Originals Heat and Mass Transfer 37 (2001) 597±604 Ó Springer-Verlag 2001

Ice slurry based thermal storage in multifunctional buildings

M. J. Wang, N. Kusumoto

597
Abstract Ice slurry based thermal storage plays an im- 1
portant role in reshaping patterns of electricity use for Introduction
space cooling and heating. It offers inherent advantages in Ice slurry refers to a mixture of small ice crystals and
energy ef®ciency, operating savings, load follow-up and liquid. In general the liquid is a binary solution consisting
¯exible installation over conventional thermal storage of water and a freezing point depressant, such as ethylene
technologies. This paper provides discussions on the glycol, ethanol or sodium chloride.
generation mechanism and performance of ice slurry, as Ice slurry has high energy storage density because of the
well as the operation principle of the ice slurry based latent heat of fusion of ice crystals. It also has a fast
thermal storage system. Details of the system design, cooling rate due to the large heat transfer surface nu-
control strategy and operation performance are given merous crystals create, and constant low temperature level
through a case study on a recent installation in Herbis the slurry maintains during a cooling process. These fea-
Osaka, the largest simple building complex in Japan. An tures of ice slurry are bene®cial in many applications. For
evaluation of different installations with ice slurry thermal example, ice slurry has been successfully used as a direct
storage reveals that it is a rewarding technology that cooling medium for ®sh and other food products [1], and
provides signi®cant operating savings for the building air- as a natural refrigerant for cooling of railway cargos [2].
conditioning and improves energy utilization ef®ciency in The application of ice slurry in the air-conditioning
modern society. industry started in the mid 1980s, as a result of growing
concerns on energy conservation and environmental pro-
List of symbols tection. A steep increase in the use of of®ce automation
A ¯oor area, m2 equipment and a high occupancy of work force in multi-
COP coef®cient of performance functional buildings created high cooling loads in the last
E annual power consumption, kW á h few decades. This resulted in signi®cant unbalanced power
IPF ice packing factor, %wt demand, since energy required for air-conditioning, usu-
Q refrigeration capacity, W ally making up almost half of all building operating ex-
P power demand, W penses, is mostly consumed in the daytime.
T temperature, °C To equalize the electricity load pro®le and improve
energy utilization ef®ciency, utility companies usually set
up incentive measures to encourage nighttime use of
Subscripts
electricity. In Japan electricity charges consists of a basic
ac air-conditioning
rate and a metered rate. The former is determined by the
c cooling
maximum electricity in kW supplied. The latter is deter-
h heating
mined by the power consumed in kW á h, and is subject to
hs heat source
special rates for the summer period (July±September), and
ig ice generation
for nighttime (10 pm±8 am), de®ned in a business thermal
n nighttime
storage adjustment contract. There is further incentive
t total
through the peak time adjustment contract. On average,
nighttime electricity costs only about one ®fth of daytime
electricity.
Received on 23 March 2001 Thermal energy storage systems offer bene®ts to both
the utility companies and the consumers of electricity, by
M. J. Wang (&) cutting the peak load, and transferring it via the load
Sunwell Technologies Inc., Woodbridge, Ontario, Canada leveling or shifting strategy to nighttime, when electricity
is cheap. For modern buildings, the chilled water based
N. Kusumoto thermal storage system, although ef®cient in terms of the
Sunwell Japan Corporation, Siromi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, Japan chiller COP, is not attractive because of the large ¯oor
This paper is dedicated to Professor Dr. Franz Mayinger on space required for extensive pipelines, high maintenance
the occasion of his 70th birthday. The ®rst author would like to costs, and inef®ciency of the thermal storage. By contrast,
take this opportunity to thank him heartily for his kind ice thermal storage with, e.g. a 50% ice packing factor
guidance during the author's time as a Ph.D. student in Munich. (IPF), can reduce the storage tank size to one ninth, due to
 the latent heat of fusion of ice and the sensible heat from 0 freezing of water spray in refrigerant [5], an ef®cient
to 13 °C, as compared to the sensible heat of water from 7 method of ice generation. There are, however, issues
to 13 °C in the chilled water system. The ice slurry based concerning the use of a proper refrigerant and the redesign
thermal storage offers further advantages, such as a low of system components due to the presence of water vapor.
discharge temperature level with less variations, ¯exible Crystallization over a ¯ow obstruction after supercooled
load control and a higher energy night shift rate. More- water leaves the evaporator is another method of ice
over, the pumpability of ice slurry, e.g. at 30% ice fraction, production [6]. Application of this method is restricted
can potentially improve system ef®ciency by reducing the since ice fraction in the slurry is usually small and the
volume of circulating water over 80% while maintaining dissolution of the supercooling in the tube may sometimes
the same cooling load and pumping power, or it may in- cause blockage in the tube. Ice slurry generation by
crease the cooling capacity up to six times at the same spraying water in a vacuum chamber presents a unique
598
¯owrate and pumping power. method using water as a refrigerant [7]. Aside from the
Since the successful installation of the ®rst large ice cost issue of such a system, space requirements of vapor
thermal storage system in the Crystal Tower of Osaka, compressors with very large swept volume presents an-
Japan in the early 1990s [3], ice slurry based thermal other problem in buildings, restricting its application in
storage has been widely applied to different scales of this industry.
building construction and retro®t projects. In this paper, Among all ice slurry generation processes, the most
the production mechanism and performance of ice slurry developed and widely applied technology is the scraped
are ®rst discussed. Then, a brief review of the different ice surface type process developed by Sunwell Technologies of
thermal storage systems is given and the operation of the Canada in the later 1970s [2]. Figure 1 shows a schematic
ice slurry based thermal system is described. A case study of the ice generator. It employs a typical vapor compres-
on Herbis Osaka installation is provided to reveal details sion refrigeration cycle, consisting of a compressor, a
of the system design, control and operation. Conclusions condenser, an expansion device and an evaporator. In the
are made from an evaluation of the performance of the evaporator, the refrigerant evaporates in the outer jacket
system at different installations. of the cylinder, chilling down the ¯owing binary solution
in the inner region. Once the solution is below its freezing
2 point, spontaneous nucleation takes place in the coldest
Ice slurry production and performance area. Buoyancy force, together with the effect of the ro-
Traditional ice making process involves ice building on a tating scraper, prevents the effect of cohesion force and
refrigerated surface, e.g. in ¯ake/plate type ice systems, or thus prevents ice crystals from freezing onto the surface of
in ice-on-coil systems. Heat transfer ef®ciency in these the cylinder. Ice crystals continue to grow until they exit
systems is low due to additional thermal resistance created the evaporator. Ice slurry may be produced in a broad
by the ice layer on the surface. As a result, this type of range of the concentration of a freezing point depressant
equipment usually occupies large space. If the application and the temperature of the solution. The exit ice fraction
is other than a central storage, either a costly mechanical varies from 0 (as a conventional chiller) to about 35%,
conveyer or a mixing process to convert ice into a pum- depending on the operational conditions. Ice crystals out
pable slurry is required, and ice transportation is only of the ice generator have a typical size of about 100 mi-
possible for the dynamic types of ice systems. crons in the binary solution with initial 6 to 10% ethylene
An ice slurry system has inherent advantages in energy glycol.
ef®ciency, capacity and ice transportation. A common The behavior of ice slurry is dependent upon the crystal
method of producing ice slurry is using a shell-and-tube size in association with the way the slurry is generated and
type heat exchanger with internal moving parts in the form stored, the type of the binary solution, and other ¯ow
of rotating scrapers [2] or vibrating rods [4] at the brine parameters. Fundamental research of ice slurry produced
side of the evaporator. Another method involves direct by present technology is mainly conducted at the National

Fig. 1. Schematic of a CLIS ice slurry generator of Sunwell Japan Corp

 shows a behavior very similar to that of water for different
freezing point depressants in a 13 mm diameter pipe. At
higher ice fractions, pressure drop increases rapidly. Using
water/ethylene glycol ice slurry test results, Snoek devel-
oped a two-phase multiplier correlation to calculate the
pressure drop in piping systems [9].
Heat transfer behavior of ice slurry seems to be strongly
affected by the viscosity of the carrier ¯uid and the ¯ow
velocity. Kauffeld et al. [11] revealed the heat transfer co-
ef®cient of water/ethanol ice slurry in a pipe is higher than
that of the water. Similar results were also con®rmed in a
599
refrigerated display case test with an air-cooled chest
cooler. The performance is attributed to the presence of ice
crystals in the boundary layer. With water/ethylene glycol
ice slurry, Snoek and Bellamy [10] found heat transfer of
ice slurry is decreased with an increase of ice fraction in a
Fig. 2. Recommended ice slurry transport conditions [8] fully turbulent ¯ow (Reynolds number 70,000), since the
turbulence depression by ice crystals is more obvious and
the high viscosity carrier ¯uid hinders ice crystals entering
Research Council of Canada [8±10] and the Danish
into the boundary layer. In the melting test using a plate
Technological Institute [11, 12]. Based on tests with eth-
heat exchanger with a surface area of 0.134 m2 and a
ylene glycol as an additive, a recommended ¯ow regime of
minimum plate spacing of 2.1 mm, a 17±20% reduction in
ice slurry for pipeline transport is given in Fig. 2. Recent
the overall heat transfer coef®cient was observed with wa-
measurements on the separation velocity of ice slurry in a
ter/ethylene glycol ice slurry at high ¯ow rates when ice
43 mm diameter pipe (T. M. Hansen, private communi-
fraction was increased from 0 to 15% [8]. Since the log
cation) indicate that with 10% ethanol the not-recom-
mean temperature difference remains higher during the ice
mended regime may be even smaller than that given in the
melting process, heat exchanger design can still be ef®cient.
diagram. No plugging or agglomeration was observed
when pumping ice slurry in the ``safe'' and ``no-problem
expected'' regimes through piping, ®ttings without sharp 3
reductions and ball valves [8]. Centrifugal pumps can be Ice slurry based thermal storage
used for ice slurry with ice fraction up to 40%, beyond There are numerous ice thermal storage systems on the
which slippage of the pump impeller has been observed market: ice-on-coil; encapsulated ice; ice harvester; or ice
[10]. According to Kauffeld et al. [11], pressure drop of ice slurry based system. Operation principles of most systems
slurry at ice fraction of 0 to 10% and velocity of 1 m/s are described in details elsewhere [13]. Table 1 provides a

Table 1. Comparison of different ice thermal storage systems

 comparison of an ice slurry based system with other major  The ice generator produces ice slurry with high ef®-
conventional ice thermal storage systems. ciency ± a COP of 2.4 at 25 °C air-cooled temperature. It
As seen from the table, the ice slurry based thermal can automatically adjust its operation based on the
storage system is the most attractive among different variation in cooling load. It can also operate ef®ciently
systems in terms of ice generation, transportation and as a water chiller.
storage, as well as system performance. There are two  Because of small crystal size, a high ice storage density
systems developed by Sunwell Japan Corporation under of 46.5 kW á h/m3 at a discharge temperature below
the name ``Crystallized Liquid Ice Thermal Storage System 1 °C can be achieved with the ice thermal storage tank.
(CLIS)'': the ®rst one, CLIS, is used exclusively for space Crystal ice in the tank creates a large heat transfer
cooling; the second one, CLIS±HR ± an extension form of surface area, capable of satisfying very large loads of
CLIS ± is used for both space cooling and heating. The short duration, while maintaining relatively constant
600
latter is especially suitable for multi-functional buildings discharge temperature.
where cooling and heating are required year-round.  The major system components, i.e. the ice generator
Figure 3 shows a principle diagram of the CLIS±HR and the storage tank, are very compact. Because of the
system. It can be operated for different purposes. In the pumpbility of ice slurry, they can be place in different
basic ice generation operation, the air-cooled ice genera- locations. Such ¯exibility of the system is extremely
tor works in a close loop against the ice thermal storage valuable in multi-purpose buildings where space is
tank. The aqueous binary solution is removed from the limited.
tank, pumped to the ice generator where crystal ice is  More energy savings with the heat recovery mode of
formed. The ice slurry is then delivered back to the bot- operation.
tom of the tank. Inside the tank the crystals are accu-  The system provides an economic solution to building
mulated at the upper portion of the tank in the form of a air-conditioning. A life cycle cost evaluation over
porous ice bed. Cooling operation can be arranged by 25 years indicates that the operating cost, including
pumping the chilled binary solution out of the tank to a electricity, maintenance, parts replacement and equip-
heat exchanger, releasing cold energy to the water loop ment depreciation, excels over that of other systems.
connected to an air handling unit. The warm solution For example, its yearly operating cost is only two thirds
returning from the load is sprayed over the ice bed at the that of the absorption system.
top part of tank, and is re-chilled as the ice crystals melt.
The system can also recover heat energy while in a cooling
4
operation. In the so-called heat recovery operation, the
Case study: Herbis Osaka installation
air-cooled condenser is replaced by a water-cooled con-
densing unit, so that the heat released by the condenser
Project background
cooling is recovered for heating in the air-handling unit.
Herbis Osaka, also named Ritz Carlton Plaza of Osaka,
The heating operation is realized by the same system of
Japan, is a fairly new installation completed in February
vapor compression cycle, with opposite refrigerant ¯ow
1997. Figure 4 shows a photograph of the building com-
direction. Instead of acting as a condenser in the ice
generation mode, the air heat exchanger now works as an
evaporator, while the water heat exchanger runs as a
condenser in the refrigeration loop, providing warm water
to the air handling unit.
Following the comparison in the table the main features
of a CLIS±HR system are summarized below:

Fig. 3. Principle of a CLIS±HR ice thermal storage system Fig. 4. Photograph of Herbis Osaka, Japan
plex. It has ®ve underground ¯oors, forty ¯oors above-
ground and one tower ¯oor. The total height of the
building complex is 181 m and the total ¯oor area is
136,823 m2. Inside the building there are business of®ces,
the Ritz Carlton Hotel, exhibition halls, retail stores,
parking places, etc., where proper air-conditioning is
needed to accommodate load ¯uctuation. Due to the ex-
tensive use of of®ce automation equipment in the build-
ing, cooling load is drastically increased during daytime
hours, and is required even in winter. The peak heating
load may, however, be only less than half of the peak
601
cooling load.

System design
The multiple-use plaza creates load pro®les that vary from
day to day, and season to season in different areas. A
conventional central air-conditioning system might waste
large amounts of energy for heat conveyance in partial air-
conditioning hours. As a result, an air-conditioning sys-
tem that can be controlled on an individual basis is needed
Fig. 5. Flow chart of the ice slurry based thermal storage system
to ef®ciently provide more comfortable working condi-
tion. High electricity tariffs in the daytime and during the
summer season give a logical reason to adopt a thermal
Table 2. Speci®cations of a CLIS±HR system in Herbis Osaka
storage based climate control system that can shift elec-
tricity load from daytime to nighttime. With special in- Air-cooled ice generator with heat recovery 2 units
centives through the thermal storage contract and the peak Ice making capacity 260 kW
time adjustment contract, savings on operating costs Heating capacity 1400 MJ/h
would eventually outweigh equipment investment costs. Brine ¯ow rate 600 LPM
Based on these facts the heat source of Herbis Osaka was Warm water ¯ow rate 1120 LPM
Compressor 60 HP ´ 2
designed using the following principle: the capacity of the
heat source units (which are a heat pump ice generator Ice storage tank 1 unit
with a heat recovery system), is set at about half of the Material Fibre-reinforced polymer
peak load, with the remaining required load covered by Storage capacity 5210 kW á h
Storage volume 140 m3
the thermal energy stored in the ice storage tanks. These Dimension 4 ´ 12 ´ 3.5 m
units can treat the peak heating load and generate ice for (W ´ L ´ H)
the cooling load in winter through the heat recovery
Primary brine loop
process. Circulation pump 300 LPM ´ 29 mH ´ 3.7 kW 4 units

System speci®cations and control Primary water loop

Circulation pump 1120 LPM ´ 15 mH ´ 5.5 kW 2 units
Based on load pro®les of the building, the whole installa-
tion included 31 units of heat recovery ice generators,
260 kW each, and 16 sets of ice storage tanks with a vol-
ume of either 140 or 70 m3, distributed in the hotel, shops, during daytime. When operating the ice generator, the
exhibition halls and of®ce areas. The total thermal storage warm condensing water is led to the hot water storage tank
capacity is 80,750 kW á h. Environmentally friendly R134a as an energy recovery means. This is a load shifting op-
is used as refrigerant and ethylene±glycol water binary eration. In summer, the ice generator is running contin-
solution is used as the ice making medium in the system. uously to provide ice storage via overnight operation and
Because the heat sources in small containers are installed to supplement additional cooling load during daytime.
individually on the roof near load, size of the machine This is a load leveling strategy. During the transition pe-
room is only 6% of the total ¯oor space, compared to 10% riod between summer and winter, partial load leveling or
with central air-conditioning in the same scale of com- load shifting strategy is employed, depending on the
posite buildings. The energy consumption of pump and air cooling demand. Control of the ice storage is based on pre-
conditioning equipment can also be reduced to only 8 programmed temperature curve from morning to evening,
versus 12.5 W/m2 with the conventional option. set locally where each system is installed. Temperature of
Figure 5 shows a ¯ow chart of one of the CLIS±HR chilled solution out of the tank is set at )2 °C in the
systems installed in the building. Table 2 provides the morning and 2 °C in the evening. Once a deviation from
speci®cations of the system. Depending on the season the curve is detected, the system will be run for an extra
(summer, winter or transition period) there are different amount of time in a daytime catch-up operation. There is
modes of operation. In winter ice thermal storage opera- also a self-learning control to determine the number of
tion is performed during nighttime. Ice is stored in the running ice generators needed in the next day, based on
storage tanks and the latent heat of melting is released the operating time of ice generators in the past days.
 Natural refrigerant circulation system A record of power demand pro®le in different areas of
At the Herbis Osaka installation, the CLIS±HR system is the building on the same day is presented in Fig. 7. The
combined with a natural refrigerant circulation system for Ritz Carlton Hotel has the largest power demand, involv-
conveying heat and cold energy. As shown in Fig. 5, the ing 2 sets of the CLIS±HR system on higher ¯oors, 4 sets of
cold transport is arranged in a naturally circulated re-
frigerant loop between a condenser on the roof and an
evaporator inside the air-handling unit. Ice slurry is
pumped from an ice storage tank to the condenser. The
refrigerant gas inside the condenser is lique®ed and it
¯ows naturally by gravity down to the evaporator, releas-
ing cold energy through its vaporization process in the air
602
handling unit. The heat transport is realized in an opposite
way. The hot water out of the CLIS±HR system is fed into
an evaporator, vaporizing the refrigerant. The refrigerant
gas ¯ows into the air handling unit by the pressure dif-
ference between the condenser and the evaporator, lique-
fying there as it heats the air. Afterwards, the liquid ¯ows
back to the evaporator.
The natural refrigerant circulation system has a high
load follow-up capability and requires little power for
operation. It contributes to about 60% energy reduction in
conveying air, heating and cooling medium, and reduction
in space requirement for the secondary air-conditioning Fig. 7. Power demand pro®le in different areas on August 9, 1997
equipment.

Actual power demand

Figure 6 shows records of the actual power demand of the
building as a function of time during a typical summer
day. For comparison, variations in demand for electricity
are given in three different scenarios. The thick line is the
record of the total power demand. The thin line is the
record of the power demand for the ice thermal storage
system. The dotted line is a simulated electricity demand
based on a non-thermal storage system using heat source
equipment that has the same COP as this system. It be-
comes obvious from the ®gure that the ice thermal storage
effectively reduces the peak load by about one third. With
reference to the maximum load of 8.2 MW in the year,
annual power load is about 55%, and power load in August
can be as high as 72%, meaning the heat source equipment
has to be operated quite often during the summer to cover
the cooling requirement. Fig. 8. Power consumption of heat source in a year

Fig. 6. Total power demand pro®le on August 9, 1997 Fig. 9. Heat source night shift rate and loading rate in a year
Table 3. Power consumption survey on buildings installed with CLIS thermal storage system

Name of At Aac Qig/Aac Ehs/Aac Ehs/E Ec/Ehs Eh/Ehs En/Ehs Phs/Al

building (m2) (m2) (W/m2) (kW á h/m2) (%) (%) (%) (%) (W/m2)

A 86,000 58,585 70 84.2 30.8 85.9 14.1 75.5 26.3

B 25,136 18,091 49 74.9 26.8 87.5 12.5 70.0 21.0
C 13,933 9,080 49 59.7 23.6 58.2 41.8 69.0 19.0
D 13,071 8,496 60 87.0 31.7 84.0 16.0 70.0 20.0
E 10,303 7,000 56 58.8 23.8 82.5 17.5 65.8 19.2
F 5,505 3,849 67 104.1 34.3 86.7 13.3 60.3 24.0
G 10,755 6,545 60 89.0 32.2 90.7 9.3 60.0 16.7
Herbis Osaka 136,823 100,000 81 128.2 31.1 81.3 18.7 60.0 25.6 603

the same system plus one ice generator unit and one 70 m3 with a total 95.6 MW or 27173 tons of refrigeration in-
tank unit on lower ¯oors. Power demand in the shop areas stalled ice generating heat pumps in Japan.
is shown to have large difference between daytime and Table 3 shows a survey of ten representative buildings
nighttime. 4 sets of the CLIS±HR system are serving in installed with the CLIS ice thermal storage system. The
these areas. The smallest power demand is from the of®ce following conclusions can be made from the survey:
zone, with 4 sets of the CLIS±HR systems and from the
 Power demand of heat source per unit ¯oor area ranges
exhibition and parking zones with one CLIS±HR system
from 16.7 to 26.3 W/m2, only about 40 to 50% of that in
placed in the exhibition section.
non-thermal storage buildings. The number indicates
clearly that ice thermal storage is very effective for re-
Energy consumption
ducing the load of the power station.
Figure 8 provides monthly electricity consumption of the
 The energy shift rate is in a range of 60 to 75.5%,
heat source over a complete year from June 1997 to May
achieved through the CLIS thermal storage, no matter
1998. The consumption records are shown for daytime
whether the building is large or small. This means the
and nighttime cooling operation, as well as for heating
system can operate economically a majority of the time.
operation. This ®gure clearly demonstrates the design
With alternative ice thermal storage systems for air
concept of the ice thermal storage system. During sum-
conditioning of a building, water temperature out of the
mer period, the system operates on the load leveling
storage tank is usually higher and it takes a longer time
concept. Because the heat source equipment operates
to operate the heat source equipment in daytime to
almost continuously throughout the day, the power
reach low temperature level. Hence, energy shift rate is
consumption for daytime and nighttime cooling opera-
low ± usually about 40 to 50%.
tion is very similar. The ratio changes during spring and
 Power consumption for space heating, a factor affecting
fall when cooling is covered more and more by the night
operating cost, is geographically dependent. In 7 out of
operation of the ice generators. In winter the system
8 cases in the table where the buildings are located
operates mainly for space heating. Space cooling is ar-
south of Tokyo, the ratio of energy consumption for
ranged exclusively on load shifting strategy by nighttime
heating versus the total consumption of the heat source
operation of the ice generators. The annual cooling shift
is below 20%. The only exception is the building in the
rate is 81%.
cold north region.
The monthly energy shift to nighttime is illustrated in
Fig. 9 for three consecutive years from May 1997 to May So far, the CLIS thermal storage systems are mostly de-
2000. The shift rate is calculated as the ratio of the night- signed and operated in the ``catch-up'' mode in daytime,
time power consumption versus total consumption of the when the nighttime thermal storage is not enough. With a
heat source for both space cooling and heating. The ®gure recent development in the ¯oor slab thermal storage tech-
reveals that about 60% of energy is consumed annually by nology [14], a fully load shift thermal storage based on a
the heat source during nighttime. Signi®cant operating combination of the CLIS and the ¯oor slab thermal storage
savings are therefore achieved through the thermal storage technology will further improve the economic performance
contract from the utility company. In the same ®gure, and environmental contribution of the thermal storage
power consumption of the heat source versus the total system. This is especially important for countries like Ja-
power consumption in the building is also given as a ref- pan, where electricity loading is remarkably unbalanced
erence. Depending on the season, the percentage of heat and space is very limited in multifunctional buildings.
source power consumption in the total varies from 20% in
winter to 47% in summer. Yearly average is about 31%. References
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