BIOL 40 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Name: ________________________

Sec9on: ________
Lab 6: The Lympha-c System
Learning outcomes of the lab exercises:
1. Describe the structure and func9on of the lympha9c system.
2. Define the hierarchy of organs in the system.
3. Find the loca9ons of major lympha9c organs, nodes, and vessels.
4. Differen9ate between histology of spleen, thymus, and lymph node.

OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The components of the lymphoid (lympha9c) system are lymphoid organs and ?ssues, lympha?c vessels,
lymph or lymph plasma (lymph), and red bone marrow. The lymphoid system is the structural loca9on where
much of the adap9ve immune response occurs. Adap9ve immunity is the ability to defend against specific
foreign substances such as microbes, toxins, and foreign 9ssues. Cells involved in the adap9ve immune
response are B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells).

The lymphoid system also collects excess inters99al fluid and returns this fluid to the bloodstream. In addi9on,
it delivers dietary lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) absorbed from the small intes9ne to the
bloodstream.

ACTIVITY 1: LYMPH PLASMA AND LYMPHATIC VESSELS

Lymph plasma, the fluid found within lympha9c vessels, is formed from blood plasma. As blood flows through
blood capillaries, hydrosta9c and osmo9c pressures filter more plasma out of the blood capillary and into the
inters99al spaces than is drawn back inside. The excess fluid in the inters99al spaces is now called inters??al
fluid. When the inters99al fluid enters the lympha?c capillaries, it is called lymph plasma. Inters99al fluid and
lymph plasma are iden9cal in composi9on but different in loca9on. Blood plasma, however, differs from both
of these fluids in that it contains proteins blood plasma contains many plasma proteins (including albumin)
that are too large to cross the blood capillary endothelium into the inters99al fluid.

Lympha9c capillaries, which lie near blood capillaries and are closed at one end, combine to form larger
lympha9c vessels. Lympha9c vessels follow the pathway of veins in the body and also have a similar structure,
but they have thinner walls and more valves than veins. Just as a body massage is helpful for moving blood
through the veins and toward the heart, a light massage is also helpful for moving lymph plasma through the
lympha9c vessels and nodes to cleanse the lymph plasma.

Lympha9c vessels flow into a series or chain of lymph nodes where lymph plasma is filtered. Within a body
region, the lymph vessels exi9ng the last lymph nodes in each chain of nodes merge to form lympha9c trunks.
The lympha9c trunks on the right side of the body drain lymph plasma from the upper right quadrant of the
body into venous blood at the junc9on of the right internal jugular and subclavian veins. Rarely, these trunks
form a short right lympha9c duct which drains into venous blood.

In the abdominal area, lympha9c trunks merge to form a sac-like reservoir called the cisterna chyli. The
cisterna chyli drains lymph plasma from the en9re body below the diaphragm. The thoracic (leb lympha9c)
duct begins at the cisterna chyli and con9nues superiorly. It receives lymph plasma from the upper leb
quadrant of the body before draining into venous blood at the junc9on of the leb internal jugular and
subclavian veins.

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Label the following diagram of a lympha?c capillary. Note: you will not need to use all of the pointers.

• Arteriole
• Venule
• Tissue Fluid
• Valve
• Lymph
• Lymph Vessels x2
• “Flaps”
• Collogen Fibers
• Inters99al Fluid
• Tissue Cells
• Capillary

Label the following diagram of the lympha?c system.

• Peyer’s patches
• appendix
• axillary lymph node
• cervical lymph node
• iliac lymph node
• inguinal lymph node
• intes9nal lymph
node
• mammary lymph
node
• red bone marrow
• spleen
• submandibular
lymph node
• thoracic lymph node
• thymus

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Histological examina?on of a lympha?c vessel. Please examine and sketch a lympha?c vessel in the space
provided. Be sure to label your sketch with the indicated structures.
Lympha'c Vessel t.m. = ________
• Lympha'c vessel
• Lympha'c valve

ACTIVITY 2: STRUCTURE OF THE LYMPH NODE

Lymph nodes are bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and are usually found in groups. Clusters of these
nodes are generally found in different body regions (i.e., the cervical, axillary, and inguinal areas) and are
named for their loca9on. Each node has a capsule with extensions called trabeculae (trabecula = liile beam)
that compartmentalize the node. Deep to the capsule is a net-like structure composed of re9cular fibers and
re9cular cells (specialized fibroblasts). The capsule, trabeculae, re9cular fibers, and re9cular cells form the
suppor9ng framework of the lymph node.

Two main regions of lymph nodes are the cortex (superficial region) and medulla (deep region). The cortex is
divided into an outer cortex and an inner cortex. The outer cortex contains lymphoid nodules. Within these
nodules are clumps of B cells. When these B cells are exposed to an9gens (molecules on the surface of foreign
substances that invoke an immune response), they differen9ate into plasma cells and memory B cells. Plasma
cells produce an9bodies, and memory B cells remember exposure to a specific an9gen. The inner cortex
contains T cells but no lymphoid nodules. Aber T cells are exposed to an9gens, they proliferate and migrate to
areas of the body where these an9gens are present.

The medulla contains B cells and plasma cells that have migrated from the cortex, as well as macrophages.

Lymph enters each node via many afferent vessels; travels through the following spaces: subcapsular sinus,
trabecular sinuses, sinuses in the cortex, and medullary sinuses; and exits the node via fewer efferent vessels.
The hilum (hila = depression or pit) is the indented area of the node where the efferent vessels leave the node.
This design causes the lymph to move slowly through the cortex and the medulla of the lymph nodes, allowing
9me for immune system cells (lymphocytes and macrophages) to aiack pathogens, cancer cells, and foreign
molecules.

Enlarged lymph nodes could be caused by, but are not limited to, infec9on, cancer, or scarring from a chronic
lesion.

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Label the following diagram.

• afferent vessels
• capsule
• cortex
• efferent vessels
• hilum
• medulla
• medullary sinus
• subcapsular sinus
• trabecular sinus
• valve

Histological examina?on of a lymph node. Please examine and sketch a lymph node in the space provided.
Be sure to label your sketch with the indicated structures.
Lymph node t.m. = ____ (use a low power to view this!)
• Capsule
• Cortex
• Germinal center
• Medulla
• Trabecula

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Ac?vity 3: Structure of the Spleen
The spleen is the largest lymphoid organ in the body and is located posterior and lateral to the stomach in the
leb upper quadrant (LUQ). The spleen has a hilum through which the splenic artery enters and the splenic vein
and efferent lympha9c vessels exit.

The spleen is encapsulated with extensions of the capsule forming trabeculae. The capsule, trabeculae,
re9cular fibers, and re9cular cells (specialized fibroblasts) form a framework for the white pulp and red pulp
(named for their appearance in fresh 9ssue).

White pulp, which resembles lymphoid nodules in lymph nodes, contains lymphocytes and macrophages and
surrounds branches of the splenic artery called central arteries. B and T cells within white pulp ini9ate
immune responses to blood-borne pathogens while macrophages phagocy9ze the pathogens.

Red pulp contains blood-filled venous sinuses and splenic cords or Billroth’s cords (cords of splenic 9ssue).
Red blood cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and granulocytes are found within splenic cords.
Macrophages remove old or damaged blood cells and platelets. Lymphocytes, plasma cells, and granulocytes
aiack pathogens. Red pulp also stores one-third of the body’s platelets and produces blood cells in the fetus.

• hilum
• splenic artery
• splenic vein

Histological examina?on of a lymph node. Please examine and sketch a lymph node in the space provided.
Be sure to label your sketch with the indicated structures.
Spleen t.m. = ____ (use a low power to view this!)
• Capsule
• Trabecula
• Red Pulp
• White Pulp

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ACTIVITY 4: IMMUNE CELLS INVOLVED IN BODY DEFENSE
The cells involved in body defense are the T cells (T lymphocytes), B cells (B lymphocytes), and macrophages
(macro- = big; phago- = to eat). T and B cells and macrophages are originally produced in red bone marrow
from mul9potent stem cells, which are immature stem cells that can develop into various mature blood cells.

B cells complete their matura9on and become immunocompetent in the red bone marrow. Immature T cells
(pre-T cells) migrate to the thymus through the bloodstream to complete matura9on and become
immunocompetent there.

Immunocompetent T and B cells are released into blood and travel to secondary lymphoid organs and 9ssue to
be ac9vated and cloned in the immune response. Secondary lymphoid organs include the lymph nodes and
the spleen. Lymphoid 9ssue (nodules) includes mucosa-associated lymphoid 9ssue (MALT), Peyer’s patches,
appendix, tonsils, and bronchial nodules.

When s9mulated and ac9vated by specific an9gens (substances that invoke immune responses), B cells
transform into a specialized group of cloned plasma cells that make an?bodies against foreign intruders. This
type of immune response is called an?body-mediated immunity. B cells also make B memory cells that will
become ac9ve if the same an9gen is introduced into your body.

T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity. The three types of T cells are helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells,
and memory T cells. When s9mulated by specific an9gens, helper T cells help clone and ac9vate B cells and
cytotoxic T cells. Cytotoxic T cells aiack virus-infected cells, some cancer cells, and transplanted 9ssue. Aber B
and T cells either destroy or render foreign cells and molecules inac9ve, macrophages phagocy9ze debris.
Memory helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells are clones that become ac9vated when exposed to a specific
an9gen.
Complete the flow chart:
• an9bodies
• an9body-
mediated immunity
• cell-mediated
immunity
• cytotoxic T cells
• mature T cells
• memory B cells
• memory T cells
• plasma cells
• T helper cells
• thymus

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ACTIVITY 5: FOLLOWING A SIMULATED EPIDEMIC
The disease being tracked is caused by enteroviruses, which are responsible for a wide range of infec9ons,
including hand, foot, and mouth disease, viral meningi9s, and acute flaccid myeli9s (AFM). Enterovirus
outbreaks occur sporadically and can affect people of all ages, but young children are par9cularly vulnerable.

Enteroviruses are highly contagious and spread primarily through respiratory secre9ons, fecal-oral
transmission, and contact with contaminated surfaces. Unlike some other viral infec9ons, immunity to one
enterovirus does not confer protec9on against other enteroviruses, making reinfec9on with different strains
possible. Symptoms of enterovirus infec9ons can vary widely, ranging from mild respiratory illness, fever, and
rash to severe neurological complica9ons like AFM, which resembles polio and can cause sudden limb
weakness or paralysis.

In some cases, enterovirus infec9ons can lead to serious complica9ons such as viral meningi9s, encephali9s,
and myocardi9s. Infants and individuals with weakened immune systems are at higher risk for severe
outcomes. The treatment for enterovirus infec9ons is primarily suppor9ve, focusing on relieving symptoms as
there are no specific an9viral therapies available.

Preven9on of enterovirus outbreaks relies heavily on good hygiene prac9ces, including regular handwashing,
disinfec9ng surfaces, and avoiding close contact with infected individuals. Public health measures such as
surveillance, rapid iden9fica9on of outbreaks, and prompt isola9on of affected individuals are crucial in
controlling the spread of enteroviruses. Addi9onally, during outbreaks, it is essen9al for healthcare providers
to report cases to public health authori9es to facilitate effec9ve monitoring and response.

Currently, there are no vaccines available to prevent enterovirus infec9ons broadly, although vaccines for
specific types, like poliovirus, have been highly effec9ve. The development of vaccines for other enteroviruses
is an ongoing area of research. The impact of enterovirus outbreaks on public health highlights the need for
con9nued vigilance, public educa9on on hygiene prac9ces, and investment in vaccine development to reduce
the burden of these infec9ons.

Procedure
1. You will receive one tube with a number on it from your instructor; record that number on your worksheet.
2. Follow the instructor's direc9ons carefully. You will be moving around the room and told to stop.
a. Find a partner and exchange bodily fluids: pipet ½ of your fluid into the other person’s tube and
allow them to pipet ½ into your tube—This was your round 1 exchange.
3. Proceed with a second round of sharing body fluids again pipetng ½ into another person’s tube and that
person pipetng ½ into your tube –this was your round 2 transfer.
4. Repeat step 4 and 5 for round 3
5. When the class has completed 3 rounds, the instructor will bring around developing fluid to iden9fy those
that have the disease. Any indica9on of a color change is considered posi9ve.
6. Together we will record the class data on the chart.

Your Test Tube #: _______________________

Who did you exchange with?

Person 1: ___________________________ Test Tube #: _____
Person 2: ___________________________ Test Tube #: _____
Person 3: ___________________________ Test Tube #: _____

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