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“A Fire Kindles in my Nostrils, It Will Burn to the Lowest

Sheol”: Ancient Near Eastern Cosmology and Yahweh as
the Sun in the Hebrew Bible
Daniel Sarlo
Canadian Society of Biblical Studies, Annual Meeting, Ottawa, ON
June 1, 2015

1. Introduction Nor does it mean that I have been able to

This presentation is a brief synthesis of reconcile every passage of the Hebrew Bible
research I have been developing for several with solar theology. There are, however,
years—research that will, in some shape or numerous similarities between descriptions
form, become the topic of my doctoral of Yahweh and deities like Amun–Re and
dissertation. Herein, I demonstrate select Shamash, and such correspondences are
evidence for my present conclusion, which is consistent with the notion that Yahweh is a
that throughout the Hebrew Bible Yahweh’s solar deity. Thus, in order to determine the
description corresponds to that of a typical prevalence of solar language in the Hebrew
ancient Near Eastern solar deity. My primary Bible, it is paramount to understand the way
methodological tool is the comparative ancient Near Eastern cultures understood
method; that is, I understand ancient the sun in their universe.
Yahwism in the context of the contemporary
common worldview of the region—a region 1.1. Ancient Near Eastern Cosmology
in which the sun god is consistently found at First, we must keep in mind that the universe
the head of the pantheon. was believed to consist of two halves: the
Mark Smith has said that “solar language heavens and the earth, or the upperworld and
for Yahweh in the Hebrew Bible is quite the underworld.2 In the oldest (Sumerian)
limited.”1 However, this does not correspond version of the universe, the peripheral
to my experience in the course of my regions to the east and west were
research. This is not to say that ancient mountainous.3 These regions were
Israelite religion or Yahwism is identical to associated with chaos by nature of the
every other ancient Near Eastern religion. dangerous creatures that dwelled there, as

1 Smith 1990, p. 29. the west because this is the site of the daily death of
2 Steinkeller 2005, p. 18. the sun (Snell 2011, p. 57). Therefore, Sumerian
3 In Sumerian sources, the underworld is said to be at cosmology must include mountains in the west as well
the kur–úr–ra “foot of the mountain.” In the ancient as the east—a notion which is also present in early
Near East, the land of the dead is considered to be in Akkadian sources (Woods 2009, p. 196).
 “A Fire Kindles in my Nostrils, It Will Burn to the Lowest Sheol”

well as the bandits and other individuals have control of the upperworld and the
who were not part of their ordered society— underworld. The question for scholars is
which they considered to be the center of the whether Yahweh appropriated the attributes
universe. Northwest Semitic peoples of other gods, gradually increasing in power
dwelling on the coast of the Mediterranean until he was the god–of–everything, or if he
hold a slightly different concept of the was the ruler of both realms because he was
universe—still with the mountain in the imagined to be the sun, which consistently
east, but with the sea in the west.4 This is a circumnavigates the universe. Scholarly
significant geographical distinction which consensus favours the former, though there is
had a direct impact on mythology. ample evidence for the latter.
Currently, Yahweh is not understood as a
1.2. The Journey of the Sun solar deity despite a wealth of textual
When the sun rises, it appears to be coming evidence linking him to the sun throughout
up from the underworld via the eastern the Hebrew Bible.5 Though one might
mountains. When the sun sets, it seems as expect such material to have been edited out
though it is being swallowed by the sea. in the process of canonization, such an
Ultimately, the sun returns to the skies, expectation is based on the assumption that
victorious over the forces of chaos below. the characteristics of the sun god are
This is a constantly recurring war which incompatible with the notion that Yahweh is
must be won daily. Though many luminaries the supreme deity of the universe. However,
appeared to travel between the upperworld this is not the case—the majority of divine
and the underworld, the sun was the only attributes valued by monotheists are actually
one to do so on a consistent basis and in a inherent to the ancient Near Eastern sun god.
consistent pattern. It is undoubtedly for this Therefore, passages where Yahweh is clearly
reason (as well as its size) that the sun was described as the sun do not conflict
chief of the astral bodies, imbued with whatsoever with the notion that he is the
characteristics like strength and loyalty. god–of–everything.

2. Attributes of Yahweh 2.1. Creator

In the Hebrew Bible, the supremacy of The sun god is creator, not of the universe
Yahweh is evident. Even in some of the itself, but of order in an initially chaotic
oldest biblical material, he is understood to universe—the triumph of light over darkness

4 This concept is also found in Babylonian material, 5 Only a small fraction of which is presented here.
e.g. Enuma Elish, but was likely inherited via contact
with people from the west.

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 “A Fire Kindles in my Nostrils, It Will Burn to the Lowest Sheol”

and the creation of a serene environment for Yahweh

the inhabitants of the earth. › Creator of the habitable universe and creator
The sun god may also be thought of as of living beings
creator because of the role of fire in the (Genesis 1)
creation of new products from pre–existing
material. The solar deity has access to his or Amun–Re
her own personal furnace or forge, and is › “Creator, uncreated”
often said to create weapons of war, as well (First hymn to the sun god)8
as figurines of clay, using fire. Yahweh is › “Creator of all, who makes them live”
described several times in the Hebrew Bible (Second hymn to the sun god)9
as a smith and Isaiah 54:16 credits Yahweh
with the creation of all smiths. In the book Shamash
of Ezekiel, Yahweh threatens to melt down › “Creator of all there is in heaven and earth”
the inhabitants of Jerusalem like metals in a (To Shamash, against a curse, line 6)10
smelter. There is also a possible connection › “Creator of all there is”
between Yahweh and the Kenites, an (To Shamash, healer, line 6)11
Edomite tribe who have been linked to the
specialized production of metal objects.6 2.2. King
Some scholars have also suggested that the The sun was imagined to be king of the
copper serpent, an ancient Yahwistic universe, in part because of his persistent
symbol, is evidence of a link to metallurgy.7 surveillance of the upperworld and
In Ben Sira 43:3, the sun is described as a underworld and, more importantly, his daily
smith who creates arrows from molten defeat of chaos and subsequent creation of
metal. Interestingly, Psalm 29:7 describes order. Already, in theophanic material
Yahweh hewing blades of fire. In both cases, considered by most scholars to be among the
I argue that these blazing metal shards are, in oldest material in the Hebrew Bible, Yahweh
fact, lightning bolts. Genesis 1:6 describes the appears to hold sway over both realms.
chief god fashioning a metal dome, or
firmament, to separate the waters from the Yahweh
waters. › Exerts power over the underworld and
upperworld
(Judges 5:4; Psalm 68:9)

6 Gottwald 1999, p. 321. 9 Ibid.

7 Amzallag 2009, pp. 398–400. 10 B. Foster 1996, p. 638.
8 Lichtheim 1976, p. 87. 11 Ibid., p. 656.

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 “A Fire Kindles in my Nostrils, It Will Burn to the Lowest Sheol”

› “Possessor of heaven and earth” › “You are god, you alone, over all the
(Genesis 14:19) kingdoms of the earth”
(2 Kings 19:15)
Amun–Re
› “Amun­Re, who first was king” Amun–Re
(Praise of Amun–Re, line 1)12 › “Thou sole and only one… like whom there is
› “Amun–Re, lord of the throne of the two here no other”
lands” (Penitential Hymn to Re)16
(Cairo hymn to Amun–Re, i.)13 › “Unparalleled among the gods”
(Cairo hymn to Amun–Re, i.)17
Shamash
› “Oh Shamash, king of heaven and earth” Shamash
(To Shamash, against impending evil, line 1)14 › “None is supreme like you in all the pantheon
› “King of heaven and earth, who administers of the gods”
above and below” (The Shamash hymn, line 46)18
(To Shamash, against a curse, line 1)15
2.3. Judge
Being the sole ruler of the universe also The sun was imagined to see all parts of the
means that the sun was quite different from world as it traveled overhead.19 Thus, it had
the rest of the gods. The notion that Yahweh all the necessary information to assess the
is unique and unrivaled in present in several actions of human beings. Certainly, this is
biblical texts. Likewise, in Egypt and in why the solar deity was thought to be the
Babylon, the sun is referred to as the one and most suitable judge. When the gods
only ruler. convened in the underworld, the sun was the
chief decision–maker, and throughout the
Yahweh ancient Near East the location of the divine
› “Who is like you, Yahweh, among the gods?” council was imagined to be the eastern
(Exodus 15:11) mountain.20 The coming of dawn was the
forward march of the sun god, fully entering

12 Lichtheim 1976, p. 111. 19 e.g. The Shamash hymn, line 21: “You climb to the
13 J. Foster 1995, p. 59. mountains surveying the earth” (Lambert 1996, p.
14 B. Foster 1996, p. 633. 127); Second hymn to the sun god: “[He] sees all that he
15 Ibid., p. 638. made” (Lichtheim 1976, p. 88). Cf. Psalm 33:13:
16 Erman 1995, p. 307. “Yahweh looks out from the heavens and sees all
17 J. Foster 1995, p. 59. human beings.”
18 Lambert 1996, p. 129. 20 This is a very archaic notion, dating back to

Sumerian sources (Polonsky 2002, p. 226).

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 “A Fire Kindles in my Nostrils, It Will Burn to the Lowest Sheol”

the upperworld and delivering the judgment Yahweh

of the divine council to his people. This is › “Because of the crying of the poor; on account
why in the ancient Near East legal decisions, of the cry of the needy, I am now standing up”
oaths, et cetera, were usually made at first (Psalm 12:5)
light (cf. Genesis 26:26–31). In the Hebrew › [Yahweh said:] learn to do good, seek justice,
Bible, Yahweh’s presence is often linked to rescue the oppressed, defend the orphan,
the morning. plead for the widow”
(Isaiah 1:17)
Yahweh
› “He (Yahweh) judges the world in Amun–Re
righteousness” › “The lord of the silent, who comes at the
(Psalm 9:8) voice of the poor”
› “Morning by morning, he (Yahweh) gives his (Hymn to Amun–Re, lines 15–16)23
judgment” › “The vizier of the poor”
(Zephaniah 3:5) (Praise of Amun–Re, line 3)24

Amun–Re Shamash
› “Amun(–Re) judges the land with his › “The feeble man calls you from the hollow of
fingers” his mouth; the humble, the weak, the
(Praise of Amun–Re, line 7)21 afflicted, the poor”
(The Shamash hymn, lines 132–133)25
Shamash
› Oh Shamash, almighty judge of heaven and 2.4. Shepherd
earth” The sun was imagined to be shepherd,
(Code of Hammurabi, 50:14)22 probably because it was the largest of the
luminaries, which were often called sheep.26
Moreover, as the ultimate arbiter of justice, Likewise, the human king was thought of as
the sun god is expected to protect those who the shepherd of humanity, leading and
have been mistreated or downtrodden. We protecting the people, just as a shepherd does
find passages where the poor, the orphan, the his flock. Interestingly, the Egyptian
widow, and the persecuted, are defended in hieroglyph for “ruler” is a shepherd’s crook.
court by Yahweh, Amun–Re, and Shamash.

21 Lichtheim 1976, p. 111. 24 Ibid., p. 111.

22 Richardson 2000, p. 129. 25 Lambert 1996, p. 135.
23 Lichtheim 1976, p. 106. 26 Rochberg 2010.

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 “A Fire Kindles in my Nostrils, It Will Burn to the Lowest Sheol”

Yahweh the battle with the sea—are best understood

› “Oh, shepherd of Israel… sitting upon the as reflections of solar theology, particularly
cherubim, shine forth!” the journey of the sun.
(Psalm 80:1)
› “Yahweh is my shepherd” 3.1. The Rise from the Mountain
(Psalm 23:1) Some of the earliest theophanies in the
Hebrew Bible explicitly describe Yahweh
Amun–Re rising from the holy mountain with radiance.
› “Valiant shepherd who drives his flock”
(Second hymn to the sun god)27 Deuteronomy 33:2

Shamash ‫ויאמר יהוה מסיני בא וזרח משׂעיר למו‬

› “The shepherd, Shamash, guides the people ‫הופיע מהר פארן ואתה מרבבת קדׁש‬
divinely” ‫ למו׃‬Q]‫ [אׁש דת‬K‫מימינו אׁשדת‬
(Babylonian theodicy, line 297)28
› “Whatever has breath you shepherd without [Moses] said: “Yahweh came from Sinai; he rose to
exception” them from Seir; he shone forth from Mount Paran.
(The Shamash hymn, line 25)29 He came from the divine council (lit., holy multitude),
fire—the law—went to them from his right hand.
While I have chosen to discuss these four
characteristics in particular, there are several Note that the author uses the verb ‫זרח‬,
others with points of comparison. Like other which is used elsewhere only of the rise of the
ancient Near Eastern sun gods, Yahweh is sun.33 The verb ‫ יפע‬is also employed, which
called “bridegroom,”30 and is often referred to is most often a reference to the appearance of
as “eternal”31 and “perfect.”32 Yahweh, but in at least one case explicitly
describes the motion of the sun (Ben Sira
3. Myths about Yahweh 43:2). Also, justice is said to be delivered by
Two overarching mythical themes central to fire from the hand of the deity. This is
Yahwism—the rise from the mountain and inevitably tied to the imagery of the sun’s

27 Lichtheim 1976, p. 88. bridegroom is played by Yahweh in Isaiah 62:5 and

28 Lambert 1996, p. 89. Hosea 2:16.
29 Ibid., p. 127. 31 Sarna 1967, p. 174.

30 Shamash is “bridegroom” in several Akkadian texts 32 e.g. First hymn to the sun god: “Hail to you, Re, perfect

(Brown 2002, p. 242 n° 79), while the sun itself is each day” (Lichtheim 1976, p. 87). Yahweh’s perfection
referred to as such in Psalm 19:5. The role of is discussed in Deuteronomy 32:4.
33 Taylor 1993, p. 89.

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rays emanating from the holy mountain in Yahweh is once again associated with his
the morning, an event which immediately hand, as in the passage in Deuteronomy.
follows the meeting of the divine council. There are many indications that Yahweh
is described as the sun in these theophanies.
Habakkuk 3:3–4 Beyond the explicit language of fire and light,
they display the cosmological notion of
‫אלוה מתימן יבוא וקדוׁש מהר־פארן סלה‬ entering the upperworld via the holy
‫כסה ׁשמים הודו ותהלתו מלאה הארץ׃‬ mountain, which took place in the morning.
‫ונגה כאור תהיה קרנים מידו לו וׁשם חביון‬ The morning is a significant time throughout
‫עזה׃‬ the ancient Near East. In the Hebrew Bible,
Yahweh is never said to be present at night.34
Eloah comes from Teman; Qadosh (comes) from In fact, the Psalms clearly demonstrate that
Mount Paran. Selah. His glory covers the skies; the Yahweh appears at dawn to dispel the
earth is filled with his praise. His brilliance is like darkness, both literally and figuratively.
the sun; light-beams (lit., protrusions) surround him Even in cases where trouble arises in the
from his hand—there is his powerful veil. middle of the night, the petition of the
devotee is said to be heard in the morning.35
The author of this theophany similarly Surprisingly, few commentators have
describes the movement of the deity from the actually picked up on this language and
underworld to the upperworld. Yahweh’s linked it to solar worship.36
bright appearance, which was implied by the
use of the specialized verbs ‫ זרח‬and ‫ יפע‬in 3.2. The Battle with the Sea
Deuteronomy 33, is made explicit here by the The battle with the sea was imagined to take
phrase ‫נגה כאור‬. The word ‫ אור‬is often used place as the sun crossed the threshold from
as a reference to the sun. Though ‫ קרנים‬often the upperworld to the underworld.
refers to an animal’s horns, the context According to the ancient Israelite observer,
demands a different translation which the Mediterranean Sea was situated at this
relates the meaning of the root ‫קרן‬ threshold. In the Hebrew Bible, the conflict
“protrusion” to the nature of the subject, between Yahweh and the sea is referred to in
described here as being enveloped in light (cf. several passages, though it is never
Psalm 104:2). The brilliance surrounding explicated. In fact, some scholars have
questioned whether there is even enough

34Yahweh is only seen or heard during the night via 35e.g. Psalm 59:15–17[14–16]; 88:14[13]; 90:14; 143:8.
dream visions which, according to ANE cosmology, 36Hossfeld & Zenger (2005; 2011) have interpreted
originate in the underworld and are dispatched these psalms as reflections of solar theology.
upward in the form of winds (cf. Daniel 2:29).

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 “A Fire Kindles in my Nostrils, It Will Burn to the Lowest Sheol”

evidence to support a primordial, large–scale Deuteronomy 32:22

battle in the Bible. However, the pervasive
nature of this story throughout the ancient ‫כי־אׁש קדחה באפי ותיקד עד־ׁשאול‬
Near East demonstrates that this was a ‫תחתית ותאכל ארץ ויבלה ותלהט מוסדי‬
common tale about the chief deity as a ‫הרים׃‬
warrior who established his rule over the
world by subduing chaos. For a fire is kindled in my nostrils, it will burn to the
There is never an outright defeat of lowest part of Sheol, it will consume the earth and its
chaos—instead, it is merely relocated to the produce, and it will ignite the foundations of the
peripheries of the universe. In all ancient mountains.
Near Eastern cultures, the chief deity is
depicted as being constantly in conflict with Firstly, Yahweh threatens the Israelites by
chaotic forces. The descent of the sun to the saying that his fire will burn to the “lowest
underworld was understood to be the Sheol.” But why does Yahweh travel to Sheol,
physical manifestation of this struggle. Psalm and why does this concern the inhabitants of
89:9–10 describes the defeat of the sea the earth? The strength of the god’s anger is
monster as an event that took place in the clearly linked to the strength of his fire, and
distant past.37 On the other hand, Isaiah 27:1 if this is indeed a legitimate threat, then it
locates this battle in the future. Here, must not have been understood to be normal.
though, the author is envisioning a time The sun’s fire would usually be extinguished
when chaos is ultimately conquered. as it passed the threshold of the underworld,
which is where it appears to dim.38 Instead,
4. Conclusion: A Fresh Interpretation Yahweh promises that his rage will burn at
of Deuteronomy 32:22 full strength even to the furthest extent of his
Deuteronomy 32:22 is an intriguing passage. journey: the lowest part of Sheol. Therefore,
Though scholars do not recognize the here the consistent intensity of Yahweh’s
passage as an account of the cyclical journey wrath is crucial, as it works to instill fear into
of the sun, it can certainly be understood in the reader. Finally, this passage contains the
this context. In fact, it seems that the threat that Yahweh will ignite the
meaning of this passage is obscure without foundations of the mountains, which were
appealing to solar imagery. believed to extend down into the

37 Arguably, the beginning of Genesis 1 also alludes to was believed to be smothered as it descended below
this primordial struggle. the horizon and re–kindled as it rose each morning.
38
In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the sun appears in the This was first argued by Heimpel (1986, p. 142) and
underworld in a subdued state of conflagration. This has subsequently been defended by Steinkeller (2005,
has caused some scholars to argue that the sun’s fire pp. 44–45) and Woods (2009, p. 198).

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underworld. Arguably, here the solar deity is

described burning the earth from below.
This presentation has demonstrated a
preliminary version of the research I will
build upon for my doctoral dissertation.
Beyond the framework of ancient Near
Eastern solar theology, I have not found an
adequate explanation for Yahweh’s rise from
the mountain, battle with the sea, or his fiery
descent to Sheol. Scholars must address
these issues, as well as the many similarities
between descriptions of Yahweh and the sun
god in surrounding traditions. Thus far, the
evidence has suggested to me that Yahweh
was a solar deity, perhaps even prior his
introduction to ancient Israel.

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