applied

sciences
Article
Atmospheric Charge Separation Mechanism Due to Gas Release
from the Crust before an Earthquake
Wen Li 1,2 , Zhibin Sun 1, *, Tao Chen 1, * , Zhaoai Yan 1 , Zhongsong Ma 3 , Chunlin Cai 1 , Zhaohai He 1 , Jing Luo 1
and Shihan Wang 1,2

1 State Key Laboratory of Space Weather, National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100190, China; [email protected] (W.L.); [email protected] (Z.Y.); [email protected] (C.C.);
[email protected] (Z.H.); [email protected] (J.L.); [email protected] (S.W.)
2 College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3 Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing 100094, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (Z.S.); [email protected] (T.C.); Tel.: +86-138-1019-5052 (Z.S.);
+86-139-1042-1558 (T.C.)

Abstract: In fair weather, the vertical atmospheric electric field is oriented downward (positive in the
earth surface ordinate system) in the global atmospheric circuit. Some researchers have revealed the
unique phenomenon whereby once an upward vertical atmospheric electric field is observed in fair
weather, an earthquake (EQ) follows within 2–48 h regardless of the EQ magnitude. However, the
mechanism has not been explained with a suitable physical model. In this paper, a physical model is
presented considering four types of forces acting on charged particles in the air. It is demonstrated
that the heavier positive ions and lighter negative ions are rapidly separated. Finally, a reversed
fair weather electrostatic field is formed by the above charge separation process. The simulation
results have instructive significance for future observations and hazard predictions and still need
further research.

Keywords: charge separation; reverse vertical atmospheric electric field; multiple forces
Citation: Li, W.; Sun, Z.; Chen, T.; Yan,
Z.; Ma, Z.; Cai, C.; He, Z.; Luo, J.;
Wang, S. Atmospheric Charge
Separation Mechanism Due to Gas
1. Introduction
Release from the Crust before an
Earthquake. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245.
The concept of the global atmospheric circuit (GAC) is essential for the study of
https://doi.org/10.3390/
atmospheric electricity. The atmospheric electric field is particularly important in the
app14010245 conceptual modeling process of the GAC and is an important characteristic parameter
in the fields of space and atmospheric physics. The GAC and related influencing factors
Academic Editor: Giuseppe
are shown in Figure 1, and it is revealed that the Earth’s ionosphere and the solid Earth
Lacidogna
are favorable conductors. All positive and negative charges are distributed only across
Received: 4 December 2023 the surface of these conductors. On the one hand, many positive charges are located on
Revised: 22 December 2023 the surface of the ionospheric bottom. On the other hand, many negative charges are
Accepted: 26 December 2023 located on the Earth’s surface. Globally, 2000 lightning strikes per second provide a positive
Published: 27 December 2023 charge to the ionospheric bottom and may generate a 2000 A current at the surface of
the ionospheric conductor, i.e., a partly plasma-induced current. The ionosphere contains
the positive electrode of the air–ground capacity, while the ground provides the negative
electrode of the air–ground capacity. In fair weather, the current flows to the ground surface
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
from the bottom of the ionosphere (at an altitude of approximately 60 km). Therefore, the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
daily curve of the atmospheric electrostatic field shows an absolute positive value around
This article is an open access article
100 V/m (at the lower right corner of Figure 1, and it is the daily variation curve of the
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
atmospheric electric field observed in Beijing, which is just an example, the horizontal axis
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
is the UT time, and the vertical axis indicates the value of atmospheric electric field with
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ V/m) [1–6]. Meteorological activities are closely related to the atmospheric electric field.
4.0/). Notably, galactic cosmic rays, high-energy particle precipitation and coronal mass ejection

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010245 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 10

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245 2 of 10

Notably, galactic cosmic rays, high-energy particle precipitation and coronal mass ejection
can
canaffect
affectthe
theatmospheric
atmosphericelectrostatic
electrostaticfield
fieldby
byaltering
alteringthe
theair
airconductivity
conductivityororionospheric
ionospheric
potential.
potential. Underground radioactive gas release can also affect thethe
Underground radioactive gas release can also affect near-surface
near-surface atmos-
atmospheric
pheric electric
electric field. field.

Figure
Figure1.1.Background
Background of the global
of the electric
global circuit
electric (“+”,(“+”,
circuit “-” indicate that Earth’s
“-” indicate surface
that Earth’s carriescarries
surface neg-
ative charges and ionosphere carries positive charges. Ez, j and σ denote the atmospheric
negative charges and ionosphere carries positive charges. Ez, j and σ denote the atmospheric electricelectric
field, air–earth current and conductivity along the vertical direction, respectively. The bottom-right
field, air–earth current and conductivity along the vertical direction, respectively. The bottom-right
corner is an example of the daily variation of atmospheric electric field.).
corner is an example of the daily variation of atmospheric electric field.).

There
Thereareare four
four types
types of of emissions
emissionsfrom fromthe thecrust
crustintointothethe atmosphere
atmosphere before
before an im-
an impend-
pending EQ: electromagnetic, acoustic, thermal and ionized
ing EQ: electromagnetic, acoustic, thermal and ionized emissions [7–9]. The spatial and emissions [7–9]. The spatial
and temporal
temporal scalesscales of these
of these fourfour emissions
emissions differdiffer in geospace.
in geospace. In general,
In general, precursor
precursor signalssig-of
nals of electromagnetic emissions emerge in geospace 1 to 40
electromagnetic emissions emerge in geospace 1 to 40 days before an EQ [10,11], precursor days before an EQ [10,11],
precursor
signals ofsignals
acoustic ofemissions
acoustic emissions
emerge inemerge
geospace in geospace
1 to 30 days 1 tobefore
30 days anbefore
EQ and anprecursor
EQ and
precursor signals of thermal emissions emerge in geospace
signals of thermal emissions emerge in geospace 1 to 30 days before an EQ [12]. Atmo- 1 to 30 days before an EQ [12].
Atmospheric
spheric electrostatic field monitoring has recently become increasingly popular andand
electrostatic field monitoring has recently become increasingly popular has
has
beenbeen widely
widely studied
studied [13–20].
[13–20]. Precursor
Precursor signals
signals of ionized
of ionized emissions
emissions emerge
emerge in geo-
in geospace
space
2 to 482 to 48 days
days beforebefore
an EQ. anAtmospheric
EQ. Atmospheric electrostatic
electrostatic field field anomalies
anomalies priorprior
to EQs to EQs
have
have
beenbeen
widelywidely studied.
studied. SinceSince the Tangshan
the Tangshan EQ inEQ in 1976,
1976, China China has established
has established several several
atmo-
atmospheric electrostatic
spheric electrostatic fieldfield monitoring
monitoring stations,
stations, and and
obvious obvious anomalous
anomalous casescases
havehave been
been observed
observed [14]. [14].
Omori Omori
et al. et al.noted
[20] [20] noted that anomalous
that anomalous radon radonemissions emissions
trigger trigger con-
considerable
siderable
decreasesdecreases in the atmospheric
in the atmospheric field of thefield
lower of the lower atmosphere
atmosphere (from the (fromgroundthe to ground
an altitudeto
an
ofaltitude
2 km), asof observed
2 km), as observed
around the around
time the
of thetimeKobeof the
EQKobe EQ in
in 1995. 1995. Omori
Omori et al.
et al. [20] [20]
further
further suggested
suggested that thethat the behavior
behavior of radon ofin
radon
termsinofterms of the atmospheric
the atmospheric electrostatic
electrostatic pro-
process could
cess could
explain explain
seismic seismic precursors
precursors observed nearobserved near theChoudhury
the ground. ground. Choudhury et al. [13]etdescribed
al. [13]
described the characteristics
the characteristics of the verticalof theatmospheric
vertical atmospheric
electrostatic electrostatic field as7–12
field as negative negative
h before7–
anhEQ
12 according
before an EQtoaccording
the statistics of 30
to the EQ events
statistics of 30of EQ
variousevents classes across northern
of various classes acrossIndia.
SmirnovIndia.
northern [18] reported
Smirnovthat [18] more
reportedthanthat
onemorehundredthan cases showedcases
one hundred negative
showedEz anomalies
negative
Eapproximately one day in advance
z anomalies approximately one dayof inMs 4–6 EQs,
advance but4–6
of Ms thereEQs, wasbutnothere
obvious
was no relationship
obvious
between thebetween
relationship Ez valuethe andEzthe epicentral
value and thelocation,
epicentral similar to that
location, between
similar Ez and
to that the mag-
between Ez
nitude.
and When largeWhen
the magnitude. amounts large ofamounts
gases areofreleased
gases are from the crust
released from into
thethe atmosphere,
crust into the
radioactive radioactive
atmosphere, elements such as 222 Rn
elements suchand 214 Th in these
as 222Rn and 214Th gases in these undergo alpha, beta
gases undergo and
alpha,
gamma decay processes. For example, an alpha particle contains
beta and gamma decay processes. For example, an alpha particle contains 4.53 MeV of 4.53 MeV of energy, which
is sufficient
energy, which toisionize
sufficient1,500,000 gas molecules,
to ionize 1,500,000 gas because an atmospheric
molecules, because anmolecule
atmosphericonly needs
mol-
32 eV of energy for ionization. Therefore, large amounts
ecule only needs 32 eV of energy for ionization. Therefore, large amounts of positiveof positive and negative ions are
and
produced
negative ionsin are
the produced
atmosphere by radioactive
in the atmospherematter originating
by radioactive from
matter the crust. from
originating Finally,thea
unique
crust. polarized
Finally, electric
a unique field canelectric
polarized be formedfieldincanthebeatmosphere
formed in that can alter the that
the atmosphere direction
can
of the formal background atmospheric vertical electric field [21], as shown in Figure 2. Four
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245 3 of 10

alter the direction of the formal background atmospheric vertical electric field [21], as
shown in Beijing
cases (the Figure Ms
2. Four cases (theMs
3.0, Rongxian Beijing Ms 3.0, Rongxian
4.7, Changning Ms 4.7,
Ms 6.0, and Changning
Wenchuan Ms 8.0MsEQs)
6.0,
and Wenchuan Ms 8.0 EQs) of preseismic atmospheric electric field hourly scale anomalies
of preseismic atmospheric electric field hourly scale anomalies are shown in Figure 2, and
are time
the shown in Figure
scales for the2,advancement
and the timeofscales for the advancement
the atmospheric of the
electrostatic atmospheric
anomalies are 3.8,elec-
11,
trostatic
23.5 and 7anomalies are 3.8, 11, 23.5 and 7 h, respectively.
h, respectively.

Figure
Figure 2. Abnormal signals
2. Abnormal signals of
ofatmospheric
atmosphericstaticstaticelectricity
electricityononsunny
sunnydaysdays basically
basically emerge
emerge only
only 2–
48 h before
2–48 h beforean an
earthquake
earthquake(panel (a) shows
(panel the Beijing
(a) shows Ms 3.0
the Beijing Msearthquake on 14 on
3.0 earthquake April
14 2019,
Aprilwith
2019,a
station
with locatedlocated
a station 40 km from
40 kmthefrom
epicenter, (b) shows(b)
the epicenter, theshows
Rongxianthe Ms 4.7 earthquake
Rongxian on 24 February
Ms 4.7 earthquake on
2019,
24 with a 2019,
February station located
with 30 km
a station from the
located epicenter,
30 km from the panel (c) shows
epicenter, the(c)
panel Changning
shows theMs 6.0 earth-
Changning
quake
Ms 6.0 on 17 June 2019,
earthquake on 17with a station
June located
2019, with 50 kmlocated
a station from the50epicenter
km from and (d) showsand
the epicenter the Wenchuan
(d) shows
Ms 8.0 earthquake on 12 May 2008, with two stations located 50 and 55 km from the epicenter. The
the Wenchuan Ms 8.0 earthquake on 12 May 2008, with two stations located 50 and 55 km from the
data gap in panel (d) is due to a power outage. In the maps on the right, the stars denote the stations
epicenter. The data gap in panel (d) is due to a power outage. In the maps on the right, the stars
and the circles denote the epicenters) [21].
denote the stations and the circles denote the epicenters) [21].
How are hourly scale atmospheric electric field anomalies generated before earth-
How are hourly scale atmospheric electric field anomalies generated before earth-
quakes?
quakes? WhatWhat forces
forces actually
actually cause
cause atmospheric
atmospheric charges
charges to
to separate,
separate, and
and how
how are
are these
these
positiveand
positive andnegative
negative charges
chargesseparated?
separated? The
The separation
separation of
of positive
positive and
and negative
negative charges
charges
in the atmosphere is essential for the physical mechanism of preseismic atmospheric
in the atmosphere is essential for the physical mechanism of preseismic atmospheric electric elec-
tric field formation. In this paper, we present simulation experiments conducted
field formation. In this paper, we present simulation experiments conducted based on based on
these queries.
these queries.

2. Physical
2. Physical Modeling
Modeling
Earth serves
Earth serves as
as aa significant
significant source
source for
for the
the generation
generation ofof numerous
numerous gases
gases which
which areare
byproductsofofnatural
byproducts natural radioactive
radioactive elements
elements suchsuch as uranium,
as uranium, thoriumthorium and potassium.
and potassium. These
Theseprovide
gases gases provide
crucial crucial
insightsinsights
into theinto the Earth’s
Earth’s interior,
interior, the conditions
the conditions of the massifs
of the massifs in the
in the crust
upper upperandcrust
theand the geoecological
geoecological environment.
environment. More thanMore than of
60–70% 60–70% of the produc-
the general general
productivity
tivity of naturalofionization
natural ionization sources is
sources is provided byprovided by ground
ground radiation. radiation.
Through Through
ground-based
ground-based measurements,
measurements, gaseous discharges gaseous discharges
of various of various
substances, substances,
including including
radioactive radio-
elements
such as radon and its decay products, have been detected in the atmosphere
active elements such as radon and its decay products, have been detected in the atmos- prior to the oc-
currence of major
phere prior to theEQs. The concentration
occurrence of major EQs. of these gases experiences
The concentration a substantial
of these increase
gases experiences
of approximately 4–8 times over undisturbed levels preceding an EQ. A rise in the radon
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 10

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245 4 of 10

a substantial increase of approximately 4–8 times over undisturbed levels preceding an

EQ. A rise in the
concentration can radon concentration
be observed several dayscan be observed
before the onsetseveral days before
of seismic thereaching
activity, onset of
seismic activity, reaching emission levels
3 as high as 25 Bq/m
emission levels as high as 25 Bq/m , which correspond to an ion formation velocity of
3, which correspond to an ion

formation velocity
approximately Q~16of ×
approximately
103 cm−3 s−1Q~16 . These × 10 3 cm−3 s−1. These variations persist for peri-
variations persist for periods ranging from
several hours to several days. Within the Earth’sWithin
ods ranging from several hours to several days. surface, theone
Earth’s surface,three
can identify one can iden-
primary
tify three primary
ionization sources,ionization
namely, sources,
alpha, beta namely, alpha, beta
and gamma and gamma
radiation. radiation.
However, at aHowever,
distance
at a1–2
of distance
m above of 1–2
the m above the
surface, the average
surface, intensity
the average of intensity
ion production of ion production
resulting from resulting
these
from these terrestrial sources does not exceed
− 3 − 3–5
1 cm −3 s−1. Notably, the radioactivity pre-
terrestrial sources does not exceed 3–5 cm s . Notably, the radioactivity present in the
sentcontributes
air in the air contributes to the
to the intensity of intensity
ion productionof ion within
production within
the lower the of
layer lower layer of the
the atmosphere,
atmosphere, accounting for approximately
accounting for approximately 3–4 cm s [22]. − 3 − 1 3–4 cm −3 s−1 [22].

As shown in Figure 3, there are three three mainmain types

types of of ionization
ionization in the the tropospheric
tropospheric
atmosphere: radioactive
atmosphere: radioactiveradiation
radiationininthe theEarth’s
Earth’scrust crust (γ(γraysrays constitute
constitute thethe main
main ioniza-
ionization
tion source),
source), radioactive
radioactive radiation
radiation in the
in the atmosphere
atmosphere (α(α raysconstitute
rays constitutethe themain
main ionization
ionization
source) and cosmic rays from space. The verse lines are high-energy particles from space,
mainly encompassing
encompassing aa10 8 –10
108–10 2020
eVeVhigh-energy
high-energy proton
proton composition.
composition. Energetic GeV GeV
Energetic par-
ticles cancan
particles penetrate
penetrate thethe
atmosphere
atmosphere toto reach
reachthe theground,
ground,which whichcan canimpact
impact the
the molecular
atoms in the atmosphere to form high-energy high-energy particles, referred to as secondary secondary cosmic
lines. Due to the geomagnetic field, the cosmic line is deflected toward the poles when it
penetrates
penetrates thetheEarth.
Earth.Therefore,
Therefore, thethe
intensity
intensity increases
increases withwithlatitude. The total
latitude. atmospheric
The total atmos-
ionization rate atrate
pheric ionization the at
ground is 9.8iscm
the ground 9.8−3cm s−−31s−1
andandthe theradioactivity
radioactivityin inthe
the atmosphere
atmosphere
accounts for 47% of the total radioactivity,
radioactivity, whichwhich in the crust accounts for 36% of the total
radioactivity, and that of the the cosmic line accounts for 17% of the total radioactivity.
cosmic line accounts radioactivity. This
suggests that at the surface, the radioactive material in the atmosphere plays a major role
in atmospheric ionization [22].

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Decay
Decayofofradioactive
radioactiveelements and
elements their
and decay
their periods
decay (Units
periods of time:
(Units a—year,
of time: d—day,
a—year, h—
d—day,
hour, and min—minute, s—second. (a) shows the uranyl system decay, (b) shows the actinide sys-
h—hour, and min—minute, s—second. (a) shows the uranyl system decay, (b) shows the actinide sys-
tem decay and (c) shows the thorium system decay. The upper left corner indicates the two direc-
tem decay and (c) shows the thorium system decay. The upper left corner indicates the two directions
tions for a-decay and b-decay, respectively.).
for a-decay and b-decay, respectively.).
Notably, α-ray penetration is very poor, ranging from 1 to 8 cm, with atmospheric
Notably, α-ray penetration is very −3· poor, ranging from 1 to 8 cm, with atmospheric
ionization rates ranging from 40 to 1 cm s−1. The range of the ionization effect of radioac-
ionization rates ranging from 40 to 1 cm−3 ·s−1 . The range of the ionization effect of
tive materials
radioactive in the Earth’s
materials in thecrust on crust
Earth’s the atmosphere is limitedistolimited
on the atmosphere less than
to 1less
km,than
the influ-
1 km,
ence range of the radioactive material in the atmosphere is limited to
the influence range of the radioactive material in the atmosphere is limited to lessless than 5 kmthan
and
the cosmic line increases with increasing height. In the 3–4 km range, cosmic
5 km and the cosmic line increases with increasing height. In the 3–4 km range, cosmic rays rays account
for 97% for
account of the
97% total radioactivity,
of the and within
total radioactivity, andthe range
within theofrange
5–6 km andkm
of 5–6 above,
and the atmos-
above, the
pheric ionization rate is largely produced by cosmic rays. Whether over land
atmospheric ionization rate is largely produced by cosmic rays. Whether over land or sea, or sea, 3 km
is the dominant cosmic line, so the above still applies.
3 km is the dominant cosmic line, so the above still applies.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245 5 of 10

Planetary geological activities can significantly impact the ionization environment

of space. Planetary geological activities can cause anomalous signals in the atmospheric
electric field, and the possible mechanism by which planetary geological activities can alter
the ionization environment of space was analyzed and determined. The movement of solid
planets, such as the Earth, moon, Mars and other planets, leads to the fragmentation or
melting of rocks and the dissolution or phase change of minerals. Some of the daughter
isotopes of radioactive parent isotopes retained in certain minerals or rocks can be released
in large quantities. In this decay process, many particles are also released, with a particle
energy of 5.2 MeV. Atmospheric analysis requires ionization to generate 32 eV of energy, so
one particle can produce 150,000 pairs of positive and negative particles, thus filling the air
with numerous ion pairs.
At the stage of planetary geological activity, the ionizing radiation of radioactive
material produces millions or even hundreds of millions of ion pairs, which promotes the
hydration process in the atmosphere (water vapor is combined with other particles). In
the hydration process, the excess kinetic energy of molecules is released, which is then
converted into heat energy, resulting in the characteristic heat release. Measurement of the
radioactive material in planetary environments can facilitate a greater understanding of
future conditions.
Radioactive decay involves four main processes: the natural uranium, actinium and
thorium series, plus an artificial radiation system. The uranium series, starting with 238 U
and ending with sTable 206 Pb, includes notable isotopes like 222 Rn and 234 Th, with 238U
having a half-life of 4.468 billion years. The actinium series begins with 235U, ending with
sTable 207 Ph, and involves intermediates such as 227Ac (half-life of 21.772 years) and 223Ra.
The thorium series, starting with 232Th and ending with sTable 208 Ph, includes isotopes
like 228 Ra and 220 Rn, with 232 Th having a half-life of 14 billion years. These series release
substantial energy, contributing to underground heat and potentially influencing seismic
activity. The high density of isotopes like 238 U, with a density of 19.1 g/cm3 , is significant
for industrial applications and cosmic dating.
Water molecules are combined more easily with positive ions. Based on hydration
processes and atmospheric sources of positive and negative ion production [23], we can
assume that the mass of positive ions is greater than that of negative ions. To simulate the
main physical process, only a single positively charged particle and a single negatively
charged particle were considered. All suitable forces eventually result in the rapid sep-
aration between two particles with different charges. Logically, numerous positive and
negative ions undergo a separation process. Finally, the separated ions form a correspond-
ing polarized electric field in the air. In general, the corresponding polarized electric field is
oriented upward (from the ground to the sky).
Notably, radon, thoron and other radioactive elements released underground continue
to release energy as they decay into α, β and γ particles, and the decay process continuously
occurs underground or aboveground. Then, the process of α particle decay that promotes
the ionization of molecules in the atmosphere also causes heat release. In the continuous
microfracturing process of the Earth’s crust, heat from the underground is released into
the near-surface atmosphere. In addition, coupled with the consideration of longwave
radiation anomalies prior to earthquakes [7], there must be a thermal driver F before the
earthquake, but the variation in the F value is complex. Therefore, here, F is described
only qualitatively.
In general, a charged particle in the air experiences four forces: atmospheric qua-
sistable electrostatic force qE, gravity force mg, air drag force kv2 and thermal convection
(upward thermal pressure) force F, where q is the ion charge, E is the average atmospheric
electrostatic field, m is the ion mass, g is the gravitational acceleration, k is the drag coeffi-
cient and v is the ion velocity.
Single positive and negative ion particles are considered in the following equations:
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 10
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245 6 of 10

dv+ion satisfies the following

A single atmospheric positive 2 equation:
m+ = − q + E − m+ g − kv + + F (1)
dvd+
t
m+ = −q+ E − m+ g − kv2+ + F (1)
A single atmospheric negative
dt ion satisfies the following:

dvion
A single atmospheric negative satisfies the following:
2
m−−
= q− E − m− g − kv− + F (2)
dt
dv−
m− = q− E − m− g − kv2− + F (2)
dt electrostatic field E can
Then, the average atmospheric be obtained as:
− α z E can be obtained as:
E = E efield
Then, the average atmospheric electrostatic
0 (3)
−αz
where m+ and m_ are positive and negative E = E0ion
e masses, respectively, q+ and q_ are the (3)
amounts of positive and negative ion charges, respectively, g is the gravitational accelera-
where m and m_ are positive and negative ion masses, respectively, q+ and q_ are the
tion, k is +the air drag coefficient and F is the upward thermal driving force. The above
amounts of positive and negative ion charges, respectively, g is the gravitational acceleration,
equations constitute a simplified fundamental model, where F is regarded as a constant
k is the air drag coefficient and F is the upward thermal driving force. The above equations
and v+ and v_ are the velocities of positive and negative ions, respectively. Accounting for
constitute a simplified fundamental model, where F is regarded as a constant and v and
the actual measured distributions of the atmospheric electric field with altitude, we+con-
v_ are the velocities of positive and negative ions, respectively. Accounting for the actual
sidered the background electric field E here as a quantity that only varies with height; it
measured distributions of the atmospheric electric field with altitude, we considered the
varies vertically downward under normal fair-weather conditions, and the change in
background electric field E here as a quantity that only varies with height; it varies vertically
height follows an exponential distribution [24]:
downward under normal fair-weather conditions, and the change in height follows an
The parameters in the quantitative model and their physical explanations are as fol-
exponential distribution [24]:
lows:
The parameters in the quantitative model and their physical explanations are as follows:
m+: 1.63 × 10−17−kg (the mass of positive ions including many molecules);
m+ : 1.63 × 10 17 kg (the mass of positive ions including many molecules);
m_: 4.08 × 10 −18 kg (the mass of negative ions including many molecules);
m_: 4.08 × 10−18 kg (the mass of negative ions including many molecules);
g:
g: 9.8 m/s2(gravitational
9.8 m/s
2
(gravitationalacceleration);
acceleration);
qq+: :1.6 × 10 −18 C (the charge of positive ions including many molecules);
− 18 C (the charge of positive ions including many molecules);
+ 1.6 × 10
q_:
q_: 1.6
1.6 ××1010−C
−18 18 (the change in positive ions including many molecules);
C (the change in positive ions including many molecules);
k:
k: 0.45
0.45 (drag
(drag coefficient);
coefficient);
EE0:: 100 V/m (average value of the atmospheric electrostatic field under fair weather
0 100 V/m (average value of the atmospheric electrostatic field under fair weather
conditions);
conditions);
a:
a: 1.7
1.7 ××10
−5/m.
10− 5 /m.
Assuming
Assuming that FF is
that is an exponentially decreasing
an exponentially decreasing quantity
quantity with time, substituting
with time, substituting
Equation
Equation (3) into Equations (1) and (2), with some constant values set asdescribed
(3) into Equations (1) and 2, with some constant values set as described above,
above,
leads
leads to to the
thesimulation
simulationresults,
results,and
andthe
theresults
resultscan
canbebe
obtained within
obtained 300300
within s, as shown
s, as in
shown
Figure
in Figure 4. 4.

Figure
Figure 4. Simulation results
4. Simulation results illustrating
illustrating the
the atmospheric
atmospheric charged
charged particle
particle process
process in
in which positive
positive
and
and negative
negative ions
ions are
are rapidly
rapidly separated
separated over time
time (blue
(blue and
and yellow
yellow colors
colors indicate
indicate the
the movement
movement of
of
positive
positive and
and negative
negative ions,
ions, respectively.).
respectively.).
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 10
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245 7 of 10

3.
3.Simulation
SimulationResults
Results
Experimental evidence has
Experimental evidence hasrevealed
revealedthatthat
thethe mobility
mobility of negative
of negative ions ions is approxi-
is approximately
mately
1.3–1.41.3–1.4 times higher
times higher than that thanofthat of positive
positive ions.ions.
ThisThis disparity
disparity in mobility
in mobility cancan likely
likely be
be attributed to the asymmetry in the energy needed to remove
attributed to the asymmetry in the energy needed to remove ions of opposite charges ions of opposite charges
from
from oxygen
oxygen atoms
atoms in in water
water molecules.
molecules. UnderUnderthe thecombined
combinedaction actionof of the
the electric
electric field
field
force,
force, gravity, air resistance and thermal driving force, the upward movement speed
gravity, air resistance and thermal driving force, the upward movement speed of of
negative
negativeions ionsisishigher
higher than
than that of positive
that of positiveions, andand
ions, the two formform
the two an upward
an upward electrostatic
electro-
field.
staticWhen
field. the
When charge furtherfurther
the charge increases, the background
increases, field is reversed;
the background notably,notably,
field is reversed; the so-
called negative anomaly of the atmospheric electrostatic field
the so-called negative anomaly of the atmospheric electrostatic field occurs under fair occurs under fair weather
conditions.
weather conditions.
As
As shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5, 5, when
when subjected
subjectedto to the
the natural
natural atmospheric
atmosphericelectric
electricfield
field(E),
(E),
positive
positiveionsionsexperience
experienceaa downward downwardmovementmovementtoward towardthe theEarth’s
Earth’ssurface,
surface,wherewheretheythey
eventually
eventuallyrecombine.
recombine.However, However,due duetototheir
theirrelatively
relativelylow lowmobility,
mobility, aa spatial
spatial layer
layer ofof
positive
positiveionsionsisisformed
formednear nearthe thesurface
surfaceover
overtime.
time.InIncontrast,
contrast, negative
negative ions
ionsexhibit verti-
exhibit ver-
cal upward
tical upward movement
movement (neglecting
(neglecting the the
electrons
electronswithin the scope
within of this
the scope ofmodel due todue
this model theirto
low concentration at the Earth’s surface). Consequently, a near-ground
their low concentration at the Earth’s surface). Consequently, a near-ground electrode electrode layer is
established, characterized
layer is established, by a local
characterized byelectric
a local field (El),field
electric which(El),causes
whichthe natural
causes the atmos-
natural
pheric electricelectric
atmospheric field tofield become negative.
to become The primary
negative. consequence
The primary of the electrode
consequence effect
of the electrode
iseffect
the development
is the development of an uncompensated
of an uncompensated electricelectric
chargecharge
acrossacross
the ground surface.
the ground Tur-
surface.
Turbulent
bulent movements
movements andand regular
regular winds
winds cancan transport
transport thisthischarge
chargewithin
withinthethenear-ground
near-ground
atmosphere,leading
atmosphere, leadingto tothe
thecreation
creationof ofan
ananomalous
anomalouselectrode
electrodelayer layerover
overextensive
extensiveareas.
areas.
However,
However, in in reality, such situations typically persist for a short period
such situations typically persist for a short period since further tur-since further turbu-
lent movements
bulent movements tendtend to to
disrupt
disrupt thethe
electrode
electrodelayer, mixing
layer, mixing all ions andand
all ions restoring electrical
restoring elec-
equilibrium.
trical This physical
equilibrium. This physical process confirms
process the preseismic
confirms atmospheric
the preseismic electricelectric
atmospheric field hourly
field
scale anomalous
hourly scale anomaloussignal shown in Figure
signal shown 2.
in Figure 2.

Schematicillustration
Figure5.5.Schematic
Figure illustrationof ofthe
themovement
movementof ofpositive
positiveand
andnegative
negativecharges
chargesto
toform
formaalocalized
localized
anomalouselectric
anomalous electricfield
field(E(E
local ) that
) that
local is reversed
is reversed from
from fair-weather
fair-weather atmospheric
atmospheric electric
electric fieldfield
(Efair)(E fair )
(“+”
and
(“+”“−”
andare “−consistent with the
” are consistent withinterpretation of Figure
the interpretation 1).
of Figure 1).

4.Discussion
4. Discussion
Basedon
Based onthe
thesimulation
simulationresults,
results,positive
positiveand
andnegative
negativeions
ionsare
aremainly
mainlydriven
drivenbybyfour
four
forces: positive and negative ions are advancing but are rapidly separated, positive
forces: positive and negative ions are advancing but are rapidly separated, positive ions ions
formaacharged
form chargedlayer
layerand
andnegative
negativeions
ionsform
formaanegative
negativecharge
chargelayer.
layer. These
Thesecharges
chargesform
form
an opposite electric field in the atmosphere near the surface under clear weather
an opposite electric field in the atmosphere near the surface under clear weather condi- conditions,
whichwhich
tions, is the opposite of the electric
is the opposite field under
of the electric fieldclear
under weather conditions
clear weather depicteddepicted
conditions in Figurein1,
as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 1, as shown in Figure 6.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88of 10
of 10

Figure 6. A reverse electrostatic field appears after atmospheric charges are separated due to gases
stemming from
stemming from the
thecrust
crustbefore
beforean
anearthquake
earthquake[25].
[25].(“+”,
(“+”, ““−”
−” indicate
indicate positive and negative
negative charges).
charges)

The presented model is only a simplified one. In reality,reality, collisions

collisions between
between positive
and negative ions and electrostatic field forces must be accounted for,
negative ions and electrostatic field forces must be accounted for, and and the thermal driv-
the thermal
ing forceforce
driving and drag
and coefficient also vary.
drag coefficient alsoFurthermore, due to the
vary. Furthermore, duechemical reactionsreactions
to the chemical between
positive
between and negative
positive ions andions
and negative between them and
and between themwater
and molecules, their compositions
water molecules, their compo-
change, and thisand
sitions change, process causes changes
this process in theirin
causes changes charge and mass.
their charge andThemass.proposed model
The proposed
is only one possibility for explaining the negative atmospheric electric field
model is only one possibility for explaining the negative atmospheric electric field anom-anomalies ob-
served before EQs, but the physical processes before EQs (anomalies in the
alies observed before EQs, but the physical processes before EQs (anomalies in the elec-electron density
of thedensity
tron ionosphere,
of therelease of radioactive
ionosphere, release ofgases, etc.), asgases,
radioactive well as the as
etc.), coupling
well asrelationships,
the coupling
require further in-depth study.
relationships, require further in-depth study.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Based on some fundamental assumptions and physical formulas, we have simulated
Based on some fundamental assumptions and physical formulas, we have simulated
the process involving the generation of a large number of positive and negative ions by
the process involving the generation of a large number of positive and negative ions by
radioactive gases before an earthquake. The simulation results suggest that, under ideal
radioactive gases before an earthquake. The simulation results suggest that, under ideal
conditions, positive and negative ions can be separated due to the combined influence
conditions, positive and negative ions can be separated due to the combined influence of
of gravity, atmospheric electrostatic force, thermal driving force and air resistance. This
gravity, atmospheric electrostatic force, thermal driving force and air resistance. This sep-
separation could lead to the formation of a negative anomaly in the near-surface atmo-
aration could lead to the formation of a negative anomaly in the near-surface atmospheric
spheric electric field. However, it is important to note that these are merely idealized
electric field. However, it is important to note that these are merely idealized simulation
simulation results, indicating only a possibility. Further in-depth research is required to
validate indicating
results, only a possibility. Further in-depth research is required to validate
these findings.
theseOur
findings.
simulation results could be used to better understand the ionization of crustal
matterOur simulation
into results could
the atmosphere, be usedmigration
the vertical to better understand the ionization
of charged particles of crustal
and ultimately
matter into the atmosphere, the vertical migration of charged particles and
the formation of vertical electrical separation in air, resulting in an additional vertical ultimately the
formation of electric
polarization vertical field.
electrical
Thisseparation
could layintheair,foundation
resulting infor anthe
additional
analysisvertical polari-
of mechanics.
zation electric field. This could lay the foundation for the analysis of mechanics.
Finally, it was observed that under the combined action of atmospheric static electricity, Finally,
it was observed
gravity, that under
air resistance the combined
and upward thermal action of atmospheric
pressure, seed ions arestatic electricity,
provided gravity,
by ionizing
air resistance and upward thermal pressure, seed ions are provided by
radiation of radioactive substances before an EQ. In addition to the different types andionizing radiation
of radioactive
weights substances
of positively before an charged
and negatively EQ. In addition
particles,to it the different
is entirely typesfor
possible andnewweights of
positive
positively
and negative andions
negatively
to undergo charged particles,
electrical it is entirely
separation in severalpossible
minutes.for new positive and
negative ions to undergo electrical separation in several minutes.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 245 9 of 10

Based on the assumption that horizontal direction movement is neglected, the rapid
separation mechanism of a pair of differently charged particles with different masses
in the air depends on four forces: atmospheric formal vertical downward quasi-stable
electrostatic force, vertical downward gravity force, air drag force (reverse to the direction
of ion movement) and thermal convection (vertical upward thermal pressure) force F. It
could be logically concluded that after charges are separated, a corresponding macroscopic
polarized electrostatic field is rapidly established in the atmosphere. The resultant polarized
electrostatic field is oriented toward the sky and exhibits the opposite direction to that of
the daily atmospheric electrostatic field (vertical downward, as shown in Figure 4). This
phenomenon is particularly obvious under fair weather conditions. Therefore, the charge
separation mechanism could facilitate future EQ prediction.

Author Contributions: T.C. conceptualized this study. Z.S. and W.L. processed and analyzed the
model and prepared the original draft, with contributions from all authors. Z.Y., Z.M., Z.S., C.C.,
Z.H., J.L. and S.W. contributed to the discussion. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Scientific Instrument Developing Project of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences (Grant No. YJKYYQ20190008), the National Key R&D Programme of China
under grants 2018YFA0404201 and 2018YFA0404202, the Strategic Pioneer Program on Space Science,
the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant Nos. XDA15016300, XDA15350201, and XDA17010303), the
Pandeng Program of the National Space Science Center, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the
Ground-Based Space Environment Monitoring Network (Meridian Project II).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The source code used in the model can be found on the github site:
https://github.com/leibupang123/particlemove (accessed on 27 December 2023).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors have no financial interest to disclose.

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