‫ميحرلا نمحرلا هللا‬ ‫بسم‬

Medical embryology
Axial skeleton
By
Dr. Marwa Mahmood
second Stage
2024-2025

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The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. In general, the
skeletal system develops from

1.Paraxial mesoderm: forms a segmented series of tissue blocks on each side of the neural
tube, known as somitomeres in the head region and somites from the occipital region
caudally. Somites differentiate into the sclerotome, ventrally and dermomyotome, dorsally
in addition to the myotomes. At the end of the fourth week, sclerotome cells become
polymorphous and form loosely organized tissue, called mesenchyme, or embryonic
connective tissue. It is characteristic for mesenchymal cells to migrate and to differentiate in
many ways. They may become fibroblasts, chondroblasts, or osteoblasts (bone-forming
cells).

2.Lateral plate (parietal layer) mesoderm : This layer of mesoderm forms bones of the

 Pelvis
 shoulder girdles
 limbs
 sternum.

3.Neural crest cells: Neural crest cells in the head region also differentiate into
mesenchyme and participate in formation of bones of the face and skull. The remainder of
the skull is derived from occipital somites and somitomeres.

Ossification:

In some bones, such as the flat bones of the skull, mesenchyme in the dermis differentiates
directly into bone, a process known as intramembranous ossification.

In most bones, however, including the base of the skull and the limbs, mesenchymal cells
first give rise to hyaline cartilage models, which in turn become ossified by endochondral
ossification.

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Endochondral bone formation:

1. Mesenchyme cells begin to condense and differentiate into chondroblasts then

chondrocytes.
2. Chondrocytes form a cartilaginous model of prospective bone.
3. Blood vessels invade the center of the cartilaginous model, bringing osteoblasts and
restricting chondrocyte proliferation to the ends (epiphyses) of the bone. (primary
ossification center).
4. Chondrocytes toward the shaft (diaphysis) mineralize the surrounding matrix and
undergo hypertrophy and apoptosis as they.
5. Osteoblasts bind to the mineralized matrix and deposit bone matrix.
6. As blood vessels; later, invade the epiphyses, secondary ossification centers form.
7. Growth of the bone is maintained by proliferation of chondrocytes in the growth plates.

SKULL
The skull can be divided into two parts: neurocranium and viscerocranium

(A)The neurocranium, which forms a protective case around the brain, is mostly divided
into two portions:

(1) The membranous part,

 consisting of flat bones, which surround the brain as a vault.

 It is derived from neural crest cells and paraxial mesoderm.
 undergoes intramembranous ossification.
 Consist from a number of flat, membranous bones that are characterized by the
presence of needle-like bone spicules. These spicules progressively radiate from
primary ossification center toward the periphery.
 With further growth during fetal and postnatal life, membranous bones enlarge by
apposition of new layers on the outer surface and by simultaneous osteoclastic
resorption from inside.

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(2) The cartilaginous part, or chondrocranium,

 Forms bones of the base of the skull, initially consists of a number of separate
cartilages.
 Consist from two parts:
 prechordal chondrocranium: that lie in front of the rostral limit of the
pituitary gland in the center of the sella turcica, are derived from neural crest
cells.
 chordal chondrocranium that lie posterior to the rostral limit of the pituitary
gland arise from occipital sclerotomes formed by paraxial mesoderm
 The base of the skull is formed when these cartilages fuse and ossify by
endochondral ossification.

(B)The viscerocranium:

 which forms the skeleton of the face.

 is formed mainly from the first two pharyngeal arches.
 The first arch gives rise to:
 a dorsal portion, the maxillary process, which extends forward beneath the
region of the eye and gives rise to the maxilla, the zygomatic bone, and part
of the temporal bone.
 The ventral portion, the mandibular process, contains the Meckel cartilage.
Mesenchyme around the Meckel cartilage condenses and ossifies by
intramembranous ossification to give rise to the mandible. The Meckel
cartilage disappears except in the sphenomandibular ligament.
 The dorsal tip of the mandibular process, along with that of the second pharyngeal
arch, later gives rise to the incus, the malleus, and stapes. Ossification of three
ossicles begins in the fourth month, making these the first bones to become fully
ossified.
 Mesenchyme for formation of the bones of the face is derived from neural crest
cells, including the nasal and lacrimal bones.

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At first, the face is small in relation to the neurocranium due to:

(1) virtual absence of the paranasal air sinuses

(2) the small size of the bones, particularly the jaws.

With the appearance of the teeth and development of the air sinuses, the face loses its
babyish characteristics.

Newborn Skull

At birth, the flat bones of the skull are separated from each other by narrow seams of
connective tissue, the sutures, which are also derived from two sources:

 neural crest cells (sagittal suture)

 paraxial mesoderm (coronal suture).

At points where more than two bones meet, sutures are wide and are called fontanelles.
The most prominent of these is the anterior fontanelle, which is found where the two
parietal and two frontal bones meet. Sutures and fontanelles allow the bones of the skull to
overlap (molding) during birth. Soon after birth, membranous bones move back to their
original positions, and the skull appears large and round. In fact, the size of the vault is large
compared with the small facial region.

Several sutures and fontanelles remain membranous for a considerable time after birth. The
bones of the vault continue to grow after birth, mainly because the brain grows. Although a
5- to 7-years-old child has nearly all of his or her cranial capacity, some sutures remain open
until adulthood. In the first few years after birth, palpation of the anterior fontanelle may
give valuable information as to whether ossification of the skull is proceeding normally and
whether intracranial pressure is normal. In most cases, the anterior fontanelle closes by 18
months of age, and the posterior fontanelle closes by 1 to 2 months of age.

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VERTEBRAE AND THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Vertebrae form from the sclerotome portions of the somites. A typical vertebra consists of:
vertebral arch, foramen(through which the spinal cord passes), body, transverse processes
and usually a spinous process.

*During the fourth week, sclerotome cells migrate around the spinal cord and notochord to
merge with cells from the opposing somite on the other side of the neural tube. As
development continues, the sclerotome portion of each somite also undergoes a process
called resegmentation. It occurs when the caudal half of each sclerotome grows into and
fuses with the cephalic half of next sclerotome. Thus, each vertebra is formed from the
combination of the caudal half of one somite and the cranial half of its neighbor.

 Mesenchymal cells between cephalic and caudal parts of the original sclerotome
segment do not proliferate but fill the space between two precartilaginous vertebral
bodies. In this way, they contribute to formation of the intervertebral disc.

 Although the notochord regresses entirely in this region, it persists and enlarges in the
region of the intervertebral disc, it contributes to the nucleus pulposus, which is later
surrounded by circular fibers of the annulus fibrosus, both form the intervertebral disc.

 Resegmentation of sclerotomes into definitive vertebrae causes:

 the myotomes to bridge the intervertebral discs and this gives them the capacity
to move the spine.
 Intersegmentalarteries, at first lying the between the sclerotomes , then pass
midway over the vertebral bodies.
 Spinal nerves come to lie near the intrvertebral discs and leave the vertebral
column through the intervertebral foramina.

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 As the vertebrae form, two primary curves of the spine are established: the thoracic and
sacral curvatures.
 Later, two secondary curvatures are established: cervical and lumber curvatures, as the
child learn to hold up his or her head and learn to walk, respectively.

Ribs

 The bony portion of each rib is derived from sclerotome cells that remain in the paraxial
mesoderm and that grow out from the costal processes of the thoracic vertebrae.
 Costal cartilages are formed by sclerotome cells that migrate across the lateral somatic
frontier into adjacent lateral plate mesoderm.

Sternum

 The sternum develops independently in the parietal layer of lateral plate mesoderm in
the ventral body wall. Two sternal bands are formed in the parietal (somatic) layer of
lateral plate mesoderm on either side of the midline, and these later fuse to form
cartilaginous model of the manubrium, sternebrae and xiphoid process.