Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter is divided into various sections which review the historical
tourism and food; culinary tourism in public and commercial context; culinary
tourism in domestic context culinary tourism and sustainability. The section covering
historical development of food, cooking and cuisine explains the role of food in
tourist‘s experience. The next section demonstrates how the review of literature on
tourism that focuses on various aspects of food, resulted in the formulation of the
demographic status in tourist food consumption. In the next section, relations between
culinary tourism and its contribution in sustainable development has been discussed.
In the final section, at appropriate points in the text, assumptions and major
Food is essential for all living creatures including humans to sustain life.
Human beings are consuming food from the time of their birth. Consumption of food
destination‘s experience along with other things like places, palaces, monuments,
shopping arcades, recreational facilities etc. people also discuss about the
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destination‘s food. Here the researcher would like to quote few lines of Lucy M Long
pp.1).
related to food. Eating out on holiday is taken as consumption of a local heritage. The
an increasingly valuable source of new products and activities to attract and amuse
tourists (Richards, G., 2001). Food that is consumed by people residing in an area is
one among the recent product to be placed as tourist‘s attraction; therefore, it must be
studied in systematic way to gain the insight of the subject matter, so that it may be
Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BC), who privileged hedonism but also
advocated temperance, naturally found in food and drink a major source of pleasure.
Food, as defined in the dictionary, is any substance that provides the nutrients
necessary to maintain life and growth when ingested. When most animals feed, they
repeatedly consume those foods necessary for their well-being, and they do so in a
similar manner at each feeding (Kittler & Sucher, 2008). The popular meaning of
food is, whatever yields us nourishment; the scientific, any substance which, on being
44
submitted to the action of the stomach, becomes assimilated by digestion, and repairs
the losses which, from vital use and action, the human body suffers. Thus, the
much in the eye of the beholder. For example, civilized people use utensils—forks,
knives, spoons, chopsticks etc. unless they are eating with their hands. She further
adds that, the ability to use fire is one of the crucial things that separate us from
produce resources himself by developing the practice of growing plants and raising
livestock (Montanari, M., 2004). According to her, ―Cooking is the human activity
par excellence; it is the act of transforming a product ―from nature‖ into something
the combination of ingredients, work together to bring to the mouth a food, that, if not
completely ―artificial,‖ is surely ―created.‖ The French word ‗cuisine‘ means the art
of cooking dishes and the place (kitchen) in which they are cooked (Montagne, P.,
1960 pp.266). Cuisine entered English only in the seventeenth century, along with its
cousin culinary, which derives from the Latin culina, meaning simply kitchen.
The seeds of a general theory of the making of a cuisine were offered by Michael
Freeman (1977) in his essay on Sung cuisine in China. He suggested that the
not bound by the tastes of their native region and willing to try unfamiliar food‘. He
further emphasised that this elite corps must be a large one. ‗An individual ruler or
45
tiny elite may command superlative cooking, but cannot create a cuisine. The eaters
attitudes should ‗give first place to the real pleasure of consuming food rather than to
called a historical one, with the precondition of abundance, seeing cuisine as ―a self-
conscious tradition of cooking and eating‖ which necessarily implied ―the confluence
of certain material factors, the availability and abundance of ingredients, with a set of
attitudes about food and its place in the life of man.‖ Cuisine requires not just a style
of cooking, but awareness about how the food is prepared and consumed. It must also
involve a wide variety of ingredients, more than are locally available, and cooks and
diners willing to experiment, which means they are not constricted by tradition.
tourism involves learning about food and beverage products and different styles of
cooking. It is about the discovery and enjoyment of different tastes and flavours. It
links visitors with foods and beverages produced locally (Smith, 2001). Mintz, S.
(1996) also defines cuisine more broadly as ―the ongoing foodways of a region,
within which active discourse about food sustains both common understandings and
reliable production of the foods in question.‖ McCann (2009) keeping Africa in mind,
argues for an expanded definition ―by using cuisine to denote a distinct and coherent
body of food preparations based upon one or more starchy staples, a set of spice
Armelagos (2010) calls cuisine ―a cultural system that defines the items in nature that
46
are edible; how these items can be extracted, eaten, or processed into food; the flavors
used to enhance the taste of the food; and the rules about consuming it.‖ This more
scientific knowledge of all that relates to man as an eater. Its aim is, by means of the
best possible food, to watch over the preservation of mankind, and it attains that end
alimentary substances‖.
Scarpato (2002) stated that the word ―gastronomy‖ first emerged in a poem
described gastronomy as enjoying food and drink at the very best. Before then, the
word ―gastronomy‖ had been ubiquitous and had been extremely difficult to define,
and drink. Finally, in 1835, the word gastronomy was included and defined in a
French dictionary as ―the art of good eating.‖ However, Santich (1996), defined
and food preparation as well, maintaining the association with excellence and/or fancy
food and drink‖ (p. 115). Mennell, Murcott, and Van Otterloo, (1992), p.115 quoted
that defines and reaffirms insiders as socially similar.‖ Food related events comprise a
wide array of eating and drinking activities that bring people together for the
enjoyment and sharing of food. Empirical studies on tourism and gastronomy have
been carried out comprehensively in other countries (Fox, 2007; Hjalager and
Corigliano, 2000; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Okumus, Okumus, and McKercher, 2007;
Ryu and Jang, 2006); however, in India, this particular issue is yet to take attention.
47
2.2 The Relationship between Tourism and Food, Cuisine and Gastronomy
Although, for years, food has been strongly linked to tourism in some
European and Asian destinations but in India, culinary tourism is relatively a new
phenomenon thus, there is tremendous scope of research in this area. Tourism results
from regions‘ sources, such as; specific landscapes, environments, culture and
heritage (Beer et al., 2002). Food is an extremely important part of the culture of a
region. Food is one of the essential elements of the tourist experience. Consumption
is an integral aspect of the tourist experience, with the tourist consuming not only the
sights and sounds, but also the taste of a place. Nearly, all tourists eat and dine out
(Shenoy, 2005). For decades now, research has acknowledged that tourism is full of
symbolic consumption that goes far beyond the satisfaction of bodily needs (Brown
1992; Urry 1990). Food consumption is no exception. Pillsbury (1990) divides food
catering into two categories; body food and soul food. Body food comes from fast
food restaurants, which fulfil the need to feed the stomach rapidly in standardized
environments that do not challenge the intellectual capacities. Further, soul food has
another appeal. The pleasures of the environment and the company of other people is
2.3 Food-ways (Food Habits), Food as a Motivating Factor and Food Identities
traditions, and beliefs concerning food, and involves all the activities surrounding a
food item and its consumption, including the procurement, preservation, preparation,
and performance of that food‖. Foodways can be associated with food habits of a
particular society or individuals. The relationship between food habits and religion
48
has been documented by many researchers (Kilara & Iya, 1992; Kittler & Sucher,
physical motivators were related to tourists‘ real experiences during the trip. For
example, tourists experienced the cuisine through sampling of the food, looking at
attractive food presentation and smelling the aroma of the food. In terms of cultural
(Reynolds, 1993). Tourists may be interested in learning about new cultures and
lifestyles of the people at the destination. The easiest way to experience another
culture is through its food. Hjalager (2002) emphasised that the surrounding
atmosphere and socializing with group members were an important part of the overall
dining experience. During the vacation, one would have more leisure time and could
possibly spend more time together with family and friends that could contribute in
building good relationships. Some hotels used food as a way for their guests to meet
other people in the hotels (Fields, 2002). Finally, status and prestige had always been
Beardsworth and Keil (1997) argued that nutrient intake was not the only
function of eating, but it also included the experience of tasting food and the
significance of interacting with other people during a meal, especially when the foods
represent a symbolic meaning in an event. Ryan (1997) and Smith (1991) proved that
food had an impact on the travelers‘ level of satisfaction with the trip. A study by
Rimmington and Yuskel (1998) found that the major reason travelers revisited Turkey
was for its cuisine. Hu and Ritchie (1993) explored that food was the fourth factor or
the reason to visit after weather, accommodation, and scenery. In general, it seemed
49
that food significantly contributed to the travelers‘ overall impression about the
Food in tourism can support local producers and local providers as well as it
provides high quality and fresh food to tourists (Long, 2004). This suggest that food
in tourism can result in benefits for both hosts and guests (Nummedal and Hall, 2006;
Okumus et al., 2007; Sims, 2009). It is recognised that the kind of foods and drinks on
offer for tourists confront us as a significant potential source in providing for the
words, food could be a great medium for differentiating destinations (H. Ridvan
Yurtseven & Ozan Kaya, 2011). Local food as a tourism product is offered to tourists
in many ways during their holiday, such as; in direct purchases from farms and in the
restaurants, which allow for local products in their menus. Therefore, we can argue
host and tourist by mean of locally produced food will increase the potential
these are the important instruments of conveying the cultural expressions (Handszuh,
2000; Rand et al., 2003; Cohen and Avieli, 2004; Selwood, 2003; Brownlie et al.,
2005; Rand and Heath, 2006). Moreover, importance of food and eating out on trips
and holidays is supported by many researchers (Telfer and Wall, 2000; Hjalager and
Richards 2002; Hall and Sharples 2003; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Okumus et al.,
2007; Sims 2009). Telfer and Wall (2000), suggested that spending on eating out
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during a holiday constitutes approximately one-third of all tourist‘s expenditures.
Local foods in the restaurants menus contribute about 47% of total sales of menu
items (H. Ridvan Yurtseven & Ozan Kaya, 2011). This suggests that if local food is
Tourism is intimately linked to local food production. Tourists like other local
people, need to eat. If their demands can be met from local resources this can provide
an important boost to the local economy. If not, tourism can add to the demand for
imported foods, harming local agriculture, increasing imports and reducing the
economic benefit of tourism(Richards, G., 2001). He further adds that, local food
of linkages with tourism can aid the stimulation of indigenous entrepreneurial activity
The need of study is to create an interface between tourism and local food
production was felt by Belisle (1983) when he found that the foreign-exchange
leakage through food import for tourist consumption reduces the net positive
economic impact in the Caribbean region. He pointed out that the need of study on the
leakages; the reasons a large proportion of the food for tourist consumption is
imported; and the variation in food supply patterns according to quality, size,
There is a saying ―some people eat to live; some people live to eat‖. Perhaps
for many people in the world, and for most of the time, it is true that we eat to live:
just to stay alive. But at other times, and especially for people on holiday, there are
51
occasions when we really do live to eat. They look for places where the meal will be
In a survey of 1300 visitors to the state of Hawaii from Japan, Canada and the
U.S. mainland, Sheldon, P & Fox, M (1988) found that only 18% said foodservice
played a role in their destination choice. Japanese visitors, however, rated foodservice
higher than the other two nationalities. The quality of foodservice and the availability
of a range of prices were found to be the most important aspects of foodservice for
tourists especially on a vacation. They also found that at dinner-time, tourists' major
concern is about the quality of the cuisine, whereas at lunch and breakfast time, they
are more concerned with getting the best value for their dollar.
Studies of the social significance of food and eating, have mostly been left to
social anthropologists and social historians. Often it has not appeared as part of the
sustainable in the face of tourism, then traditional and ethnic foods must be preserved
along with other art forms. This pilot study shows that in a tourist area of Bali (a)
visitors are not necessarily being offered what they want, and (b) traditional food is
Tefler, D.J. & Wall, G.(1996) studied the relationship between food
production and tourism in general and, agriculture and tourism in particular. They
examined the efforts of a resort on the island of Lombok, Indonesia, to increase the
amount of local food products used in its restaurants through the establishment of two
projects involving local food producers. They argued that there is potential to increase
backward linkages between tourism and local food production but still there are
substantial challenges.
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Bessiere, J. (1998) analysed the transformation and redefinition of local
identity in rural France from the perspective of heritage – more precisely food and
and/or as a means of promoting farm products, gastronomy meets the specific needs
of consumers, local producers and other actors in rural tourism. He found that
and extent of linkages and relationships between the wine, food and tourism sectors in
examines the potential of wine and food tourism in a developing wine region,
linkages between the wine and food sectors, and explores opportunities for strategic
marketing activities that will benefit both industries at both micro (i.e. individual
Eating is a physical necessity, but catering services and food image are also
very important ingredients of cultural tourism. Food and tourism are increasingly
being combined, e.g. in agri-tourism, wine tours and the sale of food products as
standards of food for tourists are not determined uniformly by tourism policies, but
policies. They concludes that only residents are in a position to put a more permanent
pressure on food suppliers, and only if they are given the appropriate instruments.
Wine tourism is a growing segment of the tourism industry. Wine tourists are
not a homogeneous group, but seek differing components of the overall wine tourism
53
experience. Steve Charters, Jane Ali-Knight, (2000) evaluates their demand for an
educational element in the overall process, within Australia. Personal surveys were
carried out in two wine regions in Western Australia. Respondents were questioned
on their previous experience of ‗wine education‘, the possibilities for learning at the
cellar door, the benefits of ‗wine education‘, and how far their expectations for ‗wine
education‘ had been met. They developed the method of preparing visitor‘s profiles of
The findings of Williams, P. (2001), suggest that over the past decade, there
has been a shift in wine country imagery from an emphasis on wine production
processes and related facilities to on aesthetic and experiential values associated with
more leisurely recreational and tourist pursuits. In keeping with this shift from
production orientation to more aesthetic elements, the wine tourism experience has
He also identifies several of the more critical resource management and marketing
Both the wine and tourism industries have achieved high levels of growth
within Australia in the 1990s, and are significant contributors to the GDP, as an
invisible exports. In 1994, about 10 percent of the total international visitors made a
model possessing three dimensions; purpose of visit, general tourist motivation and
relationship to other tourist activities. With this model, it is possible to locate specific
tourist activities, and thereby have a better understanding of what constitutes ‗wine
tourism‘.
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Au, L. & Law, R. (2002), reports on an initial study about applying an
alternative approach that incorporates the rough set theory into relationship modeling
in tourism dining. Their theory deals with the non-numeric classification analysis of
theory. Using officially published data on tourism dining, decision rules were
generated which describe the relationship model. Empirical findings indicated that
among the classified cases, 83% of the forecast values were identical to their actual
counterparts.
Torres, R. (2003), established linkages between tourism demand for food and
with chefs, food suppliers, farmers, ejido comisariados and urban immigrants, his
study takes a holistic approach in analyzing existing linkages between tourism and
of linkages.
Cohen and Avieli (2004) studied the perception of food as an important factor
of destination attraction. The main focus of their study was to analyse the difference
between attraction and impediment. In particular, the authors were looking at two
perspectives: first how food could be an attractive product for a destination and
second analysing the barriers to producing acceptable food products for tourists. Their
purpose was to evaluate how to resolve these problems and how these issues can
People traveling away from home have to eat! Restaurants play an important
role in tourism. They provide not just food and beverages, but experiences. Some
55
function as attractions. Often referred to as ―Eatertainment‖, some examples are
attractions and restaurants have been studied independently. Yet there is no academic
―Histourant‖ was coined by Josiam, B., Mattson, M., & Sullivan, P. in the year 2004.
Most wine tourists and visitors to wine regions can be viewed as actual or potential
consisting of three main dimensions: the Visitor, Wine Region and Visit Dynamic
geographic location of wine region, purpose of visit, etc., which augment the main
dimensions. They revealed that in the Wine Region dimension motivation is affected
visitors.
The tourist experiences for a long time has been one-sidedly understood as
either the peak experience, or the consumer experience. For a better understanding of
the tourist experience, Quan, S., & Wang, N. (2004), tries to build a conceptual
model, in which dimensions of the tourist experiences both structured and interrelated
were integrated. The position and role of each experiential component, such as
eating, sleeping, and transportation etc. in tourism can be more clearly understood in
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Evidence suggests that motivation to travel for gastronomic reasons is a valid
construct for the purposes of market segmentation. Qualitative results of the interview
analysis reveal that gastronomy plays a major role in the way that visitors experience
a destination and indicate that some travelers would return to the same destination to
savor its unique gastronomy. Qualitative feedback from the study of Jakša J. Kivela &
Feelings and memories make very special and attractive dining-out especially
on holidays, because these become transposed into experiences that are often very
personal (Finkelstein, 1989; Mennel, Murcott, & van Otterloo, 1992). Importantly,
these experiences also have the power to modify travelers/visitors eating preferences
and tastes as well as imbue us with experiences of the culture of the place where
travelers are visiting (Johns & Kivela, 2001; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Kivela & Johns,
2002).
Accordingly, the literature reviewed for the purpose establishes the importance
experiencing other culture through food. The brief review also …… that Cuisine is
not merely style of cooking but it is a delight about how food is prepared and
consumed. Thus, the review established that relationship between cuisine and tourism
Further on the basis of the review of existing knowledge, the following views
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c) Cuisine is a cultural system that explains the items in nature that are edible.
individual.
like turkey, Tasmania, Australia, Canada, Wales, France, New Zealand etc.
tourists.
l) The method of preparing visitor‘s profile of the food/wine tourists has been
developed.
m) Linkages between tourists demand for food and local agricultural production is
o) Evidences were also traced that motivation to travel for gastronomic reasons is
q) Barriers for producing acceptable food products for tourists were also
established.
Therefore, on the basis of the review of the existing knowledge on the subject, the
58
a) No study has yet been traced by the researcher regarding the appraisal of
b) No study has yet been traced by the researcher which assessed the
c) There is no tool available for planning culinary tour for tourists in the area of
study.
demographic variables has been made. However, no study has yet been traced
of such nature, which establishes the extent of being culinary tourist with
59