sports

Article
Acute Effect of the “Zero Point” Method on Muscle Thickness
and Muscle Damage in Trained Men
Thiago B. Trindade 1, *, Ragami C. Alves 2 , Nuno Manuel Frade de Sousa 1 , Charles Lopes 3,4 ,
Bruno Magalhães de Castro 1 , Thiago S. Rosa 1 and Jonato Prestes 1

1 Department of Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasilia, QS 07, Lote 01, Taguatinga,
Brasilia 71966-700, DF, Brazil; [email protected] (N.M.F.d.S.); [email protected] (B.M.d.C.);
[email protected] (T.S.R.); [email protected] (J.P.)
2 Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 80050-540, PR, Brazil;
[email protected]
3 Department of Physical Education, Methodist University of Piracicaba, Piracicaba 13420-835, SP, Brazil;
[email protected]
4 Faculty Adventist of Hortolândia, Hortolândia 13184-010, SP, Brazil
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +55-(084)-9-8848-8488

Abstract: The “zero point” method allows for lower intensities for an exercise session without
impairing the total training volume. This study aimed to compare the effects of the “zero point”
versus the traditional method on muscle responses and muscle damage in trained men. Fifteen
experienced men (age: 27.7 ± 6.4 years; body mass: 78.4 ± 11.4 kg; height: 174.8 ± 4.9 cm; experience:
5.86 ± 4.7 years; relative bench press strength: 1.38 ± 0.17 kg·kg−1 ) were subjected to two exercise
protocols in a randomized order and separated by a week. The traditional and “zero point” methods
were applied in the bench press, with loads of 70% and 50% of one repetition maximum (1RM),
respectively, for 10 sets until concentric failure, with 3-min intervals between sets. The zero point
method displayed a higher number of repetitions and time under tension than the traditional method,
with no difference in the total training volume, echo intensity, algometry, lactate, and myoglobin.
For the muscle thickness, no differences between the groups were presented, except for the deltoid
muscle thickness, in which a higher post-training volume was observed compared to traditional
Citation: Trindade, T.B.; Alves, R.C.; training. The “zero point” method increases the demand on the deltoid muscles in the bench press
Sousa, N.M.F.d.; Lopes, C.; Castro,
exercise, but not on the pectoralis and triceps brachii.
B.M.d.; Rosa, T.S.; Prestes, J. Acute
Effect of the “Zero Point” Method on
Keywords: resistance training; time under tension; muscle swelling; delayed-onset muscle soreness
Muscle Thickness and Muscle
Damage in Trained Men. Sports 2024,
12, 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/
sports12010006
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Gerasimos Terzis
Resistance training (RT) methods or systems derive from the combination of acute
Received: 20 October 2023 variables, such as volume, intensity, muscle action, duration of repetitions, rest inter-
Revised: 26 November 2023 vals, training frequency, type, and order of exercises [1–3]. RT methods are frequently
Accepted: 28 November 2023 used to maximize neuromuscular adaptations [4]. The use of advanced RT methods by
Published: 22 December 2023 bodybuilders, weight lifters, and RT practitioners is justified in situations in which the
indiscriminate increase in intensity and number of traditional sets by itself is no longer
sufficient to promote significant responses in strength and muscle hypertrophy [5–7]. Some
advanced RT methods are presented as strategies to increase metabolic stress, and are
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
commonly associated with an increase in the time under tension (TUT) of the skeletal mus-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
cle [8]; however, the literature is controversial regarding the efficiency of these techniques
This article is an open access article
compared to traditional models [4]. It seems particularly important to first understand how
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
these methods induce acute physiological responses compared to traditional RT.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
De Almeida et al. [9] reported that the use of two versions of the method called
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ “sarcoplasma stimulating training” (SST) in trained individuals, with variation in the
4.0/). predominant type of contraction or in the rest interval between sets, promoted a greater

Sports 2024, 12, 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010006 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sports

Sports 2024, 12, 6 2 of 15

increase in the thickness of the elbow flexor and extensor muscles, at the expense of a
lower total training volume, when compared with a traditional RT model. In the study
by Marshal et al. [10], 14 trained men performed 20 repetitions in the free squat exercise
under three conditions, all with 80% of 1 RM: 5 sets of 4 repetitions, with 3 min of rest
between sets; 5 sets of 4 repetitions, with 20 s of rest between sets; or, repetitions to failure
followed by 20-s intervals until 20 repetitions were achieved. The authors observed greater
recruitment based on the increase in the amplitude of the electromyographic signals of the
knee, hip, and erector spinae extensor muscles, when comparing the experimental protocol
to the other protocols. De Camargo et al. [11] concluded that the use of the tri-set method in
the barbell bench press, machine bench press, and cable fly exercises, although conducted
for a lower total training volume, resulted in significantly greater increases in efficiency and
workload, internal load, as well as for the thickness of the pectoralis major muscle when
compared with a traditional protocol in trained individuals. Taken together, these results
emphasize a difference in acute response as a result of applying advanced RT methods, and
reveal the useful application of these strategies for several goals in RT programs designed
for trained individuals.
In this context, a new method, called “zero point—ponto zero”, has been dissemi-
nated by the Brazilian bodybuilder Fernando Sardinha as a strategy that allows for the
maintenance of a high intensity of effort in the RT sessions of highly trained practitioners,
even with the use of lower loads (load intensity) in isolated or multi-joint exercises. It is
proposed that, at the end of the eccentric phases of the exercise, a brief pause in the move-
ment (≥1 s) is performed before starting the subsequent concentric phase. The maneuver
would hypothetically minimize the contribution of elastic structures present in muscles
and tendons that are expanded at the end of the eccentric phase of the exercise [12,13], and,
therefore, increase the need for active tension production by the muscle itself.
In the transition from the eccentric to the concentric phase, the muscles can use a
portion of the elastic energy to increase the force production in the subsequent action, at
the expense of lower energy expenditure and greater mechanical efficiency [14]. However,
if the transition time is not short enough, the potential energy can be dissipated in the
form of heat, and not converted into kinetic energy [13]. The use of brief pauses at the
end of the eccentric phase of the exercise, as proposed for the “zero point” method, would
imply an expected reduction in performance, if the same intensity used in the conventional
execution of the exercise was used. It is not known to what extent the minimization of the
contribution of elastic structures to the concentric phase of a multi-joint exercise would
imply an alteration in the acute demand on agonist and synergist muscles; considering that,
in the face of severe fatigue, a redistribution of workloads between the muscles involved in
the same exercise is expected to occur [15–17].
It is believed that acute changes in skeletal muscle dimensions, such as “muscle
swelling”, which can be observed with the aid of ultrasound, result from physiological
active hyperemia resulting from increased blood flow due to the increased demand for
oxygen and nutrients, as well as for the removal of metabolites [18,19]. Hirono et al. [20]
reported a moderate association between the acute “muscle pump” after the first RT session
in untrained individuals, and the chronic increase in the same measure after a training pro-
gram. Damas et al. [21] suggest that early changes in skeletal muscle dimensions, especially
observed in untrained individuals, may derive from transient edema induced by muscle
damage. The authors suggest evaluating the echo intensity as a complementary measure of
muscle edema, as the increase in this measure may be related, at least in part, with muscle
edema induced by muscle damage, directly interfering with “muscle pump” [21].
Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the acute effects of the “zero point”
method versus a traditional resistance training (RT) protocol on the echo intensity, muscle
thickness, and biochemical markers of muscle damage in trained individuals. The initial
hypothesis would be that the “zero point” method would result in greater time under
tension and a greater magnitude of acute increase in muscle thickness for both agonist and
Sports 2024, 12, 6 3 of 15

synergistic muscles, with no differences expected for echo intensity and markers of muscle
damage versus the traditional method.

2. Methods
2.1. Participants
Fifteen trained men with a mean age of 27.7 ± 6.4 years of age, whose characteristics
are presented in Table 1, participated in the present study. The sample was recruited by
convenience from advertisements on social networks: WhatsApp, Instagram, and Telegram.

Table 1. Anthropometric and strength characteristics of the participants.

Mean ± Standard Deviation

Age (years) 27.7 ± 6.4
Body mass (kg) 78.4 ± 11.4
Height (cm) 174.8 ± 4.9
BMI (kg/m2 ) 25.6 ± 2.8
1 RM (kg) 107.6 ± 16.8
1 RM relative (kg/kg) 1.38 ± 0.17
Training experience (years) 5.86 ± 4.7
Sets/week—bench press 8.4 ± 3.6
Sets/week—pectoralis major 25.8 ± 3.6
BMI, body mass index; RM, repetition maximum.

The inclusion criteria adopted in the study followed the requirements suggested by
Santos Júnior et al. [22] for the classification of highly advanced individuals in RT, which
are the following: (a) uninterrupted practice of RT in the last 3 years; (b) currently training;
(c) previous experience of at least 3 years in RT; (d) “excellent” bench press execution
technique (assessed by two professionals); and (e) relative strength, in the bench press,
greater than 120% of the body mass. All of the participants were informed about the study
procedures and voluntarily provided signed informed consent. The protocol was approved
by the institutional ethics committee of the Catholic University of Brasilia—Brazil (protocol
number: 5.177.624). The participants had no positive answers on the physical activity
readiness questionnaire (PAR-Q) nor any history of musculoskeletal injury in the upper
limbs. This study was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
The exclusion criteria were the following: (a) physical disability or musculoskeletal
limitations that prevented the regular practice of RT; (b) vegetarians; (c) daily protein
intake below 1.4 g per kg of body mass; (d) use of medication capable of affecting muscle
hypertrophy or the ability to train intensely; (e) history of use of anabolic steroids in the
6 months preceding the beginning of the experimental period; (f) systematic practice of any
other exercise/sport modality during this study; (g) carriers of any chronic degenerative
disease. One participant was excluded based on the criterion of the technique of performing
the bench press exercise, and another was excluded for not reaching 120% relative strength
in the 1RM test in the same exercise.

2.2. Procedures
All of the data were collected in four sessions. In the first session, participants were
assessed in terms of height, body mass, and completed forms; in the second, they performed
the 1RM test, and 72 h later they repeated the procedure to test the reliability of the data
obtained. In the third and fourth sessions, the experimental procedures were carried out.
In these two sessions, all of the participants were subjected to two resistance exercise (RE)
protocols, the “zero point” and the traditional, in randomized order, with a one-week rest
interval between the protocols.
Before the exercise sessions, measurements of thickness, echo intensity, and pressure
algometry were collected in the pectoralis major, sternal and clavicular portions; deltoid,
clavicular portion; triceps brachii, lateral head; in addition to blood lactate concentration
Sports 2024, 12, 6 4 of 15

and myoglobin. During the RT sessions, the number of repetitions, time under tension,
and total volume in each set were quantified. Five minutes after the last set in each
session, measurements of blood lactate concentration, muscle thickness, and echo intensity
were evaluated. On the days following the exercise sessions (24, 48, and 72 h later), the
participants were again evaluated for muscle thickness and echo intensity, as well as
algometry and myoglobin. The participants were instructed to maintain their usual diets,
and were regularly asked about any dietary changes that might influence the study’s results,
such as the use of dietary supplements or variations in protein or carbohydrate intake,
and avoiding training. They were questioned about their diet at the end of each training
session, and guidance was reinforced to maintain their usual diets. None of the participants
reported changes at any of the times they were surveyed. All training sessions took place
on Mondays between 1:00 pm and 3:00 pm.

2.2.1. Resistance Exercise Protocols

The exercise sessions, regardless of the protocol, started with a specific warm-up set on
the bench press (8 repetitions with 50% of 1RM). The load used to perform the “zero point”
method was set at 50% of 1RM, as the pilot study indicated that most participants were
unable to complete the protocol (10 sets) with higher loads (70, 60, or 55% of 1RM). For the
traditional protocol, 70% of 1RM was used.
For both RE protocols, a cadence of 1 s was used for the concentric phase, and 2 s for
the eccentric phase of the exercise, with no pause between the ascending and descending
movements. For the execution of the “zero point”, a pause of 1 s was performed at the end
of the eccentric phase in all repetitions (end of the descending phase of the bench press),
before starting the concentric phase. The fixed cadences for each training protocol were
controlled with the aid of a metronome. The repetitions were registered in every set, as
long as the execution technique was preserved for the complete range of motion. A team
composed of three qualified professionals supervised each participant individually during
the entire execution of the training sessions.
The total training volume (TTV) of each session was calculated based on the following
equation: TTV = number of sets × number of repetitions × weight [23]. The time under ten-
sion was measured in all sets with the aid of a Garmin digital stopwatch, model Fenix 3 HR
(Taipei, Taiwan). The timer was started from the moment the bar was delivered by an assis-
tant into the hands of the participant, and interrupted when muscle failure was obtained.
Isometric muscle actions were considered for the calculation of time under tension.

2.2.2. One Repetition Maximum Test

For the assessment of maximum dynamic strength, a standard 1RM test protocol
was used, as previously documented by Baechle et al. [24]. Two tests were performed on
different days with an interval of 72 h between them, following the same protocol: after a
general warm-up (5 min on a cycle ergometer at light intensity, performed at the beginning
of the session), the evaluated participants performed eight repetitions with 50% estimated
load for 1RM; after two minutes of interval, three more repetitions were performed with
70% of 1RM. After three minutes of this last set, subsequent tests were performed for a
maximum repetition, with progressively heavier loads, until the 1RM measurement was
determined in a maximum of three attempts, using 3 to 5 min of rest between each attempt.
The descriptions of Brown and Weir [25] were observed in the standardization of the range
of motion and exercise technique. The intraclass correlation (ICC) between the tests was
0.98. The highest load obtained in the two tests was considered a measure for 1RM.

2.2.3. Muscle Thickness and Echo Intensity

The muscle thickness (MT) analysis was performed using B-mode ultrasound (Medi-
son SA-99000® , Live 4D; Sansung Medison Co., LTD; Gyeonggi-Do, Republic of Korea),
with a 100 mm transducer, 10–15 MHz. The transducer was coated with water-soluble trans-
mission gel, which facilitated acoustic contact with minimal depression of the skin surface.
Sports 2024, 12, 6 5 of 15

For the evaluation of the pectoralis major (sternocostal and clavicular portion) and deltoid
(clavicular portion) muscles, ultrasound images at rest were recorded at a specific joint
angle—30◦ of shoulder abduction—while the participants remained lying on a stretcher in
a supine position for 20 min. To obtain the measurement of the triceps brachii (lateral head),
the participants migrated to a prone position and kept the arm supported, elbow slightly
flexed with the muscle relaxed. For all muscle groups, the transducer was positioned
perpendicular to the tissue interface, without depressing the skin, and aligned with the
superficial and deep aponeuroses. When the image quality was considered satisfactory, it
was saved on the hard disk.
The dimensions of the MT were verified by measuring the distance from the adi-
pose tissue–subcutaneous muscle interface to the muscle–bone interface, according to the
methodology described by Abe et al. [26]. Measurements were taken on the right side of
the body and standardized according to the following parameters:
Pectoralis major (PM—sternocostal portion): from 1/3 of the distance between the
sternoclavicular joint and the axillary crease, between the third and fourth ribs;
Pectoralis major (PM—clavicular portion): 1/3 of the distance between the sternoclav-
icular joint and the axillary fold, between the clavicle and the aponeurosis of the clavicular
bundles of the PM;
Deltoid (clavicular portion): 1/2 of the distance between the acromion and the deltoid tuberosity;
Triceps brachii (lateral head): 1/3 of the distance between the acromion and the lateral
epicondyle of the humerus.
The MT measurements were quantified using ImageJ 1.42q image analysis software
(National Institutes of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA). All of the images were digitally
analyzed. To maintain consistency between testing protocols (“zero point” and traditional),
each site was marked with henna ink (reinforced during the week). In order to ensure
greater measurement accuracy, at least 3 images were obtained of each of the anatomical
points described. If the measurements were within 1 mm of each other, the average of the
values was calculated to obtain a final measurement. The data are expressed in millimeters
(mm). No significant differences were observed between measurements taken before the
experimental protocols. The intraclass correction coefficient (ICC) for the thicknesses of the
deltoid, PM clavicular portion, PM sternal portion, and lateral head triceps muscles were
r = 0.99, r = 0.99, r = 1.00, and r = 0.99, respectively.
Image J 1.42q software was used to determine the mean echo intensity of a grayscale
histogram (0, black; 256, white), calculated for the region of interest (ROI, 1 × 1 = 1 cm2 ),
observing the procedures described by Chen et al. [27]. The relative change in echo intensity
was calculated based on the value obtained pre-exercise.

2.2.4. Myoglobin and Blood Lactate Concentration

For the determination of myoglobin in blood plasma, approximately 5 mL of venous
blood was withdrawn via a venipuncture technique from the cubital fossa region of the
participants. The plasma myoglobin concentration was measured with an automated
clinical chemistry analyzer (Model Elecsys 2010, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Tokyo, Japan),
using a commercial test kit (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN, USA). The blood lac-
tate was analyzed using a Yellow Springs Instruments (Yellow Springs, OH, USA) model
2700 Select lactate analyzer, using the electro-enzymatic method. Biochemical measure-
ments were performed in duplicates to minimize any abnormal variation.

2.2.5. Muscle Pain

The muscle pain threshold was quantified with a pressure algometer (brand MED.DOR
Ltd., Valadares, MG, Brazil) with maximum compression capacity = 50 kgf, accuracy = 0.1 kgf,
and a 3-digit display. The equipment has a round rubber application surface, with an area
of 1 cm2 . A trained evaluator performed the pressure pain threshold collection in the same
muscles and anatomical references that were evaluated with ultrasound.
Sports 2024, 12, 6 6 of 15

The pressure pain threshold was collected before each experimental session and also
on the subsequent 3 days to assess the behavior of delayed-onset muscle soreness. In all
of the assessments, the following positioning was adopted: (1◦ ) the participant remained
seated with their feet on the floor; (2◦ ) hands resting on their thighs; and (3◦ ) with their torso
upright. Each anatomical point received a progressive pressure of 1 kg/s controlled via a
metronome, until the participant interrupted due to “unbearable” pain. At this moment, the
examiner pressed the “tare” button to lock the reading, immediately retracting the pressure
algometer. Then, the pressure pain threshold reading was recorded. Three measurements
were taken for each location, 10–15 s apart, and the highest pressure value observed in
the three attempts was considered. The same evaluator was responsible for all of the
algometry measurements.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The ANOVA two-way repeated measures statistical test was applied to determine
the effect of different RE sessions over time on algometry, repetitions, TTV, time under
tension, MT, lactate, myoglobin, and echo intensity [28]. Considering the non-normality
for myoglobin, a logarithmic transformation was applied. The Shapiro–Wilk test was used
to analyze the normality of the studentized residuals of each variable, and no residue
showed deviations greater than ±3 standard deviations (SD). The sphericity analysis
was performed using Machly’s test and, in case of violation, the Greenhouse–Geisser
correction was used. In case of interaction, simple main effects analysis was applied and
the Bonferroni correction was used. For the variable repetitions, the adjusted value of
p was ≤0.005 (0.05/10 comparisons). For the time under tension, the adjusted value of
p was ≤0.005 (0.05/10 comparisons).
For the ANOVA two-way repeated measures statistical test, the intragroup effect size
was calculated for the muscle thickness variable. The omega squared (Ω2) recommended
for small samples was used, and the values ≤ 0.01, 0.01–0.06, 0.06–0.14, and >0.14 were
considered: trivial, small, medium, and large, respectively [29].
To calculate the technical measurement error (TEM) for the muscle thickness variable,
√
the SD of test and retest differences was divided by 2 [30]. The TEMs for the deltoid
muscle in the clavicular portion were 0.14 mm, 0.29 mm (PM clavicular portion), 0.47 mm
(PM sternal portion), and 0.23 mm (triceps lateral head). Changes in muscle thickness
with values ≤ 0.14 mm (deltoid clavicular portion), ≤0.29 mm (PM clavicular portion),
≤0.47 mm (PM sternal portion), and ≤0.23 mm (triceps lateral head) represented a TEM.
The a posteriori sample power was calculated for the deltoid muscle thickness variable in
the clavicular portion. Considering a difference between groups ≥0.33 mm [30–32] (clinical
difference based on the multiplication of 0.2 × SD pre), the observed power was 0.52, effect
size was 0.30, and the alpha was 0.05 for a total sample size of 28 participants. For the data
analysis, SPSS software (version 20.00) and G*Power 3.1.6 [33] were used. An alpha level
of ≤0.05 was used as the significant difference.

3. Results
Table 1 presents the anthropometric and strength characteristics of the participants.

3.1. Repetitions
Figure 1 shows the interaction for the repetitions F (9, 126) = 6.48, p = 0.001. A main
effect of time was observed F (9, 126) = 167.21, p = 0.001. From set 1 to set 10, differences
between the groups were observed, with a higher number of repetitions found for the
“zero point” RE session (p = 0.001). The numbers of repetitions from set 2 to set 10 were
significantly lower when compared to set 1 (p = 0.001).
 Figure 1 shows the interaction for the repetitions F (9, 126) = 6.48, p = 0.001. A main
3.1. Repetitions
effectFigure
of time1 was observed
shows F (9, 126)
the interaction for= the
167.21, p = 0.001.
repetitions From
F (9, 126)set 1 to set
= 6.48, p =10, differences
0.001. A main
between the groups were observed, with a higher number of repetitions found
effect of time was observed F (9, 126) = 167.21, p = 0.001. From set 1 to set 10, differencesfor the
“zero
between the groups were observed, with a higher number of repetitions found forwere
point” RE session (p = 0.001). The numbers of repetitions from set 2 to set 10 the
significantly
“zero point” lower when(p
RE session compared
= 0.001). to
Thesetnumbers
1 (p = 0.001).
of repetitions from set 2 to set 10 were
Sports 2024, 12, 6 7 of 15
significantly lower when compared to set 1 (p = 0.001).

Figure 1. Repetitions presented as mean ± standard error. * p ≤ 0.05 vs. set 1. ‡ p ≤ 0.05 differences
between
Figure1.1.groups
Figure for the
Repetitions
Repetitions same set.as
presented
presented mean ±±standard
as mean error. ** pp ≤≤0.05
standarderror. 0.05vs.
vs.set 1. ‡‡ pp ≤≤0.05
set1. 0.05differences
differences
betweengroups
between groupsfor
forthe
thesame
sameset.
set.
3.2. Time under Tension (TUT)
3.2. Time under Tension (TUT)
Figure
3.2. Time 2 shows
under the(TUT)
Tension interaction for the TUT F (9, 126) = 17.54, p = 0.001. A main effect
of timeFigure 2 shows
was observed the
F (9,interaction
126) = 112.41,for pthe TUT F (9, 126)
= 0.001. set== 17.54, p = 0.001. A main effect
Figure 2 shows the interaction for the TUT FFrom
(9, 126) 1 17.54,
to set 10,
p = differences
0.001. A mainbetween
effect
of
the time was
groups observed F (9, 126) = 112.41, p = 0.001. From set 1 to set 10, differences between
of time waswere observed,
observed with= a112.41,
F (9, 126) higherp TUT forFrom
= 0.001. the “zero
set 1 point” REdifferences
to set 10, session (p between
= 0.001).
the groups
From set 2 towere
set observed,
10, the TUT with
was alower
higher TUTcompared
when for the “zero
to setpoint”
1 (p = RE session (p = 0.001).
0.001).
the
Fromgroups
set 2 were
to setobserved,
10, the TUT with
was a lower
higherwhenTUT for the “zero
compared point”
to set 1 (p RE session (p = 0.001).
= 0.001).
From set 2 to set 10, the TUT was lower when compared to set 1 (p = 0.001).

Values
Figure2.2.Values
Figure ofof time
time under
under tension
tension presented
presented as mean
as mean ± standard
± standard error.
error. p ≤vs.
* p ≤ *0.05 0.05
setvs.
1. ‡set
p ≤1.
‡ p
0.05 ≤ 0.05 differences
differences between groups for the same set.
Figure 2. Valuesbetween groupstension
of time under for thepresented
same set. as mean ± standard error. * p ≤ 0.05 vs. set 1. ‡ p ≤
0.05
3.3.differences between
Total Training groups
Volume for the same set.
(TTV)
There was no interaction for the TTV F (9, 126) = 1.26, p = 0.26. However, a main effect
of time was observed F (9, 126) = 202.50, p = 0.001. From set 2 to set 10, the TTV was lower
when compared to set 1 (p = 0.001). See Figure 3.

3.4. Muscle Thickness (MT)

Figure 4 shows the interaction for the deltoid muscle F (4, 52) = 11.25, p = 0.001,
with a main effect of time F (4, 52) = 151.93, p = 0.001. The moments after (p = 0.001), at
24 h (p = 0.001), at 48 h (p = 0.001), and at 72 h (p = 0.015) were significantly higher when
compared to the moments pre-exercise. After the analysis of the simple main effects (simple
Sports 2024, 12, 6 8 of 15
Sports 2024, 12, 6 8 of 16

main effects), the “zero point” RE session displayed higher values in the moment after
3.3. Total Training Volume (TTV)
when compared with the traditional RE session (p = 0.001). For the traditional and the
There was no interaction for the TTV F (9, 126) = 1.26, p = 0.26. However, a main effect
“zero point” RE sessions, the Ω2 values were 0.22 (large) and 0.36 (large), respectively. The
of time was observed F (9, 126) = 202.50, p = 0.001. From set 2 to set 10, the TTV was lower
differences in the means at the moments after (+3.27 mm), at 24 h (+1.40 mm), at 48 h
when compared to set 1 (p = 0.001). See Figure 3.
(+0.80 mm), and at 72 h (+0.30 mm) were above the TME (≤0.14).

Figure3.3.
Figure Total
Total training
training volume
volume presented
presented as mean
as mean ± standard
± standard error. * perror. p≤
≤ 0.05 *vs. 0.05 vs. pre.
pre.

There
3.4. Muscle was no(MT)
Thickness interaction for the PM clavicular and external portion F (4, 56) = 0.57,
p = Figure
0.68 and F (4, 56)
4 shows the = 0.58, p = 0.67,
interaction for therespectively,
deltoid muscle while
F (4,a52)
main effectp =of0.001,
= 11.25, time with
was observed
(4, 56) = 85.11, p = 0.001 and F (4, 56) = 93.03, p
a main effect of time F (4, 52) = 151.93, p = 0.001. The moments after (p = 0.001), at 24h (p = moments
for F = 0.001, respectively. The
after (p
0.001), = 0.001
at 48h for both),
(p = 0.001), and at 72h
24 h(p(p= = 0.002
0.015) p = 0.001, respectively),
andsignificantly
were higher when comparedat 48 h (p = 0.008
toand
thepmoments pre-exercise. After the analysis of the simple main
= 0.001, respectively), and at 72 h (p = 0.045 and p = 0.026, respectively) effects (simple main
were higher
effects), the “zero point” RE session displayed higher values in the
when compared to the moments pre-exercise. For the traditional and the “zero point” RE moment after when
compared
sessions, with
the Ω2 the values
traditional
wereRE 0.10
session (p = 0.001).
(mean) and 0.12 For (mean),
the traditional and the “zero
respectively. Differences in
point”
the means after (+2.98 mm), at 24 h (+1.16 mm), and at 48 h (+0.68 mm)The
RE sessions, the Ω2 values were 0.22 (large) and 0.36 (large), respectively. weredif-above the
ferences in the means at the moments after (+3.27 mm), at 24h (+1.40 mm), at 48h (+0.80
TME (≤0.29 mm) for the PM clavicular portion (Figure 4). For the PM external portion, the
mm), and at 72h (+0.30 mm) were above the TME (≤0.14).
Ω2 values were 0.11 (mean) and 0.10 (mean), respectively. Differences in the means after
There was no interaction for the PM clavicular and external portion F (4, 56) = 0,57, p
(+4.09
= 0.68 andmm),F (4,at56)24= h0.58,
(+1.45 mm),respectively,
p = 0.67, and at 48 hwhile (+0.88 mm)effect
a main wereofabove TME (≤0.47 mm).
the observed
time was
There
for F (4, 56) =was85.11,nop interaction
= 0.001 and F for(4,the
56)triceps
= 93.03,brachii lateral
p = 0.001, head F The
respectively. (4, 56) = 1.71, p = 0.16,
moments
while
after (p a
= main effect
0.001 for of time
both), at 24 hwas
(p =observed
0.002 and Fp (4, 117.70, p = 0.001.
56) =respectively),
= 0.001, at 48 hThe(p = moments
0.008 after
(p =p 0.001),
and = 0.001, at 24 h (p = 0.001),
respectively), and at and
72 h (pat =480.045
h (pand= 0.001) were
p = 0.026, higher when
respectively) werecompared
higher to the
moments
when comparedpre-exercise (Figure
to the moments 4). For the
pre-exercise. Fortraditional
the traditionalandand“zero point”
the “zero RE sessions,
point” RE the
Sports 2024, 12, 6 9 of 16
Ω2 values
sessions, the were
Ω2 values0.04were 0.10and
(small) (mean)
0.04and 0.12 (mean),
(small), respectively.
respectively. Differences
Differences in the
in the means after
means
(+2.01after
mm), (+2.98
at 24mm), at 24 mm),
h (+0.94 h (+1.16
andmm),at 48and at 48 h mm)
h (+0.42 (+0.68were
mm) above
were above
the TME the TME
(≤0.23 mm).
(≤0.29 mm) for the PM clavicular portion (Figure 4). For the PM external portion, the Ω2
values were 0.11 (mean) and 0.10 (mean), respectively. Differences in the means after
(+4.09 mm), at 24 h (+1.45 mm), and at 48 h (+0.88 mm) were above the TME (≤0.47 mm).
There was no interaction for the triceps brachii lateral head F (4, 56) = 1.71, p = 0.16,
while a main effect of time was observed F (4, 56) = 117.70, p = 0.001. The moments after (p
= 0.001), at 24 h (p = 0.001), and at 48 h (p = 0.001) were higher when compared to the
moments pre-exercise (Figure 4). For the traditional and “zero point” RE sessions, the Ω2
values were 0.04 (small) and 0.04 (small), respectively. Differences in the means after
(+2.01 mm), at 24 h (+0.94 mm), and at 48 h (+0.42 mm) were above the TME (≤0.23 mm).

Figure 4. Cont.
Sports 2024, 12, 6 9 of 15

Figure
Figure 4. Muscle
4. Muscle thickness
thickness presented
presented as mean ±as ± standard
mean error.
standard * p ≤ 0.05error. ≤ differences
vs. ‡ p *≤ p0.05 0.05 vs. ‡ p ≤ 0.05 differences
between
between groups
groups at theat thetime
same same time point.
point.

3.5.Echo
3.5. Echo Intensity
Intensity (EI) (EI)
There
There waswas
no interaction for the for
no interaction EI of
thetheEI
clavicular deltoid muscle,
of the clavicular PM clavicular
deltoid muscle, PM clavicular and
and external portions, and triceps brachii lateral head F (4, 48) = 0.94, p = 0.44, F (4, 48) =
external portions, and triceps brachii lateral head F (4, 48) = 0.94,
1.90, p = 0.12, F (4, 48) = 0.42, p = 0.79, and F (4, 48) = 0.53, p = 0.71, respectively. A main
p = 0.44, F (4, 48) = 1.90,
p = 0.12,
effect of timeF was
(4, 48) = 0.42,
observed p 48)
F (4, = 0.79, and
= 20.90, p =F0.001,
(4, 48)
F (4,=48)
0.53, p = p0.71,
= 38.15, respectively.
= 0.001, F (4, 48) = A main effect of
timepwas
13.66, observed
= 0.001, and F (4, F48)(4,
= 16.61, = 0.001,prespectively.
48) =p20.90, = 0.001, FThe(4, moment after (pp ==0.001)
48) = 38.15, 0.001, F (4, 48) = 13.66,
was
p =significantly
0.001, andsuperior when
F (4, 48) = compared
16.61, p = to 0.001,
the moment pre-exerciseThe
respectively. for allmoment
muscles (fig-after (p = 0.001) was
ure 5). For the traditional and “zero” point RE sessions, the Ω2 values were 0.21 (large)
significantly superior when compared to the moment pre-exercise for all muscles (Figure 5).
and 0.23 (large) for the clavicular deltoid muscle, respectively. The Ω2 values were 0.40
For the
(large) andtraditional and
0.21 (large) for the“zero” point portion,
PM clavicular RE sessions, the Ω2
respectively, andvalues
were 0.29were 0.21 (large) and 0.23
(large)
(large) for the clavicular deltoid muscle, respectively. The Ω2 values
and 0.18 (large), for the PM external portion, respectively. The Ω2 values were 0.21 (large) were 0.40 (large) and
and 0.42 (large) for the triceps, respectively. See Figure 5.
0.21 (large) for the PM clavicular portion, respectively, and were 0.29 (large) and 0.18 (large),
Sports 2024, 12, 6 for the PM external portion, respectively. The Ω2 values 10were
of 16 0.21 (large) and 0.42 (large)

for the triceps, respectively. See Figure 5.

Figure
Figure Echo intensity
5. intensity
5. Echo presented aspresented as mean
mean ± standard ±= standard
error. AU error.
arbitrary units, AUvs.=pre.
* p ≤ 0.05 arbitrary units, * p ≤ 0.05 vs. pre.
3.6. Algometry
There was no interaction for the deltoid muscle, PM clavicular and external portions,
and triceps brachii lateral head algometry F (3, 42) = 0.70, p = 0.55, F (3, 42) = 1.08, p = 0.36,
F (3, 42) = 2.01, p = 0.12, and F (3, 42) = 0.89, p = 0.45, respectively. However, a main effect
of time was observed F (3, 42) = 17.04, p = 0.001, F (3, 42) = 14.29, p = 0.001, F (3, 42) = 55.73,
p = 0.001, and F (3, 42) = 20.11, p = 0.001, respectively (figure 6). The 24 h (p = 0.001), 48 h (p
= 0.002), and 72 h (p = 0.003) moments were significantly lower when compared to the pre-
exercise moment. See Figure 6.
 Sports 2024, 12, 6 10 of 15

3.6. Algometry
There was no interaction for the deltoid muscle, PM clavicular and external portions,
and triceps brachii lateral head algometry F (3, 42) = 0.70, p = 0.55, F (3, 42) = 1.08, p = 0.36,
F (3, 42) = 2.01, p = 0.12, and F (3, 42) = 0.89, p = 0.45, respectively. However, a main effect
of time was observed F (3, 42) = 17.04, p = 0.001, F (3, 42) = 14.29, p = 0.001, F (3, 42) = 55.73,
Sports 2024, 12, 6 11 of48
p = 0.001, and F (3, 42) = 20.11, p = 0.001, respectively (Figure 6). The 24 h (p = 0.001), 16h
(p = 0.002), and 72 h (p = 0.003) moments were significantly lower when compared to the
pre-exercise moment. See Figure 6.

Figure 6. Algometric values before and after traditional and “zero-point” resistance exercise sessions
Figure
(mean6.±Algometric values
standard error). * pbefore
≤ 0.05and after traditional and “zero-point” resistance exercise ses-
vs. pre.
sions (mean ± standard error). * p ≤ 0.05 vs. pre.
3.7. Lactate
3.7. Lactate
There was no interaction for the lactate F (1, 56) = 0.80, p = 0.37, while a main effect
There
of time wasobserved
was no interaction
F (1, 56)for=the lactatep F= (1,
562.83, 56) =The
0.001. 0.80,lactate
p = 0.37, while
levels a main
were effect
higher in of
the
time was observed
moment F (1, 56)to= 562.83,
after compared p = 0.001.
the moment The lactate
pre-exercise. levels
See were
Figure 7. higher in the moment
after compared to the moment pre-exercise. See Figure 7.
 Sports 2024, 12, 6 12 of 16

Sports 2024, 12, 6 12 of 16

Sports 2024, 12, 6 11 of 15

Figure 7. Lactate values presented as mean ± standard error. * p ≤ 0.05 vs. pre.
Figure 7. Lactate values presented as mean ± standard error. * p ≤ 0.05 vs. pre.
Figure 7. Lactate values presented as mean ± standard error. * p ≤ 0.05 vs. pre.
3.8. Myoglobin
3.8. Myoglobin
There was no interaction for the myoglobin F (3, 42) = 2.26, p = 0.09, while a main
3.8. Myoglobin = 2.26, p levels
effectThere
of timewaswasnoobserved
interaction F (3,for
42)the myoglobin
= 5.10, p = 0.004. F The
(3, 42)
myoglobin = 0.09,were
while a main
higher at
effect of
There time
was was
no observed
interaction F (3,
for 42)
the = 5.10, p
myoglobin = 0.004.
F (3, The
42) myoglobin
= 2.26, p = levels
0.09,
the 24 h (p = 0.034), 48 h (p = 0.029), and 72 h (p = 0.004) moments compared to the moment were
while higher
a main at
the
effect 24
of h (p
time = 0.034),
was 48
observed h (pF= 0.029),
(3, 42) = and 72
5.10, p h
= (p =
0.004.0.004)
The moments
myoglobin compared
levels
pre-exercise (Figure 8). For the traditional and the “zero point” RE sessions, the Ω2 values to
were the moment
higher at
thepre-exercise
24 h0.12
were (Figure
(p =(mean)
0.034), 48 h
and 8).0.00
(pFor the traditional
= 0.029),
(trivial),and and
72 h (p
respectively. the “zero
= 0.004) point”compared
moments RE sessions,
to the Ω2 values
the moment
were 0.12 (mean) and 0.00 (trivial), respectively.
pre-exercise (Figure 8). For the traditional and the “zero point” RE sessions, the Ω2 values
were 0.12 (mean) and 0.00 (trivial), respectively.

Figure8.
Figure Myoglobinvalues
8.Myoglobin valuespresented
presentedas mean±±standard
asmean error.* *pp≤≤
standarderror. 0.05
0.05 vs.vs. pre.
pre.

4. Discussion
Figure 8. Myoglobin values presented as mean ± standard error. * p ≤ 0.05 vs. pre.
The hypothesis that the “zero point” method would result in a greater TUT in an exer-
cise session was confirmed in trained men, influenced by the greater number of repetitions
obtained in all sets performed using the “zero point” method; meanwhile, no difference
Sports 2024, 12, 6 12 of 15

was found for the TTV and algometry. Although there was no interaction between the
groups for myoglobin, the traditional protocol resulted in a greater magnitude of increase
in relation to the “zero point”, considering the effect size. Contradicting the initial hypoth-
esis, there was no difference between the training conditions for the MT of the agonist
muscles, while the “zero point” session generated a greater increase in the deltoid muscle
MT immediately after the session. In all of the evaluated regions, an increase in the echo
intensity was observed, with no difference between the groups. Considering the effect
size, the traditional protocol resulted in a greater magnitude of increase for the sternal
and clavicular portions of the PM, while the “zero point” method promoted a greater
magnitude increase for the lateral head of the triceps brachii.
This study is the first to investigate the advanced RE method called “zero point”.
The results are consistent with those of previous research that used similar procedures
and instruments to evaluate other advanced RE methods. In the study by De Camargo
et al. [11], the use of the tri-set method in the bench press exercises with a free barbell,
machine bench press, and “fly” on the cable promoted greater swelling, based on the MT
of the pectoralis major muscle in trained individuals when compared to a traditional RE
session. Both protocols were conducted with the same intensity (10RM) for an equivalent
number of sets, while the tri-set method resulted in a smaller volume load. The use of
two variations of the SST method by De Almeida et al. [9] also resulted in a lower TTV in
trained men. Higher acute increases in the thickness of elbow flexor and extensor muscles
were achieved with SST versus the traditional protocol, with a similar increase in blood
lactate concentrations assessed after RE sessions.
This evidence, combined with our results, strengthens the contemporary idea that
advanced RT methods can serve as additional stimuli to break through plateaus and avoid
the monotony of RT [5]. Although muscle hypertrophy is an outcome commonly prioritized
by practitioners who choose to use these strategies, other approaches, such as reducing the
volume or training intensity, or shortening the recovery between sessions, as long as they
do not decrease the morphological responses, would justify the use of advanced methods.
Such benefits could be obtained through strategies that incite greater physiological stress,
factors considered important even to induce musculoskeletal hypertrophy [8].
The “zero point” method is based on the premise of delaying the transition time
between the eccentric–concentric phases of the exercise, with the objective of minimizing
the contribution of the elastic structures present in muscles and tendons, and thus increasing
the demand on the agonist muscles. However, our results showed an increase in MT only
for one synergist (deltoid) with the use of the “zero point” method compared to traditional
RE. Contrary to our hypothesis, it seems that the reduction in the contribution of elastic
structures may reflect a greater demand for synergistic muscles during multi-joint exercise,
and does not potentiate the agonist. In addition to the pectoralis major muscle, the deltoid,
especially in its clavicular portion, contributes significantly to the horizontal adduction of
the shoulder, a common joint action when performing the bench press exercise. Therefore,
a greater demand on the deltoid itself would be expected to guarantee the continuity of the
task in the face of possible fatigue affecting the pectoralis major. Interestingly, the use of
the “zero point” approach did not result in greater demand on the triceps brachii muscle,
based on the thickness measurement, possibly due to the lesser involvement of the elbow
extensor muscles in the bench press exercise, at least when compared with the muscles
responsible for the horizontal adduction of the shoulder [34–36], although the lateral head
is the most demanded portion of the triceps brachii in that exercise [34].
A possible explanation for this phenomenon may be a change in the management
of the load sharing between the muscles involved in the exercise by the central nervous
system, in this case, due to the lower use of elastic potential energy for the production of
movement [34]. Previous studies conducted with isometric exercises support our results,
through verifying changes in the EMG activity pattern during fatiguing contractions
and clearly demonstrating the greater involvement of synergistic muscles during task
performance [15,16]. This workload redistribution may be modulated by afferent feedback
Sports 2024, 12, 6 13 of 15

during certain conditions, such as fatigue, to maintain the task [17]—in our case, the
repeated contractions.
Despite the suggested moderate correlation between the acute increase in the MT and
chronic adaptations (ρ 0.443, þ 0.039) [20], Damas et al. [21] suggested that, in untrained
individuals, the early increases induced by an RE session, for example, derive in large part
from muscle swelling induced by edema, which can be evaluated by the echo intensity.
Significant increases in the echo intensity, in addition to other muscle damage markers, can
be observed in untrained individuals on the days following an exercise session [27,35,36].
In the present study, the increase in the measurement performed right after the session, but
not in the days that followed it, reflects a lower susceptibility of trained individuals to the
muscular damage resulting from an RE session [37].
However, the difference observed in the magnitude of the effect size for the echo
intensity of the PM muscle, both in the sternal and clavicular portions, may be attributed to
the tendency of traditional RE towards greater muscle damage in those specific regions.
The opposite was observed in the lateral head of the triceps brachii, reinforcing the hy-
pothesis of workload transfer to synergist muscles. The myoglobin behavior observed in
the two conditions, an indirect marker of muscle damage [38], can also be attributed to
the protocol of the traditional method and its greater predisposition to muscle damage,
while no difference was observed in relation to the “zero point” method for the algometry
measurements. This tendency goes against the initial hypothesis of the present study, since
it was expected that the inclusion of an isometric action in long muscle length at the end of
the eccentric phase of the bench press exercise would maximize the increase in the MT and
echo intensity, given that muscle damage induced by isometric actions is more influenced
by the muscle length than by the tension produced [36,39,40]. On the other hand, the faster
recovery of the “zero point” method when compared to traditional RE can be useful for
certain phases of the training program of experienced individuals.
Although this is the first study to investigate the acute effects of the “zero point”
method, this study is not without limitations. Considering the possibility of regional struc-
tural variations, thickness measurements obtained in a muscle region do not necessarily
represent the observable changes in the entire muscle. Furthermore, any extrapolations in
relation to the findings of the present study must be conducted with caution, especially
with regard to the chronic effects of the “zero point” method, as well as in other populations
(women, elderly, high-level athletes), other methods, or different muscle groups. Finally,
the limited number of participants should also be considered as a limitation.

5. Conclusions
Individuals who are experienced with RT can use brief pauses (1s) at the end of the
eccentric phase of an exercise to increase the time under tension of the sets and allow for a
reduction in the used load (from 70% to 50% 1 RM) without reducing the volume of training.
This strategy enables better recovery in the days following the training session; although
it results in similar levels of swelling in agonist muscles, it tends to increase the demand
on synergist muscles during the bench press exercise. However, it is worth mentioning
that modest differences were observed between both protocols for muscle swelling and
markers of muscle damage.

Author Contributions: T.B.T. and J.P. conceived this research project. T.B.T., R.C.A., N.M.F.d.S., C.L.
and B.M.d.C. conducted experiments and analyzed data. T.B.T. and R.C.A. drafted the manuscript,
which was finalized by T.S.R. and J.P. All coauthors accept responsibility for content of the manuscript
titled: acute effect of the “zero point” method on muscle thickness and muscle damage in trained
men. We state that the manuscript has not been submitted for publication elsewhere. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Sports 2024, 12, 6 14 of 15

Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration
of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Catholic University of Brasília (protocol
number: 5.177.624).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article. The data presented in this study
are available in the main text.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the participants of the current study for their availability
before, during, and after the experimental sessions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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