1.

Applied Linguistics: an overview :

In this introductory chapter, we look at the definition of applied linguistics, some of its major areas, and some
of its important characteristics.
What is applied linguistics?
Applied linguistics is a sub- field of linguistics. It makes use of linguistic theories, methods and findings in
elucidating and solving problems to do with language which have arisen in other areas of experience. The
importance of and, therefore, the need for applied linguistics lies in the significant role it has in identifying and
solving language-related problems in various spheres of human activity. Practical concerns have an important
role in shaping the questions that applied linguistics addresses.

● Areas of applied linguistics : The domain of applied linguistics is extremely wide. It includes:

1. The learning and teaching of a second language :

How are the forms and structures (speech sounds, morphology, lexicon and syntax) of a second language
learned by learners? What cognitive processes are involved? How can they be taught? What methods,
approaches and techniques can be used to teach those forms and structures of a second language?
2. Translation and interpreting :
The application of linguistics to the process of rendering a text from one language into another, or of
providing a simultaneous translation of speech. Linguistics can provide insight not only into the structure
of the source and target languages, but also into issues relating to discourse and text types and pragmatics.
The use of computers (i.e. machine translation) is a major field in natural language processing.
3. Lexicography :
The application of linguistics to the writing of dictionaries, taking the outputs of linguistic description and
using them to construct entries for words. Lexicography is also the academic subject that studies
dictionaries and other reference works such as thesauri and encyclopedia .
4. Stylistics :
The application of linguistics to the study of style in all genres of literature but, in principle, of any type of
text (e.g. advertising texts, political speeches). Using the techniques of descriptive linguistics, the analyst
studies the language of (a) chosen text(s) with the aim of discovering the linguistic features that mark the
text as different from other texts or other authors.
5. Language planning and policy :
The application of linguistics to decision making about language status and use at a national or regional
level. Linguists may be called upon, for example, to advise governments on language policy (e.g. language
of instruction in education) or they may be members of language academies. They may take part in the

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 corpus planning of a language i.e., the writing of grammar books and dictionaries. They may also be
involved in the status planning of a language, i.e. the allocation or designation of a language or dialect to
functional domains (scientific, technological, legal, financial, medical, administrative domains) within a
society, thus affecting the status, position or standing, of a language.
6. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and language teaching and learning :
The integration of ICT in language teaching and learning has become a fascinating, promising and
challenging sub-field of applied linguistics. The internet offers language learning websites with instant
feedback to learners, which enhances students’ learning experience. ICT also includes the use of E-Books,
audio books, webinars, mobile apps, web 2.0 applications for language teaching and learning purposes.

● Some key characteristics of applied linguistics :

1. Applied linguistics is wide-ranging. It is a very broad field of study, which is constantly expanding given
the nature of the variables, namely, learners, teachers, teaching materials, translators, lawyers, etc.
2. Applied linguistics is problem driven and problem-solving. Applied linguistics aims to elucidate and
ultimately solve problems related to language that arise in specific and practical spheres of experience.
3. Applied linguistics is interdisciplinary. It uses information from linguistics, education, psychology,
sociology, as well as anthropology in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and
language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design,
speech therapy, language planning, literacy, and bilingualism.
Consider the definitions of these fields :

Linguistics is the study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics,
phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Education is concerned with teaching, learning, acquisition, and assessment.

Anthropology is the scientific study of the origin and behavior of man, including the physical, social,
and cultural development of societies and cultures.

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior, and the application of such knowledge to
various spheres of human activity, such as education, health, occupational and employment services.

Sociology is the scientific study of human society and human social behavior.
Applied linguistics draws on all these fields with the aim of identifying and solving language-related
problems that arise in concrete domains of human experience in the real world.
The primary focus of applied linguistics has been second language acquisition, second language
pedagogy and teaching and the interrelationship of both areas. This is the major focus of this course.

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 2. Second Language Acquisition: Some Key Concepts :

In this chapter, we consider some basic concepts in Second Language Acquisition (SLA, for short) as well as its
scope.
First, it is important to define what is meant by Second Language Acquisition.

● Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to both:

1. the actual process that individuals go through in learning a language or more languages subsequent to
learning their first one(s) as young children
2. the scientific discipline devoted to the study and investigation (by researchers) of how individuals and
groups learn a second language or more than one second language subsequent to learning their first
language(s).

So, the term ‘Second Language Acquisition’ is used to denote or name the real process attested in concrete
situations by which people learn an additional language or languages and the formal and systematic inquiry
and research of that process. The field of Second Language Acquisition is a sub-discipline of applied
linguistics, but it also receives research attention from a variety of other disciplines such as psychology and
education.

Although it is referred as Second Language Acquisition, it is the process of learning any language after the
first language whether it is the second, third or fourth. Therefore, any other language apart from the first
language is called a ‘Second Language’ or a ‘Target Language.’ The term ‘Second Language’ (L2) refers to the
additional language or languages that are learned, even though it may actually be the third, fourth, or tenth
to be acquired. For example, in Morocco, the learning of any language(s) after or subsequent to the learning
or acquisition of one’s first language in early childhood would fall within this category, e.g. French, Spanish,
English, German, Dutch, or Japanese.

It is commonly called a Target Language (TL), which refers to any language that is the aim of or goal of
learning.

Target Language (also L2) in language teaching is the language that a person is learning in contrast to a
First Language or Mother Tongue.
In order to obtain a better understanding of SLA, we can contrast it to First Language Acquisition or Child
Language Acquisition.

First Language Acquisition or Child Language Acquisition : is the unconscious process by which newly
born infants acquire a first language. This process is effortless and rapid. In this process, all essential parts of
the first language (its grammar) are acquired by age 5 to 6 years. There is a general consensus among
scholars working within this eld of enquiry that the process of acquiring a first language (also called a

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‘mother tongue’) is essentially completed rapidly and effortlessly by all healthy monolingual children by age
ve or six of life in terms of the basics of language, i.e. phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, and
meaning. After that point, many more aspects of mature language use are tackled when children are taught
how to read and write in school.
So, what is a first language? Simply put, any language acquired BEFORE the age of 5 to 6 years.
What is a second language? Simply put, any language(s) acquired AFTER the age of 5 to 6 years.
Can children acquire more than one first language? The answer is ‘yes.’ Children can acquire two or more
languages. In the case of two first languages, the process or the resulting outcome is called ‘bilingual
acquisition’; in the case of more than two first languages, it is called ‘multilingual acquisition.’
Bilingual acquisition/multilingual acquisition
In many parts of the world, most children grow up speaking two or more languages simultaneously. The term
‘bilingual acquisition’ or ‘multilingual acquisition’ is used to refer to the process of learning two or more
languages relatively simultaneously during early childhood – that is, before the age of 5 to 6 years.
To recapitulate, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is the eld devoted to the study and that investigation of
the human capacity to learn languages once the first language – in the case of monolingual children – or the
first languages – in the case of bilingual or multilingual children - has been learned and established by age
ve to six. Naturally, this happens later in life (after the age of 5 to 6), whether in late childhood, adolescence
or adulthood.
SLA researchers use the terms mother tongue, first language or L1 generically to refer to the language (in the
case of monolingual children) or languages (in the case of bilingual or multilingual children) that a child learns
from parents, siblings and caretakers during the critical years of development, from the womb up to about ve
to six years of age.
Conversely, the terms additional language, second language or L2 are used in SLA to refer to any language
learned after the L1 (or L1s). The term ‘L2’ or ‘second/additional language’ may mean the third, fourth,
tenth and so on language learned later in life. Bilingual/multilingual acquisition – acquisition of two or more
languages in early childhood by the age of ve to six SLA – acquisition of an additional language or languages
after the acquisition of L1, i.e. sequentially.

● The scope of SLA :

The scope of SLA includes informal L2 learning, formal L2 learning and L2 learning that involves a mixture
of these two types of learning.
Informal L2 acquisition or learning vs. formal L2 acquisition or learning
Informal and formal language learning are based, respectively, on informal and formal learning in education.
Informal education is a widely accepted process of developing knowledge and skills in a highly un-institutional
and unstructured setting. In contrast, formal education is highly institutional and occurs in structured settings.

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Similarly, informal language learning is unstructured and takes place in naturalistic contexts. It is the most
extensive and essential part of all the learning that all of us do every day of our lives. On the contrary, formal
language learning is structured, purposeful and takes place in classrooms; it is school based.
The distinction between formal and informal language learning is done in terms of (1) the settings of the
learning: does it take place inside the classroom or outside the classroom? and (2) instruction: is it present or
absent? Is the focus on the form and meaning of language? Informal setting is considered as the context in
which language learners are exposed to the target language at home, the workplace or in social interaction;
the formal setting is the context where the target language is being TAUGHT to a group of second or foreign
language learners in a classroom setting. Formal language learning takes place in the classroom environment
and informal language learning takes place, mostly, out of the classroom environment.
Nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that it is not always the case that formal and informal language
learning settings are completely distinct from each other and do not overlap at all. Informal language learning
can also occur in a classroom setting when the focus is not on the form of the language. Informal language
learning may occur in classrooms or institutions when peers interact with one another, but it is not typically
classroom-based or highly structured.
Formal language learning is classroom-based, highly structured, and teacher-initiated and directed in terms of
the content to be learnt. Informal language learning occurs in and out of the classroom where the focus is not
on the form of the language and where instruction is absent.
There are many cases where the two types of learning may be mixed. A second language learner may undergo
formal language when he or she goes to school as part of a language program and takes part in informal
language in informal situations. For example, a speaker, whose first language is Japanese, lives in London and
goes to school there to learn English as a second language (an instance of formal learning). When he finishes
his lessons at school, he may still informally interact with speakers of English outside the school, in the street,
with acquaintances and friends (an instance of informal learning).

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 3. Second Language Acquisition: the key questions:
In order to gain an overall understanding of the subject matter of Second Language Acquisition, we need to
consider the major questions that are dealt with in this eld. So, what are the important questions that
researchers in Second Language Acquisition seek to answer? In trying to understand the process of SLA,
researchers try to answer four basic questions:
1. What do second language learners acquire? In other words, what exactly do L2 learners come to know?
2. How do learners acquire a second language? How do they acquire this knowledge?
3. What differences are there in the way in which individual learners acquire an L2? In other words, why
are some learners more successful than others?
4. What effects does instruction have on SLA? How can the efficacy of language pedagogy be improved?
These four questions serve as heuristic (or a method of discovery) for exploring the SLA eld and research.
so, let us consider each of these questions.

Question 1: What do second language learners acquire? In other words, what exactly do L2 learners come
to know
In order to answer this question, researchers collected samples (i.e. representative specimens) of learner
language and tried to describe their main features. For example, the language samples that learners produced
(such as writing samples like compositions) were inspected for errors and those errors were then classified.
For example, errors in specific grammatical features such as negation and question formation were identified.
The aim of this research was essentially descriptive, i.e., to document what kind of language learners produced
and to try to find out how it changed over time. As a result, a whole area of investigation and study emerged.
That area of investigation is called Error Analysis.

Error Analysis The study and analysis of the errors (i.e. the unacceptable forms) made by learners of an L2,
in order to understand the strategies used by L2 learners and to improve second language pedagogy.

Errors are considered to be systematic, governed by rules, and appear because a learner’s knowledge of the
rules of the target language is incomplete. The aim behind identifying errors is to try to discover the processes
learners make use of in learning and using an L2. They are of particular interest in SLA research because they
provide evidence about the nature of the L2 learning process. A contrast is drawn with mistakes, which are
unsystematic features of production that speakers would correct if their attention were drawn to them (e.g.
those arising out of tiredness, carelessness or a lapse of memory).
Examples of errors:
1. *Not I go to school. (for ‘I didn’t go to school.’)
2. *He buyed me two breads. (for ‘He bought me two loaves of bread.’)
3. * She has thirty years. (for ‘She is thirty years old.’)

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 4. *Where you goed? (for ‘Where did you go?’)

Question 2: How do learners acquire a second language?

Researchers were not content just to describe learner language. They also sought to explain it. That is, they
wanted to account for why learners made errors and why errors changed systematically over time.
The answers were sought by formulating two further questions. The first was: “what contributions do external
factors make to L2 acquisition?” This involved considering the role played by the social situation in which
learning took place and how the language the learner was exposed to (i.e. the input) accounted for acquisition
as evident in the language the learner produced (i.e. the output).

Input : language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn. The language a learner
produces is by analogy sometimes called ‘output.’
The second question was: “what contribution do internal factors make to L2 acquisition?” In this case,
explanations were sought in the mental processes that the learner used to convert input into
intake/knowledge.
Various processes have been identified. Some account for how the learner makes use of existing knowledge
(of L1, of general learning strategies, or of the universal properties of language) to internalize knowledge of
the L2. These processes can be thought of as learning processes. They serve as the means by which the learner
constructs an interlanguage.

Interlanguage : a transitional system reflecting the learner’s current L2 knowledge

Intake : a term referring to that part of the language to which learners are exposed that actually “goes in”
and plays a role in language learning. Some theorists believe that intake is that part of the input that has been
attended to and noticed by second language learners while processing the input.
Other processes account for how the learner makes use of existing knowledge to cope with communication
difficulties. For example, the learner does not know the word needed to communicate an idea clearly and has
to resort to paraphrase. These processes are known as Communication Strategies.

Communication Strategy : a way which is used to express a meaning in a second language by a learner
who has a limited command of the language. In trying to communicate, a learner may have to make up for a
lack of knowledge of grammar or vocabulary.
For example, if a learner does not know the word ‘uncle,’ he/she may paraphrase it by saying ‘my father’s
brother or my mother’s brother.’ Another example is when a learner is not able to say ‘It’s against the law to
park here’ and so he/she may say ‘This place, cannot park.’ The use of PARAPHRASE and other non-verbal
strategies (such as gestures and mime) characterize the INTERLANGUAGE of some language learners.
A full explanation of L2 acquisition will need to take account of both external and internal factors and how the
two interrelate.