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CHAPTER-II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter is divided into various sections which review the historical

development of food, cooking, cuisine and gastronomy; the relationship between

tourism and food; culinary tourism in public and commercial context; culinary

tourism in domestic context culinary tourism and sustainability. The section covering

historical development of food, cooking and cuisine explains the role of food in

tourist‘s experience. The next section demonstrates how the review of literature on

tourism that focuses on various aspects of food, resulted in the formulation of the

research propositions and a conceptual framework that explains participation in food

tourism. Subsequent sections deals with the relevance of socioeconomic and

demographic status in tourist food consumption. In the next section, relations between

culinary tourism and its contribution in sustainable development has been discussed.

In the final section, at appropriate points in the text, assumptions and major

propositions underlying the study are presented.

Food is essential for all living creatures including humans to sustain life.

Human beings are consuming food from the time of their birth. Consumption of food

is an integral part of the destination‘s experience. While describing about the

destination‘s experience along with other things like places, palaces, monuments,

shopping arcades, recreational facilities etc. people also discuss about the

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destination‘s food. Here the researcher would like to quote few lines of Lucy M Long

from her edited book titled, ‗Culinary Tourism‖.

“One of my favorite activities when I travel is eating. I

am not alone. The tourism industry thrives on providing

food experiences— of new and exotic foods, of foods

authentic to a particular culture, of foods familiar and

safe to a traveler. Food is central to traveling, and it is a

vivid entryway into another culture” (Long, 2004

pp.1).

2.1 The Historical Development of Food, Cooking, Cuisine and Gastronomy

In recent years, emphasis is placed on tourism experiences and attraction

related to food. Eating out on holiday is taken as consumption of a local heritage. The

competition between tourism destinations are increasing. Local culture is becoming

an increasingly valuable source of new products and activities to attract and amuse

tourists (Richards, G., 2001). Food that is consumed by people residing in an area is

one among the recent product to be placed as tourist‘s attraction; therefore, it must be

studied in systematic way to gain the insight of the subject matter, so that it may be

promoted as attractive tourism product.

Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BC), who privileged hedonism but also

advocated temperance, naturally found in food and drink a major source of pleasure.

Food, as defined in the dictionary, is any substance that provides the nutrients

necessary to maintain life and growth when ingested. When most animals feed, they

repeatedly consume those foods necessary for their well-being, and they do so in a

similar manner at each feeding (Kittler & Sucher, 2008). The popular meaning of

food is, whatever yields us nourishment; the scientific, any substance which, on being

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submitted to the action of the stomach, becomes assimilated by digestion, and repairs

the losses which, from vital use and action, the human body suffers. Thus, the

distinctive quality of food is that it can be assimilated by an animal (Jean Anthelme

Brillat-Savarin, 1848). According to Civitello, L (2011), ―Food is one of the ways

humans define themselves as civilized. But ―civilized‖ is a slippery concept, very

much in the eye of the beholder. For example, civilized people use utensils—forks,

knives, spoons, chopsticks etc. unless they are eating with their hands. She further

adds that, the ability to use fire is one of the crucial things that separate us from

animal. In addition to consuming already available resources in nature, man learned to

produce resources himself by developing the practice of growing plants and raising

livestock (Montanari, M., 2004). According to her, ―Cooking is the human activity

par excellence; it is the act of transforming a product ―from nature‖ into something

profoundly different‖ (op.cit). The chemical modifications induced by cooking, and

the combination of ingredients, work together to bring to the mouth a food, that, if not

completely ―artificial,‖ is surely ―created.‖ The French word ‗cuisine‘ means the art

of cooking dishes and the place (kitchen) in which they are cooked (Montagne, P.,

1960 pp.266). Cuisine entered English only in the seventeenth century, along with its

cousin culinary, which derives from the Latin culina, meaning simply kitchen.

The seeds of a general theory of the making of a cuisine were offered by Michael

Freeman (1977) in his essay on Sung cuisine in China. He suggested that the

appearance of a (presumably superior) cuisine requires first, a wealth of local and

imported ingredients and second, ‗a sizeable corps of critical, adventuresome eaters,

not bound by the tastes of their native region and willing to try unfamiliar food‘. He

further emphasised that this elite corps must be a large one. ‗An individual ruler or

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tiny elite may command superlative cooking, but cannot create a cuisine. The eaters

must also be sophisticated enough to encourage culinary adventures‘ and their

attitudes should ‗give first place to the real pleasure of consuming food rather than to

its purely ritualistic significance‘. He connects his definition of cuisine, which he

called a historical one, with the precondition of abundance, seeing cuisine as ―a self-

conscious tradition of cooking and eating‖ which necessarily implied ―the confluence

of certain material factors, the availability and abundance of ingredients, with a set of

attitudes about food and its place in the life of man.‖ Cuisine requires not just a style

of cooking, but awareness about how the food is prepared and consumed. It must also

involve a wide variety of ingredients, more than are locally available, and cooks and

diners willing to experiment, which means they are not constricted by tradition.

Cuisine is defined as a ―manner of preparing food; style of cooking; or the

food prepared‖ (Merriam-Webster‘s Collegiate Dictionary, 1985). The word

―culinary‖ relates to the kitchen or cookery. Thus, culinary, gastronomic, or cuisine

tourism involves learning about food and beverage products and different styles of

cooking. It is about the discovery and enjoyment of different tastes and flavours. It

links visitors with foods and beverages produced locally (Smith, 2001). Mintz, S.

(1996) also defines cuisine more broadly as ―the ongoing foodways of a region,

within which active discourse about food sustains both common understandings and

reliable production of the foods in question.‖ McCann (2009) keeping Africa in mind,

argues for an expanded definition ―by using cuisine to denote a distinct and coherent

body of food preparations based upon one or more starchy staples, a set of spice

combinations, complementary tastes, particular textures, iconic rituals, and a locally

intelligible repertoire of meats, vegetables, and starchy textures.‖ Similarly,

Armelagos (2010) calls cuisine ―a cultural system that defines the items in nature that

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are edible; how these items can be extracted, eaten, or processed into food; the flavors

used to enhance the taste of the food; and the rules about consuming it.‖ This more

comprehensive definition enables Armelagos to see cuisine as the solution to the

―omnivore‘s dilemma.‖ Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin(1848), ―Gastronomy is the

scientific knowledge of all that relates to man as an eater. Its aim is, by means of the

best possible food, to watch over the preservation of mankind, and it attains that end

by laying down certain principles to direct in the search, supply, or preparation of

alimentary substances‖.

Scarpato (2002) stated that the word ―gastronomy‖ first emerged in a poem

published by Jacques Berchoux, a Frenchman in 1804. In the poem, Berchoux

described gastronomy as enjoying food and drink at the very best. Before then, the

word ―gastronomy‖ had been ubiquitous and had been extremely difficult to define,

because it encompassed an extensive association with everything related to food, eat,

and drink. Finally, in 1835, the word gastronomy was included and defined in a

French dictionary as ―the art of good eating.‖ However, Santich (1996), defined

gastronomy as, ―reflective eating, which, however, it expands to reflective cooking

and food preparation as well, maintaining the association with excellence and/or fancy

food and drink‖ (p. 115). Mennell, Murcott, and Van Otterloo, (1992), p.115 quoted

that, ―sharing food is held to signify ―togetherness,‖ an equivalence among a group

that defines and reaffirms insiders as socially similar.‖ Food related events comprise a

wide array of eating and drinking activities that bring people together for the

enjoyment and sharing of food. Empirical studies on tourism and gastronomy have

been carried out comprehensively in other countries (Fox, 2007; Hjalager and

Corigliano, 2000; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Okumus, Okumus, and McKercher, 2007;

Ryu and Jang, 2006); however, in India, this particular issue is yet to take attention.

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2.2 The Relationship between Tourism and Food, Cuisine and Gastronomy

Although, for years, food has been strongly linked to tourism in some

European and Asian destinations but in India, culinary tourism is relatively a new

phenomenon thus, there is tremendous scope of research in this area. Tourism results

from regions‘ sources, such as; specific landscapes, environments, culture and

heritage (Beer et al., 2002). Food is an extremely important part of the culture of a

region. Food is one of the essential elements of the tourist experience. Consumption

is an integral aspect of the tourist experience, with the tourist consuming not only the

sights and sounds, but also the taste of a place. Nearly, all tourists eat and dine out

(Shenoy, 2005). For decades now, research has acknowledged that tourism is full of

symbolic consumption that goes far beyond the satisfaction of bodily needs (Brown

1992; Urry 1990). Food consumption is no exception. Pillsbury (1990) divides food

catering into two categories; body food and soul food. Body food comes from fast

food restaurants, which fulfil the need to feed the stomach rapidly in standardized

environments that do not challenge the intellectual capacities. Further, soul food has

another appeal. The pleasures of the environment and the company of other people is

an essential part of the eating experience.

2.3 Food-ways (Food Habits), Food as a Motivating Factor and Food Identities

According to Yoder (1972, pp.8) food-ways are, ―the network of behaviors,

traditions, and beliefs concerning food, and involves all the activities surrounding a

food item and its consumption, including the procurement, preservation, preparation,

and performance of that food‖. Foodways can be associated with food habits of a

particular society or individuals. The relationship between food habits and religion

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has been documented by many researchers (Kilara & Iya, 1992; Kittler & Sucher,

1989; Tannahill, 1988).

The motivation typology developed by McIntosh (1995), suggests that

physical motivators were related to tourists‘ real experiences during the trip. For

example, tourists experienced the cuisine through sampling of the food, looking at

attractive food presentation and smelling the aroma of the food. In terms of cultural

motivators, there seemed to be a strong relationship between food and culture

(Reynolds, 1993). Tourists may be interested in learning about new cultures and

lifestyles of the people at the destination. The easiest way to experience another

culture is through its food. Hjalager (2002) emphasised that the surrounding

atmosphere and socializing with group members were an important part of the overall

dining experience. During the vacation, one would have more leisure time and could

possibly spend more time together with family and friends that could contribute in

building good relationships. Some hotels used food as a way for their guests to meet

other people in the hotels (Fields, 2002). Finally, status and prestige had always been

the main motivations for people to travel to a destination.

Beardsworth and Keil (1997) argued that nutrient intake was not the only

function of eating, but it also included the experience of tasting food and the

significance of interacting with other people during a meal, especially when the foods

represent a symbolic meaning in an event. Ryan (1997) and Smith (1991) proved that

food had an impact on the travelers‘ level of satisfaction with the trip. A study by

Rimmington and Yuskel (1998) found that the major reason travelers revisited Turkey

was for its cuisine. Hu and Ritchie (1993) explored that food was the fourth factor or

the reason to visit after weather, accommodation, and scenery. In general, it seemed

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that food significantly contributed to the travelers‘ overall impression about the

destination and satisfaction with the place visited.

2.4 Culinary Tourism and Sustainability

Food in tourism can support local producers and local providers as well as it

provides high quality and fresh food to tourists (Long, 2004). This suggest that food

in tourism can result in benefits for both hosts and guests (Nummedal and Hall, 2006;

Okumus et al., 2007; Sims, 2009). It is recognised that the kind of foods and drinks on

offer for tourists confront us as a significant potential source in providing for the

economic, cultural and environmental sustainability of tourism destinations. In other

words, food could be a great medium for differentiating destinations (H. Ridvan

Yurtseven & Ozan Kaya, 2011). Local food as a tourism product is offered to tourists

in many ways during their holiday, such as; in direct purchases from farms and in the

restaurants, which allow for local products in their menus. Therefore, we can argue

that food preparation and related services contribute substantially to tourism

employment (Nummedal and Hall, 2006). The maximization of relationship between

host and tourist by mean of locally produced food will increase the potential

contribution of tourism to regional development (Hall, 2004).

There are varied literature available on food products of a destination and

these are the important instruments of conveying the cultural expressions (Handszuh,

2000; Rand et al., 2003; Cohen and Avieli, 2004; Selwood, 2003; Brownlie et al.,

2005; Rand and Heath, 2006). Moreover, importance of food and eating out on trips

and holidays is supported by many researchers (Telfer and Wall, 2000; Hjalager and

Richards 2002; Hall and Sharples 2003; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Okumus et al.,

2007; Sims 2009). Telfer and Wall (2000), suggested that spending on eating out

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during a holiday constitutes approximately one-third of all tourist‘s expenditures.

Local foods in the restaurants menus contribute about 47% of total sales of menu

items (H. Ridvan Yurtseven & Ozan Kaya, 2011). This suggests that if local food is

promoted it can lead to the development of an area.

Tourism is intimately linked to local food production. Tourists like other local

people, need to eat. If their demands can be met from local resources this can provide

an important boost to the local economy. If not, tourism can add to the demand for

imported foods, harming local agriculture, increasing imports and reducing the

economic benefit of tourism(Richards, G., 2001). He further adds that, local food

production depends on agriculture; hunting and fishing, the appropriate development

of linkages with tourism can aid the stimulation of indigenous entrepreneurial activity

and stimulate the ‗bottom-up‘ development of community-based tourism initiatives.

2.5 A Survey of Studies on Culinary Tourism

The need of study is to create an interface between tourism and local food

production was felt by Belisle (1983) when he found that the foreign-exchange

leakage through food import for tourist consumption reduces the net positive

economic impact in the Caribbean region. He pointed out that the need of study on the

nature and extent of imports of tourism food and associated foreign-exchange

leakages; the reasons a large proportion of the food for tourist consumption is

imported; and the variation in food supply patterns according to quality, size,

ownership, and location of tourist establishment.

There is a saying ―some people eat to live; some people live to eat‖. Perhaps

for many people in the world, and for most of the time, it is true that we eat to live:

just to stay alive. But at other times, and especially for people on holiday, there are
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occasions when we really do live to eat. They look for places where the meal will be

an experience to be enjoyed: an experience to be anticipated with excitement, to be

relished in the fulfillment, to be remembered with satisfaction (Tyrrell Marris, 1986)).

In a survey of 1300 visitors to the state of Hawaii from Japan, Canada and the

U.S. mainland, Sheldon, P & Fox, M (1988) found that only 18% said foodservice

played a role in their destination choice. Japanese visitors, however, rated foodservice

higher than the other two nationalities. The quality of foodservice and the availability

of a range of prices were found to be the most important aspects of foodservice for

tourists especially on a vacation. They also found that at dinner-time, tourists' major

concern is about the quality of the cuisine, whereas at lunch and breakfast time, they

are more concerned with getting the best value for their dollar.

Studies of the social significance of food and eating, have mostly been left to

social anthropologists and social historians. Often it has not appeared as part of the

cultural environment that is offered as a tourist package. If a culture is to prove

sustainable in the face of tourism, then traditional and ethnic foods must be preserved

along with other art forms. This pilot study shows that in a tourist area of Bali (a)

visitors are not necessarily being offered what they want, and (b) traditional food is

not being preserved (Reynolds, 1993).

Tefler, D.J. & Wall, G.(1996) studied the relationship between food

production and tourism in general and, agriculture and tourism in particular. They

examined the efforts of a resort on the island of Lombok, Indonesia, to increase the

amount of local food products used in its restaurants through the establishment of two

projects involving local food producers. They argued that there is potential to increase

backward linkages between tourism and local food production but still there are

substantial challenges.

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Bessiere, J. (1998) analysed the transformation and redefinition of local

identity in rural France from the perspective of heritage – more precisely food and

gastronomy – and local rural tourism. As an identity marker of a geographic area

and/or as a means of promoting farm products, gastronomy meets the specific needs

of consumers, local producers and other actors in rural tourism. He found that

development of the local area as a process of territorial and heritage construction.

Macionis, N. (1998) reports on an exploratory examination and analysis of the nature

and extent of linkages and relationships between the wine, food and tourism sectors in

the Canberra Region. Based on extensive interviews with Canberran restaurateurs, it

examines the potential of wine and food tourism in a developing wine region,

highlights practices and perceptions that restrict the development of productive

linkages between the wine and food sectors, and explores opportunities for strategic

marketing activities that will benefit both industries at both micro (i.e. individual

enterprise) and macro (destinational product development and marketing).

Eating is a physical necessity, but catering services and food image are also

very important ingredients of cultural tourism. Food and tourism are increasingly

being combined, e.g. in agri-tourism, wine tours and the sale of food products as

souvenirs. Hjalager, A. & Corigliano, M. (2000), illustrates the development and

standards of food for tourists are not determined uniformly by tourism policies, but

more are significantly determined by national, economic, agricultural and food

policies. They concludes that only residents are in a position to put a more permanent

pressure on food suppliers, and only if they are given the appropriate instruments.

Wine tourism is a growing segment of the tourism industry. Wine tourists are

not a homogeneous group, but seek differing components of the overall wine tourism

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experience. Steve Charters, Jane Ali-Knight, (2000) evaluates their demand for an

educational element in the overall process, within Australia. Personal surveys were

carried out in two wine regions in Western Australia. Respondents were questioned

on their previous experience of ‗wine education‘, the possibilities for learning at the

cellar door, the benefits of ‗wine education‘, and how far their expectations for ‗wine

education‘ had been met. They developed the method of preparing visitor‘s profiles of

the Western Australian wine tourist.

The findings of Williams, P. (2001), suggest that over the past decade, there

has been a shift in wine country imagery from an emphasis on wine production

processes and related facilities to on aesthetic and experiential values associated with

more leisurely recreational and tourist pursuits. In keeping with this shift from

production orientation to more aesthetic elements, the wine tourism experience has

become more positioned around a core attraction of quality wine, frequently

accompanied by a set of culinary, educational, event hosting and cultural dimensions.

He also identifies several of the more critical resource management and marketing

issues associated with this shift in imagery.

Both the wine and tourism industries have achieved high levels of growth

within Australia in the 1990s, and are significant contributors to the GDP, as an

invisible exports. In 1994, about 10 percent of the total international visitors made a

visit to an Australian winery, which resulted into an increase of 20 percent in

comparison to the figures of 1993. Charters, S. & Ali-Knight (2002), suggesting a

model possessing three dimensions; purpose of visit, general tourist motivation and

relationship to other tourist activities. With this model, it is possible to locate specific

tourist activities, and thereby have a better understanding of what constitutes ‗wine

tourism‘.

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Au, L. & Law, R. (2002), reports on an initial study about applying an

alternative approach that incorporates the rough set theory into relationship modeling

in tourism dining. Their theory deals with the non-numeric classification analysis of

imprecise, uncertain, or incomplete knowledge by incorporating the classical set

theory. Using officially published data on tourism dining, decision rules were

generated which describe the relationship model. Empirical findings indicated that

among the classified cases, 83% of the forecast values were identical to their actual

counterparts.

Torres, R. (2003), established linkages between tourism demand for food and

local agricultural production is critical in maximizing host country benefits. Drawing

on surveys of Cancun hotels and Yucatan Peninsula tourists, as well as interviews

with chefs, food suppliers, farmers, ejido comisariados and urban immigrants, his

study takes a holistic approach in analyzing existing linkages between tourism and

agriculture in Quintana Roo and understanding factors constraining the development

of linkages.

Cohen and Avieli (2004) studied the perception of food as an important factor

of destination attraction. The main focus of their study was to analyse the difference

between attraction and impediment. In particular, the authors were looking at two

perspectives: first how food could be an attractive product for a destination and

second analysing the barriers to producing acceptable food products for tourists. Their

purpose was to evaluate how to resolve these problems and how these issues can

affect the tourists‘ food choice.

People traveling away from home have to eat! Restaurants play an important

role in tourism. They provide not just food and beverages, but experiences. Some

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function as attractions. Often referred to as ―Eatertainment‖, some examples are

―Hard Rock Café‖, ―Planet Hollywood‖, and ―Rain Forest Café‖.

Heritage is a significant part of the travel and tourism industry. Heritage

attractions and restaurants have been studied independently. Yet there is no academic

literature on restaurants as historic tourist attractions. For these, a new term

―Histourant‖ was coined by Josiam, B., Mattson, M., & Sullivan, P. in the year 2004.

Most wine tourists and visitors to wine regions can be viewed as actual or potential

consumers of a lifestyle beverage, who visit wine regions in order to have

wine‐related experiences. Alant, K., & Bruwer, J. (2004), suggested conceptual

motivational framework for wine tourism. The framework is a simple construct

consisting of three main dimensions: the Visitor, Wine Region and Visit Dynamic

(viewed in terms of first‐time or repeat visitation). As an adjunct to these, there are

multivariate evolving sub‐dimensions of motivation and behaviour related to

geographic location of wine region, purpose of visit, etc., which augment the main

dimensions. They revealed that in the Wine Region dimension motivation is affected

in terms of geographic location in relation to the permanent home origin of the

visitors.

The tourist experiences for a long time has been one-sidedly understood as

either the peak experience, or the consumer experience. For a better understanding of

the tourist experience, Quan, S., & Wang, N. (2004), tries to build a conceptual

model, in which dimensions of the tourist experiences both structured and interrelated

were integrated. The position and role of each experiential component, such as

eating, sleeping, and transportation etc. in tourism can be more clearly understood in

terms of this model.

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Evidence suggests that motivation to travel for gastronomic reasons is a valid

construct for the purposes of market segmentation. Qualitative results of the interview

analysis reveal that gastronomy plays a major role in the way that visitors experience

a destination and indicate that some travelers would return to the same destination to

savor its unique gastronomy. Qualitative feedback from the study of Jakša J. Kivela &

John C. Crotts, (2009) reaffirms that as a contemporary cultural resource; gastronomy

satisfies all the conventional requirements of cultural tourism products.

Feelings and memories make very special and attractive dining-out especially

on holidays, because these become transposed into experiences that are often very

personal (Finkelstein, 1989; Mennel, Murcott, & van Otterloo, 1992). Importantly,

these experiences also have the power to modify travelers/visitors eating preferences

and tastes as well as imbue us with experiences of the culture of the place where

travelers are visiting (Johns & Kivela, 2001; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Kivela & Johns,

2002).

Accordingly, the literature reviewed for the purpose establishes the importance

of culinary tourism, its contribution in sustainable development and helps in

experiencing other culture through food. The brief review also …… that Cuisine is

not merely style of cooking but it is a delight about how food is prepared and

consumed. Thus, the review established that relationship between cuisine and tourism

provides an opportunity of strengthening economic base of a region and hereby

reinforces long term relationship between tourist and the region.

Further on the basis of the review of existing knowledge, the following views

about the culinary tourism get reflected;

a) Consumption of food is and integral part of the experiences of a destination.

b) Food can be treated as a recipe of attracting tourists to a destination.

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c) Cuisine is a cultural system that explains the items in nature that are edible.

d) Cuisine can boost social interactions in the community.

e) Cuisine is an essential element of the tourists‘ experiences.

f) Food-ways can be associated with the food habits of a particular society or an

individual.

g) Dining-out can build strong relationship among the member of family.

h) Cuisine is identified as the key factor in attracting travellers to some countries

like turkey, Tasmania, Australia, Canada, Wales, France, New Zealand etc.

i) Food acts as humungous medium of differentiating destinations.

j) Promotion of local food production and enormously stimulate the community

based tourism and hence can provide/magnify livelihood of local inhabitants.

k) Quality of food service plays an important role in the destination choice of

tourists.

l) The method of preparing visitor‘s profile of the food/wine tourists has been

developed.

m) Linkages between tourists demand for food and local agricultural production is

crucial in maximising host community benefits.

n) Heritage attractions and restaurants have been studied by different researchers.

o) Evidences were also traced that motivation to travel for gastronomic reasons is

a valid construct for the purpose of market segmentation.

p) Experiences so gained can modify visitor‘s preferences and tastes.

q) Barriers for producing acceptable food products for tourists were also

established.

Therefore, on the basis of the review of the existing knowledge on the subject, the

following research gaps were identified;

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a) No study has yet been traced by the researcher regarding the appraisal of

potential of Awadhi Cuisine as tourism product.

b) No study has yet been traced by the researcher which assessed the

acceptability of Awadhi cuisine among the tourists.

c) There is no tool available for planning culinary tour for tourists in the area of

study.

d) The contribution of Awadhi Cuisine in sustainable rural development has yet

not been explored.

e) Further, attempt for establishing association between culinary tourists and

demographic variables has been made. However, no study has yet been traced

of such nature, which establishes the extent of being culinary tourist with

respect demographic variables in the country as well as in the area of study.

In view of above research gap, the study has been undertaken.

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