1.

Module: Microorganisms - Virus and Bacteria

Biodiversity and Classification
 Biodiversity or biological diversity describes the variety of living organisms on Earth.
 It refers to all the species in one ecosystem including terrestrial, marine, and aquatic
organisms.
 Differences in temperature, rainfall, soil, geography, and the presence of other species
all plays a role in biodiversity.
 Only 1.6 million species have been identified and described so far.
 Classification are a way of categorising biodiversity based on common characteristics.
 Biologists use a system of classification to organise the biodiversity of living organisms.
 Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, developed the first classification system; he divided all
living organisms into two groups, animals and plants.
 In 1735, Carolus Linnaeus a Swedish biologist, created the two-kingdom classification,
Kingdom Plantae and Kingdom Animalia.
 In 1866, Ernest Haeckel a German zoologist, added the third-kingdom, Kingdom
Protista, which are microscopic single-celled organisms.
 In 1938, Herbert Faulkner Copeland an American Biologist, differentiated between
eukaryotes and prokaryotes adding the fourth kingdom, Kingdom Monera.
 In 1969, Robert Harding Whittaker an American biologist, recognized the Kingdom Fungi
creating a five-kingdom classification.
 All organisms form Kingdoms Monera and Protista as well as most organisms from
Kingdom Fungi are categorised as micro-organisms or microbes.
 These kingdoms are made up of eukaryotic cells, which have a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles, and prokaryotic
cells, which no nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
 Kingdom Plantae, Animalia, Fungi and Protist all
have eukaryotic cells while Kingdom Monera has
prokaryotic cells.

Classification of Microorganisms
 Microorganisms were the first organisms to
evolve on Earth and can be found
everywhere.
 Microorganisms are organisms that are microscopic; can only be seen with a
microscope.
 The first person to view microorganisms was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, he used a
light microscope called a Leeuwenhoek microscope, and described microorganisms
such as bacteria and yeast.

Pathogens
 Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens which can affect humans,
animals and plants.
 Viruses, bacteria, protists and fungi can be pathogenic.
 An infection is when a pathogen invades an organism and multiplies while a disease
is an infection that causes damage to an organism’s functions and systems.
  Pathogens can be found in air, water, soil and organisms.
 Pathogens can spread through the air via spit and mucus, in untreated and
contaminated water, in contaminated food, and transmission from one organism to
another.

Viruses
 Viruses are responsible for diseases including influenza, Ebola, rabies, smallpox, and
COVID-19.
 They are considered non-living as they cannot do some of the seven life processes.

A virus appears living: A virus appears non-living:

 It has a protein coat.  It is an acellular structure which
does not have a cell membrane,
nucleus, cytoplasm, and
functional organelles.
 It has DNA/RNA, never both.  It is inactive outside of the cell
and can’t reproduce itself.
 It can be active and reproduce in  It can crystallize under
the host cell. unfavourable conditions.
 It doesn’t feed on anything.

 Most viruses are not pathogenic to humans and many plays important roles in
ecosystems.
 Scientists believe that without viruses' life on Earth will cease to exist.
Structure of viruses
 Most viruses usually have a diameter of 20 nm – 300 nm.
 Smallpox is the largest viruses whilst polio is among the smallest viruses.
 Viruses can be seen with an electron microscope.
 It has a simple acellular organization and distinct pattern of multiplication.
 Outside the host cell viruses are known as virions which are metabolically inert and
does not grow or carry on respiratory or biosynthetic functions.
 The nucleic acid portion of the virus is called the viral genome.
 The DNA/RNA gives the virus specific genetic information while the protein coat is
there to coat and stabilize the nucleic acid.
 There are five main types of viruses:
o Helical
o Icosahedral
o Complex
o Envelope
  A bacteriophage, a virus that infects bacteria, is a complex
virus with an icosahedral head, neck, and helical tail, which
injects the viral genome into the bacterial host. (are
ubiquitous)
 Plant viral infections often includes blistered leaves,
misshapen or unusually small fruit, tumours on root, and
colour changes in flowers.
 It is a class if viruses that are responsible for tobacco mosaic virus, orthotospovirus,
rhabdovirus, reovirus, begomoviral and nano virus.

Replication of Viruses
 Viruses depend on the machinery and metabolism of the host cell to replicate.
 The replication cycle can differ between species and categories of viruses.
 The five-step process of viral replication:

1.

Attachment: The virus attaches to a host cell, binding to specific receptor

molecules.
2. Penetration: The virus penetrates the host cell membrane, gaining entry
through fusion or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material (DNA or RNA) is released from its
protective protein coat, allowing it to access the host cell's replication
machinery.
4. Replication and Transcription: The viral genetic material replicates its own
genome and produces viral proteins.
5. Assembly and Release: Once synthesized, the components are assembled
into new virus particles, released from the host cell through cell lysis or
budding.
 The release of virions on the host cell can occur through two methods: Lytic Cycle or
Lysogenic Cycle.
 The Lytic cycle, results in the host cells death, by manufacturing more viruses which
eventually forces the host cell to lyse or break up e.g., smallpox and bacteriophages.
 The Lysogenic cycle occurs when the virus combines with the host cells genetic
material and continues to replicate resulting in the development of a viral
phospholipid envelope e.g., influenza viruses and HIV.
 As the virus infiltrates the host cells, the lymphocytes of white blood cells fight
against the virus which causes fevers, aches and pains.
 Primary infection, occurs 3-5 days after the virus infiltrates the host cell, which
causes damage to the mucus membrane.
 Secondary infection, occurs when bacteria infiltrate the damaged mucus membrane.
 Without treatment this bacterium can cause pneumonia, respiratory failure, heart
problems, lung failure and death.
 This bacterium can however be killed with antibiotics.
HIV and AIDS
 The pathogen human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is responsible for the disease
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
 35 mil lives have been claimed by HIV/AIDS.
 The virus targets a specific cell in the immune system of humans, thus causing those
cells to die resulting in the development of HIV.
 The function of the immune system is to fight off infections and cancers therefore
people with AIDS run the risk of cancers and infections.
 The stages of HIV/AIDS:
o Early stages – experiences no symptoms or symptoms similar to flu e.g.,
fever, headache and sore throat.
o Later stages – experience weight loss, diarrhoea and swollen lymph nodes.
 HIV can only be transmitted from an infected person through bodily fluids e.g., blood
transfusions, breast milk, vaginal secretions, and semen.
 To reduce the risk of HIV one should avoid unprotected sex and not share needle or
syringes.
 To avoid HIV transmission during pregnancy, delivery and breast-feeding
antiretroviral drugs (ARV) should be taken.
 Antiretroviral drugs need to be taken as to strengthen the immune system as there is
no cure yet for HIV.
Bacteria
2. Module: Microorganisms – Protists and Fungi
 3. Module: Plant Diversity

Topic 1: General Characteristics of Plants

 Without the oxygen that plants produce during photosynthesis, aerobic life
cannot be sustained.
 Plants provide numerous valuable resources such as food and shelter, to
serving as a source of medicines, oils, perfumes and industrial products.
 Plant diversity refers to the existence of a wide variety of plant species in
their natural environments.
 There are around 300 000 – 500 000 species of plants currently existing on
Earth.
 Majority of plants are flowering plants (80%).
 Plants vary in size and shape.
 Most plants grow in soil where it absorbs the necessary nutrients and
water that it needs.
 Epiphytes grow on hard surfaces and on other plants and they receive the
water they need from rainfall.
 Plants are multicellular and are autotrophic organisms that contains
chlorophyll.
 All plants have eukaryotic cells and have a cell wall made of cellulose.
 They respond to light, gravity, chemicals and water.
 They provide the foundation of many food webs.

Classification of plants
 All living things that were not animals were seen as plants e.g., fungi and
algae.
 Now fungi, some types of algae and prokaryotes are excluded from the
plant kingdom.
 For an organism to be classified as a plant it needs to:
o Have the presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body
whether they have roots, stems or leaves.
o Have a vascular system for the transportation of water and other
substances e.g., xylem and phloem.
o Reproduce through either spores, seeds, flowers or fruits.
o Depend on water to reproduce.
 The Plant Kingdom can be split into 4 distinct groups:
o Bryophytes – seedless and non-vascular plants
o Pteridophytes – seedless but vascular plants
o Gymnosperms – seed-bearing but non-flowering plants
o Angiosperms – seed-bearing flowering plants
Topic 2: Plant diversity – Bryophytes
VIDEO: Tutorial - Plant Diversity – Bryophytes
 Bryophytes, consisting of about 20 000 species, are simple, tiny land
plants that do not have vascular tissue, seeds, true roots or leaves.
 They are described as seedless, non-vascular plants.
 They live in moist and shady places.
 They can survive in various environments but when that environment
dries so does the plant.
 They are dormant when dry but recover rapidly in the presence of water.
 Bryophytes include mosses, hornworts and liverworts.
 Common examples are Marchantia, Funaria, Sphagnum, and Anthoceros.
 Water and food move into bryophytes by means of diffusion only.
 Their vegetative tissue is known as thallus and does not have true roots or
leaves, instead of roots they have rhizoids.
 Water is absorbed through the surface of the whole plant as they have no
cuticle.
 These plants have simple leaf-like structures, and they contain chlorophyll
for photosynthesis.
 They have separate male and female branches and reproduce by means of
spores.
 The male branches produce gametes or male cells, and the female
branches produce female gametes or egg cells.
 They depend on water for fertilization as the motile male gametes have to
swim to reach the female gametes.
 Bryophytes are pioneer plants in that they are the first plants that will
grow and colonize rocks and land therefore they play an important role in
plant succession.
 Bryophytes grow densely and hence act as soil binders.
 Mosses grow in dense strands forming mat or carpet-like structures.
 Mosses and lichens are slow but efficient soil formers.
 The acid secreted by the lichens and progressive death and decay help in
the formation of soil.
 They are a good source of food for birds.
 Bryophytes are used to heal hepatic disorders, skin diseases and
cardiovascular diseases.
 They are antipyretic and antimicrobial; having wound healing properties
and can heal many other ailments.

VIDEO: Tutorial - Plant Diversity - Pteridophytes

 A fern is an example of a Pteridophyte.
 Pteridophytes are vascular seedless plants which include ferns, horsetails,
clubmosses.
 They live in shady areas and are found in moist environments.
 They have vascular tissue, xylem and phloem.
 They have true roots, anchoring them to soil to absorb water and mineral salts.
 The leaves of pteridophytes are well-developed for photosynthesis and are covered
by a waxy cuticle to reduce water loss and stomata for gaseous exchange.
  The leaves are characteristically coiled in buds.
 They do not produce seeds or flowers but rather through spores, depending on water
for fertilization.
 Pteridophytes plays an important role in plant succession by replacing moss plants.
 As they grow pteridophytes bind the soil and play a large role in preventing erosion.
 They are source for animals.
 Pteridophytes are also used for medicine for diarrhoea, bladder irritability, eczema,
rheumatism, constipation and liver inflammation.

VIDEO: Tutorial - Plant Diversity – Gymnosperms

 Gymnosperm means ‘naked seeds’.
 Gymnosperms do not produce flowers or fruits instead they produce their
seeds on exposed structures called cones.
 Gymnosperms are seed-bearing, non-flowering plants.
 They do not flower and hence their seeds do not grow in any specialised
structure.
 Gymnosperms have well-developed conducting and strengthening
vascular tissue.
 They have true roots, leaves and stems leading to most gymnosperms
growing in large heights.
 A taproot system is present with lateral roots without root hair.
 The leaves are covered with a thick cuticle to reduce water loss.
 Transpiration is minimised by the reduced surface area of the needle
shaped leaves, thick cuticle and sunken stomata.
 They are categorised by their reproduction structures with male and
female cones.
 Gametes are produced within male and female cones within the plant.
 Female cones produce ovules or eggs, and male cones produce pollen.
 Pollen makes gymnosperms independent of water for fertilisation.
 It can be transported by wind or other pollinators.
 In the Mesozoic Era, gymnosperms were the most common plants on
earth.
 They were the first to develop seeds and have over 700 different species.
The four main divisions of are:
 Conifers (Pines, Yellowwoods, Cypresses, Cedars, Cycads)
 Cycads
 Ginkgoes
 Gnetales (Ephedra, Welwitschia)

VIDEO: Tutorial – Plant Diversity – Angiosperms

 Angiosperms populate almost every biome and aquatic community, with
the exception of extreme habitats.
 They are a major food source for animals and humans and are a major
economic source for the production of various commercial products.
 They are vascular seed-bearing plants that have two distinguish them
from all other plants.
 They produce fruits and flowers.
 They have true roots, stems, leaves and well-developed conducting tissue.
 Accounts 80% of all known living plants.

 4. Module: Animal Diversity
VIDEO: Tutorial - General Characteristics of Animals
 Animal life, began with tiny creatures living in the ocean, over 600 million
years ago.
 Since then, animals have become a diverse Kingdom.
 Over one million types of species of animals have been identified that are
currently alive on our planet.
 Scientists are continually discovering more species as they explore
ecosystems around the world.
 It is estimated that they are actually between 3 and 30 000 000 million
species.
 Animals vary in complexity from sea sponges to crickets to chimpanzees.
 Scientists are faced with a difficult task of classifying them within a unified
system.
 The animal classification system characterizes animals based on their:
anatomy, morphology, features of embryological development, and
genetic makeup.
 All animals are eukaryotic and almost all animals have a complex tissue
structure with differentiated and specialized tissues.
 Animals are heterotrophic organisms and must take in food by eating
other organisms.
 Most animals are motile at least, during certain life stages.
 1. Module: Photosynthesis

VIDEO: Tutorial - Radiant and Chemical Potential Energy

 The sun is the most important source of energy.
 It produces radiant energy that comes in form of heat and light.
 Only producers which contain chlorophyll can turn light energy into food
energy (glucose) e.g., plants, green algae, cynobacteria etc.
 Photosynthesis means “Photo” meaning unit of light and “synthesis”
meaning making of food.
 Photosynthesis is the process whereby radiant energy into chemical
potential energy.

VIDEO: Tutorial – Chlorophyll

 Photosynthesis takes place in the stems and leaves of plants.
 Leaves and stems have specialised cells which contains structures called
chloroplasts.
 Chlorophyll is the green pigment inside of leaves and stems.
 This pigment is responsible for absorbing light energy.

VIDEO: Tutorial – Chloroplast

 Chloroplasts are biconvex shaped, semi-porous, double membraned cell
organelles found in the mesophyll of the plant cell.
 All the green parts of the plant contain chloroplasts.
 They are sites for synthesising food through the process of photosynthesis.
 It converts radiant energy into chemical energy.
 Chloroplasts synthesises the organic compound, glucose, from carbon
dioxide and water by using light energy and releases oxygen.
