONS
i. A series of subscale tests to evaluate the

interrelationship between element design, element mixture
ratio, and blanching is reccmmerded so that the conditions
which preclude blanching can be identified and used to
establish main injector design criteria.
2. The development of oxidation resistant coatings or

surface treatments for copper alloy ccmbustion chambers is
reccmme_nded as a means to protect chamber walls fr_n local non-
uniformities which are difficult to completely avoid in a
liquid rocket engine.
592
Nominal Alloy Compositions
Alloy Cu _g Z_r
NARIoy-Z 96 min. 2.75 - 3.25 .30 - .55

NARIoy-A 96.5 rain. 3.25 - 3.75 -
Zirconium-Copper 99.8 min. - .13 - .20
OFHC 99.99 rain. - -
Acknowl edqements
This work was performed on Contract NAS 8-36167 for the

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center. The NASA program
manager is Dick Counts. The materials testing and S_4 work
were accomplished through the efforts of Kent Schapl_,
Jackie Cabeal, and Guy Sheble. Significant contributions were
made by D_ayne McCay, Don Pry.r, and Brian McPherson of MSFC.
References
i. Personal _cation With Dick Counts, George C.

Marshall Space Flight Center, July 1983 to April 1986.
e Same Effects of Thermal-Cycle-Induced Deformation In

Rocket Thrust Chambers, Ned P. HannumandHarold G.
Price, Jr., NASA Lewis Research Center, Tech. Paper
1834, 1981.
. Failure Analysis of 40KSubscale Chamber Liner Cracks,

NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center Memoby
R. A. Pan, 8 Nov. 1976.
. SSME Main _tion Chamber Life Prediction, NASA

CR-168215, NAS 3-23256, May 1983.
e Monthly Status ReportM-7, Contract NAS 8-36167, Aerojet

TechSystems _, Feb. 1986.
. Duct Flow Nonuniformities Study FinalReport (Draft),

i0 June 1983, RI/RD83-160.
593
/vl CC L/ASFR ! _£ _,_ C£ /-;'_-XIS_4[ _EN)"3"
Iv_C.¢ VV :I"
E,J_tN_" .Z0// ;c_,r_,,v
J_ to;;-,,,:..T
_ rs-_ 51J
Ren, I$_
_ _3 7o 7d
2,;
ORK_IAL pAG_ ,:b
OF poOR QUAL|TY
l_f qo so 1_0 i_o _o Io /;o

rvH ("_ _^rc ,VF{,
/vl CC LINE_ S_f_;/QGE ME,_SUfF/_ENT-S
_ _7 _7
_ttEt (8,VI[,/.ZAITI_,E_It)N
2.,06 Iio
D'_£C LINE_ _£C(gf_ICE /4E_SLCrF/_ENTS
7_"_"'," _f _ _7 5_ S_ _ _ _ _ _=
t
l>,_ _"
IBO I_ qO /q_ qo
,,Vlt¢_o l.Jd _E$
Figure 1
Post-Flight Inspection Sketches For Three Main Chamber Liners
594
OF POOE Ot;Ai.,: 7
Figure 2
SSME Chamber Blanching and Crack Locations, 1979-1984
4 5 6
0.6
I
\ _ 2500
\ _2400
I I I
I X CuzO(L) + CUO(L ) _2300
t _2200
CU(L ) + Cu20(L ) \ _ d_ _2100
I
N \ "1900
\
\ 1800
\
Cu20(s ) \ 1700
\
Cu(s )
\ \ 1600 _"
\ 1500
"1400
1300
1200
],.2,, I[00
1
102 103 104 105 106 I07
1'120/H
2 PRESSURE RATIO
Figure 3
Stability Diagram For Copper in the Presence of

H20/H 2 Containing Atmospheres
595
L_
I I ! I
0
N
_J
i o o
I "_
+ u o_
+
+
_z
u
g_
+ \_ + o
o"
z
u o
o8 _ o
,q
o o
u
÷
8
÷ o
_J o_
1 I i i 1
-_ e-i
_Io _ @ill.LVll@_£
o°o°_o°° oOoo oooo o

oo °o oo o oo
©
"7
o _J
ou o .._ .._
u _o
+ •_ _.,
o
o
\ u
\
\
o -_
._.-I
%
\
\ _ N
\ o
\
÷
L
\ ,-..t
\
\
4J
o o o
l_/O001
GRiCi!,!,".L :" ""

596 POOR QUALITY
©
oo B
_J
o m
o
I° -H
o o
b4
"_ I
q_ _ o
•,._ _ z
o_
o a)
E
©
o
a0 > g
o
o.
o
L-o 03
o
o
t4_
% 'NIVD IMOI_/_
e,l _ o° _. _ : ,_
o o o ? o _
i 1
i i i i °1 _ i ) i I i _'--
oo o
.a- _
oo :
o
o _ o o
b_
(D o) @'_f13._@_,l
C¢
E
_o_
o )-(
<
597
MAG 2000X
MAG 2000X
Figure 8
The TGA Specimen Exposed to Just a Reducing Envircnment Shows a
Reasonably Smooth, Undulating Surface (Top), While an Oxidized
Specimen Shows a Granular Surface (Bottom).
598
ORIG!,- _Tj •......
ao
u_
o_,_
U I l
=- o. _
8
u'_
0 0
o o 4J
u _ m
m cU rn
=n 0 0 | nO
o_o_ o
x
° 0 0<>
0
,--I
oo
_o
1 I A
Qo
o o o
S/i;H3/:'0t '%],Y'd l_OIiO_ 23V,_lJ]S
(_IN/Z) 3J',-7TVA'ra'3(1
'2. _ • . ,
0 0 0 o o
; ! I
, , ,o°,?,_, ,
e_
._ o_
(3 o) 3_t_tNI3d]_l,
_// ..
J.J
I
_0
°r-I
o
J..I
_ m
0
[..-i
.o
mo m o
_i'"
o o
599
t ,-4
0 _
0 _
P_ Q_
°_
_ 0
0
H
0 _
0
X
_D
0
_ QJ
m >
OF POOR QUALITY
6OO
_Ii,K_I_iAL PAGE: IS
_F _8 ,.,QUALITY
601
eric.:.,
_.;.
.....
602
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF. POOR QUALITY
um
o
&}
4,
603
O_.,_.,_._,
,i _'""_L PAGE I$
OF POOR QUALITY
Figure 15
The Original Square Bottom Channels of the 40K Specimen Have Been Severely
Deformed in the Blanched Region to Form the Characteristic Pointed "Dog
House" Deformation. The Large Grain Size and Lack of Precipitates at the
Gas-Side Wall Surface Indicate Metal Temperatures Greater Than 1700°F,
the Solution Temperature of NARIoy-Z.
604
ORIGINAL PAGE _
OF POOR QUALITY
605
r_
Z
O
I-4
[_3
r_
<
C...D
<
r._3
rj
_c"_
_Z
I.--I
r,.3 C.3
ZZ
H
N
_Z
rJ
rj_
m _
M
r_ M
r./3 _
_G!NAL PACE :;'_

606
OF POOR QUAUTY
ORIGINAL p.:,,G3 :.
OF POOR QUALITY
I--'4
C_
<
v
,.C
¢J
C_
q-_
O
r.q
,.C:
E)
O
rJ3
U]
O
OO ,._
r.J3
c_
4_s
c_
co
o
c_
rj_
.c
607
Z
0
r.D
r._
b_
0
j-I
0
.<
r._.l
c)
o
o
c)
[-:1
_ M
_ Z
Z Z
_ M
tM
_ Z
rj
u3 r._
I---t
608
DI_ POOR QUALITY
ORIGINAL p_G _ _.,
OF POOR QUALITY
rj cU u) _j
= , o
o
I.," r._ o _ ._ _
o- "
o o _'_
¢',,I
Ic
t
I.a
00
._ .C C
_ _,._ _ _o
'g c,,--_ _ N r.D o
r.n ,..c c/_ ,_ <:D
I:::: r.n _ r'--
o C C_
p
_ o_c
o'_ R _ u] o
,_ _ _._
_D 0
•-
_-_ (J "_ "el
o
_4
C
0 .R
_ _ _ C
"_
a0
0 _ _'_
_ _D 0 0
0 • _'--" _
•_ r..3 rn -_ r.,..]
609
o
o
I I I II
c_
.o
,-- o_
.. ._ ..
o
• Z
0
!
_._®o
I I
! t-
I O
.<
F_
-;.-i
×
C)
o. g
<
_.o_
0 ""
x
oo
E3
•_ • _-, _ • 0
o..> _'_ _ _
C'q
• o,0_ _ _._
• _1 0 0 "_ _.._
_.-_
0 "_ 0 _ _ _
0 0 _ .._ <Z_ _ ._
I-.4 _
610
POOR QUAL,, Y
MAG IOOX
Figure 24
A TGA Specimen Oxidized at 1000°F and Reduced at 1600°F Shows a
Granular Oxide Layer (A) Below a Continuous Copper Skin (C).
The Copper Skin Has Been Locally Peeled Back (B) to Reveal the
Subscale.
611
MAG 2000X
MAG 2000X
Figure 25
TGA Specimens Oxidized at 1000°F and 1400°F, and Then Subsequently Reduced
at 1000°F (Top and Bottom Respectively) Show a Fine Network of Interconnected
Porosity Very Similar in Appearance to Blanching.
612
REDUCTION
TEMPERAR_TRE,
OF
600 7OO 750 800 900 1000 1300 1600 1800
600
7OO
o
800
900 Z
@ ®
z
o I000
E-_
<
H
:_ 1200
o
©
1400
1600 ® @
** SMOOTH LAYER ON TOP

OF POROUS LAYER
NO. OF CYCLES : @ - 5 CYCLES FINER GRAIN THAN@
ALL OTHERS - 1 CYCLE

_ INDICATES SURFACE DAMAGE, POST-TEST
SYMBOL- 0 [] /11
MH - NARIoy-2 OFHC ZrCu NARIoy-A
Figure 26
TGA Oxidation-Reduction Test Matrix
613
OE. POOR Q_3_"_i'i_'
o
o
o
X
o
o
r.9
614
615
180q
MF_URED RANGE OF I
BLANCHED SURFACE
ROUGHNESS
! 70_
1600
o_
150C / f--
sV
1400
[]
L I
120C
llO(
/ I
I
NU}_ER
V MAX
[] _
OF
'rEMl_
_
_
OVF-'I_CHAIqI_EL
O_R
" 390
lOOC
I I r I
I ) ! I I
30 50 tOO 150 200 250 300 350 400
HOT GAS SIDE WALL ROUGHNESS, MICRO-INCHES
Figure 29
Gas Side Wall Temperature vs Hot Gas Wall Roughness Predictions
O2
7000
6000
5OOO
\ o=
' \
\
4000
i
0.0]
x 3000
2000
1000
0.001
1.0 2 4 6 8 I0 20 40 I00
O/F, ,q'IXI"JRE RATIO
Figure 30
Chemical Composition of O2/H 2 Combustion Gases (High Temperature

Dissociation Effects Included)
616
HYDROGEN
ENVIRONMENT
EMBRITTLEMENT
IN ADVANCED
PROPULSION
SYSTEMS
WORKSHOP
617
N89- 1265 4J
HYDROGEN-ENVIRONMENT EMBRITTLEMENT AND ITS CONTROL IN

HIGH PRESSURE HYDROGEN/OXYGEN ROCKET ENGINES
W. T. Chandler
Rockwell InternationallRocketdyne Division

Abstract
The workshop on hydrogen environment embrittlement was

organized to examine in some detail the effects on metallic
materials of the hydrogen environments encountered in high
pressure hydrogen/oxygen rocket engines and to discuss
methods of preventing hydrogen environment induced failures
under such exposure conditions. The Space Shuttle Main
Engine (SSME) is the most advanced high pressure hydrogen/
oxygen rocket engine currently in service. To serve as a
basis for the discussions to follow, the conditions under
which materials are exposed to hydrogen environments in the
SSME will be outlined and methods used in the design of the
SSME to prevent hydrogen environment induced failures will
be described. Data generated at Rocketdyne on the effects
of high pressure hydrogen on properties of metallic mate-
rials will be presented.
Introduction
The workshop on Hydrogen-Environment Embrittlement (HEE) was or-

ganized to provide a forum for the discussion of HEE as it applies
under conditions that occur in high pressure hydrogen/oxygen rocket
engines. To serve as a basis for these discussions, the conditions
under which materials are exposed to hydrogen environments in the
SSME, the most advanced high pressure hydrogen/ oxygen rocket engine
currently in service, will be reviewed.
A flow schematic for the SSME is presented in Fig. i. Liquid

hydrogen is pumped first through a low pressure turbopump and then
through a high pressure turbopump to a pressure above 41.4 MN/m 2
(6000 psi). The high pressure hydrogen is used to cool various struc-
tures such as the nozzle and combustion chamber and the hot gas mani-
fold and to drive the low pressure hydrogen pump turbine. The high
pressure hydrogen is reacted with a limited quantity of oxygen in the
preburners to produce a very hydrogen-rich steam that is used to drive
both the high pressure hydrogen and oxygen turbopump turbines. The
H2:H20 ratio is 7:1 for the hydrogen-rich steam that drives the high
pressure fuel (hydrogen) turbopump (HPFTP). The hydrogen-rich steam
exhaust from the HPFTP and the high pressure oxidizer turbopump
(HPOTP) is combusted with additional oxygen in the combustion chamber
618
/
Fig. I. SSME Propellant Flow Schematic
to produce the gas exhausted out the rocket nozzle to provide the
thrust. Thus, in the SSME, metals are in contact with hydrogen envi-
ronments at pressures from 0.21 MN/m 2 (30 psi) to over 41.4 MN/m 2
(6000 psi) and at temperatures from -253 C (-423 F) to over 649 C
(1200 F). An SSME operates for approximately 520 seconds during a
Space Shuttle flight and the desiEn life goal is 55 engine firings for
a total desiEn llfe Eoal of 28,600 seconds (approximately 7.9 hours).
Engine startup and shutdown occur very rapidly so that in some compon-
ents there is a very rapid application of load and rise in temperature
on startup and a very rapid decrease of load and temperature on shut-
down. With these conditions in mind, let us review the characteris-
tics of HEE.
Characteristics of HEE
The term hydrogen-environment embrittlement (HEE) is used to de-

note the degradation of mechanical properties that occurs while the
metal is exposed to a hydrogen environment as compared to air or an
inert environment. Susceptible metals exhibit the following behavior
when exposed to hydrogen environments: (I) the tensile ductility of
the metal is lower in hydrogen than in other environments, (2) tensile
619
plastic deformation in hydrogen results in surface cracking, (3) sub-
critical crack growth occurs in hydrogen, and (4) cyclic and sustained
load crack growth rates are faster in hydrogen than in air or inert
environments. I
For all practical purposes, the elastic properties and tensile

yield strengths of metals are the same in hydrogen as in air or inert
environments. The most significant effects of hydrogen environments
are on tensile ductility, notch tensile strength, and crack behavior.
The hydrogen environment embrittles the surface or a thin surface
layer of the metal. When a susceptible metal is stressed in tension
in hydrogen, at some critical amount of surface plastic deformation
the surface fractures, that is, a surface crack forms. Thus, we refer
to a strain-to-crack initiation.
A tensile test in hydrogen is no longer a "normal" tensile test

after surface cracking begins, but is a rather complex test of a crack
specimen. The crack is extending as the load on the specimen is con-
tinuing to be increased. The strength and ductility values obtained
are very sensitive to loading rates. Thus, care must be used in
assessing the meaning and usefulness of strength and ductility data
obtained from these tests.
HEE is an environmental effect and no hold time in the hydrogen

environment is required to establish the embrittlement. However, HEE
is very sensitive to strain rate or crack propagation rate. At high
strain or crack propagation rates, the effect of the hydrogen environ-
ment will be reduced or even eliminated. This is evidenced by the fact
that the final failure in a tensile specimen tested in hydrogen is a
ductile, overload failure that is unaffected by the hydrogen environ-
ment. The effect of test rate is related to the processes by which
hydrogen moves from the environment onto or into the metal. Thus,
environmental parameters are of great importance.
For example, HEE increases with increasing hydrogen pressure as is

shown in Fig. 2 for electrodeposited nickel (EDNi). It should be noted
that significant effects of hydrogen environments on properties of
some metals can occur at pressures of I atmosphere or lower. The in-
terest in the HEE of EDNi is because the regeneratively cooled SSME
combustion chamber is constructed of a high-conductivity copper alloy
liner into which slots are machined and closed out with EDNi to fo_-m
the channels for the hydrogen coolant.
HEE occurs over a wide range of temperatures from cryogenic 2 to at

least 871 C (1600 F) 3 but is most severe in the vicinity of room tem-
perature. The variation in HEE with temperature may be quite rapid
near room temperature as is shown in Fig. 3 for EDNi.
At higher temperatures, one must be alert to the potential for

hydrogen reaction embrittlement or for the absorption of sufficient
620
lOO
90
80
70
_ 6o
_ 4o
10 --
o [ I I I I I I I L i
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 VPblA
1 1 I I I I I I I I_
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
H 2 PRESSURE
Fig. 2. HEE of EDNi (As-Deposited) vs Hydrogen Pressure

NH2 and NAi r are the Tensile Strengths of
Notched Specimens in H 2 and Air, Respectively
hydrogen to result in internal hydrogen embrittlement. These types of

embrittlement can add to or synergistically interact with HEE.
The purity of the hydrogen environment is important. For example,

even small amounts of oxygen in hydrogen inhibits HEE, as shown in
Fig. 4. 4 The embrittlement inhibiting effect of oxygen in I0.I MN/m 2
(1500 psi) hydrogen becomes noticeable above 0.I ppm oxygen. A few
tensile tests performed at Rocketdyne on notched specimens of Inconel
718 in 48.3 MN/m 2 (7000 psi) hydrogen at room temperature showed no
inhibition of HEE by the addition of I tort air (approximately 0.5 ppm
oxygen) to the hydrogen and complete inhibition by the addition of I
atmosphere air (approximately 400 ppm oxygen).
The concentration of hydrogen that metals and alloys can absorb

from hydrogen at pressures prevailing in the SSME and at temperatures
near room temperature where HER is most severe are not large enough to
cause HEE. The hydrogen must be concentrated by some mechanism to pro-
duce at fracture initiation sites the critical concentration necessary
621
1100 - 160 i
4O
1000
140 35
900 -
120
800 -
IE
100 25
_ z
Z uJ 80 2O '_
t.u ,_- Z
__5oo-
¢/J
-I- 9
._ 400 -
0
0 Z
Z
311(1-
4O
21111- _R EDUCTION
2O _ _J IN AREA 5
100 -
0 - o I I I I I I i 0
400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 3_ 41111
TESTTEMPERATURE. F
I A 1 I J I
1_ 2_ 3_ 400' 50O
TESTTEMPERATURE. K
Fig. 3. Effect of Temperature on the Strength of Notched

Specimens and the Reduction of Area of Unnotched
Specimens for EDNi (As-Deposited) in 8.3 MN/m 2
(1200 psi) Hydrogen
2o
:oE
O
w 60
,_ 40l_
a_ 201--
o o rl
oE I I I J I I J
I00'_ 10 I I0 -I 10 -2 10 .3 I0 -4 I0 -$ I00_
AIR OXYGEN CONTENt IN HYDROGEN, % H2
Fig. 4. Effect of Oxygen Content in lO.l NN/m 2

(1500 psi) Hydrogen on the Ductility of a
Plain Carbon (0.20¢ C) Steel
for hydrogen embrittlement. Two hydrogen concentration mechanisms have

been identified:
I. Hydrogen diffusion to regions of lattice dilation 5

2. Dislocation transport of hydrogen 6,7
622
Triaxial tensile stresses cause lattice dilation and thus promote the
first mechanism while the second mechanism requires shear stresses for
dislocation motion. Some metals will be more sensitive to the first
mechanism of hydrogen concentration while others will be more sensi-
tive to the second. Thus, as has been discussed, 8 it is important to
assess the stress state of the metal under the hydrogen service condi-
tions and to ensure that any tests used to qualify materials for that
service adequately evaluates the potential for hydrogen embrittlement.
Since an SSME operates for only approximately 520 seconds during a

Space Shuttle flight, the time for hydrogen absorption and diffusion
from the surface into the metal is short. Thus, at least at tempera-
tures near room temperature, any hydrogen concentration due to hydro-
gen diffusion to regions of lattice dilation is probably small and the
dislocation transport of hydrogen will be dominant. In such a case,
the tensile test serves as an effective screening test for HEE since
the maximum shear stress is larger than is usually encountered with
the multiaxial loading conditions typical of service exposures. Of
course, in some cases tensile tests may be too conservative, indica-
ting more severe HEE than would be encountered in service.
HEE of Various Metals
A variety of metals and alloys have been tensile tested in high-

pressure hydrogen at Rocketdyne. Particularly sensitive to hydrogen
environments are the ultimate strength of notched specimens and the
reduction of area of unnotched specimens. The effect of high pressure
hydrogen on these properties is shown in Table 1 for various metals
and alloys. Those used in high pressure hydrogen in the SSME are high-
lighted.
The condition of a metal can have a profound effect on the degree

of HEE. For example, data are included in Table I for Inconel 718 and
EDNi, each in two different conditions that suffer significantly dif-
ferent degrees of HEE. In each case, only the less embrittled condi-
tion is used in the SSME. Table 2 presents the results of an investi-
gation 9 of the HEE of Inconel 718 in three forms and three heat
treatments.
The heat treatments with the low [1214 K (1750 F)] solution an-
nealing temperatures resulted in both the least HEE with the plate
that was fine grained and remained fine grained through the heat
treatment and the greatest HEE for the rolled bar or forging that were
coarse grained. The STAI heat treatment used in the SSME resulted in
the highest notch strengths in both hydrogen and helium and a moderate
but consistent ratio of notch strength in hydrogen to notch strength
in helium.
623
Table I. Effect of High Pressure Hydrogen on Tensile
Properties at Room Temperature for Various Metals
Notched Specimen Unnotched Specimen
Strength, ksi Reduction of Area, %

Hydrogen --
Pressure Ratio Ratio
Material ksi
Kt He N aZHe He H2 _He
18Ni 250 MAR Steel i0 8.4 423 50 0.12 55 2,5 0.05
H-II Steel i0 8.4 252 63 0.25 30 0 0
440C SS i0 B.4 149 74 0.50 3.2 0 0
17- 7 PH SS I0 8.4 302 70 0.23 45 2.5 0.06
Inconel X-750 7 6.3 222 57 0.26 24 4 0.17
F¢- 9Ni- 4Co-0.20C i0 8.4 367 89 0.24 67 15 0.22
Ineonel 718-STA2 I0 8,4 274 126 0,46 26 i 0.04
10 8.4 313 125 0.40 48 9 0.19
MAR- M246(Hf)(DS) 7 6.3 176 43 0.24 12 4 0.33
Rene 4l 10 8.4 280 77 0.27 29 t_ O.7,_
EDNi- As Deposited 1.2 8.4 148 64 0.43 90 38 0.42
ASTM A- 372 Class IV I0 8.4 200 148 0.74 53 18 0.34
Inconel 625 7 6.3 155 121 0.78 63 23 0.37
AISI 1042- Normalized I0 8.4 153 115 0.75 59 27 0.46
Inconel 718 STAi 5 8.4 339 258 0.76 34 16 0.47
Was ale TMP 7 6.3 278 221 0.79 34 15 0.44
ASTM A-212-61T-Norm. I0 8.4 [ iii | 75 0.68 57 34 0,60
{ Nickel 270 I0 8,4 { 77 [ 54 0.70 89 67 0.75

Armco Iron- Annealed I0. _ 8.4 121 !05 0.87 83 50 0.60
[Ha_mes 188 - 7 6.3 164 1Sl 0.92 63 40 Q._3
_I 10 8.4{224 164 0.73 76[ 631 0.83
I EDNi- 482C (90OF) Anneal 1.2 8.4 96 80 65 0.81
AI51 1020 Hot Rolled i0 8.4 105 90 0.86 40 32 0.80
Ti-SA1-2.SSnELI 10 8,4 201 162 0.81 45 39 0.87
Ti-6A1-4VSTA I0 8.4 243 183 0.75 48 48 1.0
304L SS l0 8.4 102 89 0.87 78 71 0.91
310SS 10 8.4 116 108 0.93 64 63 0.98
Nitronic 40- Cast- CW 7 6.3 234 229 0.98 32 30 0.94
Be-Cu Alloy 25 I0 8.4 195 181 0.93 72 71 0.99
707 T73 10 8.4 I16 114 0.98 37 35 0.95
A-286 I0 8.4 233 227 0.97 44 43 0.98
OFHCCu 10 [_J4]87 180 [ Q.99l 94 [ 94 [ l.oo
NARIo Z- Cu Ailo 5.8 8.4 53 56 1.06 70 69 0.99
316 SS 10 18.4 I 1611 161 1.00 I 72 I 75 I 1.04
7 6.3 208 201 0.97 41 47 1.15
606iT6 -10 t 84172{78 1081 61i 66 { 108
Effect of High Pressure Hydrogen Environments

on Properties of Ineonel 718
The use of metals in hydrogen systems must be based on properties

determined in the hydrogen environment under test conditions pertinent
to the service conditions. In many cases, properties other than ten-
sile properties must be considered in designing components of hydrogen
systems.
Inconel 718, which we have seen is susceptible to HEE, is used

extensively in the SSME, including components of the high pressure
hydrogen system. Thus, a very extensive test program has been con-
ducted at Rocketdyne on the effect of high pressure hydrogen on the
properties of Inconel 718. In this section, then, we will use Inconel
718 as an example to present data on the effect of hydrogen environ-
ments on properties most sensitive to those environments.
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OE POOR QUALITY
624
Table 2. Effect of 34.5 MN/m 2 (5000 psi) Hydrogen at Room
Temperature on the Properties of Notched (K t = 8.4)
Specimens of Inconel 718 in Various Conditions
NOTCHED PROPERTIES
MATERIAL ENVIRONMENT STRENGTH, RA,

HEAT TREATMENT
MN/m L NH2/NHe PERCENT
1214,991-894 K ROLLED BAR HELIUM 1950 2.9

HYDROGEN 1050 0.54 0.9
(1725, 1325-1150 F)
STA 2 FORGING HELIUM 20OO 3.0
HYDROGEN 1170 0.59 1.1
PLATE HELIUM 1980 3.0

HYDROGEN 1700 0.86 2.0
ROLLED BAR HELIUM 1650 2.9

1214,1089-922 K
(1725,1500-1200 F) HYDROGEN 1160 0.70 1.8
FORGING HELIUM 1740 .. 2.2

HYDROGEN 990 0.57 1.2

HYDROGEN 1500 0.86 2.1
1325,1033-922 K ROLLED BAR HELIUM 2220 5.0
(1925,1400-1200 F) HYDROGEN 1590 0.71 1.7
STA 1 FORGING HELIUM 2340 4.6

HYDROGEN 1780 0.76 1.8

HYDROGEN 1700 0.77 2.3
The most severe property degradation in high pressure hydrogen of

specimens that do not initially contain cracks occurs in tests involv-
ing plastic strain. Thus, considerable effect of hydrogen environments
on low-cycle fatigue (strain cycling) life can be expected and is
shown in Fig. 5 for Inconel 718.
_z '7
u_
.1 I I I ' ' ''" I I ' ' '''"

100 2 3 4 567891000 2 3 4 5678910000
CYCLES TO FAILURE
Fig. 5. Effect of 41.4 MN/m 2 (6000 psi) H 2 at RT

on the Low Cycle Fatigue Life of Inconel 718
The most significant effect of hydrogen environments on metals is

on crack initiation and propagation. Therefore, fracture mechanics is
625
a valuable approach to be applied, where feasible, to life verifica-
tion of components of hydrogen systems. Such an analysis requires
data on threshold stress intensities for crack growth and crack growth
rates.
The effect of a hydrogen environment on the threshold stress inten-

sity (KTH) for sustained load crack growth in Inconel 718 is shown in
Table 3.10 KTH is much lower for the STA2 heat treatment than for the
STAI heat treatment used in the SSME. For Inconel 718 STAI at 144 K
(-200 F), KTH in hydrogen is the same as Kic in helium indicating no
significant hydrogen effect.
Table 3. Threshold Stress Intensities (KTH) for Sustained-Load

Crack Growth in Inconel 718 Exposed to 34.5 Ml_/m 2 (5000 psi)
Hydrogen and Helium Environments at Ambient and
Cryogenic Temperatures
KTH* KIc*
TEMPERATURE
HEAT
TREATMENT ENVIRONMENT K F MN/m 3/2 ksi MN/3/2 ksi
STA 2 HELIUM 295 70 58 53 78 71

HYDROGEN 295 70 14 13
STA 2 HELIUM 144 -200 81 74 98 89

HYDROGEN 144 -200 72 66
STA 1 HELIUM 295 70 112 102 119"* 108"*

HYDROGEN 295 70 42 38
STA 1 HELIUM 200 -100 160"* 146"* 149"* 146"*

HYDROGEN 200 -100 <47 <43
STA 1 HELIUM 144 -200 139 126 122 111

HYDROGEN 144 -200 123 112
*AVERAGE OF 2 TESTS IN HELIUM AND 3 TESTS IN HYDROGEN.

**NOT VALID PLANE STRAIN FRACTURE TOUGHNESS ACCORDING TO ASTM 399.
Table 410 contains data on sustained-load crack growth rates

(da/dt) in hydrogen for Inconel 718 in both the STAI and STA2 heat
treatment conditions, da/dt in Inconel 718 with the STA2 heat treat-
ment was much faster than in the Inconel 718 with STAI heat treatment.
The effect of hydrogen at room temperature on cyclic-load crack

growth rates (da/dN) in Inconel 718 in the STA2 heat treatment condi-
tion was determined for various hydrogen pressures and for two cycling
frequencies. I0 The results are summarized in Fig. 6. da/dN increased
with increasing hydrogen pressure and with decreasing cyclic fre-
quency. The hydrogen environment caused a significant increase of dal
dN even at a pressure of 0.069 MN/m 2 (I0 psi).
Under the SSME program, da/dN tests are conducted in support of

fracture life verification analyses. It is evident from Fig. 6 that
cyclic frequency has a significant effect on da/dN. Thus, da/dN tests
626
Table 4. Sustained-Load Crack Growth Rate in Inconel 718
Exposed to 34.5 MN/m 2 (5000 psi) Hydrogen
at Room Temperature
STRESS INTENSITY CRACK GROWTH RATE
HEAT TREATMENT MN/m 3/2 ksi in. m/sec in./hr
STA2 27 25 4.66 x 10 -6 0.65
STA2 36 32 3.17 x 10 -5 4.5
STA1 44 40 1.76 x 10 -8 0.0025
40
I ooo
I
20 10 KSI H 2 1.0
70o!
S00 _ KSI H 2 1.0 HZ
10 - _00
PSI H 2 0.1 HZ
.100
7
5 200
4
- _.100
_ 2 _t/'_
70
o 50
-_ 40
=: 30
_ 0.7
0.5 - 2o
0.4
O.3
I0
0.2
7
S
O.
5 KSI HELIUM 1.0 HZ
0.0
2 I I I I
20 _0 60 80 100 120 KSI /In.
i
,Jo "
STRESS I_ENSITY _E (_K) m
Fig. 6. Cyclic-Load Crack Growth Rate (da/dN) as a Function

of Stress Intensity Range for Inconel 718 in the STAI
Heat Treatment Condition Exposed to H 2 and He at
Various Pressures at Ambient Temperatures (R = 0.I)
are being performed utilizing a cycle nearly 9 minutes long that simu-
lates the SSME operating cycle. The load-time profile is shown in
Fig. 7. The long cycle time required to simulate the SSME engine cycle
results in very long test times.
627
TIME PER CYCLE - 8.73 MINUTES
MAX LOAD
.01 MAX LOAO
I I L
1.75 2'56 1 236 1.2 30
TIME, SECONDS
Fig. 7. Simulated SSME Load--Time Cycle
The effect of hydrogen environments on da/dN in Inconel 718 using

the simulated SSME cycle has been determined for forged, cast, and
welded material, da/dN was determined for cracks in the weld metal
and in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) for both as-weld and heat-treated
welds. Some of these results are presented in Fig. 8. 11 The weld and
HAZ results are for heat-treated welds. In all cases, the STA1 heat
treatment has been used. The large effect of hydrogen on da/dN in

Inconel 718 is evident. Somewhat unexpectedly, da/dN in hydrogen was
slower in the weld metal and HAZ than in the forged base metal.
Designing for Service in High Pressure HydroKen
The preceding summary of the characteristics of HEE and of some of

the property effects suggests a number of approaches than can be em-
ployed in the design of high pressure hydrogen systems. A simplified
logic diagram for designing for high pressure hydrogen service is pre-
sented in Fig. 9. In the following, examples from the SSME relating
to each of the blocks in Fig. 9. will be presented.
First, of course, the service conditions should be carefully re--

viewed (considering all transient conditions) to determine if HEE is a
potential problem. If the temperature of the metal part in operation
is well below room temperature, there may be no embrittlement caused
by the hydrogen environment. An example, is a fuel bleed assembly
bellows that is made of Inconel 718 STAI. Before the Inconel 718 in
the bellows is stressed in operation, the temperature has been reduced
to below -129 C (-200 F) at which temperature, as shown in Table 3,
there is negligible effect of high pressure hydrogen. Also, the hydro-
gen pressure in the bellows is only 2.07 MN/m 2 (300 psi).
If it is established that the conditions of hydrogen exposure are

conducive to HEE, then, obviously, the first approach is to select a
metal not susceptible to HEE. The turbine of the low pressure fuel
628
10,000 FORGED, H 2,
H2, RT
100,000
IOO0
Z
.c)
10,000
_ __..100
AIR, RT
<
ee
L)
10
1.0
I I I I I I
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 KSI
I I I I I I I I
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 MN/m 3/2
STRESS INTENSITY RANGE
Fig. 8. Effect of 34.5 MNIm 2 (5000 psi) Hydrogen

at Room Temperature on daldN in Inconel 718
Using Simulated SSME Cycle
turbopump in the SSME is driven by hydrogen at a pressure of 29.4 MN/

m 2 (4267 psi) pressure and a temperature of 42 C (107 F), see FiE. I.
The turbine disk with integral blades is made of A-286, which is not
susceptible to HEE at temperatures near room temperature.
It can be seen from Table I that the range of properties available

from the alloys not susceptible to HEE are quite limited. Therefore,
in many instances to meet other requirements, metals susceptible to
some degree to HEE will have to be used under conditions conducive to
HEE. In such case, the selected metals should be used in the condition
least embrittled by the hydrogen environment. Two examples from the
SSME have already been noted, that is, EDNi for which annealing signi-
ficantly reduces susceptibility to HEE and Inconel 718 for which the
degree of HEE is much less with the STAI heat treatment than the STA2
heat treatment.
In some instances, when design permits, a susceptible metal may be

designed into a hydrogen system by utilizing a "brittle material"
629
I SERVICE
ANALYZE CONDITION
COMPONENT I
|
I !
NO
EMBRITTLEMENT EMBRITTLEMENT
PROBLEM I POTENTIAL
PROBLEM
! I
I NON-SUSCEPT
ALLOY
I BLE
i i SUSCEPTIBLE
ALLOY
REQUIRED
i
USE
LEAST SUSCEPTIBLE
CONDITION
i I
DESIGN FOR
DESIGN TO
"BRITTLE MATERIAL" PREVENT
PROPERTIES
HEE
STRAIN TO CRACK IN GH2
INITIATION
Fig. 9. Designing for Service in High Pressure Hydrogen
design approach. The following characteristics are essential for such

an approach. The structure must not contain sharp notches and the
finish and accessibility to inspection of the surface in contact with
hydrogen must be such that the absence of surface cracks can be en-
sured. The stresses and strains must be predictable with a high degree
of confidence based on accurately known loads and configuration sim-
plicity. Most importantly, the peak or localized strains must be less
than the "available" strain for the material in hydrogen, that is, the
strain at which cracks initiate in hydrogen under the service condi-
tions. This approach has been used in the SSME hot-gas manifold, which
is made of Inconel 718 STAI. The Inconel 718 is exposed to approxi-
mately 20.7 MN/m 2 (3000 psi) hydrogen at room temperature. The sec-
tion thickness of the Inconel 718 was increased so that the strains
are limited to 0.5 percent (essentially elastic). Considerable testing
has shown the strain-to-crack initiation in Inconel 718 STAI to be in
excess of 3 percent.
When metals that are susceptible to HEE are to be used in hydrogen

environments, the design may be based on the appropriate properties of
the metal determined in the hydrogen environment under conditions that
adequately simulate service conditions.
The main injector interpropellant plate of the SSME is exposed to

approximately 22 MN/m 2 (3200 psi) hydrogen and the surface temperature
630
OF POOR QUALITy
reaches approximately 538 C (I000 F) and the life-limiting property is

low-cycle fatigue. Inconel 718 STAI is used for this part based on
its low-cycle fatigue properties determined in high pressure hydrogen.
Situations may arise in designing hydrogen systems in which a

metal has such an attractive combination of properties for a certain
application as to dictate its use, but it is susceptible to HEE and
the degree of embrittlement under the service conditions is unaccepta-
ble. The most effective approach may then be to use that metal and
prevent its embrittlement.
Extensive investigations have been conducted at Rocketdyne on the

use of coatings to prevent HEE. Since HEE occurs when a metal is plas-
tically deformed in hydrogen, any coating for the prevention of HEE
must be effective during plastic deformation of the metal to be pro-
tected. Copper and gold coatings were found to be effective in pre-
venting embrittlement of susceptible metals by high pressure hydrogen
as shown in Fig. I0 for as-deposited EDNi. The uncoated EDNi specimen
tensile tested in hydrogen has a very brittle appearing fracture while
the specimens coated with copper or gold have the same very ductile
appearance as the uncoated specimen tested in helium. Because EDNi is
susceptible to HEE, in the SSME, the EDNi (annealed) closeout of the
combustion chamber coolant passages is protected by a layer of elec-
trodeposited copper (EDCu). To confirm the effectiveness of EDCu to
protect EDNi, a series of burst, sustained, and cyclic pressure tests
were performed on slotted specimens designed to simulate the combus-
tion chamber coolant passages. 12
® ® ® ®
1. AS DEPOSITED, TESTED IN 8.3 MN/m 2 (1200 PSI) HYDROGEN AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
2. AS DEPOSITED, TESTED IN 8.3 MN/m 2 (1200 PSI) HELIU,[M AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
3. COPPER PLATED, AS DEPOSITED, TESTED IN 8.3 MN/m'_ (1200 PSI} HYDROGEN AT
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
4. GOLD PLATED, AS DEPOSITED, TESTED IN 8.3 MN/m 2 (1200 PSI) HYDROGEN AT
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
Fig. I0. Macrographs of EDNi Specimens After

Tensile Testing
631
In certain locations in the SSME, Inconel 718 is protected from
the hydrogen environment by EDCu. Tensile tests on unnotched specimens
showed that the copper-coated Inconel 718 specimens had the same duc-
tility in hydrogen as in helium provided that the copper was at least
38 m (0.0015 inch) thick for specimens given the STAI heat treatment
after copper plating or at least 76 m (0.003 inch) thick for speci-
mens heat treated before plating.
However, the protection afforded Inconel 718 in low-cycle fatigue

tests was found to depend on the strain range as shown in Fig. II.
The copper coating improves low-cycle fatigue life only for strain
ranges above I percent. This is because the copper basically has
poorer low-cycle fatigue properties than Inconel 718 at the lower
strain ranges. That is, the copper fails first because of low-cycle
fatigue, thus exposing the Inconel 718 to hydrogen. Fortunately, cop-
per does provide protection at the strain ranges above I percent,
which are the strain ranges for which protection is required in the
SSME. The cycle life requirement of the SSME is 60 cycles, and to
provide a factor of safety, it is designed to a cyclic life of 240
cycles. But again, these results show the importance of conducting
tests in hydrogen, which simulate service conditions
3.0
2.0
k-
S
cJ 1.0
" AIR .. _
0.8
7 0.6
<
n,-
Z
_ o.4 -- ---V ED Cu AIR
n..
---e Cu/INCONEL 718 34.5 MN/m 2 (5,000 PSI) H2
_ o.3
[] Cu/INCONEL 718 34.5 MN/m 2 (5,000 PSI) He
A BARE INCONEL 718 34.5 MN/m 2 (5,000 PSI) H2

0.2
_ BARE INCONEL 718 34.5 MN/m 2 (5.000 PSI) He
0.1 I I
100 1000 10,000
CYCLES TO FAILURE
Fig. II. Effect of Hydrogen Environment on the Low-Cycle

Fatigue at Room Temperature of Uncoated and Copper
Plated Inconel 718 (R = -I, Hz = 0.5)
Areas in the SSME where EDCu is used to protect Inconel 718 STAI
from hydrogen include the main combustion chamber outlet, which is
exposed to approximately 38.6 MN/m 2 (5600 psi) hydrogen at room tem-
perature and the main turbine housings of both the HPFTP and HPOTP,
632
which are exposed to approximately 34.5 MN/m 2 (5000 psi) hydrogen at
temperatures from room temperature to 260 C (500 F).
Summary
To summarize, in designing components of high pressure hydrogen

systems, including those on rocket engines, the conditions of hydrogen
exposure are analyzed to determine if HEE is a potential problem. If
it is, then, if possible, metals not susceptible to HEE are used. If
susceptible metals must be used, good design and production processes
are especially important. Notches and stress concentrations are re-
duced and, if possible, eliminated and surface finishes are con-
trolled. The least susceptible condition of the metal is used. Where
possible, parts are designed so that susceptible metals are not plas-
tically deformed in hydrogen. Properties used in design are based on
tests (e.g., tensile, fatigue, and fracture mechanics) performed in
hydrogen under conditions simulating service conditions. As required,
coatings are used to protect susceptible metals from the hydrogen
environment.
Acknowledgements
The following personnel (listed alphabetically) made major contri-

butions to the HEE programs conducted at Rocketdyne: D. A. Bowman, G.
E. Dyer, R. P. Jewett, A. F. Konigsfeld, M. C. Metcalf, A. R. Murphy,
R. M. Parker, D. A. Pearson, R. F. Rothring, and R. J. Walter.
The work performed at Rocketdyne reported herein was sponsored by

NASA/MSFC under Contract NAS8-27980 (SSME Program) and other contracts.
References
I. Jewett, R. P., R. J. Walter, W. T. Chandler, and R. P. Frohmberg,

Hydrogen-Environment Embrittlement of Metals, A NASA Technology
Survey, NASA CR-2163, March 1973.
2. Walter, R. J. and W. T. Chandler, Influence of Gaseous Hydrogen on

Metals - Final Report, Rockwell International/Rocketdyne Division,
Canoga Park, CA, NASA CR-124410, October 1973.
3. Harris, J. A., Jr. and M. C. Van Wanderham, Properties of Mate-

rials in High-Pressure Hydrogen at Cryogenic, Room, and Elevated
Temperatures, Final Report, NASA Contract NAS8-26191, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft Florida Research and Development Center, West
Palm Beach, Florida, Report No. FR-5768, 31 July 1973.
4. Hofmann, W. and W. Rauls, "Ductility of Steel Under the Influence

of External High-Pressure Hydrogen," Welding Journal, Vol. 44, pp.
225s-230s, 1965.
633
5. Troiano, A. R., "The Role of Hydrogen and Other Interstitials in
the Mechanical Behavior of Metals," Trans. ASH, Vol. 52, pp. 54-
80, 1960.
6. Louthan, M. R., Jr., G. R. Caskey, Jr., J. A. Donovan, and D. E.

Rawl, Jr., "Hydrogen Embrittlement of Metals," Mater. Sci. EnK.,
Vol. I0, pp. 357-368, 1972.
7. Nair, S. V., R. R. Jensen, and J. K. Tien, "Kinetic Enrichment of

Hydrogen at Interfaces and Voids by Dislocation Sweep-in of Hydro-
gen," Met. Trans. A, Vol. 14A, pp. 385-393, 1983.
8. Louthan, M. R., Jr., R. P. McNitt, and R. D. Sisson, "Importance

of Stress State on Hydrogen Embrittlement," Advanced Techniques
for Characterizing HydroKen in Metals, edited by N. F. Fiore and
B. J. Berkowitz, The Metallurgical Society of AIME, pp. 25-41,
1982.
9. Walter, F. J. and W. T. Chandler, "Influence of Gaseous Hydrogen

on Inconel 718," Hydrogen in Metals, edited by I. M. Bernstein and
Anthony W. Thompson, American Society of Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio, pp. 515-525, 1973.
I0. Walter, R. J. and W. T. Chandler, "Influence of Hydrogen Environ-

ments on Crack Growth in Inconel 718," Environmental DeKradation
of EnKineering Materials, edited by M. R. Louthan, Jr., and R. P.
McNitt, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, pp.
513-522, 1977.
II. Chandler, W. T., "Hydrogen Embrittlement and Its Control in

Hydrogen-Fueled Engine Systems," Recent Advances in Structures for
Hypersonic FliKht, NASA Conference Publication 2065, Part I, pp.
195-249, 1978.
12. Chandler, W. T., R. J. Walter, C. E. Moeller, and H. W. Carpenter,

"Effect of High-Pressure Hydrogen on Electrodeposited Nickel,"
PlatinK and Surface FinishinK, Vol. 65, No. 5, pp. 63-70, May 1978.
634
N89- 1265 5!
_LTISPECI_EN TEST FACILITY FOR alGH-PRESSURE

HYDROGEN CREEP STUDIES
by
S. K. Verma
_TRACT
The paper describes llTRl-developed equipment for creep

rupture evaluation of materials in hydrogen at up to 20.7
MPa and 925°C. This facility can test six specimens simul-
taneously within a single vessel with continuous measurement
of specimen extension within the vessel. A double-wall ves-
sel design concept with balanced pressure across the inner
wall has been adopted successfully. All temperature and
strain measurements are transmitted to a data logger for
storage and analysis. Typical rupture life, minimum creep
rate, and time to 1% strain for selective alloys are pre-
sented, as well as analysis using Orowan-Sherby-Dorn
temperature-compensated technique to estimate 3500 h rupture
life and stress to obtain 1% strain in 3500 h.
INTRODUCTION
The adverse effect of hydrogen on mechanical properties of engi-

neering materials has been known for years, but the existing mechanistic
models are not adequate to predict the mechanical properties in hydrogen
at elevated temperature. 1-13 The only available method for assessing
the material behavior in hydrogen is to actually test specific alloys in
a simulated environment. In simulation, the accurate control of various
variables is indeed important; for example, alloy composition and micro-
structure, system hydrogen pressure, load levels and strain rates, and
temperature of application have been found important in various studies.
This paper describes the unique creep facility at liT Research Institute
(IITRI) in which many variables can be controlled for materials develop-
ment for technologies such as the space shuttle main engine (SSME),5
Stirling engine, and hydrogen-powered spacecraft for 12-15 Mach hyper-
sonic speeds.6
S. K. Verma is Director of the Surface Engineering Center at liT

Research Institute, Chicago, Illinois, 60616.
635
The high temperature-high pressure creep facility was designed by
IITRI and was funded by NASA-Lewisto support materials development and
testing for the Stirling engine in automotive application.9-13 The
Stirling engine development undertaken by the U.S. Department of Energy
and NASA-Lewishas advantages of high fuel efficiency, multiple fuel
capability, low pollution, and low noise. I-_ Information on materials
behavior in hydrogen, however, was not available for Stirling engine
applications. IITRI designed and fabricated the unique facility to pro-
vide the necessary information on creep behavior of a number of alloys
over the temperature range 650°-950°C in 15 MPaH .9-13 In this study,
the long-term effects of high-pressure hydrogen o_ the creep properties
of materials were determined for componentssuch as heater heads, cyl-
inders, turbines, and regenerator housings. Tests were done on iron-
base alloys and one cobalt-base alloy in hydrogen and in air for direct
evaluation of the effect of hydrogen. Details of these studies can be
found elsewhere.10 This paper describes equipment details, typical test
results, and methods implemented to adopt these test results for engi-
neering design purposes. Finally, the versatility of the creep facility
for other applications is considered.
HIGH-PRESSURE HYDROGEN TEST I_UIPMENT AND TEST PROC_DUREg-13
Apparatus Features
A schematic diagram of the equipment is shown in Figure I. The

significant features of the equipment are as follows:
• Six specimens can be tested simultaneously within

the single high-pressure vessel.
• Continuous direct measurement of creep extension

is possible within the vessel
• External specimen loading is by deadweight through

a I0:I level arm.
• All specimens are mounted on a central support

column, which is assembled outside the vessel.
o All temperature and elongation data are

continuously recorded for computer analysis.
• The double-wall vessel design is adopted, with

balanced pressure across the hot inner wall.
• A double-studded vessel is used, avoiding all

welding.
• The vessel is trunnion-mounted on a vibration-

dampening frame for easy operation.
636
TesCin_Details and Procedure
Six specimens can be loaded to their initial stress levels step-

wise. The initial stress levels are adjusted for both internal pressure
effect and friction between the Teflon seal and the stainless steel pull
wire. The overall accuracy of the initial stress is better than i% at
stress levels exceeding I00 MPa and between 1 and 2% at stresses less
than I00 MPa. Each specimen temperature along the gage length is moni-
tored continuously with two Chromel-Alumel thermocouples mounted just
outside the gage length. Temperatures can be controlled within ±2°C on
each specimen and between the specimens.
The specimens are uniformly heated by reslstance-wound, 4 kW capac-

ity elements controlled by a _arber-Colman Model 560 temperature con-
troller. The two halves of the furnace elements can be controlled
separately, and the element temperatures are monitored and controlled.
Capacltance-type transducers with a sensltivlty of 0.25 um (10

uln.), connected to specially designed concentric tube extensometers,
are loaded in the upper cooler region (150°C max) of the vessel, and
creep extension signals are recorded at any desired intervals. During
loading, signals are generally recorded at 3-s intervals, which are
later increased to 10-min intervals and are further changed to 4-h or
longer intervals for long-term tests.
Automatic timers record test durations. A mercury cut-off switch

is mounted on the loading arm which indicates rupture time when the arm
drops from the horizontal position upon rupture. Hydrogen pressure in-
side the inner test vessel is balanced against nitrogen pressure outside
it using a differential pressure gage. When the pressure between the
inner and outer chambers exceeds ±70 kPa, automatic demand-operated
solenoid valves allow the entry of the desired gas (either hydrogen to
inside or nitrogen to outside) to keep the pressure balanced across the
hot wall of the inner vessel.
Before starting th4_test, the vessel interior is flushed with

nitrogen (obtained from liquid nitrogen), which is pressurized to 3.5
MPa and cycled to ambient pressure three times
(<I ppm oxygen
pressure and cycled twice to ambient pressure. Finally, the test hydro-
gen is introduced at a pressure lower than the final test pressure of 15
MPa. The vessel is heated, and in about 4 h the desired temperature
(900°C) level can be obtained and stabilized; the hydrogen pressure can
be adjusted to the desired level, e.g., 15 MPa. To ensure environment
purity, periodic gas analysis must be conducted in all cases. The oxy-
gen level in this testing was I ppm or less, and traces of ammonia and
methane were noted with levels reaching a few hundred ppm in a 1000-h
test.
Before each test, specimen dimensions are measured to ±25.4 _m and

the cross-sectional areas are calculated to three significant digits.
637
Extensometers are attached to the specimen shoulders in the test assem-
bly. The fractured specimens are fitted, and the extensometer position
marks are remeasured to obtain the total extension. To calculate elon-
gation (as percent), the divisor is taken as the adjusted length of the
reduced section, as defined in ASTM E-139.
Incremental loading has been used, and extension on loading is

noted during extension. Extensometer readings on full loading are used
as the zero base for all subsequent extension measurements as a function
of time taken from the conclusion of full load application.
In several tests in previous studies, when one or more specimens

did not rupture before the tests were discontinued, other valuable
information on minimum creep rate and time to I% creep strain was docu-
mented and used in the analysis even if no endpoint rupture life data
were obtained from such tests.
The internal transducers have generally given excellent results.

However, when one or two transducers malfunction, externally mounted
dial gages (or LVDTs) reading to the nearest 25 _m (0.001 in.) attached
to the horizontal loading arms provide valuable creep data.
ALLOYS AND HEAT TREATI_NT OF ALLOYSI 0 -13
Composition and heat treatments of the iron-base alloys and the

cobalt-base alloy are given in Tables ! and 2. Of these ten alloys, HS-
31, SA-FII, CRM-6D, and XF-818 are casting alloys, and the other six are
sheet alloys in the thickness range of 0.79 to 0.99 mm (0.031 to 0.039
in.)--comparable to the wall thickness of the tubes used in the Stirling
engine. Five of the sheet alloys--A-286, INCOLOY Alloy 800H (or 800H),
N-155, 19-9DL, and CG-27--were purchased from U.S. commercial suppliers;
12RN72, a Sandvik alloy, is specially rolled into sheet form for United
Stirling AB, Sweden (US/AB), the supplier who provided the material.
The CRM-6D and XF-818 investment cast specimens were obtained from
two sources: Climax Molybdenum Co., Research Laboratory, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA, and United Stirling AB, Sweden. The HS-31 and SA-FII
investment cast specimens were obtained from United Stirling AB, Sweden.
The investment cast NASAUT (developed by United Technologies and desig-
nated 4G-A1) was received from NASA-Lewis.
The alloys were both sheet and cylindrical samples. Their dimen-
sions are shown in Appendix Figure A-I.
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Altogether, 22 tests have been completed with a total test duration

exceeding 12,000 h. A complete set of high-pressure hydrogen creep-
rupture data is given in Appendix Table A-I. The corresponding air
creep data can be found in NASA CR-168071.I0
638
Creep Curves
The creep data were directly plotted from recordings made in the
computer. To illustrate the sensitivity of the internal transducer mea-
surements and techniques of obtaining the minimum creep rate and time to
1% creep elongation data, a typical initial loading extension-time
curve, the creep extension in the early primary stages, and a complete
creep-time curve for an experimental NASA alloy are shown in Figures 2a,
b, and c, respectively. Figure 2a shows that in about 150 s the total
loading was completed in six steps, each loading step consisting of a
rapid rise in strain followed by a leveling off, all occurring within 20
to 30 s.
Figure 2b shows the smooth, almost parabolic primary creep stage

under full load. The very high initial creep rate in the first 30 s
decreased by a factor of about 20 in the first half-hour. On similar
curves, a horizontal line is drawn at the appropriate creep extension
level (in this case at the i% level), and its intersection with the
creep curve determines the time taken to obtain the desired creep ex-
tension. From plots similar to Figure 2c, the slope in the secondary
steady-state stage determines the minimum creep rate and the rupture
life is indicated from both the elapsed time clock and the creep curve
termination.
Data Analysis
The data given in Appendix Table A-I can be analyzed in many dif-
ferent ways combining stress and temperature. Temperature-compensated
analysis, called the Orowan-Sherby-Dorn (O-S-D) method, has been often
used in the past.15_0 The O-S-D relationship is given by:
in Y = in k + n In _ + Q/RT (1)
where Y = tr, t0.Ol , or _m
Q = the apparent activation energy, kJ/mol
= the initial stress, MPa
T = the test temperature, K
R = the universal gas constant, 8.313 kJ/mol
n = the stress exponent
K = a constant.
A linear regression analysis of Equation i determines the apparent

activation energy (Q) and the slope of the fitted line (n), which is the
stress exponent based on the power-law relationship. Equation 1 can be
rearranged in the following manner:
(in Y - Q/RT) = In k + n in a (2)
639
The rupture life, minimumcreep rate, and time to I% creep strain
data given in Appendix Table A-I, were analyzed using Equation 2. The
results of these analyses are given in Tables 3, 4, and 5.
Finally, based on this analysis, 3500-h rupture life stresses in 15

MPahydrogen have been estimated and comparedwith the design criteria
stresses for the automotive Stirling engine in Table 6.
Rupture Life, Hinimum Creep Rate, and Time for IZ Creep Strain.
The temperatL_re-compensated rupture life vs stress for the alloys is
shown in Table 3. The NASAUT alloy has the maximum stress component and
apparent activation energy which makes it more susceptible to variations
in stress as well as temperature than the others. The CRM-6D (aged)
alloy has similar values as that of NASAUT alloy. As expected, the heat
treatment of the alloys affects the creep properties significantly as
shown in Table 3.
The minimum creep rate or time to i% creep strain analysis shown in

Tables 4 and 5 show a similar tendency for NASAUT alloy, i.e., higher
sensitivity to the temperature and stress compared to other alloys.
Predicted Stresses for Rupture and 1% Creep in 3500 Hours. Based

on the temperature-compensated analytical data given in Tables 4, 5, and
6, mean stresses for 3500 h rupture life and I% creep in 3500 h for var-
ious alloys can be estimated and are summarized in Table 6. Although
the NASAUT alloy had shown maximum sensitivity to the test temperature
and stress, the 3500-h rupture life did not show improvement over other
alloys. Considering the design criterion of 119 MPa at 775°C and the
lower (90%) confidence limits for the alloys, NASAUT, XF-818 as-cast,
and CRM-6D braze-cycled fail to meet the 119 MPa criterion at 775°C.
Analysis of Elongation and Reduction-in-Area Data
Elongation and reduction in area for various alloys are presented

in Appendix Table A-2. In the data shown below HS-31 had the maximum
total elongation before rupture. Casting defects prior to testing may
have affected NASAUT alloy; the precise effect on data is not available.
Temp., Max. Total

Alloy °C Elon$., %
HS-31 a 760 28.1

CRM-6D a 760 21.1
XF-818 a 760 14.7
NASAUT b 4G-A1 775 13.6
XF-818 c 760 10.7
CRM-6D c 760 7.4
SA-FII a 760 6.3
aBraze-cycled.
bHeat-t reated.
cXF-818 (as-cast), CRM-6D (aged).
640
Comparison of Hydrogen Creep Data with Air Creep Datag-13
The effect of hydrogen on creep properties is not straightforward

because both the exponent "n" and activitation energy "Q" are affected
in a complex manner, as shown in Tables 3-6. Similar data on creep in
air reveals that hydrogen effects on the alloys tested at IITRI were
minimum in the condition tested. The ductility is severely affected in
most of the alloys. Some comparisons of data in air and hydrogen are
provided here using alloy CRM-6D only, but analogy can be extended to
other alloys.
For alloy CRM-6D, the rupture life stress exponent (n) became sig-
nificantly negative in hydrogen environment compared to that observed in
air as shown in Appendix Table A-3. Also, a large increase in activa-
tion energy (Q) has taken place in the H environment. These two trends
oppose each other. A more negative exponent implies a greater sensitiv-
ity to small stress fluctuations. For example, with all other variables
in Equation 1 remaining constant, an increase in stress by 10% will
affect rupture life in CRM-6D by the following factors:
Air: (1.10) -9"12 = 0.42
15 MPa H : (1.10) -13"3 -- 0.28

2
In other words, the estimated rupture life in hydrogen will become two-
thirds that in air under a moderate stress fluctuation.
On the other hand, the higher Q for hydrogen environment affects

rupture life differently with a change in temperature. For example, if
temperature (T) is decreased by 10%--say, from 1100 K (827°C) to 990 K
(717°C)--in both air and hydrogen environments, then the Q/RT term in
Equation 1 will change to Q/0.9 RT, i.e., an increase of 11% from the
energy term to the rupture life; and a larger (more positive) Q for
rupture life in hydrogen (720 kJ/mol, over a 461 kJ/mol) will mean a
more significant increase in rupture life.
The overall environment effect due to changes in (n) and (Q) on

rupture life will, however, depend on the relative amounts of these
changes, and the predicted 3500-h rupture stress values for both 15 MPa
hydrogen and air, given later, indicate this combined effect.
The available data for minimum creep rate suggest that creep rate
is less sensitive than rupture life to environment effects. The data
for CRM-6D are shown in Figures 3 and 4. The predicted stress for 3500
h rupture life was not significantly affected, but the rupture elonga-
tion data were affected by as much as 60% for some alloys such as 19-9DL
at 815°C. The difference betwen air and hydrogen ductility data for a
few alloys has been shown in Appendix Table A-3. A significant amount
of fractography has been conducted to assist in the understanding of the
microstructural dependence of creep properties. Typical photographs of
fractured wrought and cast alloys along with the micrographs on
641
intergranular fracture are shownin Figures 5 and 6.? The presence of
hydrogen increased the relative brittle fracture area on the overall
fracture front.9-13
SU_,R¥ AND CONCLUSIONS
(1) The creep facility for high temperature-high pres-

sure hydrogen is a versatile one that can be used
to assess the materials behavior of engineering
alloys for diversified applications.
(2) Several alloys have been found to meet the design

criteria of components of Stirling engines; some of
the alloys identified as suitable are CG-27, N-155,
and 19-9DL, while for heater head and regenerator
housing, cast alloy CRM-6D, SA-FII, and HS-31 are
adequate.
(3) Rupture ductility in hydrogen is lower than that in

air in all tube and cast alloys studied at IITRI.
ACKNOWLEDGNENTS
The study was sponsored under Contracts DEN3-217 and DEN3-303 by

NASA-Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, for the United States
Department of Energy, Office of Transportation Programs. Contributions
by J. R. Stephens and R. H. Titran of NASA-Lewis were significant in
this study, and support of the programs is appreciated. The work was
conducted by S. Bhattacharyya, C. Hales, C. J. Moore, and W. Peterman.
642 _.
REFERENCES
i.
J. A. Misencik, "Evaluation of Candidate Stirling Engine Heater
Tube Alloys for i000 Hours at 760°C, '' NASA TM-81578, U.S. Dept. of
Energy, Washington, D.C., November 1980.
.
J. R. Stephens, "Stirling Engine Materials Research," presented at
the Automotive Technology Department Contractor Coordination
Meeting, Dearborn, Mich., November 11-13, 1980.
1
J. R. Stephens, "Hostile Environmental Conditions Facing Candidate
Alloys for the Automotive Stirling Engine," Conference Proceedings
on Environment Degradation of Engineering Materials in Hydrogen,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va., September 21-23,
1981, pp. 123-132.
.
J. R. Stephens, "Characterization of Stirling Engine Materials,"
presented at the Automotive Technology Development Contractor
Coordination Meeting, Dearborn, Mich., October 25-28, 1982.
.
S. K. Verma, "Applications of Advanced Coating Techniques to Rocket
Engine Components," Final Report IITRI-M06130-7 on Contract NAS8-
35661 to NASA-Marshall, 31 March 1985.
.
R. Scarborough, "DARPA Eyes Family of Planes," Defense Week, April
14, 1986.
.
S. Bhattacharyya, E. J. Vesely, Jr., and V. L. Hill, "High
Pressure/High Temperature Hydrogen Permeability in Candidate
Stirling Engine Alloys," J. Mater. Energy Syst. (Trans. ASM), 3(4)
12 (1982).
.
S. Bhattacharyya, E. J. Vesely, Jr., and V. L. Hill, "Determination
of Hydrogen Permeability in Uncoated and Coated Superalloys,"
Interim Report, NASA CR-165209, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Office of
Transportation Programs, Washington, D.C., January 1981.
o
S. Bhattacharyya, "Creep-Rupture Behavior of Six Candidate Stirling
Engine Superalloys Tested in Air," J. Eng. Mater. Technol. (Trans.
ASME), [06, 50 (1984).
10. S. Bhattacharyya, "Creep-Rupture Behavior of Six Candidate Stifling

Engine Iron-Base Superalloys in High Pressure Hydrogen, Vol. I:
Air Creep-Rupture Behavior," NASA CR-168071, NASA-Lewis Research
Center, Cleveland, Ohio, December 1982.
II. S. Bhattacharyya, "Creep-Rupture and Fractographic Analysis of Can-

didate Stirling Engine Superalloys Tested in Air," J. Mater. Energy
S_st. (Trans. ASM), 5(4), 188 (1984).
643
12. S. Bhattacharyya, W. Peterman, and C. Hales, "Creep-Rupture
Behavior of Candidate Stirling Engine Iron Superalloys in High-
Pressure Hydrogen, Vol. II: Hydrogen Creep-Rupture Behavior," NASA
CR-174701,NASA-LewlsResearch Center, Cleveland, Ohio, June 1984.
13. S. Bhattacharyya and W. Peterman, "Creep-Rupture Behavior of Iron
Superalloys in High-Pressure Hydrogen," NASACR-175027, NASA-Lewls
Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, December1985.
14. W. R. Witzke and J. R. Stephens, "Creep-Rupture Behavior of Seven
Iron-Base Alloys After Long-Term Aglng at 760°C in Low Pressure
Hydrogen," NASATM-81534, NASA-LewisResearch Center, Cleveland,
Ohio, August 1980.
F. R. Larson and J. Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).
S. S. Manson and A. M. Haferd, "A Linear Time-Temperature Relation

for Extrapolation and Creep and Stress-Rupture Data," NACA Techni-
cal Note 2890, March 1952.
S. S. Manson and W. R. Broan, Proc. ASTM, 53, 693 (1953).
O. D. Sherby, "Factors Affecting the High Temperature Strength of

Polycrystalline Solids," Acta Metall., IO(2), 135-147 (1962).
19. J. E. Dorn, "The Spectrum of Activation Energies for Creep," in

Creep and Recover_/, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,
1957, pp. 255-283.
20. R. M. Goldhoff, "The Evaluation of Elevated Temperature Creep and

Rupture Strength Data: An Historical Perspective," in Character-
ization of Materials for Service at Elevated Temperatures, G. V.
Smith (Ed.), Publ. No. MPC-7, ASME, New York, 1978, pp. 247-265.
644
X
x _ . . __
0
_ o_ _-o o_
-- _ I 0 0 I I I I -- 0 0 0 O_
o dd dg ddd -
0 0 _ 0
0 0 0 _ 0 I"-
• I • Q I--
c; ' ' d o o o• I
-- 0
I I I • I I I I I
I/I
(4
0
p- I I I I o
J _ _ ' • 0 E 0
U 0 _r_
I I • • I o I I • •
0 0 _ 0
_-0 _ _
ur_ o
o 0
I I • I I • • • I
04
• . . _ ' , • • 0
I I 0 I I I _ I I I
L 0 "6- _ • _ _"
0
,o,o® _= -_g
E
i
0
ur_ 0
. L -- L . " _ g
3_ o _,0,,,,,, ,o
0 0
_D _t 0
_ o 0 0
0 0 0
0
•_, CO _r_
0 o _ d _ d
G.
0
o o c_ _ o 0 0 0 _ 0
% o
0
10
I--
i° i
I I I _" I _o -7_- _
? W- T O_
-I" _
e_
_
I L.
X Z
-- _ Z
645
TABLE 2. HFa_T TREATMENT, HARDNESS, AND GRAIN SIZE OF TESTED ALLOYS
Average Average
Hardness, Grain
Alloy Heat Treatment HRA (HV) a Dia., _m
A-286 Solution annealed at I1490C. b'c aged 51.9 (163) 108

at 718°C for 16 h and air cooled.
800H Solultion annealed at I1490C b'c 40.0 (108) 64
N-155 Solution annealed at 1177°C b'c 51.5 (161) 42
19- 9DL Solution annealed at 1204°C-I0 min c 50.5 (156) 33
12RN72 Solultion annealed at I150°C-15 min c 39.7 (107) 56
CG-27 Solution annealed at I150°C in vacuum 69.7 (378) 194

for I0 min, furnace-cooled to room
temperature, aged at 790°C in vacuum
for 16 h, cooled to 650°C, held for
4 h, and furnace cooled.
HS-31 d Simulative brazing cycle heat treat- 61.0 (243)

SA-FI Id ment, 1 h at 1150°C in 10 -6 mm vacuum 62.1 (256)
followed by furnace cooling 61.6 (249)
XF-818 d 52.1 (164)
CRM-6D e Aged at 650°C-I00 h 62.4 (260)
XF-818 e As-cast 50.5 (156)
NASAUT 790°C-20 h, I065°C-15 min, 760°C-16 h,

650°C-16 h (furnace-cooled to rooom
temperature in each cycle)
avicker's hardness number (HV) converted from Rockwell hardness A scale

(HRA).
bSolution annealing time 142 s/mm (i h/in.) thickness minimum.
CRapidly cooled from solution temperature.
dcast by United Stirling AB, Sweden. The molten alloy was fed in the
mold from one end. Simulative braze cycle heat treatment by NASA-LeRC,
Cleveland, Ohio.
ecast by Climax Molybdenum Co., Ann Arbor, Michigan. The molten alloy
was fed in the mold from the side.
646
TABLE 3. RUPTURE LIFE STRESS EXPONENT AND APPARENT ACTIVATION ENERGY
OF VARIOUS CAST ALLOYS TESTED IN 15 MPa HYDROGEN
Apparent
Stress Activation
No. of Exponent Energy (Q),
Alloy Condition Data R2 (n) kJ/mol
NASAUT 4G-A1 Heat treated 8 0.962 -22.4 1201
XF-818 As-cast I0 0.894 -7.93 436

XF-818 Braze-cycled 6 0.993 -8.43 591
CRM-6D Aged 8 0.962 -13.3 720

CRM-6D Braze-cycled 6 0.998 -6.94 273
SA-FII Braze-cycled 6 0.972 -6.85 508
HS-31 Braze-cycled 6 0.769 -10.2 551
TABLE 4. NINIMUN CREEP RATE STRESS EXPONENT AND APPARENT ACTIVATION

ENERGY OF VARIOUS CAST ALLOYS TESTED IN 15 NPa HYDROGEN
Apparent
Stress Activation
NASAUT 4G-A1 Heat-treated 8 0.739 20.0 -923
XF-818 As-cast i0 0.825 7.55 -450

XF-818 Braze-cycled 6 0.991 9.74 -708
CRM-6D Aged 9 0.948 11.8 -551

CRM-6D Braze-cycled 6 0.987 6.76 -239
SA-FI1 Braze-cycled 6 0.949 6.58 -505
HS-31 Braze-cycled 6 0.793 12.6 -600
647
TABLE 5. TIME TO I PERCENT CZEKP STRAIN STRESS EXPONENT AND APPARENT
ACTIVATION ENERGY OF VARIOUS CAST ALLOYS TESTED IN 15 _a HYDROGEN
Apparent
Stress Activation
NASAUT 4G-A1 Heat-treated 8 0.804 -19.2 814
XF-818 As-cast 9 0.833 -8.70 512

XF-818 Braze-cycled 6 0.919 -7.76 603
CRM-6D Aged 9 0.938 -II.I 512

CRM-6D Braze-cycled 6 0.968 -6.90 309
SA-FII Braze-cycled 6 0.942 -7.06 510
HS-31 Braze-cycled 6 0.710 -4.54 256
TABLE 6. A COHPARISON OF PREDICTED STRESSES FOR VARIOUS CAST ALLOYS

TESTED AT 775°C (1427°F) IN 15 MPa RYDROGEN a
Estimated Stress_ MPa (ksl)

90% Conf. Limits
Alloy Condition Mean Low High
3500-h Rupture Life
NASAUT 4G-A1 Heat-treated 140 (20.3) 94.3 186
XF-818 As-cast 126 (18.3) ii0 144

XF-818 Braze-cycled 125 (18.1) 122 128
CRM-6D Aged 164 (23.8) 154 174

CRM-6D Braze-cycled 87.7 (12.7) 84.7 90.9
SA-FII Braze-cycled 160 (23.2) 154 167
HS-31 Braze-cycled 169 (24.5) 156 183
I% Creep Strain in 3500 h
NASAUT 4G-A1 Heat-treated 57.8 (8.38) b 126
XF-818 As-cast 105 (15.2) 88.9 123

XF-818 Braze-cycled 90.0 (13.1) 82.5 98.1
CRM-6D Aged 130 (18.9) 118 143

CRM-6D Braze-cycled 615 (8.92) 53.0 71.3
SA-FII Braze-cycled 126 (18.3) 119 134
HS-31 Braze-cycled 46.2 (6.70) 42.0 50.7
aDesign criterion = 119 MPa at 775°C.
aBecause of large standard deviation, the lower value becomes negative.
648
ORIC.J_WAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
Z
ZZ
_LI ....... ,<-is
2.13 m (B_ in.)

L I,.l'l*
Figure I. High-pressure multispecimen test facility for creep-rupture

evaluation of materials in controlled environments.
649
S S
t._ s/
-. 1.0
3f (a)
S.
,/
2D .0 80 I0 ioo I_ |JO 180 Igo
TJmQ, sQoondg
1.2
_ol.0
E
d:D
m0.8
O
!
f
W
_0.6
6
L
-_0.4 (b)
U')
Z
el_
_a. 2
L
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(c)
m
d_ /
.../
/'
/
I . /-
li_e. hour'
Figure 2. Computer-plotted, continuously recorded creep-time curves for

a NASA experimental alloy at 775°C in 15 MPa H 2. (a) Typical 6-step
deadweight loading extension-time response; (b) details of extension
during the early primary creep stage; (c) the complete creep curve.
650
-38 I
-42
X
-46
Air
p- -50
r_
CY
I -54 m
4_
-58
+
r- "c
-62 13 650
0 7o5 + _ H 2
-66 '_ 760
+ 815
-?0 × 870
J ,_ 925
-74 I 1 I I { I
g t ,_
o o o 0
Stress, MPa
Figure 3. Effect of environment on temperature-compensated rupture life

for CRM-6D (aged).
55
01 °
51
b-
C_
47
!
"C
¢-
43
650
0 705
" 760
39
X 870
+ 815 _y+
925
35 I I I I I
g g ,_ o g g ;
0 O (:D O
Stress, MPa
Figure 4. Effect of environment on temperature-compensated minimum

creep rate for CILH-6D (aged).
651
0
rj
QJ J 4..J _'h 0
_J
oo
I _ -- u'3 o
M _ 0 _
oo o
o _4 .4
oo •
c_ _D
r_3 c_ C'4 _J
._
c_ Z o
_ ¢¢3 m
I • _:_ _.
I:I o
I _ 123
[.4
4.1 N
m _ o
_J ff'l
4.1
. _ o g d
u"_o
m
0 _ _.0 ,.-,
652
OF POOR QU_,L_._-_E
OF POOR (_.AL=I"
_"_,_
')ll
SEM No. 8375A
(a)
SEH No. 8377B SEM No. 8375B
(b) (c)
Figure 6. SEM microfractographs of A-286 tested in 15 MPa H 2 at 7500C •

(a) Intergranular fracture; (b) ductile dimple fracture near the sur-
face; (c) intergranular fracture with second phases on grain surfaces.
653
6.35 +.076 dla
-.000
Blend Smoothly 6,35 12.7

(.250) (.500)
1 (_.002)
±.o51 t I--
T._ t
19.1
"-'(. 750) R 25._ I
(I.ooo)
]5.9 3.18 25.4
(._25 (.125) (I.ooo)
--.Ira
44.5 GL
( i.750) ( I.250)
: 31. _---"--_
(a.75n)
IL-
121
1.52 x 7/4 rag (a) 6.18
(.06 x 45" 1,3 UNC (._l}
Chamfer Both Ends
-.ooo
+.05l (-.ooo
+.002 ) J
14.3
(.562)
] dimensions
18.2 n millimeters
with inch value
(.7_8) L 25.4
(l.ooo)
given in
3arentheses.
GL
(1.375) (I .250)
(.078 dia, .06)Deep

, 0.76 x _/4 rad (.03 x 45")Chamfer
2 Holes, _ rad
(I80°) Apart
(b)
Figure A-I. Creep-rupture specimen design.

12 (a) Wrought (sheet),
(b) cast.
654
TABLE A-I. HIGU-PRESSURE (15 MPa) HYDROGEN CR£EP-RUPTURE
DATA ON HOST OF THE ALLOYS TESTED AT IITRII2,13
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (b) (7) (8) (9) (i0) (11)
Test Temp., Stress, tr' Min. Cree_ t0.01' tter' El., R.A.,
No. Env. Alloy a °C MPa h Rate, s -_ h h % %
H03 HYD CPJ4 705 395 9.0 7.118-07 1.0 5.0 5.6 19.6
0,9 8.0 6.0 12.2
H04 8¥D CRM 705 385 15.7 4.868-07
4.0 7 .8 17.6
ll05 HYD CRH 705 369 25.8 3.03E-07
H19 HYD CRM 760 220 306 3.188-08 17 ,2 233 7.0 22.6
65.0 350 3.1+ 2.1+
li06 HYD CRM 760 195 470* 1.04E-08
99.0 579 7.4 37.2
H08 flYD CRM 760 198 749 7.168-09
16.5 70.0 8.1 56.3
H07 HYD CRM 815 162 111 5.218-08
61,9 150 8,5 45.0
tl20 8¥D CRM 815 160 238 1.948-08
H]O HYD CRM 815 151 842 4.40E-09 131 500 7.0 21.5
7.5 1.6*
H09 HYD CRM 870 116 383+ 5.90E-09
0.4 1.0 20.1 35.0

HI3 HYD CRN 760 252 3.7 5.21E-06
27.0 150 14.8 43.3
814 HYD CRH 760 130 357 6.54E-08
75.0 300 21.1 55.6
H18 HYD CRM 760 I17 742 3.35E-08
12.5 140 27.3 50.4
H15 HYD CRM 815 105 273 9,568-08
43.5 140 20.8 39.3
H16 HYD CPJ4 815 100 504 3,778-08
125 330 24.7 39.2
H17 HYD CRM 815 87 1210 1.34E-08
7.468-07 1.2 2.2 5.0 11.9

H05 HYD XF8 705 396 6.4
6.0 6.2
H03 HYD XF8 705 395 15.0
5.448-08 27.5 47.0 10.4 36.6
H06 HYD XF8 760 216 182
7.868-08 23.5 80.0 8,5 24.7
H19 HYD XF8 760 210 167
2.98E-08 44,4 150 10.7 23.9
H19 HYD XF8 760 195 424
5.998-09 188 750 6.6+ 11.4+
H08 HYD XF8 760 166 1492+
].178-07 7.8 41.0 10,3 30.6
H01 HYD XF8 815 176 56.7
4.008-08 41.8 75.0 14.2 57.3
HOT HYD XF8 815 133 275
5.51E-08 14.0 80.0 10.1 47.3
H12 HYD XF8 815 131 200
3,948-08 200 I1.0 47.8
B20 HYD XF8 815 125 387
8.788-09 200 200 16.2 21.1
HIO 8YD XF8 815 118 1091
5.908-08 38.0 15.4 47.2
H09 HYD XF8 870 93.6 221
6.32E-08 35.0 55.0 11.6 20.7

H]3 HYD XF8 760 192 258
5.72E-08 36,0 100 14.7 21.1
HI4 HYD XF8 760 185 325
1.07E-08 90.6 620 12.9 22.6
H18 HYD XF8 760 158 1303
1.59E-07 10.2 47.0 19.7 40.6
H15 HYD XF8 815 135 141
4.41E-08 25.0 147 19.0 34.7
H16 ]IYD XF8 815 120 460
1.46E-08 105 375 15,6 33,3
H17 HYD XF8 815 106 1082
2,048-07 3.0 125 23.2 42.6

H13 HYD HS3 760 242 193
H14 flYD H83 760 235 245 1.73E-07 2.6 165 28.1 51.0
3.02E-08 5.4 556 20.7 48.0

H18 HYD HS3 760 220 895
1.13E-07 2.6 107 18,3 40.3
H15 HYD HS3 815 180 209
3.71E-08 3.9 292 ]7.9 43.9
H16 HYD HS3 815 165 551
3,878-08 4.0 280 13.5 30.6
H17 HYD HS3 815 157 500
2.338-08 62.0 150 6.1 8.4

H13 BYD SAF 760 257 336
1.118-08 113 210 5.0 6,3
HI4 HYD SAF 760 230 605
7.57E-09 156 324 6.3 7.7
H18 HYD SAF 760 220 1023
H15 HYD SAF 815 180 198 3,63E-08 35.0 76.0 8.6 8.3
2.50E-08 61.0 127 7.0 12.0
H16 HYD SAF 815 160 364
9.126-09 190 300 7.1 6.3
H17 HY'D RAF 815 145 886
H04 HYD A28 705 446 0.5 1.508-05 14.0

H03 HYD A28 705 365 15.0+ 7.768-08 2.5 2.0+
H05 HYI) A28 705 359 26.4 1.32E-07 6.9 17.0 7.0
H02 HYD A28 760 254 45.5 1.31E-08 36.2 21.0 4.7
H06 HYD A28 760 160 437 4.6OE-10 270 80.0 9.8
H08 HYD A28 760 131 1202 7.258-10 570 130 8.1
H01 HYD A28 815 138 27.7 1.128-09 17.0 12,5 7.9
H07 HYD A28 815 70.2 571+ 9,178-09 195 50,0 2.7+
H20 HYD A28 815 70.0 533 1.46E-10 163 20.0 8.1
HIO HYD A28 815 55.6 1331, 1,95E-09 25.0 1100 4.8+
809 HYI) A28 870 24.7 383+ 1.178-07 3.5 21.0+
H04 BYD IN8 705 230 3.8 8.008-06 0.1 2.0 30.0
H03 HYD IN8 705 193 14.3 3.408-06 0.2 8.4 32.0
H02 W/'D IN8 760 124 24.8 1.768-06 0,3 17.0 26,3
H19 HYD IN8 760 95.0 96.7 2.04E-07 9.5 57.5 13.8
806 HYD IN8 760 78.0 470÷ 6.04E-08 23.0 190 13,8+
H08 HYD IN8 760 74.9 1391 2.82E-08 54.0 752 29.1
HOl HYD IN8 815 107 2.7 1.22E-07 0.2 1,0 19.2
655 ORIGJNAL PAGE IS

OE POOR QUALITY
TABLE A-I (Continued)
(i) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (i0) (ii)
Test Temp., Stress, tr' Min. Cree_ tO.Ol" tter' El., R.A.,
No. Env. Alloy s °C _a h Rate, s -_ h h % %
62.5 107 3.92E-07 0.5 21.4

H07 HYD IN8 815
60.7 240 1.27E-07 9.7 175 16.4
812 HYD IN8 815
54.8 1331+ 2,31E-08 11.0 1000 16.3+
HIO HYD IN8 815
H09 HYD IN8 870 41.0 383+ 1,32E-07 10.0 22.8*
11.2 1,19E-06 0,3 8.0 17.0

R04 UYD NI5 705 319
17.0 24,0
H05 H%q) N15 705 283 39,0 5.24E-07 0.7
30.4 9.28E-07 0.7 15.0 35.0
H02 _YD NI5 76O 103
460 210 30.0
H06 HYD N15 760 138
550 25.8
H08 HYD NI5 760 118 1193 1.18E-08 41.0
46.2+ 8.81E-07 1.4 29.0 24.0÷
HO1 HYD N15 815 124
30.0 35.3
107 146 2.09E-07 4.7
_12 HYD N15 615
349 8.15E-08 19.0 100 33.9
HOT HYD N15 815 97.0
573 3.15E-08 25.0 175 24.6
H12 HYD N15 815 89.1
1331÷ 5,5QE-09 300 500 6,1 +
HIO HYD N15 815 80.0
8.0
306 1.7 1.68E-06
H04 HVD 199 705
8.0 15,0
H05 RYE' 199 705 237 28.4 2.40E-07 4.7
20.7 4.53E-07 ].6 2.0 28.5
H02 HYD 199 760 163
304 4.07E-08 29.4 125 9.3
H06 HYD 199 760 109
1195 4.71E-09 85.0 579 7.9
H08 HYD 199 760 88.5
93.4 32.1 2.09E-07 7.8 12.5 9.4
H01 HYD 199 815
342 3.13E-08 3].1 200 9.3
HOT HYD 199 815 72.7
508 1.86E-08 50.0 240 9.0
HI2 8YD 199 815 71.3
439 2.64E-08 92.5 229 11.7
H20 HYD 199 815 68.0
57.8 1331+ 1.10E-09 1000 1080 2.9+
HIO HYD 199 815
450+ 7,0 350 3.8 +

H13 HYD 12R 760 97
90 247 1.14E-07 32.5 195 18.4
H14 HYD 12R 760
83.7 15.4+
H19 HYD 12R 760 85 456+ 2.64E-08 71.7
891 1.75E-08 131 200 21.1
H18 HYD 12R 760 75
350+ 5.26E-08 33,5 129 7.8+
HI5 HYD 12R 815 60
57 650 2.03E-08 104 67.6 24.7
H16 HYD 12R 815
50 1323 8.02g-09 225 80,O 20.9
H17 HYD 12R 815
277 3.96E-09 275 85,5 2.6

H19 HYD CG2 760 275
599 135
818 HYD CG2 760 250
450+ 5.0 4,4+
H13 HYD CG2 760 198
189 2.59E-08 62.5 62.0 5,77
H15 HYD CG2 815 190
313 2.23E-08 80.0 104 7,25
H16 HYD CG2 815 165
499 1.36E-08 71.6 475 3.8
_20 HYD CG2 815 145
420 6,46
140 819 8.64E-09 280
HI7 HY,_ CG2
162 126.5 7.14E-08 25.7 567 6.5 22.2

H21 H¥D 40A 775
H21 HYD 4GA 775 159 209,0 3.72E-08 49.7 96 6.0 13.2
155 435.7 1.50E-08 25.0 333 6,7 7.4

B21 HYI) 4GA 775
152 215.5 2.85E-08 55.2 120 4,2 15.4
H21 H¥D 4GA 775
150 689.4 9.30E-09 178 475 9,9 33.1
H21 HYD 4GA 775
893.2 1.03E-08 127 522 13.6 32.4
H21 HYD 4GA 775 150
116 580.9 3.11E-09 343 182 7,5 28.3

H22 HYD 4GA 825
757.1 4.54E-09 450 333 3.6 18.2
H22 HYD 4GA 825 113
113 778.4 1.14E-08 194 511 fi,6 15,7
H22 HYD 4GA 825
H22 HYD 4GA 825 110 312.7 5.97E-09 299 247 1,1 I,I
375.1 5.93E-09 331 270 ]. 3 1.9

H22 HYD 4GA 825 110
105 359.0 8.01E-09 216 184 2.6 3.5
H22 HYD 4GA 825
aElloy code: CRM = CRM-6D castings

XF8 = XF-818 castings
HS3 = HS-31 castings
5AF = SE-FII castings
A28 = A-286
IN8 = INCOLOY Alloy 800H

NI5 = N-155
199 = 19-90L
12R = 12RN72
CC2 = CG-27
NCA = NASAUT 4G-A1
bAged (Climax Molybdenum Co.).
CBraze-cycled (United Stirling AB, Sweden). OF POOR "-' i"' _'_ I

_"_._.t
dEs-cast (Climax Molybdenum Co.).
656
TABLE A-2. STATISTICAL DATA ON TENPERATUI_-CONPENS&TED ANALYSIS
OF CAST ALLOYS CRH-6D AND XF-818 IN AIR AND 15 NPa H
2
No. of Q,
Alloy a Environment Data R2 in k n kJ/mol
Rupture Life (tr)__
CRM-6D Air 26 0.843 0.829 -9.12 461

15 MPa H 8 0.962 -6.35 -13.3 720
2
XF-818 Air 14 0.991 -13.2 -7.52 505

15 MPa H I0 0.894 -3.51 -7.93 435
2
Time to Reach I% Creep Strain (t0.01)_"
CRM-6D Air 29 0.973 5.59 -10.6 468

15 MPa H 9 0.938 3.48 11.1 512
2
XF-818 Air 14 0.988 -20.8 -6.86 522

15 MYa H 9 0.833 -I0.I -8.70 512
2
Minimum Creep Rate (_)
CRM-6D Air 28 0.947 -16.9 11.8 -551

15 MPa H 9 0.948 -14.2 11.8 -574
2
XF-818 Air 14 0.990 6.85 7.47 -545

15 MPa H I0 0.825 -4.51 7.55 -450
2
aAlloys cast by Climax Molybdenum Co., Ann Arbor, Michigan. CRM-6D and
XF-818 were tested in aged and as-cast conditions, respectively.
657
TABLE A-3. ELONGATION DATA12
Temp., Stress Range, Elongation Range,

Environment °C MPa %
Alloy A-286
Air 650 441, 483 8.4, 11.4
Air 705 179-379 3.4-21.0
15 MPa H 705 359, 446 7.0, 14.0
Air 7_0 124-345 8.7-26.3
15 MPa H 760 131-254 4.7-9.8
Air 8J 5 55-138 10.7-44.6
15 MPa H 815 70, 138 12.5, 20.0
Ai r 890 21-55 29.8-87.2
15 MPa H 870 24.7 21.0 a
Air 9_5 17-28 38.7-58.4
INCOLOY Alloy 800H

Air 650 207-276 15.0-32.3
Air 705 110-186 19.6-36.8
15 MPa H 705 193-230 2.0-9.4
Air 7_0 70-152 28.1-53.0
15 MPa H 870 74.9-124 13.8-29.1
Air 815 45-110 18.1-59.6
15 MPa H 815 54.8-62.5 16.3a-21.4
Air 8_0 26-76 15.9-32.2
15 MPa H 870 41.0 22.8 a
Air 9_5 31-48 19.7-24.0
N-155
Air 650 276-414 19.9-26.2

Air 705 159-276 28.3-46.0
15 MPa H 705 283, 319 17.0, 24.0
Air 7_0 97-241 18.0-51.5
15 MPa H 760 118-193 25.8-35.0
Air 815 63-165 12.1-58.3
15 MPa H 815 80-124 6. Ia-35.3
Air 8_0 4-110 26.3-65.0
Air 925 41-69 27.7-43.4
19-9DL
Air 650 276-414 10.1-18.8

Air 705 131-276 12.1-24.2
15 MPa H 705 237, 306 8.0, 15.0
Air 7_0 86-193 12.1-37.4
15 MPa H 760 88.5-163 7.9-28.5
Air 815 59-138 10.1-44.8
15 MPa H 815 68-93.4 9.0-11.7
Air 8_ 0 33-103 20.8-61.6
925 35-69 27.5-47.6
12RN72
15 MPa H 760 75, 90 18.4, 21.1

15 MPa 815 50, 57 20.9, 24.7
2
658
TABLE A-3 (continued)
Temp., Stress Range, Elongation Range,

Environment °C MPa %
CG-27
15 MPa H 760 275 2.6

15 MPa H2 815 140-190 6.5-7.3
2
CRM-6D b
Air 650 379, 393 4.2, 5.6

Air 705 276-345 7.8-8.4
15 Mea H 705 369-395 5.6-7.8
Air 7_0 193-290 7.7-10.7
15 MPa H 760 196, 220 7.0, 7.4
Air 815 131-241 4.6-13.9
15 MPa H 815 151-162 7.0-8.5
Air 830 97-172 2.8-21.7
15 MPa H 870 116 1.6 a
Air 915 90-117 5.5-12.5
CRM-6D c
15 MPa H 760 117-252 14.8-21.1

15 MPa H2 815 87-105 20..8-27.3
2
XF-818 b
Air 650 393, 414 7.5, 8.0

Air 705 283-414 6.7-10.1
15 MPa H 705 395, 396 5.0, 6.0
Air 7_0 207-331 8.2-13.6
15 MPa H 760 195-216 8.5-10.7
Air 815 103-241 14.1-23.8
15 MPa H 815 118-176 10.1-16.2
Air 830 63-172 12.9-20.6
15 MPa H 870 93.6 15.4
Air 915 55-103 18.4-25.2
XF-818 c
15 MPa H 760 158-192 11.6-14.7

15 MPa H2 815 106-135 15.6-19.7
2
HS-31 c
15 MPa H 760 220-242 20.7-28.1

15 MPa H2 815 157-180 13.5-18.3
2
SA-FII c
15 MPa H 760 220-257 5.0-6.3

15 MPa H2 815 145-180 7.0-8.6
2
aTests discontinued without failure.
bClimax Molybdenum Co.; castings, CRM-6D (aged), XF-818

(as-cast).
CUnited Stirling AB, Sweden; castings, braze-cycle treated.
659
PRATT & WHITNEY'S HYDROGEN TEST FACILITIES
R. L. Fowler, Jr.
Pratt & Whitney
Engineering Division South
P. O. Box 2691
West Palm Beach, Florida 33402
Described in this paper are the high pressure hydrogen test facilities at
Pratt & Whitney, Engineering Division South. Included in this system are
test vessels and test stands capable of conducting tensile, creep-rupture,
low-cycle fatigue and crack gro_-th rate tests at pressures up to 34.5 MPa
(5000 psig) and temperatures up to 871°C (1600*F). Currently under develop-
ment are facilities for testing up to 55.2 MPa (8000 psig} and 1093 -C
(2000 °F).
MANUSCRIPT NOT AVAILABLE
660
A HIGH PRESSURE, HIGH TEMPERATURE HYDROGEN ENVIRONMENT
FOR METALS PROPERTIES TESTING SYSTEM
Michael J. Rother
MTS Systems Corporation
The use of materials in an adverse environment has always been a concern of design engineers. The
additional constraints of today's aerodynamic requirements, especially high strength-to-weight ratios for
engineering components, have increased the necessity for detailed information of the environmental
effects on material properties. MTS Systems designed and is in the process of manufacturing a test
system for NASA-MSFC to evaluate the effects of high pressure, high temperature hydrogen gas on the
material properties of metals. The design process for the system is discussed below with a presentation of
the system's final configuration.
Material Properties
The design of any engineering component requires knowledge of the static properties of stiffness and
ultimate strength, and the dynamic properties of fatigue and crack growth resistance. The minimum
complement of material tests required for the target test system and the relevant ASTM specifications are :
- Tensile and Notched Tensile [ ASTM E8 ]
- Low Cycle Fatigue [ ASTM E606 ]
- High Cycle Fatigue [ ASTM E466 ]
- Fatigue Crack Growth [ ASTM E647 ]
- Plane Strain Fracture Toughness [ ASTM E399 ]
Ee_LE0xJr_0Ju_
The test environmental conditions were selected to yield information on the degradation of material
properties as a function of the test gas temperature and pressure. The requested temperature range for
the test specimen is room temperature to +2000 o F ( +1090 o C ). The gaseous environment consists of
either hydrogen, helium, or argon at pressures up to 10,000 psig. (69 MN / m 2 ).
Desian Constraints
The combined material testing and environmental requirements place many constraints on the design of the
test system. Increasing the versatility of any test system will generally complicate the design because of
the often contradictory nature of different test and environmental requirements. For example, placing the
load cell directly in the drive train of the loading subsystem results in conflicting problems regarding heat
transfer and load frame lateral stiffness and alignment. Increasing the length of the pull rod between the
specimen and load cell (which has a limited maximum operating temperature) will decrease the heat flow
down the pull rod by increasing thermal resistance of the element. On the other hand, the increased length
of the pull rod will have negative effect on the lateral stiffness and alignment of the loading system causing
a problem in fatigue tests with compressive loads. Therefore, the system designer has to consider the
combination of the myriad of trade-offs to obtain an optimal solution. Some of the design considerations
which have to be evaluated are :
- Strain Measurement Technique
- Load Measurement Inside The Pressure Vessel
- Frame Stiffness And Alignment
- Dynamic Loading Requirements
- Component Force Capacities
- Thermal Distribution Inside The Pressure Vessel
- High Pressure Gas Effects
- System Control.
661
Additional design constraints, further defining the starting point of the project, are obtained from other
external factors such as past experience with similar systems. The predominant area of these additional
constraints for the target test system is in the pressure vessel design. The vessel approach is to
incorporate a single, cold wailed, monolithic dome design. This vessel design approach is selected for the
following reasons :
- the pressure vessel dome experiences only pressure loads (i.e. no mechanical
system loads).
the number of vessel penetrations and sealing locations is minimized.
the cold walled approach places the fumace assembly inside the vessel, hence
decreasing the strength requirements of the vessel material at maximum specimen
temperature.
The starting point for the design of the pressure vessel assembly with the external load frame is shown in
figure 1.
EXTEMIOM OOME
EXTERNAL LOAO r'ELL
OLD
.o+o.,o.
Figure 1. Pressure Vessel And External Load Frame
662
Alternative Design AD0roaches
The combination of the above constraints led to the proposal of three alternative approaches to design.
These are differentiated primarily by the techniques of strain measurement. The selection of the strain
measurement approach affected the design of the furnace, grips, internal load frame, internal load cell, and
pressure vessel. The three approaches are named:
- The Rod -in-Tube Approach
- The Feed Rod Approach
- The Center Rod Approach.
The basic considerations in the selection of a design of a subsystem for specimen strain measurement are:
- the selection of the strain sensing element along with the
associated environmental operation constraints such as temperature and pressure.
- the travel and frequency requirements of the extensometer assembly.
- the effect of extensometer design approach on other system elements such as grips
and furnaces.
- the accuracy and sensitivity of the extensometer assembly.
- the analysis of the sources of errors.
- the risk involved in application of the extensometer approach to the system.
The following sections discuss each approach along with the attributes which led to their consideration.
Rod-In-Tube ADoroach
The Rod-In-Tube approach was developed many years ago for strain measurement in elevated temperature
tests and is widely used in industry. The main basis of the approach is to locate the sensing devices below
the test specimen in a location which has proven to be cooler. The basics of the Rod-In-Tube approach are
shown in figure 2 for the fatigue and tensile test specimens. The test specimen is mechanically clamped at
two points, effectively defining the gage length for strain measurement. The top clamp is connected via
swivel joints to two small diameter solid rods on opposite sides of the specimen. Similarly, the lower clamp is
connected via two swivel joints to two tubes. The rods are run down through the tubes to two sensing
elements, typically linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT's). The two sensing output signals are
averaged to obtain the specimen gage length changes during the test.
"%'%
%` %`
%\
%\
%`\
%'%
%\
\\
"%'%
%.%
%`%
%`\
%.'_
%'%
%%
"%'%
'%`_,
Figure 2. Rod-In-Tube Approach
663
Theapplication of this approach to the target testing system is complicated by the additional constraints of
the hanging rod-in-tube assemblies interfering with the grip and furnace design. The mechanical clamping
assemblies and strain measurement rods and tubes are located in the hot zone of the furnace and present
potential thermal expansion errors.
Positive attributes of the approach are :

- it's easy to use
- the specimen gage length doesn't affect the approach
- sensing elements in the lower region of the pressure vessel are at lower
temperatures
- it is a proven strain measurement concept.
Deficiencies of the approach are :
- causes additional constraints on furnace and grip designs
- the mechanical clamping on specimen can cause extraneous stresses
- the mechanical clamping is in the furnace hot zone
- a high moving mass of extensometry
- frequency performance is limited.
Feed Rod Aooroach

The Feed Rod Approach is shown in figure 3. The strain measurement technique utilizes resistance type,
foil strain gages bonded to a metallic element to form a Wheatstone bridge. Because of the high strength
and low thermal expansion requirements, the feed rods are made from high purity alumina. The feed rods
transmit specimen deflection to the metallic element causing bending and, hence, straining the bonded
gages. Matching extensometer / feed rod sets are applied to both sides of the specimen, thereby balancing
lateral forces on the specimen.
Figure 3. Feed Rod Approach
Application of the feed rod approach to the system also constrained it'sdesign. Although the furnace
elements can be located physically closer to the specimen, slots for the feed rods must be incorporated
into the design. The sensing elements are located at a position radial from the hot zone, requiring additional
heat transfer studies to establish the temperature at the sensing elements locations. This approach would
call for modifications of the current cross flexure assembly, thereby complicating the design and
decreasing frequency performance relative to standard units.
664
- it minimizes constraints in grip and furnace designs
- the high expansion materials are in cooler regions of the pressure vessel
- it's easy to use
- the specimen interface is only a tip contact
- the low moving mass of extensometry

- it requires low radial temperature distribution.
- it requires design of additional cross flexure assembly.
- the limited feed rod length constrains overall system size.
(_enter Rod AoDroach

The final approach to be considered is called the Center Rod Approach; the approach initially proposed for
the target test system. The principal advantage leading to the consideration of this approach is removal of
all strain measurement components from the system hot zone. A representation of the approach is shown in
figure 4. The specimen is contacted by precision-ground rods of alumina at the base of the specimen, inside
the grips. The rods are connected to reaction beams to transmit specimen deflection to the strain sensing
elements. The reaction beams and struts are integrated into the internal load frame and are made from stiff,
low thermal expansion materials to minimize errors. The strain sensors are located in an area of proven
cooler temperatures. The output of the two sensors are averaged to obtain specimen strain. Fumace and
grip design are practically independent of the strain sensing components, resulting in a much simplier
configuration.
_._+:+:.:.>:+:
h. iii:ii:ii!:!_ii:i!:i:!
r i:_!!ii!i_i!!!iii!ii!:
i
Ii!iiiiiiiiii!ii! ii i!i
_._+:+:._.:+:
+<<.:+:::.::
Figure 4. Center Rod Approach
The center rod approach added many constraints into the design of the internal load frame and strain
sensing elements. Furthermore, the approach is a considerable extension of any current strain sensing
techniques raising the uncertainty of the dynamic performance. The specimen strain is measured from two
locations outside the gage length and requires a calibration curve of measured travel to specimen strain.
665
- all of the strain sensing components are outside the hot zone of the furnace
- it has minimal interface with grip and furnace design
- the specimen interface is outside the hot zone
- different gage lengths do not affect approach
- the sensing elements are located in a region of proven lower temperatures.

- it does not directly measure changes in specimen gage length.
- the high moving mass of extensometry.
- it has unproven frequency performance.
- it is difficult to use.
SYSTEM DESIGN
MTS Systems and NASA-MSFC personnel discussed the alternatives and decided to utilize the feed rod
design approach, provided the radial mode of heat transfer could be controlled. The initial stage of the
system design consisted of performing modeling of the conduction, convection, and radiant modes of heat
transfer in the direction radial from the specimen. The models indicated the radial modes of heat loss could
be minimized and the natural convection loops could be used to cool the sensing elements. Extending the
analysis of the heat transfer to the linear direction provided information on the operating temperature of the
toad cell. After the thermal models were established, design iterations modifying component dimensions
were performed. The resulting system is shown in figure 5. The discussion of the final system design that
follows proceeds from the specimen toward the vessel and finally to the external loading system.
The grip designs are quite simple due to the operating environment. The objective was to permit testing up
to +2000 o F while minimizing the highly stressed mechanical couplings used in conventional grips. In order
to decrease the specimen temperature gradient, the grips are required to experience the same conditions
as the test specimen. Additional constraints were to minimize the grip size, which allowed a smaller
diameter hot zone, and increase insulation in the furnace assemblies. The grips for the tensile and fatigue
specimens consisted of threaded tubesof high strength superaltoys.
The major challenge of the grips turned out to be finding a way to minimize heat flow to the load cell. The
design constraints for the lower grip assembly are:
- The portion of the grip tubes in the furnace hot zone is at +2000 o F.
- The lower portion of the grip tubes mates up to the top of the load cell.
- The maximum operating temperature of the load cell is +350 o F.
- The temperature gradient across the load cell strain gages should be minimized.
- The grip tube length should be minimized to increase lateral stiffness.
The final design approach is shown in figure 6. The lower portion of the tube is hollowed out to permit the
insertion of a "cold-finger" assembly. The cold-finger element is rigidly fixed to the pull rod passing through
the pressure vessel base. The design must take into account that any contact between the cold-finger and
load cell or grip rod will cause erroneous load readings. The "cold-finger "component is made from a metal
with high thermal conductivity and has direct internal water cooling from the pull rod. The approach takes
advantage of the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen and helium gas. The comparison of the
temperature profile with and without thecold-finger assembly is shown in figure 7. The thermal analysis
also showed that testing with argon would be limited to +1600 o F because of the decreased thermal
conductivity (figure 8).
666
1. Pressure Vessel
2. Grip Tubes
3. Internal Load Frame
4. Furnace
5. Extensometers and Load Cells
6. External Load Frame
®
L.
<
Figure 5. System Assembly
667
Figure 6. Cold Finger Assembly
-e-
•0- A-286
A-286 / finger
2000
1800 'O_e,, 6
1600 b_ "e,
1400 '_ 'e-.,_e

1200 _,_,
Temp F 1000 _::>\ "_l,_,e,

800
600 m
%
400
20O
"_0_,
"_
\
"0-- "0-- --0 _
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
Length-in
Figure 7. Temperature Profile Of GripTube With And Without Cold-Finger Assembly
668
1800
2000 imk_
1600 ._
1400 "k
-e- atm-h2
•o- atm-he
TempF 1000
1200 __ _11
800 •u- atm-ar
600
400 e_
"mR
20O
-_*" '_"-O. o---O. _--o
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
Length-in
Figure 8. Gas Environment Effects On The Grip Tube Temperature Profiles
Furnace Desian
The furnace design had to account for heating the specimen and grip assemblies to +2000 o F in hydrogen
and helium, permit the slots for the feed rods extended to include test travel, and have sufficient insulation
to hold radial heat losses to an acceptable level. The thermal analysis information was used to determine
the amount of power required from the furnaces. The selection of the element material and furnace
insulation was further complicated by the hydrogen gas environment. The materials selected were
molybdenum wire for the elements and alumina for the insulation. The target system required two separate
furnaces, one for tensile and fatigue specimens and the other for fracture mechanics specimens. Each
furnace had two separate control zones in order to achieve the specified specimen gradient.
tnl;ernal Load Cell

The internal load cell shown in the system assembly drawing is a new design. The system requirements
leading to its development were :
- The use of highly stressed mechanical components should be avoided in the test
environment.
- The load train has two possible pivot points; the specimen and internal load cell. The
design should have a high over-turning moment and column load cells should be
avoided.
- The vertical height of the load cell should be minimized in order to increase the lateral
stiffness for fatigue tests.
- The maximum temperature of the strain gages is +350. ° F. A technique is required to
keep the load cell below this temperature.
The load cell developed utilizes a one piece construction to avoid the problems of mechanical couplings.
The design measures load in a shear mode resulting in high sensitivity and lateral stiffness. The load cell
design permits a direct path up the center for cooling with the "cold-finger" or alternative techniques. A
patent is pending on this design.
669
ORIGINAL PAGE tS
OF POOR QUALITY
Extensometer Desian
After the decision was made to further investigate the Feed Rod approach to extensometry, the thermal
analysis performed yielded information about the operating temperatures of the various extensometer
components. The temperature at the location of the sensing unit was close enough to the maximum
temperature of the bonded gages (+350 o F) to require a modification in the approach.The design
implemented is shown in figure 9. The modification consists of a dual cross flexure assembly. The upper
cross flexure is a one piece construction made from a superalloy resistant to hydrogen embrittlement. The
lower cross flexure is a patented design similar to those utilized in standard MTS extensometers. The
specimen deflection is transmitted through the upper cross flexure to the strain gages on the lower cross
flexure. Specially designed spring assemblies, mounted to the internal load frame, supply the force
required to hold the extensometer rods against the specimen.
Internal Load Frame Desian

The actual design constraints for the internal load frame are minimal. The complication of the internal load
frame design is to integrate all of the other internal vessel assemblies. In addition to reacting the applied
load, the internal load frame is used for :
- the frame provides mounting positions for extensometer hold down springs.
- the frame provides mounting location for furnaces.
- the frame provides thermal shielding of the extensometer assemblies.
- the frame provides cooling for internal components via close tolerances to the
pressure vessel inside diameter.
- the capability of upper grip rod attachment and alignment.
TOP VtEW
Figure 9. Extensometer Assembly For Tensile And Fatigue Test Specimens
670
Pressure Vessel Design
As discussed in previous sections, the pressure vessel approach was predetermined to consist of a single,
cold walled, monolithic dome design. The interior surface of the pressure vessel has a finish of 32 t_-inch to
minimize surface flaw sites and is chemically etched to facilitate die penetrant testing. The closure method
chosen was a GRAYLOC. The material selected for the vessel was A-286, a specialty stainless steel,
because of its resistance to hydrogen embrittlement and superior strength. The external surface of the
dome section is fitted with a stainless steel jacket for water cooling. The cooling mode is via direct contact
between the water and vessel exterior surface. The base of the vessel had considerably more design
constraints. The dynamic seal assembly had a maximum leak rate of less than 100 psi/hour while testing at
10,000 psi and cycling the actuator at 30 hertz and .010 inch double amplitude displacement. A seal
evaluation rig was constructed during the early stages of the project in order to obtain a design to meet the
specification. All of the instrumentation feed thru's for the load cell, extensometers, furnaces power, and
thermocouples sensors are also passed through the vessel's base. Because of the close tolerances
between the pressure vessel and the internal load frame and to increase the ease of use, a guidance
system for raising and lowering the vessel between tests was designed.
System Status
The majority of the equipment for the testing system has been received at MTS Systems and assembly has
begun. The testing of the pressure and temperature capabilities will begin during the month of June.
Installation of the test system at NASA-MSFC is scheduled for the September 1986.
671
N89- 1265 7L
DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPUTER-CONTROLLED TECHNIQUE TO DETERMINE

CRACK GROWTH RATE PROPERTIES IN CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTS
USING CRACK OPENING DISPLACEMENT
By D. Moore, D. Drinan, and J. Hodo

Marshall Space Flight Center/NASA
ABSTRACT
A computer-controlled testing technique has been developed that
utilizes crack opening displacement to predict crack lengths for com-
pact tension specimens in crack growth rate (da/dN versus AK) deter-
minations. The crack growth rate data generated by the developed
technique was compared statistically to data results of a highly
reliable optical method. No significant difference could be determined
between the data generated by either method. The computer-controlled
method did prove, however, to be a reliable and cost effective method of
determining crack growth rate data and can be incorporated in controlled
environment crack growth rate determinations.
672
INTRODUCTION
Accurate crack length measurements of compact tension test speci-
mens are critical for determination of material crack growth rate
properties. To date, the most widely used method of determining these
crack lengths has been some type of optical measurement. Optical
methods usually prove to be very time consuming, labor intensive
approaches that provide surface crack analyses which must be adjusted
for subsurface crack curvature (tunnelling). It has been shown, how-
ever, that crack opening displacement (COD) methods can be employed as
a reliable alternative to optical measurements [1-4,6].
Saxena and Hu_ak [3] have developed elastic compliance expressions
(see Appendix I) to predict crack lengths of compact tension specimens.
These equations, however, do not account for non-ideal conditions of
plane strain and plane stress. This study has taken the Saxena-Hudak
equations and, in accordance with ASTM E647-83 guidelines, has
developed a modified technique of crack length prediction by using an
effective modulus for each specimen. A computer-controlled testing
sequence was developed to minimize measurement and calculation errors,
improve testing speed and control, and completely eliminate the need
for any optical crack length measurements. The program, written in
MTS BASIC, and a summary of the testing sequence are listed in Appen-
dix III (Fig. i0).
By the use of this modified COD technique and this computer pro-
gram (or a similar program) crack growth rate data (da/dN versus AK)
can be generated in an accurate and cost effective manner, even in
harsh environments that inhibit optical methods (e.g., high temperature
atmospheres, cryogenic liquids, high pressure GH 2, etc.).
TEST PROCEDURE
Specimen Geometry and Material Selection
Fatigue crack growth rate tests were conducted on Titanium 10V-2Fe-
3AI alloy. Table 1 shows the nominal dimensions that were used in accord-
ance with ASTM E647-83 specifications:
673
Table I. Nominal Specimen Geometry
(For specimen drawing see Fig. i)
Material B W
Ti i0V-2Fe-3AI 0.300 2.000
Test Equipment
All specimen tests were conducted on a 5000 pound MTS closed loop,
servo-hydraulic controlled test machine. All optical measurements were
made using a 1-70X microscope on a traversing vernier scale (Fig. 2).
Measurement repeatability was verified to be within -+0.0005 in., well
within ASTM E647-83 specification of -+0.002 W. A +5 ° deviation from
horizontal on crack propagation was monitored by marking -+5° lines on
each specimen with a marking pen (Fig. 3).
Measurements were made on both sides of specimens in order to
compare one-sided versus two-sided measurements. According to ASTM
E647-83-8.6.3, one-sided measurements are considered valid for speci-
mens with B/W < 0.15. After preliminary analyses confirmed no significant
difference between one-sided and two-sided measurements, one-sided
measurements were continued for the remainder of the optical versus
COD comparisons.
Computer-Controlled Testin$ Sequence
Unique to these tests was the development of a computer program
(Appendix III) to monitor and record all raw data (number of cycles,
COD, load) and calculate crack lengths during test cycling (nominal
values - used to monitor trends and approximate crack length intervals)
and during a controlled measurement routine (actual data point values).
A computer operator needed only to input specimen dimensions (B,
W, notch length) and loading conditions to conduct a test. For speci-
mens in this report, maximum running loads of 3000, 1700, and 1300
pounds were used with R = 0.05.
674
i
=
I
_J
_J
I!
L_. =
675
ORIGINAL P,;_;_ _'_"
OE. POOR QUALITY
,--I
¢o
o
r./3
::>
o0
o3
¢1
:>
o
o
o3
O
c,,,,i
r._
676
l,a
OF POOR QUALITY
677
DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
Some typical results comparing the COD method of determining crack
lengths to the optical method are listed in Table 2. The da/dN versus
AK results comparing the two methods in this example are tabulated in
Table 3 and illustrated in Figure 4. The rest of the da/dN versus AK
results that were part of this study are included in Appendix II.
Visually, there appears to be no significant difference between the
da/dN versus AK curves generated by either of the two methods.
To reinforce this observation, a statistical analysis of covariance
was performed on data generated for each specimen to test for a diff-
erence between the two methods. At a level of significance of 0.05,
the statistical analysis did not show any significant difference
between the two methods.
During evaluation of the COD method the COD technique, which
utilizes a computer program, was revised several times. Initially, an
effective modulus was determined after completion of a test. The
specimen would be broken after the test and the final crack length
would be determined. An effective modulus was calculated based on the
final crack length. All preceding crack lengths of the test were
predicted using the effective modulus and the COD relationship (see
Appendix I). After a few tests, it was realized that the original
machined notch of an uncracked specimen could be used to establish the
effective modulus. By determining the effective modulus both ways
several times, it was concluded that using the machined notch to calcu-
late the effective modulus was as accurate as using the last crack
length. Therefore, the technique and computer program were revised to
use only the original machined notch in establishing an effective
modulus. Another revision that was made to the original technique
consisted of the way the crack was measured during the test. Pre-
viously, the crack length was predicted by reading peak voltage outputs
of load and COD for the duration of the test. The test would not be
stopped until the crack had reached sufficient length to end the test.
It was discovered that this technique was not nearly as accurate as
678
Table 2. Typical Results Comparing the COD Method
to the Optical Method
Optical Avg.
Crack Length Crack Length
Optical A-SIDE Optical B-SIDE
Crack Length Crack Length + Tunneling by COD
COD
(mx10-3) (in.) (mxlO -3) (in.#. (mxlO-3) (in.)
Cycles (mx10-3) (in,) (rexI0-3) (in.)
13.70 (0.5394) 14.29 (0.5627) 14.36 (0.5652)

0 0.1575 (0.0062) 13.38 (0.5269)
14.62 (0.5757) 15.18 (0,5977) 15.25 (0.6004)

5000 0.1676 (0.0066) 14.24 (0.5607)
15.58 (0.6135) 16.23 (0.6388) 16.48 (0.6487)

i0000 0.1829 (0.0072) 15.37 (0.6051)
16.94 (0.6668) 17.54 (0.6905) 17.58 (0.6923)

15000 0.1981 (0.0078) 16.64 (0.6552)
18.28 (0.7198) 18.95 (0.7462) 19.22 (0.7565)

20000 0.2235 (0.0088) 18.12 (0,7135)
19.96 (0.7859) 20.57 (0.8097) 20.76 (0.8174)

24500 0.2515 (0.0099) 19.67 (0.7744)
20.68 (0.8143) 21.32 (0.8394) 21.29 (0.8423)

26500 0.2642 (0,0104) " 20.46 (0.8055)
21.48 (0.8458) 22.04 (0.8676) 22.10 (0.8702)

28000 0.2794 (0.0110) 21.09 (0.8304)
21.67 (0.8533) 22.0 (0.8660) 22.59 (0.8892) 22.76 (0.8962)

29300 0.2946 (0.0116)
22.48 (0.8852) 23.05 (0.9076) 23.18 (0.9126)

30400 0.3048 (0.0120) 22.12 (0.8709)
22.75 (0.8958) 23.05 (0.9075) 23.65 (0.9312) 23.77 (0.9359)

31500 0.3200 (0.0126)
23.36 (0.9198) 23.60 (0.9292) 24.23 (0.9540) 24.33 (0.9578)

32500 0.3353 (0.0132)
24.23 (0.9541) 24.88 (0.9795) 24.77 (0.9750)

33400 0.3480 (0.0137) 24.02 (0.9458)
24.88 (0.9797) 25.44 (1.0017) 25.50 (1.0040)

34200 0.3708 (0.0146) 24.50 (0.9647)
25.61 (1.oo81) 26.18 (1.0307) 26.03 (1.0249)

35000 0.3886 (0.0153) 25.26 (0.9943)
25.98 (1.0227) 26.65 (1.0491) 26.60 (1.0473)

35700 0.4089 (0.0161) 25.82 (1.0165)
26.79 (1.0548) 27.33 (1.0758) 27.00 (1.0630)

36400 0.4242 (0.0167) 26.36 (1.0378)
27.44 (1.0802) 27.88 (1.0975) 27.63 (1.0877)

37000 0.4496 (0.0177) 26.82 (1.0558)
28.02 (1.1032) 28.50 (1.1222) 28.21 (1.1105)

37550 0.4750 (0.0187) 27.49 (1.0821)
28.95 (1.1398) 29.35 (1.1554) 29.00 (I.141_)

38050 0.5131 (0.0202) 28.24 (1.1120)
29.46 (1.1599) 29.85 (1.1753) 29.66 (1.1678)

38400 0.5486 (0.0216) 28.74 (1.1316)
30.13 (1.1861) 30.50 (1.2006) 30.35 (1.1950)

38700 0.5893 (0.0232) 29.36 (1.1561)
30.56 (1.2033) 30.94 (1.2181) 30.94 (1.2181)

38900 0.6274 (0.0247) 29.81 (1.1738)
679
AI,,4
o ',0 0 r_ _0
• 0 •
_J
0
o
o
,J=
4J
_ o
I_i _-_'
_,,-4
z_ °'1
0 .I.,I r._
l,J
• a_.!
_u
_ J
• , • .
?
680
K (MPa Q'm)
10 2O 30 40
t , J , I , I
2OO -- 50
X -- COD
>,
IO0 i
! m 'b<
,
I
O O
m .,I ,-.4
D
X 50 )<
40 m io
O >(3 m O
>_
30
C)
u% j.
.,-q < n
2O 5
Z 4 Z
"O
X w 3
-j --j
I0
2
j I I I
I() 2O 30 .1o 50
K (K_ 47n)
Figure 4. COD versus Optical (da/dN versus AK)
Ti 10-2-3, 1300 Ibs at R = 0.05
681
what would be required for predicting crack lengths. The technique
was then revised to incorporate a A load and A COD as suggested by
ASTM STP 738 [4]. Using the predicted crack lengths, estimated by the
peak voltages as before, a test was continued until the predicted crack
was long enough to make an accurate crack measurement. The test would
then be stopped, the load would be ramped to 0.475 times the maximum
running load, and one hundred measurements of load and COD would be
recorded and averaged. The load would then be ramped to 0.95 times
the maximum running load for another average of one hundred measure-
ments of load and COD. The two differences between these averages
(A COD and A load) were used in the compliance equation (Appendix I)
to determine the crack length. The load cycling would then be con-
tinued until the predicted crack was long enough to make another
accurate crack measurement. The entire method of measuring the crack
length took approximately 35 seconds for one measurement. The method
proved to be very effective in accurately determining crack lengths.
It must be recognized here, however, that even just a 35 second delay
in cycling could be critical and produce some invalid results in some
cases where environmental effects are critically time dependent. A
continuously cycling test, using a slower frequency during the measure-
ment routine, is a possible alternative for such tests.
A listing of the finally revised computer program developed
through this study is in Appendix III.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Analysis of these test results, on both a statistical and an
engineering basis, clearly shows that no significant difference exists
between crack growth rate data generated optically or by this crack
opening displacement (COD) method. This computer-controlled technique
drastically reduces time and expertise required to generate accurate
crack growth rate behavior (Da/DN versus AK) data.
Environmental constraints that inhibit accurate optical measure-
ment methods are now limited only by accurate electronic displacement
measurement of the specimen (the clip-on gauge used for these tests,
682
for example, is also capable of providing accurate displacement data in
cryogenic and in high pressure hydrogen environments).
The cost effectiveness and reliability of this method greatly
increases the potential for crack growth rate study and will help
generate data that, until now, has not been available.
683
APPENDIX
I
Compliance Crack Opening Displacement (COD)

Equations Used for Crack Length and
Stress Intensity Factor (AK) Calculations [3,5]
684
Saxenaand Hudak [3] have developed a relationship for a/w as a function
of BEV/P (compliance) :
a/w -- C0 + CI (Ux) + C2 (Ux)2 + C3 (Ux)3 + C4 (Ux)4 + C5 (Ux)5
where
For COD measurements

and C O , C 1 .... , C 5 are regression coefficients.
at front face of our specimens the equation is:
3 4
a/w = 1.0010 - 4.6'695 (Ux) + 18.460 (Ux)2 - 236.82 (Ux) + 1214.9 (Ux)
5
- 2143.6 (Ux)
Multiplying both sides by W gives us our crack length equation:
a = [i.0010 - 4.6695 (Ux) + 18.460 (U x) 2 _ 236.82 (Ux)3
+ 1214.9 (Ux)4 - 2143.6 (Ux)5] W
ASTM E647-83 gives an equation for stress intensity factor (AK):
AK ffiAP__P_(2 + _) 2 3
B/W (I - _)3/2 (0.886 + 4.64 _ - 13.32 _ + 14.72 - 5.6 4)
a
where e =-
W
685
APPENDIXII
Da/DNversus _K Curves ComparingCOD

Method to Optical Method
686
AK (MPa x/m)
10 20 30 40 50
I , I , I , I,I
200
-- 5O
IC] -- Optical
X- COD
100
¢D t--
! I
O
r-4 v-4
50
X X
40 I A
__=--
I0
"g 30 5 _-- o
_n
o
20 #TI_,
- 5 g
_A
Z - 4 Z
5 3 _
, _
I0
-- 2
! ! i !
10 20 30 40 50
_K (KSI x/in)

Ti 10-2-3, 1700 ibs at R = 0.05
K (MPa _Fm)
10 20 30 40 50
I , 1 , I , 1,1
200 [] -- Optical --- 50
X -- COD
>"
100 _ _] -
t_
I - CX !
O O
X 50 U X
_z r-4
O 4o X3 --- 10 O
C9 C9
30 _ _
v 20 _.'/_" < " 5
Z __[]] ,x " 4 Z
X " 3
i0 _O £]
[]
1 l I l
10 20 30 4O 5O
zl K (KSI -/in)
Ti 10-2-3, 1300 ibs at R = 0.05
687
..
AK (MPa ,J-m)
I0 20 30 40 50
I I , I , I,I
200 -- 5O
O- Optical
X- COD
100 C,,
-- t'-
I
0 V_ ;
--
I
0
50 _<
X .i X
N A
•_ 4O - to
0
o 30
. ro
__ 20 " S g
Z - " 4 Z
3 _al
" I I I I
10 .20" 30 40 50
_K (KSt ,j'_)
Ti 10-2-3, 2000 ibs at R = 0.05
_K (MPa.,,/-m)
I0 20 30 40 50
I , I , I
200
[[] -- Optical X .-- 50
X -- COD
N -
100
¢0
! - t_
I
X
× 50 X
,- 40 -- lO
-=- O
..X_O
_ 30 t"_ i
.._ O
_ 20 L3 5 g
Z 4 z
_×
__ 3
10
I I I I
lo 20 "10 4O 50
,xK (I(SI4"_'_l
Ti 10-2-3, 1700 ibs at R = 0.05
688
..
AK (MPa x/m)
10 2O 30 40 50
I , I , I , I , I
200
0- opucal -- 5O
Ix - COD
100
w
I I
*-4
50 -
A
40 .... A
m
=- 10 Q)
30
2O - 5
v
Z " 4
3
I
.=
l I I I
I0 20 30 40 50
_K (KSl,/_)

Ti 10-2-3, 1300 ibs at R = 0.05
689
APPENDIX III
Computer Program for and Summary of COD Test Sequence
690
0 "0 ,-'4 ,_ ,1= '_
.,,,a_ __,=._ _v .,,=_ l=
__ _ _ _ o
o
:_ ZJ --., C) ._.. _
_ o _'_"_ m I,.l
r_
_o .-m _
...=...==,..-.==
0
0
0
691
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
10 FGSTOP\ ADSTOP\ FC,STEP(1,0) \ IF 05=1 THEHCLOSE;9

20 ])IH H1(1,2),H2(1,2),N(h1),X(h1),B(2,1)
DIH B$(500,2),_$(500)
KBINT('S',,LINE 980 ) \ K_B
50 DIH D$(250,4)
60 PEF FNA(U8)=(1.001-4.669_US+18.465US'2-236.82¢US"3÷1214.9¢US'4-2143.61US'5.)_
70 DEEFHB(U3)=(INT(U3,t100÷.5)/100)
80 K=I \ g2=O
90 K7=O
100 GOTO 2830
110 PRINT t9:K;TAB(1S) lOS(K, 1) ;TAB(30) ;D$(K,2) ;TAB(45)iD$(K,3) ;TA3(M)) ;_(K,4)
120 PRINT K; FAB(15)lOS(K,1) ;TAB(30) ;i_(K,2) ; [_(45);D$(K,3) ;TAB(M)) ;D_(K,4) \ RETURN
130 CKTIHE(1,5.00000E-03)
140 ADRH6X(I,X,I)\ ADRHIN(3,N,I)
150 FG_B(1,'RAHP', TIlE 210,1)
160 RETURN
170 CKTIIE(I, 1.30000E-05)
180 ADI_AX(I,H1,NI,1,200,2)\ A_IN( I,N2,N2,1,200,2)
190 ADB_END(I,4, tl_ 920 )
200 FGARB(I,'S',FREg BI_ F, BIN_gfl#_Y
B,2, U6R 09)
210 FGBUFEt_(h2, LIHE 970 )
22O RErueN
230 C8=F5 \ U=ELEVEL(I_I(ii2))
240 IF _ THEN _0
250 K7=I \ _=F7÷F8
260 V::(INT(VZ10000)/1000)
270 V3=4Ot(V/lO)
280 V3=U3/1000
290 U8=II((131510"61P_$tr3)^.5÷1)
300 .'_3=FN_
(US)
310 A3=(INT(A3:IO0+,5)/IO0)
3_ K=D(O,OH'I \ D(1,K)=U3 \ I)(2,K)=C8 \ 9(0,0)=4(
330 RETURN
34O 09=-0
3,50 F4=.475Z(L2/I.)
360 A--O\ fi2--'O\ A3=O\ M=O
370 F6=.95]I(L2/L)
380 ETIltE(S2)
390 ETIHE(S3) \ IF S3-$2(5 THEN390
400 FGIHHEB(1,'R_', TIlE 2,F4)
410 ETIHE(S2)
420 ETIIE(S3) \ IF $3-S'2<5 THEN420
430 ETIHE(S2)
440 ADIHHED(1,S) \ IF ABS(F4-S)>3.O0000E-03 THENFGSTEP(1,F4HF4-S))
450 ETIlE(S3) \ IF S3-82<5 THEN440
460 FOR I:1 TO 100
470 _DIIglED(1,S) \ ADII_L_(2,1_) \ I_:A.FS\ A2=A2Ht
480 NEXT I
490 FGINIE1)(1,'RMP', TIlE 2,F6)
500 ETIHE(S2)
510 ETIHE(83) \ IF $3-S2_ THEN510
520 ADIMED(I,S) \ IF ABS(F6-$)>3.00000E-03 TIEH F6STEP(t,F,_F(F6-S))
530 ETIHE(S2) \ IF $2-$3_ THEIr520
540 FOR 1=1 TI| 100
550 ADIHi_(1,S) \ ADIHIF.D(2,H) \ k3=_÷S \ k4=_4"H
,%0 NEXTI
570 _=k/lO0 \ k2=k2/100 \ k3=63/100 \ M=_4/100
580 P--A3-A\ U=k4"k2
590 P=Ptl. \ P=-ABS(P)
600 P=I_(PtlO÷.5)/IO
610 _=40_) \ U3=INT(V'3=100+.5)/100 \ V'_V3/1000 \ V't,_A_S(V3)
620 U8=1/((BtStO"6/P_EIV3)",_I)
692
630 A3:FNA(US)
640 A3: ( ! NT( A3=10000÷. 5) / 10000)
650 FGIMHED(1,'RAHP', TIME 1,F4)
680 ETIME(S2)
670 ETIME(S3) \ IF $3-$2<2 THEN670
680 Q9=.'I2000
690 RETURN
700 F4=.47_(L2/L) \ F6=.955(L2/L)
710 FGTHHED(1,'RAHP', TIlE 1,F4)
720 A=O\ A2--O\ A3-"O\ A4--'O
730 F.TIHE(S2)
740 ETIHE(S3) \ IF 83-$2<5 TIE# 740
7"00ADIHHED(1,S) \ IF S<F4-I.OOOOOE--03THEN730
760 FOR I=1 TO 100
?70 ADIHNED(I,S) \ ADII_E_(2,H) \ "_S \ _.:_
780 __AT I
790 F6I_EP(1,'RAI_', TIlE 1,F6)
800 E'FIHE(S2)
810 AI}IHMEI)(I,S) \ IF $<F6-3.00000E-03 THEN810
820 ETIIE(,%) \ IF S3-$2<5 THEN810
830 FOR I:1 TO 100
840 ADIIt_EP(1,S) \ ADIHIEI)(2,H) \ A3=_3+S \ A4=Wi÷H
850 NEXT I
B60 k:k/tO0 \ A2---A2/IO0\ A3=A3/lO0 \ A4:A4/lO0
870 P=A3-A \ V=-A4"A2
880 V3:40tV \ V3=U3/IO00
890 P=PtL
900 F6IHIEI)(1, 'RAHP', TIHE 1, .475ZI.3/L)
910 RETURN
920 IF ABS(Hl(I,1)-U3)<=250 TH_ IF _S(H2(1,I)-U4)<=10 THENRETURN
930 Z7-.B(1,0)÷INT((II34(l(1,1))/loS) \ IF Z7>327._ TItFNPRINT 'I[IH OIJTOF IIPPERLINIT t==Z' \ 8(1,0)::iJl \ RETURN
940 B(1,0)=Z7
950 B(2,0):B(2,0)÷INT( (U4H_2(1, I))11.5)
960 RETURN
970 H-1 \ RETURN
990 P9=1 \ RETURN
990 PRINT \ PRINT ,'ENTER $AHPLE (FILE WE) [4 CHR. _] '; \ IWI_JIF;
1000 PRINt \ PRINT ,'NEW SAJ_.E OR OLD (0) fIR(g) '; \ INI_ITN_
1010 GOSUJ2930
107.0 K$--'KI$÷':'÷F$
1030 IF W_'N' THEN 60 TO 1090
1040 (WENKS AS FILE _1$(10).--(24)) FILESIZE I0, ERROR J9
1050 X$=PF1(0)
1060 CLOSE_1
1070 K2--gAL(X$)
1080 RETURt_
1090 OPENKS FOR OUTPUTAS FILE VF15(10)'-(24), FILESIZE 10, ERROR,19
11_ VFI(O)'-"O'
1110 CLOSEPFI
1120 D$(O,O)='O'
1130 K2--O
1140 60 TO 1080
I150 F:F6BIifREQ(FO)
1160 III--L3/L \ U2=(L2JI.t,O5)
1170 U1=INT(U1Z32752) \ U2=IHT(U2Z32752)
1180 _=INT((L2/L)132752)
1190 LG=U1\ LI4=U2
1200 UI=U1.4J?.
1210 B(1,O)=U1 \ B(2,0)=U2
1_0 09=32000
1230 H:O
1240 Pg=O
693
1250RETURN
1260PRINT \ PRINT
1270 PRINT ,'ENTERFILE NI_E '; \ INPUT F$
1280 BOmB 2930
1290 KI:KI$+':'÷F$
1300 OPEN KS AS FILE VFI$(I0)=(24),FILESIZE10, ERROR J9
1310 X$=VFI(_))
1320 K=UAL(X$)
1330 B$='/'
1340 FOR I=I TO K
1350 AS(1)--VFI(1)
1360 NEXT I
1370 CLOSEW1
1380 FOR I:1 TO K
1390 L6=POS(A$(1),B$,I)\ D$(I,I)=SEG$IA$(1)PI,L6-I)
1400 L7---POS(A$(I),B$,L_÷I)\ D$(1,2)--'$EB$(A$(1) ,L6÷I,L7-1)
1410 L6=POS(A$(1) ,B$,LT+I) \ I)t
(I,3)=SEB$(AS(1) ,L7÷I,L6-1)
1420 D$(I,4)=SEO$(A$(I) ,L6÷I,(LEN(A$(I))))
1430 NEXT I
1440 PRINT \ PRINT
1450 OPEN 'LP:' FOR OUTPUT AS FILE $9 \ 05=I
1460 PRINT f9' \ PRINT 19;
1470 PRINT t9;TAD(35);F$
1480PRINT $9' \ PRINT #9: \ PRINT $9'
1490 I=K
1500FOR I(=ITO I
1510 GOSUB 110
1520 NF_T K
1530 CLOSE19 \ 05=0
1540 RETURN
1550 FOR I=I TO 6 \ PRINT \ NEXT I
1560 GOSUg990
1570 P9=O
1580 PRINT \ PRINT ,,'ENTER NOTCHLEITH '; \ INPUT I8
1590 PRIg[ \ PRINT ,'kNTER PRECR_ LOA@IN L3S. '; \ INPUT L3
1600 PRINT \ PRINT ,,'ENTERCYCLE LOAD IN I.BS.'; \ INPUT L2
1610 PRINT \ PRINT ,_'[email protected] CRAGX '
1620 PRINT ,,'RF_ASUREI_ZNT'; \ INPUI'W5
1630 PRINT \ PRINT \ PRINT
1640 PRINT ,,'ENTERLOAD RAWBE '; \ INPUT L
1650 PRINT \ PRINT
1660 PRINT ,,'ENTERPRE-CRb_..K FREOIJEW_Y '; \ INPUT FO
1670 PRINT I,'ENTERINITIAL TEST FREQtE]ICY '; \ INPUT BO
1690 PRINT 'LOAD RMH_E','_OAD', 'CYCLEU)AD','KINLOAD','FE@.'
1700 P=INT(L2I._÷,3)
1710 PI=(L_(L/IO)) \ P_(P/(L/IO))
17._0P_'=-(I._(L/IO))
1730 PRINT L,L3,L2tPPFO
1740 PRINT ,P4;' VO|.TS',PI;' VETS',P2;' UO|.TS'
1750 PRINT \ PRINT 'OATA O.K. _ <_'-'YES';\ INPIJTJ$
1760 XF J$='N' IHEN 1630
1770 60SUB2780
1780 FGSTEPI1,0)
1790 _)SUB 1150
1800 FORI=1 TO 5\ PRINT \ NEXT I
1810 PRINT '11=1IHUT SANPI.EUIZI'
1820 PRINT 'ZW_ZERO LOAD:IUI'
1840 PRINT 'PRESSRETURNTO STARTTEBT'; \ INPUT J$
1850 IIPF..J_
'IP:' FOR OUTPUT AS FII..E #9 \ 05=I
1860 60SUB700
ORiC.',|NALpAC_ iS
OF POOR QUALITY
694
"°,; -*_i4 F
OF POOR QUALITY
1870 Z5:18/U
1880 Y2:I÷Z5 \ Y3=I-Z5 \ Y4=Y2/Y3\ YS=Y4"2
1890 X2=ZS^2 \ X3=ZS"3 \ X4=ZS*4\ XS:ZS"5
1900 E2=(P/(BIZV3) )Z(I÷.25/Z5)tY5Z(I o6137÷I2.6785ZS-14.231tX2-16.61tX3÷33,O55X4-14,491X:))
1910 E:E2/IO"6
1920 PRINT \ PRINT \ PRINT ,'NOIiULUS : ';E,,'CODLOAD= ';P
1930 PRINT )9" \ PRINT t9; \ PRINT t9:TAB(_i);F$
1940 PRINT #9: \ PRINT t9: \ PRINT t9;TAB(_5);'E'= ';E
1950 PRINT $9" \ PRINT $9'
1960 PRINT $9;TAB(35);'COI) LOAD = ';P
1970 PRINT $9: \ PRINT #9: \ PRINT $9;TAB(15) ;'CYCLES';TAB(]O);'C 0 O KILS';TAB(45) ;'0(-IEWGTH';ThI_(60);
'CI|B-[OAI)'
120 PRINf #9; \ PRINT _t
1990 _S_ 170
2000 ADGO \ ADINIT
2010 FGGO
2020 GOSUB 3030
2030 H=I
2040 C=O\ TO---O
2050 IF Q9<15 THEN 09=32000
2060 IF P@-,I_ 2620
2070 FGCYCLES(I,F5)\ V=-ELEUEL(HI(1,2) )
2_0 P=ELEVEL(HI(I_ I))IL
2090 IF V<"O THEN 2050
2100 V,,(IHT(VZI_)/IO(O)O)\ V3=405V
2110 U3=u3/1000
2120 US=I/((BIIIO^6/PIESV]) ".5÷I)'
2130 93=(1,001-4.6695IU8÷18.461U8"2-236,821{U8"3÷ 1214.91118"4-2143.6IU8"5) $g
21_0 Ih_=(INT(@_10000÷.5)/10000)
2150 PRINT 'CRACK= ';K];' (I)'
2160 IF I_I THEN 18=B3 \ _-0
2170 IF TO=-OTHEN IF (93-18)<.015THEN 2050
2180 IF TO--W)IHEN PRINT ,,'.015 H_RK' \ gl--") \ GOSUB2970 \ WI=I
2190 IF TO=I THEN _ TO 2210
2200 GO_8 ._030 \ Gi_3UB]030 \ GOSUB3030 \ TO=I
2210 IF 83<.255ZWTHEN 2050
_20 FGHOLD k FBIMIIEIi(I,'RAfiP', TI_ 1,,5_2./L)\ FGST_ \ ABST_ \ GOSUB
2230 A6=83
2240 D$(K,I)='O'\ D$(K,2)=STR$(U3_IO00) \ B_(K,3)--'STR$(A3) \ D$(K,4)'-'STRS(P)
2250 GOSUB 110
2260 K--'K÷I
2270 AS=A3
2280 FGCYCLES(I)
2290 IF A3>.375_ THENFO=IO \ GOSUB2970 \ GOTO 2470
2300 IF g2=O llf.N GOSUB2970 k g2>:l \ GO TO 2310
2310 IF 89<15 THEHQ9=32000
2320 IF Pgl THEN2620
23.30 FGCYCLES ( 1, FS)\ U=EI.EVE]. (HI (1,2) )
2340 P--'ELEVEL(HI(I,1)) ItL
2350 U=(INT(U$100(O))tl_O0) \ V3=40_
2_0 V3--'V3/lO00 \ P=ABS(P) \ V3:_XBS(_)
2370 US-l/((81_IO"6/PIESV3)".5÷1)
2380 83=( 1.001-4.6695_1U8÷18.46_US"2-236.821US"3÷1214.951JS"4-2143.6_Jg"5)Zg
2390 B3-(INT(B3;tlO000+,5)/IOO_)
2400 PRINT 'CRACK= ';_3;' (2)'
2410 IF _'-_W_>.O225_llW THENFGHOLI)\ F6I_I)(I_'RPJ4P', TI_ 1,._L) \ F_T_ \ i_I_T_ \ BOSIJR _0 \ _ TO 2430
2420 GOTO 2310
24_ 1)'$(K,1)=ST_(_)\ I)$(K,2)--'ST_(V_104)O) \ _(K_3)_.ST_(_) \ I)$(K_4)=STR$(P)
2440 AS=A3 \ A6=83 \ GOSUB110 \ K_÷I
2450 IF A3<.375_ THEN60S_ 170 \ A])60 \ ADINIT \ FGGO\ GOTO 2310
24_ gl_) \ FO=IO \ GOSUB2970
2470 IF 09<15 THEN 09=32000
2480 IF Pg'I THEN"_" ,.6,0
695
2490 FGCYCLES(t ,FS)\ U=-ELEVEL(Mt (1,2))
2500 P=ELEVEL (Mt ( 1,1) ) _L
2510V=(INT(V=IO000)/IO000)\ V3=405V
,.=,.._-_n
V3=U,_/t000\ P=ASS(P)\ V3=ABS(_)
2530 US=I/((Bltl0%/PtE=U3)",5÷I)
2540 B3=( 1.001-4o66951U8÷18.465_JS"2-23_.825U8"3÷1214 o91U_"4-2143.&l_JS"5)
$g
2550B3"(INT(B_1000065)/10000)
2560 PRINT'CRACK= ';B3;' (3)'
2570 IF B3-A6>.O125=W THENADSTOP \ FGIKED(1,'RA_P', TIE 1,.5_L2]!.) \ GOSUll 350 \ GOTIi ;590
2380 GOTO2470
2590 DS(K,I)---STR_(F5)\D$(K,2)--STR_(V3$1000) \ D$(K,3)--'STR$(_)\ DS(K,4)=STR$(P)
2600 A8_3 \ _=B3 \ GOSU_ 110 \ K-d(÷I
2610 IF _<_ THENCH_31JB 170\ _ \ _INIT \ F660\ GO TO 2470
2620FGSTOP\ A_TOP
2630FGI_D(I,'P, AHI>',TIE 1,0)
2640CLOSE$9 \ 05=0
2650GOSUg 2670
2660RETURN
2670 OPEN KS ASFILE UF15(10)=(24), FILESIZE(107, ERROR J9
2680 K.--l(-
1
2&90 FORI=K2÷1TOKTK2
2700 A$=_(I, I)÷'/'÷_(I,2)÷'/'÷_(I,3)÷'/'÷D$(I,4)
2710 UFt(I)=A$
2720 AS="
2730 NEXTI
2740 K2=K2÷K
2750 UFt(O)--'STRS(K2)
2760 CLOSE UFI
2770 RETURN
2780 PRINT \ PRINT
2790PRINT,'E'NT_SAI_PIE THICI_k_ES '; \ INPUTBI
2800 PRINT,'ENTERSNIPLE (W) '; \ II_ffJTW
2910 P=L2
2820RETUR_
2830 FORI=1TO12 \PRINT \NEXT I
2840PRINT'$ CYCLES = '_F5\ PRINT \ PRINT
2850PRINT,,'t---HEW S+IQ4PLE'
2860PRINT,,'2---PRINT FILETO PRINTER'
2870PRItlT\ PRINT \ PRIN!
2880PRINT,'ENTERNLIKB'; \ INPUTJ
2890 IF J_OTHEN2830
2900 IF _:'B THEN2830
2910ON J GOSUB1550,1260
29"20 _;0TO tO
2930PRINT \ PRINT
2940PRINT,'ENTER (BYO) OR (IJYI)FORDISKIoD, '; \ INPUTKl$
2930 PRINT \ PRINT
2960RETURN
2970FGSTOP\ ADSTOP\ FGINED(I,'P, MP', TIE I,,,5a.2/I.)
2980IF WI>OTHE#FO=WO
2990 F=FGglNFREQ(FO) \ UI_L2/L \ U2=UIZ.05 \ UI=INT(UIt32752) \ U2=INT(U2132_2)
3000 U3":UI\ U4=U2\ UI=UI-4J2\ B(I,O)=U1 \ B(2,0)=U2 \ Q9=32000
3010 @OSUJ 170
3020A_60\ _INIT \ FGGO\ RETURN
3030 ETI_(S2)
3040 ETIE(S3) \ IF A_S(53-$2)<2TEN 3040
ORIGINAL P_,3_. ',-_

OF POOR QUALITY
696
REFERENCES
. Sullivan, A. M., "Crack Length Determination of Compact Tension
Specimen Using a Crack Opening Displacement Calibration," Naval
Research Lab Report 7888, June Z4, 1975.
. Newman, J. C., "Crack Opening Displacements in Center Crack,
Compact and Crack Line Wedge Loaded Specimens," NASA-TN-D-8268,
Washington, D.C. (July 1976).
. Saxena, Ashok and Hudak, S. J., Jr., "Review and Extension of
Compliance Information for Common Crack Growth Specimens," Inter-
national Journal of Fracture, Vol. 14, No. 5, October 1978, pp.
453-468.
. Yoder, G. R., Codey, L. A., and Crook,r, T. W., "Procedures for
Precision Measurements of Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Using Crack-
Opening Displacement Techniques," Fatigue Crack Growth Measure-
ment and Data Analysis, ASTM STP 738, S. N. Hudak, Jr., and R. J.
Bucci, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981,
pp. 85-102.
, "Standard Test Method for Constant-Load-Amplitude Fatigue Crack
Growth Rates Above 10 -8 m/Cycle," E647-83, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1983.
. Maxwell, D. C., Gallagher, J. P., and Ashbaugh, N. E., "Evaluation
of COD Compliance Determined Crack Growth Rates," University of
Dayton Research Institute for Materials Laboratory, Air Force
Wright Aeronautics Laboratories.
697
IN8 9 - 12658p
Hydrogen Effects on the Fatigue and Tensile Behavior of

CMSX-2 Nickel Base Superalloy Single Crystals
I.M. Bernstein, S. Walston, M. Dollar, A. Domnanovich, and W. Kromp
Carnegie-Mellon University
Pittsburgh, PA 15212
Introduction
A number of studies have suggested that specific nickel-based
superalloy single crystal materials can be susceptible to varying degrees of
hydrogen embrittlement under a variety of testing conditions in gaseous
high pressure hydrogen (1), an important environment, for example, for
space shuttle main engine turbo pumps. A particular alloy, CMSX-2, has
shown a varying sensitivity to hydrogen depending on the heat treatment
(2). For example, a heat treatment reported to improve the high
temperature creep resistance of this alloy (3), also reduced the
susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement, when tested in both smooth and
notched tensile configurations (1,2). We have been extending these studies
to investigate the room temperature tensile and fatigue behavior, as a
function of the mode of hydrogen introduction, of the amount and
distribution of dissolved hydrogen and of heat treatment. A particular
focus has been to correlate observed hydrogen effects with the role of
microstructural heterogeneities as trapping centers for hydrogen.
Previous Results
[001] oriented CMSX-2 single crystals of composition given in Table
I were supplied from the vendor in the as-solutionized state of 3 hours at
1315°C. Standard tensile specimens, sub-size tensiles and solid and hollow
fatigue specimens were prepared, as previously described (4). These
samples were encapsulated in argon and heat treated in one of two ways;
either a 1050=C/16h/air cool + 850°C/48hlair cool or 980°C 5blair cool +
850°C/48h/air cool heat treating schedule. The latter has been designated
as a standard treatment and the former was developed by the French
laboratory, ONERA, (3) primarily to improve creep resistance. The resultant
macrostructure consisted of significant non-uniform grown-in porosity at
698
variable levels between 0.1 to 0.3 volume percent. While the average size
is 10-20 microns in diameter, some larger pores (as large as 70 microns in
length) were found and significant clustering was often observed.
A strong dendiitic structure, following both heat treatments persisted,
with the following average size dimensions: Core diameter _, 100 microns;
arm length 500-600 microns; and spacing ~ 150 microns. Quantitative
microprobe analysis revealed the presence of significant segregation (5). in
particular the dendrite core is enriched in W and Cr and depleted in Ta and
to lesser extent AI.
The microstructure consisted of about a 70% volume fraction of 0.5
micron cuboidal ),' in a Y matrix. The ONERA heat treatment ted to
slightly larger, more aligned and more cuboidal 7"
The most effective way found to introduce hydrogen was by cathodic
potentiostatic charging on polished samples primarily in a mixture of
molten salts of 57% sodium bisulfate and 43% potassium bisulfate at
150°C. All charging was performed at 150 + 5=C for 5 hours.
The introduction of hydrogen in this manner significantly reduced the
tensile elongation of bulk and small specimens (4),(6). The changes varied
from about a 20% reduction in elongation in bulk specimens to more than
80% in small tensiles, for both heat treatments, standard and ONERA. This
behavior has been explained on the basis of the relative volume of
hydrogen containing material, which scales with specimen size, and on the
important and deleterious role played by sub-surface voids (5),(7).
A similar degradation was observed due to hydrogen on the low cycle
fatigue behavior of both bulk and hollow specimens tested at room
temperature for R=-I and under constant plastic strain range control ranging
from 0.1 to 0.4%. The most striking behavior, following molten salt
charging, was a significant reduction in the number of cycles to failure, in
some cases almost an order of magnitude reduction (4). The ratio of the
cycles to failure between uncharged and charged specimens appeared to
correlate with the magnitude of the hydrogenated volume. For example, the
699
ratio in bulk samples was about a factor of 2-1/2 smaller than that of the
hollow samples, comparable to the ratio of the hydrogen containing versus

the unaffected volume.
In both tensile and fatigue behavior hydrogen degradation was
associated with a change in fracture mode from predominantly shear to a
normal fracture, seemingly related to either cleavage along cube planes or
along the 7 - 7' interface. Significant surface cracking was also observed.
The purpose of this paper is to describe followup studies to clarify
and extend the above results. Specifically, the following three areas will
be stressed:
1. Extension of the low cycle fatigue tests to a lower plastic

strain range and to hydrogen conditions produced by high
pressure thermal charging.
2. A more detailed fractographic study to ascertain the hydrogen

induced fracture plane.
3. An enhanced solutionizing treatment to break up the dendritic

macrostructure and an evaluation of how this thermal processing
change affects hydrogen compatibility.
Fatigue Behavior of CMSX-2 at Low Plastic Strain Ranges
In addition to the samples charged in molten salt, as described above,
both bulk and hollow samples were exposed to hydrogen charging under a
gas pressure of hydrogen of 5000 psi, temperature 950°F for a period of
24 hours, followed by a 6 hour cool down. This work was carried out at
the Rocketdyne Test Facility. As discussed, the hollow and solid samples
were compared to investigate the influence of increasing the volume of
hydrogen containing material as well as the role of the surface on the
fatigue behavior. The hydrogen gas phase charging was expected to
increase the depth of hydrogen dissolution and thus to increase the volume
to surface ratio of the material exposed to hydrogen, again allowing us to
compare these two parameters.
As previously reported (4) the accumulated plastic strain to fracture in
the hydrogen charged samples is lower than in the uncharged, often
significantly so, Table II. No significant difference in the fatigue behavior
7OO
was observed between the specimens charged in molten salt and those
under hydrogen pressure, comparing separately either the bulk or hollow
samples, although the numbers of cycles to failure was significantly shorter
for the latter case. The similar behavior of the molten salt and gas phase
charged samples in both specimen types suggests that, in addition to the
total hydrogen concentration, the surface area to volume ratio plays a
critical role in determining the fatigue life, presumably through enhanced
surface initiated crack initiation. It would appear that the earlier
observation of a correlation with the ratio of the hydrogen to non-hydrogen
containing volume may be better explained as due to differences in

concentration.
The hydrogen degradation persisted even at the smallest plastic strain
range although a marked difference was observed in cyclic behavior
between large (0.4 to 0.1%) and small (0.02%) strain ranges. While the
amplitudes between 0.4 to 0.1% showed a symmetric hysteresis loop, the
smaller amplitude of 0.02% occasionally exhibited load drops during both
the tension and the compression portion of the cycle. Such load drops
were shown to be associated with highly localized plastic strain peaks
manifested by shear band formation. Figure 1 shows the magnitude of
such localized plastic strain peaks (associated with each load drop) as a
function of the accumulated plastic strain for both uncharged and charged
samples. The frequency of occurrence of the load drops is clearly lower
in the hydrogen charged samples. Note that the localized strain values
were calculated over the entire specimen gage length and not with respect
to the locally deformed region, which is difficult to determine
experimentally. As such, they are average values which while relatively
correct underestimate the localized strain.
Figure 2 shows the dependence of the localized plastic strain versus
the accumulated strain for both uncharged and charged samples. While the
total amount of localized plastic strain in both samples seems comparable,
it occurs by smaller but more frequent load drops in the uncharged sample
in contrast to larger, but less frequent ones in the charged material.
Interestingly, load drops do not occur in the hollow samples suggesting
that the periodic buildup of the dislocation structure and associated stress
701
field maybe of the order of or larger than the wail thickness of the hollow
sample. Further, the number of load drops in tension or compression
correlates closely to the number of shear bands observed on the specimen
surface, Figure 3, where the shear bands in the hydrogen charged material
are fewer but have a larger step size. Qualitatively, this agrees with the
general coarsening (strain localization) of the deformation morphology
frequently observed in hydrogen charged materials (8). It suggests that
fatigue fracture is controlled by the need to accumulate a given amount of
localized strain. While the magnitude appears similar in both charged and
uncharged samples, enhanced localization permits it to be attained earlier in
the former case. These results are both intriguing and somewhat
surprising, particularly since the failure mode is not the same for both
conditions, and geometries, as discussed in the next section. Studies to
clarify this aspect are continuing.
Hydrogen Induced Fracture Path
From observations on both tensile and fatigue specimens it was clear
that hydrogen caused a major change in fracture mode, as well as
promoting a much more significant role of grown in porosity in the
fracture process (4). Uncharged samples fractured predominantly along
planes parallel to multiple crystallographic {111} slip systems, with
evidence for matrix tearing and y/y' delamination. Hydrogen containing
samples, on the other hand, were clearly embrittied, with a more planar
surface of an orientation normal to the loading axis, and with evidence of
decohesion along the y/y' interface (4,5).
The most striking way to illustrate these differences is by way of
Figure 4. Hydrogen induces cracking in the Luders band of a small tensile
sample and on a plane not parallel to any operating or possible slip plane.
In contrast, in the absence of hydrogen, failure occurred parallel to the
Luders band. Figure 5 shows extensive cracking on two faces of the
tensile sample, and subsequent surface trace analysis conclusively showed
that such cracks are parallel to {100} planes. It yet remains to be
established whether this results from "cleavage" in the fcc y or to
preferential decohesion along the y/y' interface. The latter possibility may
be more likely, particularly if the interface contains coherency strains which
could then enhance the local hydrogen concentration.
702
Similar changes were observed in fractured fatigue samples; Figure 6
shows surface markings for both the uncharged and charged conditions for
tests run at a plastic strain range of 0.1%. Slip markings are clearly seen
in the former case, and the hydrogen-induced surface cracks are not parallel
to these or to any slip plane. If this mode change persists, as expected,
to lower plastic strain ranges, the observed correlation that the accumulated
localized plastic strain prior to fracture is similar with and without
hydrogen (Figure 2), implies a role of strain exhaustion in both cases.
The Role of Solutionizing Treatments
The presence of a strong, persistent dendritic macrostructure with its
associated concentration gradients made it difficult to assess hydrogen
effects in a homogeneous )'/7' microstructure. Extended solutionizing
treatments, limited to the same temperature because of the closeness to
the liquidus solvus, were carried out to determine if the dendrite structure
could be broken down and, if so, to see if a change in mechanical
properties ensued. Figure 7 traces the changes in macrostructure from a 3
hour solutionizing at 1315°C (a standard treatment), to 12, 52 and 72 hours.
Deep etching reveals that the last two times are effective in reducing or
eliminating the well defined dendrites, although the persistence of uneven
shading suggests residual segregation effects. Microprobe analysis is
underway to quantify these observations.
Small tensile samples solutionized at 1315°C for 3 and 52 hours and
given the ONERA heat treatment, were compared to investigate the effect
of homogenization on subsequent room temperature mechanical properties.
The results are summarized in Table IIi for both the uncharged and molten
salt charged condition. Also included for comparison are results from an
earlier study (5). A number of observations can be made: The higher
strength values observed in the previous study (5), are believed to result
from chemical and orientation variations from bar to bar (4). Solutionizing
for longer times does not affect mechanical properties for the uncharged
condition, and the alloy's high sensitivity to embrittlement, as monitored by
a change in the uniform elongation, persists. There does appear to be a
significant reduction in the yield and ultimate tensile stress due to
hydrogen after the homogenization treatment, which is not found after a
7O3
standard solutionizing treatment. Homogenization also leads to differences
in hydrogen cracking behavior, even though the relative elongation loss is
comparable for both conditions. This is obvious from a comparison of
Figure 5 and Figure 8. Much less severe and less planar cracks are
observed in the homogenized case, although the crack plane continues to be
parallel to {100}. Both the observed changes in strength and in crack
nature, associated with homogenization require further, more careful study.
REFERENCES
1. W.S. Alter, R.A. Parr, M.H. Johnston, J.P. Strizak, NASA TM

Report No. 86464, August 1984.
2. W.T. Chandler, Contract NAS 3-23536 Report, November, 1983.
3. T. Khan, P. Caron, Fourth RISO International Symposium on

"Metallurgy and Material Science", Roskilde (Denmark),
September 5-9, 1983.
4. 1985 Renewal Proposal "Hydrogen Effects on Tensile and Fatigue

Behavior of [001] Oriented CMSX-2 Single Crystals", NAG 3-463
NASA Lewis, Carngie-Mellon University.
5. J. Chene, C.L. Baker, I.M. Bernstein and J.C. Williams,

Proceedings of "High Temperature Alloys for Gas Turbines and
Other Applications", Liege, Belgium 1986.
6. C.L. Baker, J. Chene, W. Kromp, H. Pinczolits, I.M. Bernstein, and

J.C. Williams, in "Structural integrity and Durability of Reusable
Space Propulsion Systems", NASA Conference Publication No.
2381, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, 1985.
7. C.L. Baker, J. Chene, I.M. Bernstein, and J.C. Williams, submitted

to Met Trans.
8. O.A. Onyewuenyi and J.P. Hirth, Met. Trans, 13A 1982, p. 2209.
704
Table I
CMSX-2 Composition (weight percent)
AI 5.6
Ti 1.07
Cr 8.0
Ni balance
Co 4.6
Ta 6.0
W 8.0
Mo 0.6
Fe 0.08
Si 0.015
S : i
ppm wt.
N :
0 : 2j
705
Table II
Fatigue Behavior as a Function of Plastic Strain Range

and Charging Conditions
Specimen 8C Charging Cycles to Failure nu/n

Type (%_ Conditions uncharged charged c
Bulk 0.4 5h at 150"C 57 16 3.6
0.2 (molten salt) 131 57 2.3
0.i 214 80 2.7
0.02 3348 1260 2.7
0.4 24h at 950"F 57 39 1.5
0.I 5000 psi 370 71 5.2
Hollow 0.4 5h at 150"C 67 9 7.4

0.i (molten salt) 184 27 6.8
0.02 557 110 5.1
0.i 24h at 950"F 164 27 6.1
5000 psi
Heat Treatment: 1315"C- 3h + ONERA

R = -1, RoomTemperature Testing
706
Table III
Room Temperature Tensile Behavior* of Small Tensile Samples
= 5 x 10 -3 S -I
Charging YS UTS Uniform

Heat Treatment Conditions (MPa) (MPa) Elongation
1315"C - 3h uncharged 711 1029 12.3

+
ONERA
1315"C - 52h uncharged 692 944 12.5

+
ONERA
1315"C - 52h charged 5h 539 907 3.6

+ at 150"C
ONERA
1315"C - 3h uncharged 874 901 18.5

+
ONERA
1315"C - 3h charged 5h 879 847 6.2

+ at 150"C
ONERA
*mean value of two tests.
**data from previous study (5).
707
0.3
0.2 II I
°"
0.0
0.3
0.2
0.0
0
i
L.. ; i
I0
i,i
_
i
i
I
J
20 30 40 50 (%) 60
FIGURE i: LOCALIZED PLASTIC STRAIN ASSOCIATED WITH PEAKS DURING TENSION

AND COMPRESSION CYCLES FOR BOTH HYDROGEN FREE (UPPER) AND CHARGED (LOWER)
SAMPLES. gEp=O.02%.
2 f
(%)
O o
I I'
2
f
(%)
0 I0 20 30 40 50 (%) 60
FIGURE 2: ACCUMULATED LOCALIZED PLASTIC STRAIN AS A FUNCTION OF ACCUMULATED

PLASTIC STRAIN FOR BOTH HYDROGEN FREE (UPPER) AND CHARGED (LOWER) SAMPLES,
AS IN FIGURE I.
7O8
OF POOR QUALITY
FIGURE 3: OPTICAL MICROGRAPHS OF LOCALIZED SHEAR BANDS IN HYDROGEN CHARGED

AND UNCHARGED FRACTURED FATIGUE SAMPLES.
709
FIGURE 4: LUDERS BAND CRACKING IN A MOLTEN SALT HYDROGEN CHARGED TENSILE
SAMPLE.
710 ORIGINAL PAGE t,:.*

POOR QUALITY
ORIGINAL PAGE I_
.OF. POOR QUALITY
FIGURE 5: CRACKS ON TWO NON-PARALLEL SURFACES, AS IN FIGURE 4.
711
Z
E_
cO
Z
E_
0
Z
I--4
r#3
Z
,,,,,-I
rJ II
712 OF _OOR QUALITY

OF POORQUALI
200 um
3 hrs 12 hrs
il¸ .... _ iii!_i!ii_i
200 um
72 hrs
51 hrs
FIGURE 7: EFFECT OF SOLUTIONIZING TIME AT 1315_C ON THE DENDRITIC

MACROSTRUCTURE.
713
FIGURE 8: CRACKS ON TWO NON-PARALLEL SURFACES OF A MOLTEN SALT HYDROGEN
CHARGED HOMOGENIZED TENSILE SAMPLE. COMPARE WITH FIGURE 5.
714 OF POOR Q,_A;.;'I

_
,N89- 12659
The Determination of Mobile Hydrogen

in Aerospace Engine Alloys
Merlin D. Danford
Corrosion Research Branch
Materials & Processes Laboratory
NASA/MSFC
Marshall Space Flight Center
Alabama 35812
ABSTRACT
Hydrogen desorption data (coulombs desorbed vs. time)

have been obtained for Waspaloy and Rene' 41 using electro-
chemical methods. A more general method of analysis,
using diffusion theory, has been developed and applied.
The method may assume an initial hydrogen distribution
which conforms to that predicted by diffusion theory or
a uniform initial distribution. The data are interpreted
in terms of either of these initial distributions or a
combination thereof. It was found that the initial hydro-
gen distributions for Waspaloy and Rene' 41, after both
electrolytic charging and charging at 5000 psi hydrogen
pressure, conformed closely to those predicted by diffu-
sion theory. The hydrogen desorption is completely
explained by the nature of the initial hydrogen distri-
bution in the metal, which has previously been assumed
to be uniform, and the "fast" hydrogen is not due to
surface and subsurface hydride formation, as we previous-
ly proposed. Finally, the hydrogen solubilities in the
metals, for electrolytically charged samples, depend
strongly on the charging rate and are about the same for
Rene' 41 and Waspaloy.
715
The Determination of Mobile Hydrogen
in Aerospace Engine Alloys
I. Introduction
The importance of hydrogen induced failure of materials has

been widely recognized. Catastrophic failure of high strength steel
parts, such as aircraft landing gear, can often be attributed to
hydrogen embrittlement. The source of hydrogen which causes failure
in the presence of stress can be a corrosion reaction, but can also
be a pretreatment process such as pickling, welding or a plating
process.
To properly understand hydrogen embrittlement, two kinds of

hydrogen and their relative roles must be studied, these being the
mobile or diffusable hydrogen and the trapped hydrogen. The present
technique is electrochemical in nature, and deals exclusively with
the diffusable hydrogen. It has been developed to be used in con-
junction with other methods which will allow determination of both
the diffusable and non-diffusable components.
II. Background
A basis for measurement of hydrogen concentration, Co, is an

electrochemical permeation method which was first described by Devana-
than and Stachurski [1,2]. In this method, hydrogen is produced on
one side of a metal foil, either as the result of a corrosion reaction
in acidic media, or by the application of a cathodic current. On the
other side of the foil, hydrogen which has diffused through the
metal is removed by application of an anodic constant potential
which leads to the oxidation of hydrogen to water. The measurement
is carried out in an alkaline solution. Under the assumption that
semi-infinite diffusion occurs in a sample of finite thickness, the
solution of the diffusion equations:
I = -ZFD (_c)
_-_ X=O (i)
_2C i _C 1
_X 2 D I_-t = 0 (2)
leads to the well known Cottrell equation for the permeation current
I :
P
(3)
I ZFCp
= o I,i
D) ½
Here, Z is the number of electrons involved in the reaction (one), F

is the Faraday constant, D is the diffusivity of hydrogen through the
716
metal, and Ip is the current density at time t. The use of equation
(3) requires an a'priori knowledge of the diffusion coefficient. It
requires only a short time for data collection, e.g. 30 minutes, and
requires that a blank run be madefor a non-hydrogen containing
sample so that the current due to hydrogen only can be obtained by
subtraction. Equation (3) has been used successfully by Deluccia,
Berman, et al. [3,4] and by Mansfeld, et al. [5] for evaluating
hydrogen concentrations with a device termed the "barnacle electrode".
A shortcoming of the Cottrell equation is that the assumption is
madethat the initial hydrogen distribution in the metal is uniform
in nature, a condition which is probably seldom realized. The same
is true for the method proposed by Zakroczymski [6], which will be
briefly described next.
The method proposed by Zakroczymski [6] is based on the electro-
chemical measurementof hydrogen desorption rate. The amount of
hydrogen desorbed at time t for a finite slab is given by:
QH = QH
+I + I - 8__ _
2
m=l
i
(2m-I) 2
exp (-t/T)
t (4)
where: T = L2/_2D, D = hydrogen diffusion coefficient, t = time and

L = sample thickness. In the above equation, the initial hydrogen
concentration C o is constant throughout the specimen and is given by:
C o = QH/L (5)
The remainder of the details of the method are similar to those for
the present method, which will be described in the next section.
The assumption of a uniform initial distribution in this case led to
the postulation of the formation of hydrides which are unstable at
room temperature and decompose rapidly. This mechanism was proposed
to explain the fast rate of hydrogen desorption, which was faster
than that which would be predicted by a uniform initial distribution.
III. The Present Method
The basic difference between the present method and that of

Zakroczymski is that a uniform initial hydrogen distribution need
not be assumed, and the data analysis is of a more general nature.
All of the diffusion equations employed in this work have been des-
cribed by Barrer [7]. For the case of hydrogen absorption, the
hydrogen absorption after charging time t is give by:
C(x,t)=S+2S _ (cos m_-l) sin m_x exp -Dm2_2t (6)
m=l m L L2
717
where S is the solubility of hydrogen in the metal under a given
set of conditions and x is the depth in the sample. The meancon-
centration is given by:
C=1 (x,t)dx (7)

L
The solubility S in equation (6) is obtained by dividing the observed

concentration by that obtained using equations (6) and (7) where unit
values have been assumedfor S in equation (6). A typical case for
the initial hydrogen distribution in a flat sample of Waspaloy,
where the distribution conforms to that predicted by equation (6),
is shown in Figure I. The general equation for hydrogen desorption
is:
C(x,t)=2
Lm:l
°
Z sin m_x
L
exp : l/0
,-Dm2_2t
L 7 ]
(x') sin m_x'dx'
L
(8)
Here, it is assumed that the concentration of hydrogen at the sample

surfaces is zero for all time. The values of _(x') are those cal-
culated by equation (6) for a given charge time. In the case of uni-
form initial distribution, equation (8) reduces to:
co
C (x, t)-4C o T, 1 sin (2m+l) _x exp -D (2m+l) 2_2t [_ (9)
m=0 (2m+I) L L2 ]
Typical cases for hydrogen desorption are illustrated in Figures 2
and 3. Figure 2 shows the desorption from a Waspaloy sample where
the initial distribution is that given by equation (6), which is
referred to as a non-uniform distribution. As shown in Figure 2, the
peak in the hydrogen distribution curve decreases in amplitude and
moves inward with increasing desorption time. Figure 3 shows the
desorption curves assuming a uniform initial distribution. Desorption
with the non-uniform distribution is much more rapid than that for
a uniform initial distribution. The amount of hydrogen desorbed after
a time t is given by:
Q (t) =QHM -0.0957341d f0: (x,t)dx (10)
Here, d is the metal density, and the conversion factor is that

oo
necessary to convert from ppm-cm to coulombs/cm 2. QItN' the total
H 2, is an experimentally measured quantity. Equation (i0) allows
direct comparison of calculated desorption curves with those obtained
through electrochemical means. Finally, it should be mentioned that
a computer program, PDE@NE [8], is available, which can calculate
all of the necessary quantities for the present analysis numerically
with only a few modifications.
718
WASPALOY
CHARGED 1 HOUR AT 5,000 PSI
THEORETICAL (NON-UNIFORM) DISTRIBUTION
L = .202 cm
6_0
ES.0
Z
O
_- 4.0
<
gc
z
_3_0
z
0
_ 2.0
0 o4 o8 lO .14 .18
OEPTH, cm
Fig. I Theoretical Hydrogen Distribution in Waspaloy

after Charging at 5,000 psi
.12
HYDROGEN DESORPTION
NON-UNIFORM INITIAL DISTRIBUTION
o. ,10 -- AFTER 10.000 SECONDS
z" -- AFTER 50,00G SECOND

O
I,,-
< .08
gc
).-
Z
uJ
u,06
Z
0
u
Z
Lu.04
0
m
0
• 02
-i-
0 .2 .4 .t .8 10 1.2 1,4 1,6
DEPTH, mm
Fig. 2 The Variation of Hydrogen Distribution in Waspaloy

with Time of Discharge, Non-Uniform Initial Distribution
719
6
HYDROGEN DESORPTION
E UNIFORM INITIAL DISTRIBUTION
AFTER 10,000 SECONDS

Z ---- AFTER 50,000 SECONDS
O
4-
m-
Z
w
Z
o
_2
o / / _
> .1 /fjl tt _
",r
//_ - .... _
,6 .8 10 1.2 14 1,6
2 4
DEPTH, mm
Fig. 3 The Variation of Hydrogen Distribution in Waspaloy

with Time of Discharge, Uniform Initial Distribution
IV. Experimental
The EG&G-PARC Model 350A corrosion measurement console was

employed for all measurements in this work. The sample holder em-
ployed is shown in Figure 4. It presents a sample area of 1.0cm 2
in contact with the solution in the electrolytic cell, in this case
0.1N NaOH. Samples of Waspaloy and Rene' 41 were subjected to
measurement. Samples of Rene' 41 were used as obtained (annealed)
without heat treatment. All samples were 1.59 cm (5/8 in.) in diame-
ter, with an average thickness of 0.2 cm.
The samples were prepared by wet sanding with 150C and 220A grit
silicon carbide paper and degreasing in boiling trichloroethylene.
Sample blanks were run at a constant potential of +0.25V (NHE) in a
0.1N NaOH solution at 25°C. The period of measurement was 150,000
seconds for each sample, with the current being measured at 500 second
intervals.
Samples of both materials were electrolytically charged at 25°C

with hydrogen in 0.1N H2SO 4 at two different charge rates, 60 ma/cm 2
and I ma/cm 2. In addition, a sample of Waspaloy was charged electro-
lytically at 150°C in a eutectic mixture of molten NaHSO4"H20 and
KHSO 4. Data for the hydrogen-containing samples were collected in
the same manner as those for the blanks, with the currents due to
hydrogen being obtained by subtraction.
After each run, the current versus time data was read to a
computer and saved. After data from both the hydrogen containing
sample and its corresponding blank were obtained, the experimental
curve, Q(t) versus time, was obtained by integration of the current-
time curves corresponding to the current due to hydrogen only.
Values of QH, QHM, the observed concentration (Co ) and the diffusion
720
coefficient for H2 (D) were obtained according to the method
developed by Zakroczymski [6].
KNURLEDTHUMBNUT
FLAT
WASHER
-- WORKING ELECTRODE HOLDER
_--O-RING
TEST SPECIMEN
SAMPLE f
ooe HOLDER
PLUG O-RING SAMPLE
HOLDER BODY HOLDER
CAP
SAMPLE HOLDER - EXPLODED VIEW
Fig. 4 Exploded View of the Sample Holder
V. Results and Discussion
The solubilities of hydrogen in Waspaloy and Rene' 41 for given

sets of charging conditions are shown in Table 1. As seen from the
table, the solubility depends on the charge rate for electrolytic
charging, being lower for lower charge rates. The solubility for
a sample of Waspaloy charged for I hour at 5,000 psi is about the
same as that for a sample charged electrolytically at 60 mA/cm 2.
The solubilities for Rene' 41 are about the same as those for
Waspaloy.
721
TABLE 1. OBSERVED SOLUBILITIES FOR NICKEL BASE ALLOYS
MATERIAL METHOD CHARGE RATE SOLUBILITY (ppm)
WASPALOY ELECTROLYTIC FAST i (25°C) 1,28
ELECTROLYTIC SLOW b (25°Cl 0,75
ELECTROLYTIC FAST (t 50°C) 3.64
5000 PSI 1 28
RENE' 41 ELECTROLYTIC FAST (25°C) 1.17
ELECTROLYTIC SLOW 125°CI 029
(a} 60 MA/CM 2
Ibl 1 MAICM 2
Desorption by Waspaloy
The desorption curves for electrolytically charged Waspaloy

at 25°C for charge rates of 1 mA/cm 2 and 60 mA/cm 2 are shown in
Figures 5 and 6. As shown in these figures, the desorption
curves are very well described by the theoretical curves (non-
uniform distributions) calculated by equation (6). The theoretical
curve shown in Figure 5, for a sample charged for 1 hour at 60 mA/cm 2,
is best described by a hybrid curve corresponding to a 10.2 percent
uniform distribution. The desorption curve for a sample charged
electrolytically at 150°C in a eutectic mixture of molten NaHSO4.H20
and KHSO 4 is shown in Figure 7. The hydrogen distribution was
77.4% uniform in nature, which would be predicted by the tempera-
ture variation of the diffusion coefficient. Similar curves for
Waspaloy charged for I hour (25°C) at 5,000 psi are shown in Figure
8. The experimental curve was best fit with a theoretical curve
corresponding to an 18.6% uniform distribution. All initial
hydrogen distributions for Waspaloy, therefore are essentially those
which would be predicted by diffusion theory.
Desorption by Rene' 41
Desorption curves for electrolytically charged Rene' 41 are

shown in Figures 9 and 10. As shown by these figures, the desorption
is completely explained by I00 percent non-uniform distributions for
both fast and slow charging rates. The results are, therefore, very
similar to those obtained for Waspaloy
Summary
The desorption curves for both Waspaloy and Rene' 41 are all
consistent with non-uniform initial distributions after charging,
either at high pressure or by electrolysis. The desorption curves
are completely explained by the nature of the initial hydrogen dis-
tributions in the metals after charging, which have previously been
722
assumedto be uniform in theoretical calculations. The "fast"
hydrogen is therefore not due to the formation of surface and sub-
surface hydride formation, as has been previously proposed. Also,
the hydrogen solubilities in the metals, for electrolytically
charged samples, depend strongly on the charging rate, and are about
the samefor Rene' 41 and Waspaloy. Although this work has been
concerned entirely with the mobile hydrogen aspect, future work will
also include studies of trapped hydrogen content as well, and hope-
fully, will lead to a clearer understanding of the hydrogen embrittle-
ment problem in general•
HYDROGEN DESORPTION, WASPALOY
025 • THEORETICAL CURVE, NON-UNIFORM INITIAL DISTR.

_uE • THEORETICAL CURVE, UNIFORM INITIAL DISTR.
WEIGHTED AVERAGE (10.2% UNIFORM)

_.020 EXPERIMENTAL CURVE
I METAL CHARGED 1 HOUR AT 60 MA/cm 2
i
:3
O I
o .015 t
ug
go _ | • •
r,,.
g •
_,_s
I_
Cl
z i_ o •
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
TIME, SECONDS x 10 -3
Fig. 5 Theoretical and Experimental Desorption Curves

for Waspaloy, Fast Charge
HYDROGEN OESORPTION. WASPALOY'
•025 ° THEORETICAL CURVE, NON-UNIFORM INITIAL DISTR

• THEORETICAL CURVE, UNIFORM INITIAL DISTR.
) -- EXPERIMENT
METAL CHARGED 4 HOURS AT 1 MA/cm 2

.020 •
100% NON-UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION
O
.015
uJ
n-
n-
O
.010
Q
z
uJ
(3
O .005
O
).
'T-
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

for Waspaloy, Slow Charge
723
.12 HYDROGEN DESORPTION , WASPALOY
% • THEORETICAL CURVE, NON-UNIFORM INITIAL OISTR

u
• THEORETICAL CURVE, UNIFORM iNITIAL DISTR.
3,10
-- EXPERIMENTAL
O THEORETICAL CURVE, 77.4% UNIFORM INITIAL DISTR,
.J
METAL CHARGED 1 HOUR AT 60 mA/CM 2, 150°C
.08
O CHARGING MEDIUM: MOLTENNaHSO 4.H20,KHSO 4
o
.04
Z
0
e.- .02
a
>,.
"r'
0 20 40 so elo lOO 12o 1_,o m0


for Waspaloy, Fast Charge at 150°C
.06] HYDROGEN DESORPTION, WASPALOY

t
_.O5_ • THEORETICAL CURVE, NON-UNIFORM INITIAL DISTR.
_ , • THEO_ET,CALCURVE.
UN,_O_M'N'T'A_
D,_TR.
o,,E,GHTED
AVeRAgE
I1_._ON,_ORM'
_,."_4--EX,ER,MENTAL
CURVE
o METAL CHARGED 1 HOUR AT 5,000 PSI
d
gJ
m ,03
n-
Z -02 . • _ & _ _, _ _-.

u,J
.01
.,r e •
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

for Waspaloy, Charged at 5,000 psi
724
HYDROGEN DESORPTION. RENE'41
' THEORETICAL CURVE. NON-UNIFORM INITIAL DISTR.

• THEORETICAL CURVE. UNIFORM INITIAL DISTR.
-- EXPERIMENTAL
_E .020
100% NON-UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION
METAL CHARGED 1 HOUR AT 60 MA/cm 2
_ .015
Q
d
_ .010
l
z
w .005
0
Ilc
>
o 20 40 _ _o lOO 15o 1,;,o 160


for Rene' 41, Fast Charge
HYDROGEN DESORPTION. RENE' 41
0251 , THEORETICAL CURVE. NON-UNIFORM INITIAL DISTR.
NE ! • THEORETICAL CURVE. UNIFORM INITIALOISTR.

! -- EXPERIMENTAL
: METAL CHARGED 4 HOURS AT 1 ma/cm 2
020 ! 100% NON-UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION
aa .o1 t
LM i
0 = _ ; , -
.OLO!
0 _ _ 60 _ I_ 1_ 1_ 1_ 180

for Rene' 41, Slow Charge
725
References
i. Devanathan, M.A.V. and Stachurski, Z.: Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. A

270, 1962, p. 90.
2. Devanathan, M.A.V. and Stachurski, Z., and Beck, W.J.: Electro-

chem. Soc., Vol. ii0, 1963, p. 886.
3. Berman, D.A., Beck, W., and Deluccia, J.J.: Hydrogen in Metals,

I.M. Bernstein and W.W. Thompson (editors), ASM, 1984, p. 595.
4. Berman, D.A.: Indexing the Degree of Hydrogen Embrittlement of

4340 Steel Using the Bernacle Electrode. Naval Air Development Center,
Report No. NADC-76359-30, November 1976.
5. Mansfeld, F., Jeanjaquet, S., and Roe, D.K.: Materials Performance,

1982, p. 35.
6. Zakroczymski, T.: An Electrochemical Method for Hydrogen Determina-

tion in Steel. Corrosion, Vol. 38, 1982, p. 218.
7. Barrer, R.M.: Diffusion in and Through Solids, Cambridge, 1941.
8. Sincovec, R.F. and Madsen, N.K.: Software for Nonlinear Partial

Differential Equations. ACM Trans. Math. Software, Vol. I, No. 3,
1985, p. 232-260.
9. Groeneveld, T.P., Fletcher, E.E., and Elsa, A.R.: A Study of

Hydrogen Embrittlement of Various Alloys. Battelle Memorial Institute,
Report No. DCN I-7-54-20107 $I (IF), January, 1969.
726
N89- 1266
LCF AND CRACK GROWTH RATE OF TURBINE BLADE ALLOYS

IN HYDROGEN AND HYDROGEN/STEAM ENVIRONMENTS
BY B. A. COWLES, D. P. DELUCA, J. R. WARREN AND F. K. HAAKE
PRATT & WHITNEY

ENGINEERING DIVISION SOUTH
P.O. BOX 2691
WEST PALM BEACH, FLORIDA 33402
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the LCF and fatigue crack growth

testing of MAR-M246+Hf and PWA 1480 in high pressure
hydrogen and hydrogen enriched steam at elevated
temperatures. The PWA 1480 single crystal exhibited the
best properties overall, compared to both single crystal
and directionally solidified MAR-M246+Hf. Addition of
water vapor to the hydrogen atmosphere caused more
pronounced reduction in the properties of the
directionally solidified material than in the single
crystal.
727
INTRODUCTION
The nickel based superalloy MAR-M246 in directionally solidified form

is currently used as a turbopump airfoil material in the Space
Shuttle Main Engine (SSME). The extremely severe operating cycle,
combined with the pure or partial high-pressure hydrogen environment,
has resulted in evaluation of alternative materials and processing to
increase airfoil service life.
Several programs (References i, 2, 3) have been sponsored by the NASA

Marshall Space Flight Center under the direction of W. B. McPherson,
to evaluate MAR-M246+Hf in both directionally solidified (DS) and
single crystal (SC) forms, as well as the single crystal alloy PWA
1480.
Under these programs, tensile, creep-rupture, smooth low cycle

fatigue, and crack growth properties were evaluated for the alloys in
high pressure hydrogen and hydrogen-enriched steam environments at
temperatures up to 870°C (1600°F).
This paper summarizes results of the low cycle fatigue and crack
growth tests performed in hydrogen and hydrogen-steam environments.
MATERIALS
The alloys evaluated were MAR-M246 + Hf in both cast single crystal

and directionally solidified form, and cast single crystal PWA 1480.
Both alloys are high strength, gamma prime strengthened nickel base
superalloys for high temperature use in turbine blades and vanes.
Chemical compositions of the alloys are presented in Table 1.
MAR-M246 + Hf in the directionally solidified form is the current
SSME turbine blade material. PWA 1480 is an advanced alloy developed

for use in single crystal form (Ref. 4), which is
currently in use in commercial and military gas turbine engines.
All test material was furnished by the NASA Marshall Space Flight
Center (MSFC). The DS MAR-M246+Hf material was supplied in the
as-cast condition in the form of rectangular castings, 1.25 cm X 3.8
cm X 14.0 cm (0.5 X 1.5 X 5.5 inches) with solidification axis,
nominally (001) crystallographically, in the 14 cm direction. The SC
MAR-M246+Hf material, also as-cast, was supplied as rectangular
blocks, 1.25 cm X 3.8 cm X 10.2 cm (0.5 X 1.5 X 4 inches) with the
primary crystal axis in the 10.2 cm direction. The single crystal
PWA 1480 material was provided in a fully heat treated condition in
both rectangular cast bars of similar thickness to the MAR-M246 and
round bars 1.25 cm diameter and 8 cm length (0.5 X 3.125 inches).
728
The PWA 1480 and the DS and SC MAR-M246+Hf material underwent
metallographic examination in order to determine alloy thermal

history and document microstructure as received. The MAR-M246+Hf
required solution and precipitation heat treatment. The MAR-M246
material which was needed for transverse property test specimens
required TL_ bonding to obtain material of sufficient length for
specimen fabrication. The TLP bond cycle was then followed by the
standard MAR-M246 heat treatment cycle.
The PWA 1480 material was supplied in the fully heat-treated

condition although the cooling rate appeared to have been slower than
optimum. Microstructural examination and tensile test results
indicated that the material required re-heat treatment. The PWA 1480
heat treatment was then performed.
Details of the TLP bond cycle and heat treatment are presented in
Table 2.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
TEST SPECIMENS
Test specimens were fabricated in both the transverse and

longitudinal directions relative to the solidification direction of
the castings. The solidification direction corresponds to the
columnar grain growth direction in the DS castings, and to the (001)
crystallographic direction (+10 ° ) for the single crystal bars.
Crystallographic orientation of the single crystal material was
determined by the Laue back reflection technique. Transverse
direction single crystal specimen orientations could vary from the
(010) to the (110) direction. Since the (010) direction is a primary
cubic crystal axis direction, properties of transverse-oriented test
specimens with axes along the (010) direction were expected to be
very similar to those of longitudinal specimens (oriented along the
(001) direction). Consequently, where sufficient test material was
available, cast bars with orientations near the (ii0) direction were
preferentially selected for transverse property testing.
Since standard tensile, creep, and LCF test specimens are longer than
3.8 cm (1.5 in.), additional material had to be bonded to each side
of the cast MAR-M246+Hf blocks for fabrication of these transverse
test specimens. Bonding of additional material to the test blocks
was accomplished using the transient-liquid-phase (TL_ diffusion
bonding process. (TLP is a registered trademark for the transient
liquid phase bonding process patented by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft
Group). Bonding of extensions to the test material is illustrated
schematically in Figure i. Crack growth specimens were obtained
without the need for TLP bonding as shown in Figure 2. The
transverse-oriented PWA 1480 tensile, creep, and LCF specimens were
machined from 7.6 cm (1.25 in.) square cast blocks and did not
require TLP bonding of additional material.
729
Smooth tensile, creep-rupture, smooth LCF, and compact tension crack
growth specimens were machined from the cast bars for test. Typical
specimens are shown in Figure 3.
TEST PLAN
An extensive mechanical property test program including smooth

tensile, creep, smooth LCF, and crack growth was carried out under
three separate NASA contracts (References i, 2, 3). The LCF and
crack growth results from the three contracts are discussed in this
paper.
The majority of the tests were conducted at 870°C (1600°F) and 760°C
(1400°F). LCF tests were run to define total and inelastic strain
vs. life curves for each material, mostly for specimen loading
orientations transverse to the casting solidification direction. PWA
1480 was also tested with specimen loading axis parallel to the
solidification (001) direction.
Crack growth tests were also run at 870°C and 760°C, but each cycle
incorporated a 480 second dwell at maximum load. These specimens
were loaded along the solidification direction, producing crack
growth normal to the solidification direction. Directionally
solidified MAR-M246 was also tested with the loading axis transverse
to the solidification direction.
TEST GASES
Test environments for all tests described in this paper consisted of

hydrogen or hydrogen plus water vapor at 34.5 MPa (5000 psig).
Nitrogen was used as a preliminary purge gas. Propellant grade
hydrogen was provided under Military Specification P-27201, which
requires the gas to have an oxygen content of less than I part per
million. Periodic analysis verified the gas to be of this purity.
The hydrogen and water vapor environment was obtained by utilizing
triple distilled water and a retort system so the water was vaporized
by furnace heat while maintaining the specified pressure. The
hydrogen-water vapor atmosphere was 50% water-vapor and 50% hydrogen
by weight.
Gas handling systems supplying the test vessels were equipped to

enable sampling before and after specimen tests. The hydrogen was
sampled extensively, both dry and saturated with water vapor (wet
hydrogen was dried prior to analysis). Samples were analyzed with a
gas chromatograph with accuracy in the parts per billion range.
Analysis verified that the gas was of the required purity (1 ppm 0_).
Hydrogen environment pressure was maintained at 34.5 MPa (5000 psig)
during testing.
730
TEST PROCEDURES
High-pressure environmental tests were conducted on closed-loop type,

hydraulically actuated test machines. Each test machine is located
in an isolated test cell with all controls and instrumentation
located in an adjacent blockhouse. P&WA designed pressure vessels,
mounted on the upper platen of the test machine, incorporate Grayloc
type high-pressure flanges for sealing and ease of assembly. The
test machine compensates through the servosystem for the load in the
specimen due to pressure acting over differential specimen/adapter
areas. A pressure transducer is used to provide a feedback signal,
proportional to chamber pressure, to the servocontroller. This
signal was used in controlling a mean load applied to the linkage so
zero strain was maintained in the specimen gage when the vessel
assembly was pressurized. This same load was then superimposed on
the cyclic load during testing.
Both internal (to the pressure vessel) and external load cells were
used to obtain cyclic load to account for friction at the load rod
seals. Electrical connections to the load cell, extensometer system,
furnace (for elevated temperature tests), and thermocouples were made
through the vessel wall via high-pressure bulkhead connectors.
Setups of the pressure vessel showing the extensometer system and
furnace arrangement are shown in Figure 4.
Smooth, round, solid specimens were used for the axial

strain-controlled LCF tests. The specimen configuration incorporates
integral machined extensometer collars. A calibration procedure has
been established to relate the maximum strain to collar deflection
during both the elastic and plastic portion of the strain cycle. The
specimen design and calibration procedure were verified both
experimentally and analytically.
Specimen axial strain was measured and controlled by means of a

proximity probe extensometer. Split extensometer heads were attached
to the specimen by mating the grooves in the heads with the integral
collars on the specimen and bolting the assembly together. Collar
deflection was measured and controlled via proximity probes attached
to the open ends of the extensometer tubes so that the extensometer
rod ends moved relative to the probes as the specimen collars
deflected. The LCF strain cycle was fully reversed, and performed at
a frequency of 0.067 Hz.
The specimen used for crack growth testing was the standard compact
specimen (with w = 1.0 inch). This specimen incorporated a
chevron-type crack-starter notch and integrally machined knife edges
for Crack Opening Displacement (COD) extensometry attachment as
recommended by ASTM E399-74, "Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of
metallic materials". Specimen thickness was chosen to conform to
supplied raw material dimensions, and to the high pressure test
vessel retort size.
731
To accommodate testing in the high pressure vessels, a compliance
calibration was conducted to relate the COD measured by the test
extensometry to the test specimen crack length. The compliance
between the measured COD and the handbook prediction (Reference 5)
was compared at various crack length, load, and temperature
conditions. The measured COD agreed with the handbook predictions,
and the handbook relationship was used for all environmental testing.
Stress intensity was then estimated using the standard ASTM solution
for the specimen, calculated for an isotropic material.
Crack growth tests were conducted in the load controlled mode. The
test consisted of cyclic loading of the specimen between the minimum
load and the maximum load until complete fracture occurred. The
loading cycle was all tensile with a 480-second hold time at the
maximum load. All specimens were tested at a stress ratio (minimum
load/maximum load) of 0.I. The test loading cycle is shown in
Figure 5.
Crack growth data for this program was analyzed using the hyberbolic
sine based "SINH" model, an interpolative model developed for the
analysis of elevated temperature fatigue crack propagation data
(References 6, 7). The model has been successfully used to describe
the parametric effects of three fundamental influences on crack
propagation: frequency (v), stress ratio (R), and temperature (T).
This interpolative model is based on the hyperbolic sine equation,
log (da/dn) = C, sinh (Cz(log _X) + C3)) + C_
where the coefficients are simple empirical functions of test

frequency, stress ratio, and temperature. This model presents a
flexible alternative to the familiar Paris equation and has gained
acceptance in the aerospace industry. In several cases for this data
a Paris fit would have worked as well, but in most cases SINH was
used because it is the standard model for P&WA Engineering.
RESULTS
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE
All of the MAR-M246+Hf LCF specimens were oriented in the transverse

direction as required by the NASA contracts. For the directionally
solidified material, this produced fractures parallel to the columnar
grain growth direction. For the single crystal material, the loading
axis corresponded to a near (ii0) crystallographic direction. The
PWA 1480 single crystal alloy was tested in both the longitudinal
(001) and the transverse (ii0) orientations.
732
Results of the transverse oriented MAR-M246 LCF at 870°C are shown in
Figure 6. The single crystal form showed substantially higher life

than the DS material, with the difference much more pronounced at
strain ranges below 1.0%. Addition of steam to the environment
produced no difference in the single crystal alloy, but appeared to
reduce the life of the directionally solidified material by more than
half.
The PWA 1480 LCF results at 870°C are shown in Figure 7. The
significant effect of crystallographic orientation is clearly
evident, as expected from the significant elastic modulus difference
between (001) and (ii0) orientations (References 8, 9). As with the
SC MAR-M246, the addition of steam to the hydrogen environment caused
no apparent reduction in LCF life.
Data for both of the alloys at 870°C is presented in Figure 8 for

comparison. At the low life/high strain ranges representative of
severe rocket engine service conditions, the PWA 1480 longitudinal
data is clearly superior. However, at high strain ranges the
transverse oriented materials all appeared similar, including the DS
MAR-M246. At low strain ranges, the SC MAR-M246 appeared best in the
transverse orientation.
A similar summary of data for all three materials tested at 760Oc is

presented in Figure 9. Here the DS MAR-M246 had clearly lower LCF
capability than the single crystal materials, and, as expected, the
transverse oriented single crystals exhibited lower LCF life than the
longitudinal orientation. As at
870Oc, the PWA 1480 longitudinal data showed the highest LCF life at
high strain ranges.
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
The compact specimens were oriented to produce crack growth normal to

the solidification direction as required by the NASA contracts. This
corresponded to an (001) loading axis for the specimens. The
exception was for the DS MAR-M246, which was tested in both
transverse and longitudinal orientations. The test loads were
selected to produce very short lives, typically hundreds of cycles,
compared to normal elastic crack growth rate tests. The data are
presented for comparison in terms of stress intensity vs. crack
growth rate. Isotropic Mode I stress and strain intensity solutions
for directionally solidified and orthotropic single crystal materials
have been used in other studies (References 8, 9, I0) and appear
acceptable for cases where crack growth is both planar and normal to
the loading axis - that is, Mode I growth in a non-crystallographic
manner. Recent work by Chen (Reference Ii) indicates that
crystallographic fracture, along (iii) crystal planes, is controlled
entirely by the shear stress intensity factor, K:x. Some of these
tests resulted in crystallographic fracture during the low
733
temperature, high frequency precracking, and the specimens had to be
discarded. However, fracture paths during actual testing were
generally in plane and non-crystallographic, so the data are
presented as _K_ vs. growth rate.
It should be noted, however, that use of this data for purposes other
than direct comparison with similar tests is not recommended because
of the high net section stresses, the extended tensile dwell period
each cycle, and the anisotropy of the materials.
Crack growth rate for the SC MAR-M246 is shown in Figure 10. There
was no significant difference between 870°C and 760°C in the pure
hydrogen environment. As for the LCF tests, addition of steam to the
hydrogen produced no apparent effect on crack growth rate at 870°C.
Although the regression curve for the hydrogen/steam tests shows
apparently slower growth rate at low stress intensity, the pure
hydrogen environment data scatter encompasses the hydrogen/steam data
and no clear cut effect due to the steam addition is apparent.
The PWA 1480 SC tests produced similar results, with no differences

noted due to changing temperature from 870OC to 760°C, or with
addition of steam to the hydrogen atmosphere. Results are shown in
Figure ii.
In contrast, however, are the results for DS MAR-M246 loaded
transverse to the solidification direction. As shown in Figure 12,

the addition of steam to the hydrogen produced a significantly faster
crack growth rate at the 870°C test temperature. This result is
again consistent with the LCF data. Results for DS MAR-M246 loaded
longitudinal to the solidification direction were highly scattered
and are not presented.
The 870°C data in pure hydrogen are combined for comparison in Figure
13. Surprisingly, there appears to be little or no difference
between the transversely loaded DS MAR-M246, and the single crystal

form of the alloy. The PWA 1480 SC material does, however, look
significantly better in crack growth rate than either form of
MAR-M246. A similar comparison at 870°C with steam added to the
hydrogen is presented in Figure 14. Here, however, the DS MAR-M246
loaded transversely to the solidification direction, exhibited much
faster crack growth than either single crystal alloy. The PWA 1480
SC looked slightly better than the SC MAR-M246, based on limited
data.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
The LCF and crack growth behavior of MAR-M246+Hf in single crystal

and directionally solidified form, and the single crystal alloy PWA
1480, were evaluated in high pressure hydrogen and hydrogen enriched
steam environments at elevated temperatures.
734
The single crystal alloys were superior to the directionally
solidified material in both LCF and crack growth. The differences
were pronounced, and for worst case conditions order of magnitude or
greater life differences were observed.
Addition of steam to the hydrogen environment had little or no effect

on the single crystal materials, but showedpotentially large
detrimental effects on both LCF and crack growth rate of the
directionally solidified material. LCF life was reduced by 50%or
more; and an order of magnitude increase in crack growth rate was
observed with the addition of steam for transversely loaded DS
MAR-M246(favorable orientation for intergranular crack propagation).
PWA1480 exhibited the best properties overall, in both LCF and crack
growth. The differences in LCF were most pronounced at the high
strain range/low life condition of interest to severe rocket engine
applications.
REFERENCES
i. "Mechanical Properties of Several Nickel Alloys in Hydrogen at

Elevated Temperatures," NASA-MSFC contract NAS8-30744, Exhibit
D. Contractor final report, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group
report FR-8971, September 1977.
. "Low Cycle Fatigue Properties of MAR-M246 Hf in Hydrogen",

NASA-MSFC contract NAS8-33109. Contract final report, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft Group report FR-I1852, June 1979.
. "Mechanical Properties of Turbine Blade Alloys in Hydrogen at

Elevated Temperatures," NASA-MSFC contract NAS8-33561. Contract
final report, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft-Government Products
Division report FR-14844, July 1981.
. Gell, M., D. N. Duhl and A. F. Giamei, "The Development of

Single Crystal Superalloy Turbine Blades," Superalloys 1980,
Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on
Superalloys, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, pp.
205-214, 1980.
, Tada, H., P. C. Paris, and G. R. Irwin, "The Stress Analysis of

Crack Handbook," Del Research Corporation, Hellertown,
Pennsylvania, 1973.
. Ann,s, C. G., R. M. Wallace, and D. L. Sims, "An Interpolative

Model for Elevated Temperature Fatigue Crack Propagation," AFWAL
contract F33615-75-C-5097 Contractor Final Report No.
AFML-TR-76-176, November 1976.
• '7
735 -- '_
REFERENCES cont.
,
Schwartz, B. J., and D. T. Hunter, "A Completely Integrated
System for the Treatment of Crack Growth Test Data,"
Experimental Techniques, Vol. i0, No. 3, March, 1986.
So
Deluca, D. P., and B. A. Cowles, "Fatigue and Fracture of
Advanced Blade Materials," Air Force Wright Aeronautical
Laboratories Contractor Final Report, Contract F33615-82-C-5109,
AFWAL-TR-84-4167, (P&W/ED/FR-18518), February, 1985.
o
Wright, P. K., H. Jang, and H. G. Popp, "Fatigue and Fracture of
Advanced Blade Materials," Air Force Wright Aeronautical
Laboratories, Contractor Final Report contract F33615-82-C-5031,
AFWAL-TR-84-4166, February, 1985.
i0. Gemma, A. E., B. S. Langer, and G. R. Leverant,

"Thermomechanical Fatigue Crack Propagation in an Anisotropic
(Directionally Solidified) Nickel Base Superalloy", Thermal
Fatisue of Materials and Components, ASTM STP 612, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1976, pp. 199-213.
Ii. Chen, O. Y., "Crystallographic Fatigue Crack Propagation in

Single Crystal Nickel-Base Superalloy", Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of Connecticut, 1985.
736
Table l Chemical Composition of Turbine Blade Alloys Used for Mechanical Properties
Investigation
Material Form Heat No, C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Al Ti
MAR-M-246 Directionally DE-008 0.14 0.06 <0.10 6 ppm 8.85 Bal 2.70 5.50 1.55
(H[ Modified) Solidified and
Single Crystal
PWA 1480 Single Crystal P.O. 298577 40 ppm 0.03 0.01 0.005 0.004 10.18 Bal 5.12 1.38
298578
298579
Material Form Heat No. Cu Fe Mg Ta Co W Zr B H[
MAR-M-246 Directionally DE-008 <0.10 0.19 6 ppm 1.51 10.20 10.10 0.04 0.014 1.85
IHf Modified) Solidified and
Single Crystal
PWA 1480 Single Crystal P.O. 298577 0.01 0.05 12.07 4.78 3.94 70 ppm 10 ppm 50 ppm
298578
298579
Table 2. Turbine Blade Alloys Evaluated [or Mechanical Properties in High Pressure
Hydrogen Environments
Material Form Vendor Heat No. As-Tested Condition (Heat Treatment
MAR-M-246 Directionally Howmet DE-008 TLP Bond Cycle*: 1196°C/22 hr in

(Hf Modified} Solidified vacuum/Heat to 1221°C
Solution HT: 1221°C/2 hr in vac-
uum/Cool to room temp
Precipitation HT: 871°C/24 hr in vac-

MAR-M-246 Single Crystal Howmet DE-008 TLP Bond Cycle*: 1196°C/22 hr in

(Hf Modified) heat to 1221°C
Solution HT: 1221°C/2 hr in vacu-

um/Cool to room temp
Precipitation HT: 871°C/24 hr in vac-

PW 1480 Single Crystal Howmet P.O.'s Solution HT: 1288°C/4 hr in protec-

298577, tive atmos/Cool at 139°C/min to
298578, 871°C/AC
298759
Coating HT: 1079°C/4 hr in protective

atmos/Cool at 33°C/min to
871°C/AC
Precipitation HT: 8710C/32 hr in

air/AC
*Only transverse oriented LCF, Creep, and Tensile specimen material received this TLP Bond cycle to obtain
sufficient length of raw material in transverse direction to fabricate specimens.
737
TLP Bond
\ \ Interfaces
Primary [001]
Axis Orientation
(Within 10 (:leg)
Soltdlflcat ton \
Direction Typical LCF, Tensile, and Creep Specimen
Orientation fo¢ Transverse Property Tests
As Received
Material
Primary lOOt]
Ax,S Orientation Typical LCF, Tensile, and Creep Specimen
(W,th,n 10 (:leg) Orientation for Longitudinal Property Tests
Soltdtf tcatton
Dlrectlon
FIGURE 1 - TYPICAL SPECIMEN TEST BLANK FABRICATION AND

BONDING SCHEMATIC
As Rece,ved
| _ [ Longitudinally
Pr,mary IO01l \1 _a= I.- .... o_"i'_ '
Loaded
(Wdh,n 10 deg) Loaded
FIGURE 2 - TYPICAL CRACK GROWTH SPECImeN BLANK ORIENTATIONS
738
OF POOR QUALFC/
F Tensile/creep
LCF
TLP® bonds
for transverse
property tests
Transverse specimens
Crack growth-._ Longitudinal specimens LCF
I
|
FIGURE 3 - TEST SPECIMENS AND TYPICAL ORIENTATION IN CAST BARS
739
FAE 146129
FAE 146121
a) Test Vessel Closed

b) Test Vessel Open Showing
Extensorneter System
FAE 146122
c) Test Vessel Open Showing Furnace

In Place
FIGURE 4 - LOW CYCLE FATIGUE HIGH PRESSURE ENVIRONMENTAL

TEST VESSEL (CRACK GROWTH VESSEL SIMILAR)
740
Tensile
Stress
Mean Strain _ 0
f = 0.067 Hz (4 cpm)
R= - t.0
S _ ,,_t_
Strain Time
r I .._ = Total Stress Range

Compressive
Stress ,._¢, = Total Strain Range = .._. + .._t.
_, = Inelastic Strain Range
,3_. = Elastic Strain Range = _,, - ,-_.
R = Minimum Strain/Maximum Strain
f = Cycli(; Frequency
Typical LCF Cycle
Tensile
.oad Cyclic Ramp Time
sec
Dwel_ Time at
Max Load =
480 sec
LoadMax
1
I
I
I
LoadMin
Time
LoadMin
R = " 0.1
LoadMax
Typical Crack 7rowth Cycle

AND LOAD
FIGURE - TYPICAL STRAIN CONTROLLED LCF CYCLE (TOP)
CONTROLLED CRACK GROWTH CYCLE (BOTTOM)
741
Atmosphere: 870°C, 34.5MPa H2 : : . _ .
; " i !i ..... i ............... _ii
.i ........ " i i i: " ! ..... :'i!i i i_Legend
i • : ! :_: - I...__IoSC_MM246
__ trans without H20
Total strain
i .o . ...! ....... .: .........:.. :i I'With 1-120
range, (%)
: _--_---_= ! 'iI i i ' :! ii InDS MM246 trans without H20
: _ ! --DNFl'With1-120
o
...........
@
Cycles to failure
FIGURE 6 - TRANSVERSE MAR-M246 LCF IN HYDROGEN AND HYDROGEN/STEAM
i i _ l , _ -1o _ : q _ ]
! : Atmosphere: 870 C 34.5MPa H2 :: i i /
' i:::::__W_il:
:.. .....
.....
:-i:: ii:;_I_end
.....
.....
Total strain ! !?_1 :_ _ i ii_x. i i I x SC PWA1480 long without H20

range, (%) •, '.!i
_I_-! ........
;'.;I
"W,th
.20
i i _!_'_i iI vSC PWA1480 trans without H20
: : , i ; ; i ; : :: • With H20
' i_
SO 0 1000 , tO000 IIOORO0
Cycles to failure
FIGURE 7 - PWA 1480 LCF IN HYDROGEN AND HYDROGEN/STEAM
742
' i" i! iiil.......... i---..;--.-
i! !!:
.... Legend I
Totai strain ,,1 ..i..il;_._.i___,,

__il _i-.-._
......
_..::._.i
. Iv SO PWA 1480 trans ]
range,
_%) ___ __ Iosc _2,6 ,ran_ I
: : i _i::l___ '6NF ioDSMM246
trans I
• iiii !.i,i!,ii !!!!_1

Cycles to failure
FIGURE 8 - PWA 1480 AND MAR-M246 LCF IN HYDROGEN AT 870°C
=I = • I - '.: . =_.'.:_I '. ; i_I

I Atmosptlere: 760°C, 34.5MPa H2 . i : i :i!|
• _' i'1_ : _.,! ;-I_"x. :i :/ i I • sc PWA 1480 Vans

Total strain .- ....
_--_-_...i.I
"_._-I • !.-"_"
_ _I
.......
i-Iosc ..2_A t_s *
range, (%)
..
....
, ......
,....
',i-:i
', i,,
......
i....
% .... :'m " " : ':"moo - qm ,-Ira
Cycles to failure
*NOTE sc _ 246-A 0RTENTATION NF,_ (010)-SHOULD BE TRF_TED

LIKE LONGITUDINAL (001)
FIGURE 9 - PWA 1480 AND MAR-M246 LCF IN HYDROGEN AT 760°C
743
AK, MPa
2 5 10 2 5 ]O0 2 5 lO00
13
--' , f lltlll ' , Jlllllt ' __ltllll

Spec No. Symbol
-- Atmosphere: 34.5 MPa Hz -- 0
- 480s dwell --
1000007SC
1000001SC _
m 1 1400 F
! 1000008SC
__ II
-- i I 1000012SC
1000011SC x+ I 1600 F
-- |l °_ 1000017SC o
-- D J!
1000016SC • H20
r!
-- !
I
da/dN, '' I -- o da/dN,
mm/cycle
'0o 870 C/H 2 ...................................... -

in./cycle - 760o°C/H2 _!l l _----
-- ..H e',l.
::T
_-- 870°C/H2-H2 O
¢:, .................................... l..J ................. *.................
×a
p f
1 ?
-- o
mcl,_lcI
C)
, , ,111111,, ,_ IIIIII ,LLL
2 5 I0 2 S lO0 2 S 1000
AK, ksi
FIGURE 10 - SINGLE CRYSTAL MAR-M246 CRACK GROWTH IN HYDROGEN

AND HYDROGEN/STEAM
744
AK, MPa V_
o 2 5 10 2 5 100 2 5 ]ooo
o__, Jl Jlill , _l illll], ' ,t IIII

- Atmosphere: 34.5 MPa H2 _ o
- 480s dwell --
Spec No. Symbol
........................................................
!........................
=- 1000001PA P3
d) I 1400F
1000002PA
!
1000004PA
1600F
1000005PA +
_ 870°C/H2 -- 1000007PA X
H20
_, I 8700C/H2-H2 O-
C:) ............................ _ ......................... _-.--4 .......................
__ I I
T
.- 4! - o
da/dN, 760°C/H2 da/dN,
in./cycle ,_ mm/cycle
,__ ................................................m- ..............................
-- I
- =
_ ...............................................................................
, , i IIIIll , i I IIIIII , , I lllll

2 5 10 2 5 100 2 5 1000
AK, ksi
FIGURE ii - PWA 1480 CRACK GROWTH IN HYDROGEN AND HYDROGEN/STEAM
745
AK, MPa
O
Ii I0 it S too
_' 'Jllllll
' ' _IIIIII
Hold time at maximum

Tensile load = 491 seconds
!
I .......... : ...................
-- 870oC/ :
-H2 + H20
- ;
da/dN, da/dN,
in ./cycle ";'° " 870°C/H2 :T mm/cycle
5400C/H2
,=
$ 10 2 5 lO0 2 5 1000
AK, ksi
FIGURE 12 - TRANSVERSELY LOADED DS MAR-M246 CRACK GROWTH IN

HYDROGEN AND HYDROGEN/STEAM
746
AK, MPa V _-
o 2 5 lg 2 5 _00 2 5 1000
"-_--' _I jlllll ' ' ]11111t' _I jllll

- Atmosphere: _ -o Spec No. Symbol
- 870°C, 34.5 MPa H2 --
1000004H1 [] ),
480s dwell -- DS246
1000002A2 e
T
1000011SC " )
J I
1000012SC + l SC MM246
Oo 1000017SC x
" 1000004PA o 'I. 1480
- t
I
l
I
1
I
1000005PA * f
I I I I
,_ SC MM246,_._!× ; i
o=_ DS
..........................
MM246 ,'............_, _;J,,1_/''V
'-, 'i_P-W-A _80
da/dN,
L TRANS_.f .... da/dN,/v
in ./cycle ° ........................................................................... mm.c cle
-- -- o
- 4 ---
I.p4j _
_ _! __ o
It I w
m
3 - _
o ........................................ |! ................................................
I I
I t ! L ,
o , j j ]11111, _l illlll , , Ill

2 5 10 2 5 100 2 5 1000
AK, ksi
FIGURE 13 - PWA 1480 AND MAR-M246 CRACK GROWTH IN HYDROGEN

AT 870°C
747
AK, MPa
o 5 I0 2 5 100 2 5 1000
o_; JJllllll' _'tlJlil' 'lilllill

-= I °
Atmosphere:
- - ! 870°C, 34.5 MPa H 2 plus
'_- --- ........................
_............... F 50wt%H20 -
I 480s dwell ]
I . J : ___J°o
/ J a I _ -
L-DS MM246 I I
?.___....................... $.c.M.M?
4
_TRANS ,._.i_ i __.o da/dN,
da/dN,
in/cycle ? lli'o
r ,! ,i __mm/cycle_
_'o
__1_- ...................................
-J --_-iW..........
i........................
-
Spec No. Symbol
PWA 1480 o
- I'i I
- 1000002H1
1000003A2
o
o I DS MM246
1000003H1
o ......................................................................................... 1000007PA + PWA 1480
1000016SC x SC MM246
- _ --
_' o
, ,lllllll , ,ITIIlll , ,,Ill1
- 2 5 I0 2 5 I00 2 5 I000
z_K, ksi
FIGURE 14 - PWA 1480 AND MAR-M246 CRACK GROWTH IN HYDROGEN/STEAM

AT 870°C
748
N89- 1266
PROGRESS REPORT ON THE DEVELOPMENT

OF A HYDROGEN RESISTANT ALLOY
W. B. McPherson
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Abstract
In the continuous search for hydrogen tolerant alloys, this

paper describes the latest evaluation of various compositions of
the Fe-Ni-Co-Cr system with elemental additions of Cb, Ti and
A1. After processing, notched tensile specimens were tested in
34.5 MPa (5000 psi) hydrogen at room temperature as the main
screening test. The H2/Air ratio was used as the selection/
rejection criteria° Several Compositions approach the objective
strength, 1241MPa (180 ksi) ultimate and ll03MPa (160 ksi)
yield, with little or no degradation in hydrogen.
Introduction
Nickel base alloys are used extensively in rocket engines because of

their high strength and corrosion/oxidation resistance. Most of these alloys
perform well at cryogenic and elevated temperature o However, most nickel
alloys are severely degraded by gaseous hydrogen (H2). The austenitic
stainless steels are generally acceptable for H 2 service with the stable 316
showing no degradation at room temperature, but, the low yield strength of
these alloys, 241 MPa (35 ksi), limits their usefulness in a weight restricted
engine. Nitronic 40 (21-6-9) has a slightly higher yield, 414 MPa (60 ksi).
A-286, the highest strength alloy of the austenitic steel group, 621MPa
(90 ksi) yield, has limited weldability in thick sections o An iron-nickel
(Fe-Ni) alloy, Incoloy 903, with strength almost equal to Ineonel 718, is not
subject to any strength or ductility degradation in H 2 and is being used in
some Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME)parts exposed to H 2.
In a staged-combustion engine, such as the SSME, there is a second

potentially pernicious environment, hydrogen rich steam (H2/H20) . In low-
cycle fatigue (LCF) tests in which H 2 and helium (He) tests had the same
749
_lue, Figure 1, LCF tests of 903 in H2/H20 at 760°C (1400°F) had a life
20 times shorter than in pure H 2.1
10.0
A HELIUM
O HYDROGEN
O HYDROGEN/WATER VAPOR
z
<{
er
z 1.0
<
rr
t-
u)
uJ
.J
(J
>. 1400OF
(.1
300 SEC. DWELL. COMPRESSION STRAIN
5000 PSI
0.1 ! ! ! I ! ! I I I I I ! ! I ! I I | I | I
10 100 1000
CYCLES TO FAILURE
Figure 1 Low-Cycle Fatigue Results Of Incoloy 903

In Various Environments At 760°C (1400 °F)
Metallographic examination of one of the LCF specimens, Figure 2, indicated

an oxidized surface with intergranular cracks 2 and the overall appearance of
stress-corrosion cracking. A similar deterioration was reported by Smith
et al 3,4 and Bricknell and Woodford 5 , who referred to the phenomenon
750
OF POOR QUALI'i'y
Glyceregia etch 100X
Figure 2 Incoloy 903 Low-Cycle Fatigue Specimen

Tested In H2/H20 At 760 °C (1400°F)
as "stress accelerated grain boundary oxidation." Earlier, Nelson 6 had

reported that 903 was not susceptible to stress corrosion cracking but, after
six months in the salt spray and alternate immersion, pitting was evident.
It seemed that an H 2 resistant alloy was needed that had high strength,
1103 MPa (160 ksi) yield and 1241 MPa (180 ksi) ultimate, corrosion/oxidation
resistance and was weldable.
Approach
Upon reviewing all the alloys that had been evaluated in H 2, the Fe-Ni
alloys, of which 903 is an example, seemed the best to pursue. It also seemed
prudent to maintain the Ni plus cobalt (Co) to Fe ratio at 1.26, the same as
903, with Co at 15%. Chromium (Cr) was selected for corrosion loxidation
resistance. Basically, the ahoy would be an Fe-Ni alloy with Co and Cr and
hardeners such as columbium (Cb), titanium (Ti) and aluminum (A1).
751
Experimental Procedure
Alloy Processing
Three and six-tenths kilogram (8 lbs.) charges were made of electro-

lytic Fe, Co and Cr, Ni pellets, scrap Cb (99°9%), Ti sponge (compacted),
A1 shot (99.9%) and, when required, graphite. The charge was melted in a
calcia-stablized zirconia crucible in a vacuum-induction furnace. The melt
was cast in a magnesia '_hhrow-away" crucible, cooled and grit blasted. The
ingots, 63.5 mm diameter by 152.4 mm long (2.5 dia. by 6 inches), were
homogenized 20-24 hours at 1093°C (2000°F) and hot rolled at 1093-982°C
(2000-1800°F) with two to four intermediate hot soaks. After the ingots were
squared, they were cross-rolled to 76.2 mm (3 in.) wide then final hot rolled
to 15.9 mm (5/8 in.) thick and air cooled. The plates were solution treated
at 954°C (1750°F) for 1 hour and water quenched. They were then aged at
718°C (1325°F) for 8 hours, water quenched then on the second day aged at
621°C (l150°F) for 10 hours and air cooled. All tensile specimens were cut
in the transverse direction.
Testing and Evaluation
Smooth tensile specimens were tested in air to establish the alloy's

strength° Notch tensile specimens with a stress concentration of 8 (Kt=8)
were tested in air at ambient pressure and 34.5 MPa (5000 psi) H 2. The
notched test results were then used as the H2/air ratio to give the relative
resistance to H 2 o
Results and Discussion
Above 10% Cr, the H2/air notch ratio dropped below 0.90. So the Cr
was set at 10% with the Co maintained at 15%. Since the yield strength of the
alloys was 344.7 MPa (50 ksi) below the objective strength, the next experi-
ments concentrated on improving strength.
With Ti from 1 to 3% and A1 0.1 to 1.0%, several alloys had high

strength and most had good properties in It2, particularly, 0.5% A1 and
2-3% Ti. The complete results are illustrated in the Figure 3 matrix.
The microstructures of two of the alloys are illustrated in Figures 4

and 5. Both structures are duplex, fine grains with scattered larger elongated
grains in Alloy A and fine grains with very large, partially elongated grains
in Alloy B. Alloy B contains an intergranular phase where as Alloy A contains
the intergranul_r phase and an intragranular phase with Widmanst_itten form
and platelets with almost a pearlitic appearance. Unexplainably, Alloy A
contained 2% more Ti than planned and is probably the main difference be-
tween the two alloys. The strength, ductility and H 2 resistance of Alloy A
752
was lower than Bo
TITANIUM. %
1,0 2.0 3.0
YS ULT • ," , " /'/,,1i

72 130 122 172
?0s:;:
O
H2/AIR"
.98 1.00
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
93 147
z _. ,',:\\_,
\\\ ,',',
v'. _,bcX
\\,×
:iii_iii[i!ii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii?i?iiii!
.J
< 1.00
154 : :: 168 :::::::: 216:::: 139 197

o 120 ,, ...... ,., ........ ',
%°,°,.°.o%°...%,.%,,%%%,..,,
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.99 :.:::: :'.::::: .92 :::'.::::'.:::::: 1.00
,:.:.:.:.:.:.:,..... ,:..:.:.:.:. ,
CONSTANT MEETS PROJ. GOAL

160 YS, 180 ULT
CARBON < 0.01%
I_ MEETS 718 SPEC.
COLUMBIUM 3.0
150 YS, 180 ULT
COBALT 15.0
"RATIO OF NOTCH TENSILE
CHROMIUM 10.0
STRENGTH IN HYDROGEN
NICKEL * COBALT AND IN AIR
= 1.26
IRON YS - YIELD STRENGTH
- TESTED IN 5 KSI H 2 ULT - ULTIMATE TENSILE
STRENGTH
Figure 3 Experimental Matrix With Various

Aluminum And Titanium Contents
The Fe-Ni alloys with Co, Cb, Ti and A1 usually contain an austenitic
matrix, _" and sometimes two platelet phases: Ni 3 Cb (6") and Ni 3 Ti (_)
with some scattered MC carbides.7 The $ and _ phases are probably the
dominate phases in these alloys. In the Fe-Ni alloys, Ti promotes and A1
tends to inhibit the formation of the >/ phases. 8 So the composition should
probably be 2 to 3% Ti and 0.5 to 1% A1.
No carbon had been added to the alloys but was averaging slightly less
than 0.01%. Carbon was added to three basic compositions and the analyses
was 0.01, 0.016 and 0.035%. There was little difference in these alloys.
The ultimate strength was 1310 MPa (190 ksi) but the yields were 172 MPa
753
loox
1000X
Figure 4 Alloy A With 3.93% Ti And 0.84% A1

(Glyceregia etch)
OF POOR QU_JTY
754
OF POOR QUALITY
IOOX
ii_!i!ii
i!i!ii!i!ii
1000X
Figure 5 Alloy B With 2.83% Ti and 0.69% A1

(Glyceregia etch)
755
(25 ksi) too low. The H2/air notch ratio ranged from 0.96 to 0.98.
While molybdenum (Mo) is a solid-solution strengthener in Fe-Ni

alloys, it may be effective in suppressing the _ phases.9 Two melts were
made of the basic composition with Mo addition of 0.5 and 1.0%. As depicted
in Figure 5, the plates cracked during hot rolling and no specimens could be
salvaged. Since no explanation for cracking was evident, Mo additions will be
attempted again°
Figure 6 Plates Containing Molybdenum, 0% (top),

0.5% (middle) and 1.0% (bottom)
SUlTlm ar y
It seems from some of the experiments that A1 should be increased to

possibly retard the _ formation. Also,the Mo additions should be attempted
again for the same purpose. Although some of the alloys had very good
strength and indicated good H 2 resistance, the microstructure may not pro-
duce satisfactory fatigue or creep-rupture properties or even weldability, so
more effort must be directed toward investigating different heat treat cycles o
The most promising alloy composition is: 37% Fe, 32% Ni, 15% Co, 10% Cr,
3% Cb, 2-3% Ti and 0.5-1% A. The carbon should not exceed 0.04%. The Fe
and Ni would be adjusted depending on the Ti, A1 and Mo additions.
ORiGiNAL PAGE IS
756 OF POOR QUALITY
References
. J. A. Harris and M. C. Van Wanderham, "Influence of Gaseous

Hydrogen on the Mechanical Properties of Incoloy 903," PWA Report
FR-7175, September 1975.
. R. A. Parr, "Failure Analyses of Wrought (STA 2) Incoloy 903 Low

Cycle Fatigue Specimens," MSFC, M&FA Report EH22 (77-62),
April 11, 1977.
. D. F. Smith, E. F. Clatworthy, D. G. Tipton and W. L. Mankins,

"Improving the Notch-Rupture Strength of Low-Expansion Superalloys,"
Superalloys 1980, September 1980; p. 521.
. D. F. Smith and E. F. Clatworthy, "The Development of High Strength,

Low Expansion Alloys," Metal Progress, vol. 124, No. 3, March 1981,
p. 32.
. R. H. Bricknell and D. A. Woodford, "Grain Boundary Embrittlement

of the Iron-Base Superalloy IN 903 A," Metallurgical Transactions,
vol. 12A, September 1981, p. 1673.
. E. E. Nelson, "Resistance of Incoloy 903 to Stress Corrosion and

General Corrosion in Several Environments," MSFC, EH24 (74-19),
September 6, 1974o
o D. R. Muzyka, C. R. Whitney and D. K. Schlosser, "Physical

Metallurgy and Properties of a New Controlled-Expansion Superalloy,"
Journal of Metals_ July 1975, p. 11.
. Co P. Sullivan and M. J. Donachie, Jr., "Mierostructures and

Mechanical Properties of Iron-Base (-Containing) Superalloys,"
Metals Engineering Quarterly, November 1971, p. 1.
. Donald R. Muzyka, "The Metallurgy of Nickel-Iron Alloys," The

Superalloys, ed. Chester T. Sims and William C. Hagel, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 19ff2, p. 113.
757
HYDROGEN EFFECTS ON THE CRACK GROWTH
RESISTANCE OF AN IRON BASED SUPERALLOY
N. R. Moody, M. W. Perra and R. E. Staltz

Sandia National Laboratories
P. O. Box 969
Livermore, CA 94550
Fracture toughness and slow crack gro_h thresholds were determined in

the Fe-Ni-Co superalloy IN903 as a function of hydrogen concentration and
grain size. Fracture toughness measured with precharged samples was
independent of grain size and decreased from 90 to 50 MPa-m 1/2 as hydrogen
concentration increased from zero to 5000 appm. Slow crack gro_'th thresholds
determined in a gaseous environment decreased to 30 M-Pa-m 1/2 at a pressure
of 207 MPa (equilibrium surface concentration of 5000 appm H). These values
increased with increased grain size. The effect of hydrogen on fracture tough-
ness and slow crack growth thresholds will be explained by the relationship
between the microstructure and fracture modes.
This work supported by U. S. DOE contract number DE-AC04-460P00789.
MANUSCRIPT NOT AVAILABLE
758
PARTICIPANTS
Alan Adams Dan David

J. T° Akin Rory R° Davis
David W. Allen William B. Day
Steve L. Allums William J. Dickinson
Robert Ammon Thomas Dollman
Olof Anderson Robert Dominic
W° J. Armstrong Robert E. Doyle
Joseph J. Attinello Robert Dreshfield
Clarence B. Auchter Dan Drinan
S. Don Bai Robert Dring
Sarkis Barkhoudarian Thomas DuBell
Donald A. Barnes Roger Dugas
Gary Bartee Dr. Michale G. Dunn
Lt. Angela B. Bartholomew Matthew C. Ek
John C. Bennett T. C. Evatt
James T. Berling Charles Finnegan
Mel Bernstein Lorraine Finnegan
Ronald Bledsoe Jeff A. Fisher
Wayne Bordelon, Jr. Steven C. Fisher
Kim Bowen Anthony Fortini
James W. Bransford Robert L. Fowler
Mel Bryant D. B. Franklin
O. Hal Burnside Alonzo Frost
Miles S. Butner Donald L. Fulton
Tom Byrd Gordon H. Gainer, Jr.
W. E. Campbell Fred S. Garcia
James Cannon Thomas Garosshen
Charles E° Cataldo Ashoke Ghosh
William V. Chambers Harold M. Gibson
W. T. Chandler Lou Ann Gibson
Muwon Chang John Giordano
Shoei-Sheng Chen John R. Glease
Lynn C. Chou R. Glover
Dr. A° Choudry O. K. Goetz
Henry Cialone Sol Gorland

Harry Cikanek Lynnon F. Grant
Joe C. Cody Stanley Gray
Thomas Coffin Willard Green
Anton Coles Klaus Gross
Dr. N. C. Costes Gary Gustafson
Wilford H. Couts, Jr. Jack Halbrooks
B. A. Cowles, Dr. Gary R. Halford
Preston S. Craig Richard L. Hall
John M. Crapuchettes James D. Hankins
Robert J. Cronin Dr. Gary Harloff
Jeremy P. B. Cuffe Harland Harman
Leslie A. Curtis Robert D. Harris
Youssef M. Dakhoul B. B. Henson
759
RosemaryHernandez Dennis Moore
Philip Hess Lance Moore
Richard R° Holmes S. F. Morea
Dale A. Hopkins George S. Morefield
Vance Houston Stanley A. Mosier
J. E. Hughes Dr. TonmoyMukerjee
Edwin P. Jacobs B. T. Murphy
Richard Jentgen Mike Murphy
BelgacemJery JamesA. Nesbitt
JamesA. Johnston William Nieberding
Jen-Yi Jong Sherif T. Noah
Albert Kaufman Richard Norman
James E. Kingsbury Arthur C. Nunes, Jr.
Kenneth G. Kirk Gordon S. Oakley
Zach Kirkland Charles J. O'Brien
John M° Knadler, III Richard A. Parr
Arthur Kobayashi Robert A. Pallini
Dr. Richard D. Kramer Arvind C. Patel
Dr. Robert E° Kurth Dr. Nell E° Paton
Paul H. Kutschenreuter Donald Paulus
T. Cleon Lacefield Mark L° Pearson
Debra Leath Dennis G° Pelaccio
Brenda L. Lindley-Anderson Roy Pelmas
O. Leon Lindsey Arlen Petersen
Stuart H. Loewenthal Donald W° Petrasek
ThomasL. Lopez Alan Philips
Carl H. Lund Jerry Pieper
Charles Lundquist William E. Poole
Stuart G. MacDonald S. Porowski
A. K. Majumdar Dr. Louis A. Povinelli
Saurin Majumdar William T. Powers
Arthur I. Master Harlan Pratt
Dan Matejczyk Harold G° Price
Glen Malone Robert J°Prozen
Robert G. Mapes A. J° Przekwas
S. J. Marsik Richard Quentmeyer
David E. Marty ThomasA° Rackley, III
MasonD. Marvin Dr. G. V. R. Rao
Ronald A. Mayville J. R. Redus
Patrick E. McBurnett Chris Rhemer
Michael A. McGraw James S. Richards
Timothy McHechnie Robert J° Richmond
Melvin C° Mcllwain Curtis L. Robinson
EugeneMcKannou Dr. Robert P. Roger
Joseph A. McKenzie Dr. Sanders Rosenberg
Bryan McPherson Michael Rother
Jay Medley Don C. Rousar
Daniel Mellon Robert Rowe
Stephen Mercer Paul Royall
Donald V. Merrifield Richard Ryan
Dr. S. Midturl Jeffery W. Salmon
Kathrine Mims Douglas S. Sandridge
Dr. N. R. Moody Carla Schindler
760
Leonard Schoenman
Fredrick T. Schuller
David C. Seymour
Lalit K. Sharma
Dr. John A. Shirley
J. D. Siegwarth
Ashok Kumar Singhal
Richard L. Smith
William Soong
Louis J. Spadaccini
Paul Spica
Roderick Stallworth
Frank W. Stephenson, Jr.
Henry P. Stinson
Sally L. Stohler
Albert Storace
Don Stouffer
WayneL Swanson
Marion S. Swint
Luen Tong Tam
John K. Tein
Linnis G. Thomas
Jerry Thomson
Anthony W. Thompson
Dr. Robert G. Thompson
Bruce K. Tiller
Alan E. Tischer
Isaias Torres
Philip L. Tygielski
David A. Utah
M. C. Vanwanderham
Alex Vary
H. G. Vick
George L. Von Pragenau
Richard E. Walker
Scott Walston
Martin W. Wambsganss
J. Peter Wanhainen
K. Kevin Ward
W. B. Watkins
W. B. White
Michael R. Whitley
Clyde Wiley
Glenn E. Wilmer, Jr.
A. L. Worlund
S. T. Wu
Jim L. Yuen
Robert Zera
Joe E° Zimmerman
761
APPENDIX
762
VOLUME ONE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ............................... ii
WELCOME ADDRESS
James E. Kingsbury ......................... I
PROGRAM OVERVIEW
Frank W. Stephenson, Jr ....................... 2
OXYGEN/HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY TEST BED

A. L. Worlund ........................... 13
I STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
Statistial Techniques for Detecting Bearing Defects

Richard Smith and Jack Frarey .................. 20
Diagnostic Assessment of Turbomachinery by the Hyper-

Coherence Method
Jen-Yi Jong and Thomas Coffin ................. 45
Probabilistic Structural Analysis Methods: SSME Propulsion

Components
D. A. Hopkins and C. C. Chamis ................. 65
Fatique Life Predictions from Measured Strains

Robert A. Sire ......................... 88
II INSTRUMENTATION
Fiber Optic Raman Thermometer for Space Shuttle Main

Engine Preburner Profiling
John A. Shirley ......................... 107
An Advanced Solid State Pressure Transducer for High

Reliability SSME Applications
G. E. Gustafson and J. J. Shea ................. 124
Vortex Shedding Flowmeter for Fluids at High Flow

Velocities
James D. Siegwarth ....................... 139
Non-Intrusive Shaft Speed Sensor

L. Wyett and S. Barkhoudarian ................... 154
SSME Failure Characteristics with Regard to Failure Detection

T. C. Evatt, L. R. lwanicki, M. H. Taniguchi, and H. A.
Cikanek, III .......................... 159
763
Heat Flux Sensor Calibration
A. Dybbs and M. Krane ...................... 165
Development of An Acoustic Monitor to Detect Incipient

Bearing Failure
William D. Jolly, W. R. Van der Veer and John M. Knadler .... 178
Laser Anemometry Systems Design for Velocity Measurements

in the SSME
L. K. Sharma, T. V. Ferguson, J. C. Craddock, and

D. G. Pelaccio ......................... 197
Ill DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBOMACHINERY
A Facility to Study Turbine Rotor and Seal Clearance Forces

B. Jery, Y. Qiu, M. Martinez-Sanchez, and E. M. Greitzer .... 233
Impeller Fluid Forces

C. E. Brennen, A. J. Acosta, and T. K. Caughey ......... 270
Force and Moment Rotordynamic Coefficients for Pump-

Impeller Shroud Surfaces
Dara W. Childs ......................... 296
Experimental Rotordynamic Coefficient Results for Teeth-

On-Rotor and Teeth-On-Stator Labyrinth Gas Seals
Dara W. Childs and Joseph K. Scharrer ............. 327
Test Results for Sawtooth-Pattern Damper Seals: Leakage

and Rotordynamic Coefficients
D. Childs and Frank Garcia .................. 346
IV MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY
Ignition Characteristics of Selected SSME Alloys

James W. Bransford, Phillip A. Billiard, James A. Hurley
and Isaura Vazquez ....................... 366
Tailored Single Crystal Airfoil Development

K. Bowen and P. Nagy ...................... 387
Evaluation of Turbine Disk PM Alloys in Hydrogen

W. H. Couts, Jr ......................... 413
Application of Advanced Coating Techniques to Rocket

Engine Components
S. K. Verma ........................... 422
Evaluation of Fiber-Reinforced Superalloy Composites for

SSME Turbine Blade Applications
J. L. Yuen ........................... 451
764
NewDevelopments in Electroformed Nickel Based Structural
Alloys
Glenn A. Malone ........................ 480
V FLUID ANDGASDYNAMICS
I
Water Flow Test of the Space Shuttle Main Engine Hot

Gas Manifold
Bruce M. Wiegmann ....................... 498
Viscous Flow Computations for the HGMII + Version of the
SSME/HGM
R. P. Roger and S. J. Robertson ................ 518
Flow Induced Vibrations in the SSMEInjector

G. V. R. Rao .......................... 559
Highlights of the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME)

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Fourth Working Group
Meeting
H. V. McConnaughey....................... 571
Numerical Simulation of Multiple Jet Interaction

S. D. Bai, S. T. Wuand C. Warren Campbell ........... 576
SSMEAerothermodynamicsLoad Definition
L. A. Povinelli ........................ 595
VI FLUID ANDGASDYNAMICS
II
Assessment of a Parabolic Analysis for Axisymmetric

Internal Flows in Rocket and Turbomachinery Ducts
G. D. Power and O. L. Anderson ................. 597
Analysis of Multistage Turbomachinery Flows

J. J. Adamczyk ......................... 613
Experimental Measurementsof Heat-Flux Distributions in a
Turbine Stage with Upstream Disturbances
M. G. Dunn ........................... 614
Computational and Experimental Study of Flow-lnduced

Vibration of the SSMEMain Injector Post
S. S. Chen, J. A. Jendrzejczyk, and M. W. Wambsganss...... 637
Real Gas Main Engine Fuel

Turbine
G. J. Harloff ......................... 663
PARTICIPANTS
............................ 688
APPENDIX
Table of Contents of Volume Two .................. 691
765
I. REPORT NO, 12. GOVE]RNiMENT ACCESSION NO. 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NO.
NASA CP- 2437 I

4. TITLE ANO SUeTIT'LE 5. REPORT DATE
Advanced Earth-to-Orbit Propulsion October 1986

Technology- 1986 6. PERFORMING ORG/_NIzATION CODE
Volume II
17. AUTHOR(S) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPOR r #
IR_,]_ RicFmmnd and S.T. WU. Editors

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. woRK UNIT NO.
George C. Marshall Space Flight Center M-541

I I. CONTRACT OR GRANT NO,
"13. TYPE OF REPOR', & PERIOD COVERED
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND AD{)RESS
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Conference Publication

Washington, DC 20546
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENT_Y NOTES
R.J. Richmond - George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama

S.T. Wu - The University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama
Proceedings of a conference held at the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
16. ABSTRACT
The 1986 conference on Advanced Earth-to-Orbit Propulsion Technology was held on

May 13-15, 1986 at the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center. The purpose of the
conference was to disseminate to the industry, government and university propulsion
community the results emerging from NASA's Advanced Earth-to-Orbit Propulsion Technology
Program.
The technical information presented was organized into twelve sessions and one workshop
dealing with rocket engine structural dynamics, instrumentation, turbomachinery rotor-
dynamics, materials, fluid and gas dynamics, fatigue and fracture mechanics, bearings,
combustion and cooling, and hydrogen embrittlement.
A total of 75 papers was presented and approximately 250 rocket engine technologists and
developers from industry, government, and universities attended. The proceedings of this
conference are published in two volumes. This publication is Volume 2 and contains the
manuscripts from the remaining six sessions and the workshop.
17. KE_ WORDS 18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Liquid rocket engines

Propulsion technology
02/H 2 technology Until September 1988
02/Hydrocarbon technology
Subject Category 20
19. SECURITY CLASSIF. (or this report1 20. SECURITY CLASSIF[ (o! thl's I_ie) 21. NO.OF PAGES 22. PRICE
Uncl assi fied Uncl assi fied 773 A99
NASA-Langley, 1986

Earth-to-Orbit: Advanced

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Earth-to-Orbit: Advanced

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Earth-to-Orbit: Advanced

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

NASA Conference Publication 2437

Proceedings of a conference held at

Scientific and Technical

S. F. Morea & R. J. Richmond S. T. Wu

Structures & Propulsion Laboratory Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mr. Vance Houston, NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center

Ms. Sue Weir, The University of Alabama in Huntsville

Biliyar Bhat, NASA/MSFC Thomas Marshall, NASA/MSFC

Frederick Braam, NASA/MSFC William Nieberding, NASA/LeRC

Christos Chamis, NASA/LeRC Louis Povinelli, NASA/LeRC

Fred Dolan, NASA/MSFC Donald Pryor, NASA/MSFC

Robert Dreshfield, NASA/LeRC Richard Quentmeyer, NASA/LeRC

Sol Gorland, NASA/LeRC Larry Salter, NASA/MSFC

Loren Gross, NASA/MSFC Luke Schutzenhofer, NASA/MSFC

Gary Halford, NASA/LeRC Heinrich Struck, NASA/MSFG

Albert Kascak, NASA/LeRC John Wanhainen, NASA/LeRC

Larry Kiefling, NASA/MSFC Erwin Zaretsky, NASA/LeRC

Brian McPherson, NASA/MSFC

Mrs. Pat Corder

Ms. Amy Cain

In addition to the regular conference sessions, a one-day work-

There is a total of eighty-three papers in these proceedings;

June 1986 R. J. Richmond, S. T. Wuand

DampingSeal Tester Progress and Initial Test Results

High-Pressure OxygenTurbopumpLow-SpeedFlexible Rotor

Efficient Transient Analysis Methods for the Space

Vibrations Induced by Nonlinearities in Rotordynamics

Simplified Cyclic Structural Analyses of SSMETurbine

Effects of High MeanStress on the High-Cycle Fatigue of

Constitutive Behavior of Single Crystal PWA1480 and

Fatigue Crack Retardation Following Overloads in Inconel

Thermo-mechanical Performance Evaluation of Cryogenic

Thermal Analysis of SSME Turbopump Bearings

Lubrication Evaluation of SSME Turbopump Bearings

Surface Characteristics of Liquid Oxygen Cooled Ball

Powder Metallurgy Bearings for Advanced Rocket Engines

Rolling Contact Fatigue Life of Zirconium and Molybdenum

Measurement of Rotordynamic Coefficients for a

Surface Modification for Wear Resistance in a Liquid

SSME Bearing Health Monitoring Using a Fiberoptic

Xl COMBUSTION AND COOLING PROCESSES I

Aerojet Techsystems Company Contribution to LOX/HC

Survey of LOX/Hydrocarbon Combustion and Cooling

LOX/Hydrocarbon Combustion and Cooling Survey,

RP-I and Methane Combustion and Cooling Experiments

XII COMBUSTION AND COOLING PROCESSES II

Results of Coaxial Injector Element Testing

Combustion Modeling: Progress and Projections

Effects of Oxygen/Hydrogen Combustion Chamber Envirnoment

HYDROGEN ENVIRONMENT EMBRITTLEMENT IN ADVANCED

Hydrogen-Environment Embrittlement and Its Control in

Multispecimen Test Facility for High-Pressure Hydrogen

Pratt & Whitney's Hydrogen Test Facilities

A High Pressure, High Temperature Hydrogen Environment

Development of a Computer-Controlled Technique to

Hydrogen Effects on the Fatigue and Tensile Behavior of

The Determination of Mobile Hydrogen in Aerospace Engine

Progress Report on the Development of a Hydrogen

K. L. Cappel, Wyle Laboratories