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 Chapter 9

Deformed Phase Space in Cosmology and Black Holes

E.A. Mena-Barboza, L.F. Escamilla-Herrera,

J.C. López-Domínguez and J. Torres-Arenas

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68282

Abstract
It is well known that one way to study canonical quantum cosmology is through the
Wheeler DeWitt (WDW) equation where the quantization is performed on the
minisuperspace variables. The original ideas of a deformed minisuperspace were done
in connection with noncommutative cosmology, by introducing a deformation into the
minisuperspace in order to incorporate an effective noncommutativity. Therefore, study-
ing solutions to Cosmological models through the WDW equation with deformed phase
space could be interpreted as studying quantum effects to Cosmology. In this chapter,
we make an analysis of scalar field cosmology and conclude that under a phase space
transformation and imposed restriction, the effective cosmological constant is positive.
On the other hand, obtaining the wave equation for the noncommutativity Kantowski-
Sachs model, we are able to derive a modified noncommutative version of the entropy.
To that purpose, the Feynman-Hibbs procedure is considered in order to calculate the
partition function of the system.

Keywords: noncommutativity, quantum cosmology, thermodynamics of black holes

1. Introduction

Since the initial use of the Hamiltonian formulation to cosmology, different issues have been
studied. In particular, thermodynamic properties of black holes, classical and quantum cos-
mology, dynamics of cosmological scalar fields, and the problem of cosmological constant
among others. In this chapter, we present some results in deforming the phase space variables,
discussing recent advances on this special topic by presenting three models. In the first model
(Section 2), we analyze the effects of the phase space deformations over different scenarios, we
start with the noncommutative on Λ cosmological and comment on the possibility that the

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
178 Trends in Modern Cosmology

origin of the cosmological constant in the (4 + 1) Kaluza-Klein universe is related to the

deformation parameter associated to the four-dimensional scale factor and the compact extra
dimensions. In Section 3, we study the effects of phase space deformations in late time cosmol-
ogy. To introduce the deformation, we use the approach given in Refs. [1]. We conclude that for
this model an effective cosmological constant Λeff appears.
In Section 4, the thermodynamic formalism for rotating black holes, characterized by
noncommutative and quantum corrections, is constructed. From a fundamental thermodynamic
relation, the equations of state are explicitly given, and the effect of noncommutativity and
quantum correction is discussed; in this sense, the goal of this section is to explore how these
considerations introduced in Bekenstein-Hawking (BH) entropy change the thermodynamic
information contained in this new fundamental relation. Under these considerations, Section 4
examines the different thermodynamic equations of state and their behavior when considering
the aforementioned modifications to entropy.

In this chapter, we mainly pretend to indulge in recollections of different studies on the

noncommutative proposal that has been put forward in the literature by the authors of this chapter
[2–4]; in this sense, our guideline has been to concentrate on resent results that still seem likely to be
of general interest to those researchers that are interested in this noncommutative subject.

2. Model 1: Kaluza-Klein cosmology with Λ

Let us begin by introducing the model in a classical scenario which is an empty (4+1) theory of
gravity with cosmological constant Λ as shown in Eq. (1). In this setup, the action takes the form:

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð
I¼ gðR ΛÞdtd3 rdρ; ð1Þ

where ft; ri g are the coordinates of the 4-dimensional spacetime and ρ represents the
coordinate of the fifth dimension. We are interested in Kaluza-Klein cosmology, so a
Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW)-type metric is assumed, which is of the form

a2 ðtÞdri dri 2
ds2 ¼ dt2 þ  2
 þ φ ðtÞdρ ; ð2Þ
κr2 2
1þ 4

where κ ¼ 0;  1 and a(t), φ(t) are the scale factors of the universe and the compact dimension,
respectively. Substituting this metric into the action Eq. (1) and integrating over the spatial
dimensions, we obtain an effective Lagrangian that only depends on (a, φ):
 
1 1 3
L¼ aφa_ 2 þ a2 aφ
_ κaφ þ Λa φ : ð3Þ
2 3

For the purposes of simplicity and calculations, we can rewrite this Lagrangian in a more
convenient way:
 Deformed Phase Space in Cosmology and Black Holes 179
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68282

1 h 2  i
ω2 x2 y_ 2 ω2 y2

L¼ x_ ; ð4Þ
2

where the new variables were defined as

   
1 3κ 1 3κ
x ¼ pffiffiffi a2 þ aφ , y ¼ pffiffiffi a2 aφ ; ð5Þ
8 Λ 8 Λ

2Λ
and ω ¼ 3. The Hamiltonian for the model is calculated as usual and reads
h  i
p2x þ ω2 x2 p2y þ ω2 y2

H¼ ; ð6Þ

which describes an isotropic oscillator-ghost-oscillator system. A full analysis of the quantum

behavior of this model is presented in Ref. [1].

2.1. Noncommutative model

As is well known, there are different approaches to introduce noncommutativity in gravity [5].
In particular, to study noncommutative cosmology [6, 7], there exist a well-explored path to
introduce noncommutativity into a cosmological setting [6]. In this setup, the noncommu-
tativity is realized in the minisuperspace variables. The deformation of the phase space struc-
ture is achieved through the Moyal brackets, which are based on the Moyal product. However,
a more appropriate way to introduce the deformation is by means of the Poisson brackets
rather than the Moyal ones.
The most conventional way to understand the noncommutativity between the phase space
variables (minisuperspace variables) is by replacing the usual product of two arbitrary func-
tions with the Moyal product (or star product) as

1 ab ð1Þ ð2Þ
ðf ⋆gÞðxÞ ¼ exp α ∂a ∂b f ðx1 Þgðx2 Þjx1 ¼x2 ¼x ; ð7Þ
2

such that

δij þ σij
 
θij
αab ¼ δij σij βij ; ð8Þ

where the θ and β are 2 · 2 antisymmetric matrices and represent the noncommutativity in
the coordinates and momenta, respectively, and σ ¼ θβ=4. With this product law, a straight-
forward calculation gives

fxi ; xj g ¼ θij ; fxi ; pj g ¼ δij þ σij ; fpi ; pj g ¼ βij : ð9Þ

The noncommutative deformation has been applied to the minisuperspace variables as well as to
the corresponding canonical momenta; this type of noncommutativity can be motivated by
180 Trends in Modern Cosmology

string theory correction to gravity [6, 8]. In the rest of this model, we use for the noncommutative
parameters θij ¼ θεij and βij ¼ βεij .

If we consider the following change of variables in the classical phase space {x; y; px ; py }

θ θ
y^ ¼ y px ; x^ ¼ x p
2 2 y
ð10Þ
β β
p^y ¼ py þ x; p^x ¼ px y;
2 2

it can be verified that if {x;y;px ;py } obeys the usual Poisson algebra, then

 n o n o
fy^; x^g ¼ θ; x^ ; p^ x ¼ y ; p^y ¼ 1 þ σ;
^ p^y ; p^x ¼ β: ð11Þ

Now that we have defined the deformed phase space, we can see the effects on the proposed
cosmological model. From the action Eq. (4), we can obtain the Hamiltonian constraint
Eq. (6); inserting relations Eq. (11), a Wheeler DeWitt (WDW) equation can be constructed
as:
( 2 2
2ðβ θω2 Þ 2ðβ θω2 Þ

x ; y^ Þ ¼
HΨð^ p^x y^ p^y þ x^
4 ω2 θ 2 4 ω2 θ 2
! ! ) ð12Þ
4ðβ θω2 Þ2 4ðω2 β2 =4Þ 2 4ðβ θω2 Þ2 4ðω2 β2 =4Þ 2
þ þ x^ þ x ; y^ Þ ¼ 0;
y^ Ψð^
ð4 ω2 θ2 Þ2 4 ω2 θ2 ð4 ω2 θ 2 Þ 2 4 ω2 θ2

By a closer inspection of the equation, it is convenient to make the following definitions:

02 4ðβ θω2 Þ24ðω2 β2 =4Þ

ω  þ ;
ð4 ω2 θ2 Þ2 4 ω2 θ 2
ð13Þ
2ðβ θω2 Þ 2ðβ θω2 Þ
Ax^  y^; Ay^  x^;
4 ω2 θ2 4 ω2 θ2

With these definitions, we can rewrite Eq. (12) in a much simpler and suggestive form:
 2   2 
02 2 0 2 ^2
H¼ p^x Ax^ þ ω x^ p^y Ay^ þω y ; ð14Þ

which is a two-dimensional anisotropic ghost-oscillator [1]. From Eq. (14), we can see
that the terms ðpi Ai Þ can be associated to a minimal coupling term as is done in
4ðβ ω2 θÞ
electromagnetic theory. From this vector potential, we find that B ¼ 4 ω2 θ2
and the vector
potential A can be rewritten as Ax^ ¼ B2 y^ and Ay^ ¼ B2 x^. On the other hand, we already
n o
know from Eq. (11) that p^y ; p^x ¼ β and if we set θ = 0 in the above equation for B, we
can conclude that the deformation of the momentum plays a role analogous to a mag-
netic field.
 Deformed Phase Space in Cosmology and Black Holes 181
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2.2. Discussion

We found that ω is defined in terms of the cosmological constant, then modifications to the
oscillator frequency will imply modifications to the effective cosmological constant. Here, we have
done a deformation of the phase space of the theory by introducing a modification to the momenta
and to the minisuperspace coordinates, this gives two new fundamental constants θ and β. As
expected, we obtain a different functional dependence for the frequency ω and the magnetic B field
~ in terms of ω0 2 and
as functions of β and θ. With this in mind, we can construct a new frequency ω
the cyclotron term B2 =4:

B2 4ðω2 β2 =4Þ
~ 2 ¼ ω0 2
ω ¼ : ð15Þ
4 4 ω2 θ2

˜ 3 ~2
This ω
~ was obtained by a definition of the effective cosmological constant Λ ef f ¼ 2ω as was
done in Section 2, to finally get a redefinition of the effective cosmological constant due to
noncommutative parameters:

˜ 4ðΛef f þ 38 β2 Þ
Λef f ¼ 2 2
: ð16Þ
4 3 θ jΛef f j

Now if we choose the case β = 0, this should be equivalent to the noncommutative minisuperspace
model, hence we get an effective cosmological constant given by:

˜ 4Λef f
Λ ef f ¼ 2 2
ð17Þ
ð4 3 θ jΛef f jÞ

We can see from Eq. (17) that the noncommutative parameter θ cannot take the place of the
cosmological constant, but depending on the value of θ, the effective cosmological constant
Λ˜ ef f is modified. Equation 17 is in agreement with the results given in Refs. [9, 10].

3. Model 2: Scalar field cosmology

Let us start with a homogeneous and isotropic universe with a flat Friedmann-Robertson-Walker
(FRW) metric:

ds2 ¼ N 2 ðtÞdt2 þ a2 ðtÞ dr2 þ r2 dΩ

 
ð18Þ

As usual, a(t) is the scale factor and N(t) is the lapse function. We use the Einstein-Hilbert action and
a scalar field φ as the matter content for the model. In units 8πG ¼ 1, the action takes the form:
ð ( _2
!)
3aa_ 2 φ
S ¼ dt þ a3 NΛ ð19Þ
N 2N

Now, we make the following change of variables:

182 Trends in Modern Cosmology

x ¼ m 1 a3=2 sinhðmφÞ, y ¼ m 1 a3=2 coshðmφÞ: ð20Þ

1
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where m ¼ 2 2=3. Then the Hamiltonian is

1 2 ω2 2 1 2 ω2 2
   
H c ¼ N Px þ x N Py þ y ; ð21Þ
2 2 2 2

with ω2 ¼ 34 Λ. To find the dynamics, we solve the equations of motion; for this model, it can
easily be integrated [9].
To construct the deformed model, we usually follow the canonical quantum cosmology
approach, where after canonical quantization [11], one formally obtains the WDW equation.
In the deformed phase space approach, the deformation is introduced by the Moyal brackets
to get a deformed Poisson algebra. To construct a deformed Poisson algebra, we use the
approach given in Refs. [1, 9]. We start with the same transformation on the classical phase
space variables {x;y;Px ;Py } that satisfy the usual Poisson algebra as shown in Section 2.1,
Eqs. (10) and (11). With this deformed theory in mind, we first calculate the Hamiltonian
which is formally analogous to Eq. (21) but constructed with the variables that obey the
modified algebra Eq. (11)

1 h 2  i
P2y ω21 xPy þ yPx þ ω22 x2 y2 :
  
H¼ Px ð22Þ
2

where we have used the change of variables Eq. (10) and the following definitions:

β ω2 θ ω2 β2 =4
ω21 ¼ ; ω22 ¼ : ð23Þ
1 ω2 θ2 =4 1 ω2 θ2 =4

Written in terms of the original variables, the Hamiltonian explicitly has the effects of the
phase space deformation. These effects are encoded by the parameters θ and β. In Ref. [9],
the late time behavior of this model was studied. From this formulation, two different
physical theories arise, one that considers the variables x and y and a different theory
based on x^ and y^. The first theory is interpreted as a “commutative” theory with a
modified interaction, and this theory is referred as being realized in the commutative
frame “(C-frame)” [12]. The second theory, which privileges the variables x^ and y^, is a
theory with “noncommutative” variables but with the standard interaction and is referred
to as realized in the noncommutative frame “(NC-frame).” In the “C-frame,” our deformed
model has a very nice interpretation that of a ghost-oscillator in the presence of constant
magnetic field and allows us to write the effects of the noncommutative deformation as
minimal coupling on the Hamiltonian and write the Hamiltonian in terms of the magnetic
B-field [9].

To obtain the dynamics for the model, we derive the equations of motion from the Hamilto-
nian Eq. (22). The solutions for the variables x(t) and y(t) in the “C-frame” are:
 Deformed Phase Space in Cosmology and Black Holes 183
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ω2 ω2
1 0 1
xðtÞ ¼ η0 e 2 t coshðω t þ δ1 Þ ζ0 e coshðω0 t þ δ2 Þ;
2 t

ω2 ω2
ð24Þ
1 0 1 0
yðtÞ ¼ η0 e 2 t 2 t
coshðω t þ δ1 Þ þ ζ0 e coshðω t þ δ2 Þ;

qffiffi2ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
β 4ω2
where ω0 ¼ 4 ω2 θ2
. For ω0 2 < 0, the hyperbolic functions are replaced by harmonic functions.
There is a different solution for β ¼ 2ω, the solutions in the “C-frame” are:

ω2 ω2
1 1
xðtÞ ¼ ða þ btÞe 2 t þ ðc þ dtÞe 2 t ;
ω2 ω2
ð25Þ
1 1
yðtÞ ¼ ða þ btÞe 2 t ðc þ dtÞe : 2 t

To compute the volume of the universe in the “C-frame,” we use Eqs. (24) and (20).

a3 ðtÞ ¼ V 0 cosh2 ðω0 tÞ; ð26Þ

where we have taken δ1 ¼ δ2 ¼ 0. For the case ω0 2 < 0, the hyperbolic function is replaced by a
harmonic function. For the case β ¼ 2ω, the volume is given by

a3 ðtÞ ¼ V 0 þ At þ Bt2 ; ð27Þ

where V 0 ;A and B are constructed from the integration constants. To develop the dynamics in
the “NC-frame,” we start from the “C-frame” solutions and use Eq. (10), we get for the volume
8 " #
02 2
ω θ
2
^ 0 cosh ðω0 tÞ sinh ðω tÞ for ω0 2 > 0;
2 0
>
>
>
> V 2 2
>
>
< ð2 ω1 θÞ
^a 3 ðtÞ ¼ V^ 0 þ Bt þ Ct2 02 ð28Þ
" #for ω ¼ 0;
> 0 2 2
jω j θ
>
sin 2 ðjω0 jtÞ for ω0 2 < 0;
>
^ 2 0
: V 0 cos ðjω jtÞ
>
>
2
>
ð2 ω1 θÞ 2

where V^ 0 is the initial volume in the “NC-frame.” We can see that for θ = 0, the descriptions in
the two frames are the same.

3.1. Discussion
As already discussed, phase space deformation gives two physical descriptions. If we say that
both descriptions should be equal, then comparing the late time behavior for the two frames
with the scale factor of de Sitter cosmology, an effective positive cosmological constant exists
and is given by

!
1 β2 þ 3Λ
Λef f ¼ : ð29Þ
3
3 1 þ 16 Λθ2
184 Trends in Modern Cosmology

This result is the same as the one obtained from the WDW formalism of Kaluza-Klein cosmology.
Therefore, one can start taking seriously the possibility that noncommutativity can shed light on
the cosmological constant problem.

4. Model 3: Thermodynamics of noncommutative quantum Kerr black hole

Thermodynamics of black holes has a long history, focusing mainly on the problem of thermo-
dynamic stability. It is known for a long time that this problem can be extended beyond the
asymptotically flat spacetimes [13]. For example, in de Sitter spacetimes, thermodynamic
information of black holes exhibit important differences with the previous case [14, 15]. Gib-
bons and Hawking found that, in analogy with the asymptotically flat space case, such black
holes emit radiation with a perfect blackbody spectrum and its temperature is determined by
their surface gravity. However, a feature of de Sitter space is that exists a cosmological event
horizon, emitting particles with a temperature which is proportional to its surface gravity. The
only way to achieve thermal equilibrium is when both surface gravities are equal, which
corresponds to a degenerate case [16, 17].
Regarding AdS manifolds, it was shown that thermodynamic stability of black holes in this
spacetime can be achieved [18]. In this manifold, gravitational potential produces a confine-
ment for particles with nonzero mass, which acts as an effective cavity of finite volume,
containing the black hole. An important feature of black holes in AdS manifolds is that their
heat capacity is positive, opposite to the asymptotically flat case; additionally, this positiveness
allows a canonical description of the system.
It is also known that thermodynamic stability of black holes is related with dynamical stability of
those systems, which brings an additional motivation to study it. For example, in the asymptot-
ically flat spacetime case, it is well known that Schwarzschild black holes are thermodynamically
unstable, although they are dynamically stable [19]. For AdS spacetimes, however, it is known
that both thermodynamic and dynamical stability are closely related [20, 21].
In this study, we study black holes in asymptotically flat spacetime, whereby it seems very
legitimate to ask whether corrections like the above discussed noncommutativity or even
semiclassical ones can modify thermodynamic properties of black holes in order to have
thermodynamic stable systems.
In a number of studies [22–24], black hole entropy proposed by Bekenstein and Hawking is
postulated to be the fundamental thermodynamic relation for black holes, which contains all
thermodynamic information of the system. Under this assumption, corresponding classical
thermodynamic formalism is constructed, finding that its thermodynamic structure resembles
ordinary magnetic systems instead of fluids.

4.1. Schwarzschild and Kerr black holes

As previously discussed, it is well known that for an asymptotically flat spacetime, tempera-
ture of black holes is proportional to its surface gravity κ, as T ¼ κħ=2πkB c, which is commonly
 Deformed Phase Space in Cosmology and Black Holes 185
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68282

known as Hawking temperature [25]; this semiclassical result, along with Bekenstein bound
for entropy, leads to the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy,

c3
SBH ¼ A: ð30Þ
4Għ

Where A stands for the area of the event horizon of the black hole. The Kerr metric, which
describes a rotating black hole, can be written as:

4Mra sin 2 θ B sin 2 θ 2

 
2Mr Σ
2
ds ¼ 1 dt2 dtdθ þ dr2 þ Σdθ2 þ dφ ; ð31Þ
Σ Σ Δ Σ

where, Σ ¼ r2 þ a2 cos 2 θ, Δ ¼ r2 2Mr þ a2 , B ¼ ðr2 þ a2 Þ2

a2 Δ sin 2 θ and a ¼ J=Mc. The
ð qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
area of the event horizon of a black hole is given by A ¼ detjgμν jds. Applying for the
s
elements of the metric tensor given in Eq. (31), the resulting area is:
2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi3
c2 J 2 5
A ¼ 8πG2 M2 c 4 41 þ 1 : ð32Þ
G2 M4

Assumed thermodynamic fundamental relation for Kerr black holes is found substituting the
above result in Eq. (30); where U = Mc2 is the internal energy of the system and J is its angular
momentum. This relation can be written as [22]:
0 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi1
2
2πkB @GU G2 U 4
SBH ðU; JÞ ¼ þ c2 J 2 A; ð33Þ
ħc c4 c8

where the following constants appear: G is the universal gravitational constant, c is the speed
of light, ħ is the reduced Planck constant, and kB is the Boltzmann constant. In recent years, in
the search of suitable candidates of quantum gravity, that is, in the quest to understand
microscopic states of black holes [26, 27], a number of quantum corrections to Bekenstein-
Hawking (BH) entropy SBH have arisen. We are interested not only in the possible thermody-
namic implications of quantum corrections to this entropy but also in the consequences of
introducing noncommutativity as proposed by Obregon et al. [28], considering that coordi-
nates of minisuperspace are noncommutative. From a variety of approaches that have
emerged in recent years to correct SBH, logarithmic ones are a popular choice among those.
These corrections arise from quantum corrections to the string theory partition function [29]
and are related to infrared or low-energy properties of gravity. They are also independent of
high-energy or ultraviolet properties of the theory [26, 29–31]. We will denote the selected
expression for quantum and noncommutative corrected entropy as S*, which is obtained by
following the ideas presented in [28]. The starting point is the diffeomorphism between the
Kantowski-Sachs cosmological model, describing a homogeneous but anisotropic universe
[32], and the Schwarzschild interior solution, whose line element for r < 2M is given by:
186 Trends in Modern Cosmology

  1  
2M 2M
2
ds ¼ 1 2
dt þ 1 dr2 þ t2 ðdθ2 þ sin 2 θdφ2 Þ; ð34Þ
t t

where the role of temporal t and the spatial r coordinates is swapped, that is, transformation
t $ r is performed, leading to a change on the causal structure of spacetime; considering the
Misner parametrization of the Kantowski-Sachs metric it follows:
pffiffi pffiffi pffiffi
ds2 ¼ N 2 dt2 þ eð2 3γÞ dr2 þ eð 2 3γÞ eð 2 3λÞ ðdθ2 þ sin 2 θdφ2 Þ: ð35Þ

Parameters λ and γ play the role of the cartesian coordinates in the Kantowski-Sachs minisuperspace.
If Eqs. (34) and (35) are compared, it is straightforward to notice correspondence between compo-
nents of the metric tensor, which allows us to identify the functions N, γ, and λ as:
  1 pffiffi pffiffi pffiffi
2M 2M
2
N ¼ 1 ; eð 2 3γÞ
¼ 1; eð 2 3γÞ ð 2 3λÞ
e ¼ t2 :
t t

Next, the Wheeler DeWitt (WDW) equation for Kantowski-Sachs metric with the above
parametrization of the Schwarzschild interior solution is found, along with the corresponding
Hamiltonian of the system H through the Arnowitt-Deser-Misner (ADM) formalism. This
Hamiltonian is introduced into the quantum wave equation HΨ ¼ 0, where Ψðγ;λÞ is the
wave function. This process leads to the WDW equation whose solution can be found by
separation of variables.

However, we are not interested in the usual case, rather our point of interest is the solution that
can be found when the symplectic structure of minisuperspace is modified by the inclusion of
a noncommutativity parameter between the coordinates λ and γ, that is, the following com-
mutation relation is obeyed: ½λ;㊠¼ iθ, where θ is the noncommutative parameter; this rela-
tion strongly resembles noncommutative quantum mechanics. It is also possible to introduce
the aforementioned deformation in terms of a Moyal product [7], which modifies the original
phase space, similarly to noncommutative quantum mechanics [33]:

These modifications allow us to redefine the coordinates of minisuperspace in order to obtain a

noncommutative version of the WDW equation:

∂2 ∂2 pffiffi pffiffi
þ 48eð 2 3λþ 3θPγ Þ
Ψðλ;γÞ ¼ 0; ð36Þ
∂γ2 ∂λ2

where Pγ is the momentum on coordinate γ. The above equation can be solved by separation
of variables to obtain the corresponding wave function [6]:
pffiffi pffiffi pffiffi
Ψðλ;γÞ ¼ ei 3νγ Kiν ½4eð 3ðλþ 3νθ=2Þ Š; ð37Þ

where ν is the separation constant and Kiν are the modified Bessel functions. We can see in Eq. (37)
pffiffi
that the wave function has the form Ψðλ;γÞ ¼ ei 3νγ ΦðλÞ; therefore, dependence on the coordi-
nate γ is the one of a plane wave. It is worth mentioning that this contribution vanishes when
thermodynamic observables are calculated.
 Deformed Phase Space in Cosmology and Black Holes 187
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With the wave function presented in Eq. (37) for the noncommutative Kantowski-Sachs cos-
mological model, a modified noncommutative version of the entropy can be obtained. In order
to calculate the partition function of the system, the Feynman-Hibbs procedure is considered
[34]. Starting with the separated differential equation for λ:

d2 pffiffi
2 3λþ3νθ
þ 48e ΦðλÞ ¼ 3ν2 ΦðλÞ; ð38Þ
dλ2
pffiffiffi
In this equation, the exponential in the potential term VðλÞ ¼ 48 exp ½ 2 3λ þ 3νθŠ is
expanded up to second order in λ and if a change of variables is considered, resulting differ-
ential equation can be compared with a one-dimensional quantum harmonic oscillator, which
is a non-degenerate quantum system. In the Feynman-Hibbs procedure, the potential under
study is modified by quantum effects, for the harmonic oscillator is given by:

βħ2 0 0
UðxÞ ¼ VðxÞ þ V ðxÞ;
24m

0
where x is the mean value of x and V 0 ðxÞ stands for the second derivative of the potential. For
the considered change of variables, the noncommutative quantum-corrected potential can be
written as:
2
" #
3 Ep 3νθ 2 βlp Ep
UðxÞ ¼ e x þ : ð39Þ
4π l2p 12

The above potential allows us to calculate the canonical partition function of the system:
ð∞
ZðβÞ ¼ C e βUðxÞ dx; ð40Þ
∞

h i 1=2
where β 1
is proportional to the Bekenstein-Hawking temperature and C ¼ 2πl2p Ep β is a
constant. Substituting U(x) into Eq. (40) and performing the integral over x, the partition
function is given by:
rffiffiffiffiffiffi " 2 2 #
2π e3νθ=2 β Ep 3νθ
ZðβÞ ¼ exp e ; ð41Þ
3 Ep β 16π

This partition function allows us to calculate any desired thermodynamic observable by means
of the thermodynamic connection of the Helmholtz free energy A ¼ kB TlnZðβÞ, with the
internal energy and the Legendre transformation:

∂ S
〈E〉 ¼ lnZðβÞ; ¼ ln ZðβÞ þ β〈E〉:
∂β kB

With this equation for 〈E〉, the value of β can be determined as a function of the Hawking
temperature βH ¼ 8πMc2 =Ep , obtaining:
188 Trends in Modern Cosmology

3νθ 1 1
β ¼ βH e 1 3νθ
; ð42Þ
βH e Mc2

With the aid of this relation and the Legendre transformation for Helmholtz free energy presented
above, an expression for the noncommutative quantum-corrected black hole entropy can be found:

1 SBH
S⋆ ¼ SBH e 3νθ
kB ln e 3νθ
þ OðSBH1 e 3νθ
Þ: ð43Þ
2 kB

Functional form of S* is basically the same than quantum-corrected commutative case, besides
the addition of multiplicative factor e 3νθ to Bekenstein-Hawking entropy. From now on, we
will denote the noncommutative term in this expression, for the sake of simplicity, as:

Γ ¼ exp ½ 3νθŠ:

Likewise, natural units, G ¼ ħ ¼ kB ¼ c ¼ 1, will be considered through the rest of this chapter.
In this section, the previous result found in Eq. (43) for the Schwarzschild noncommutative
black hole is extended to the rotating case, that is, the Kerr black hole. This is not straightfor-
ward as an analog expression for the noncommutative entropy of the rotating black hole is
required, implying the application of a similar procedure to the one presented above: A
diffeomorphism between the Kerr metric and some appropriated cosmological model and the
procedure is presented in Ref. [28]. To our knowledge, the implementation of this procedure
has not been yet reported. However, we are interested to have an expression to study not only
the static case but also the effect of angular momentum over the physical properties of the
system. Our proposal to have an approximated relation for the extended Kerr black hole entropy
starts with the assumption that for entropy found in Eq. (43), Bekenstein-Hawking entropy for
Schwarzschild in this relation SBH can be also substituted for its Kerr counterpart given in
Eq. (33). As the noncommutative relation for quantum Schwarzschild black hole entropy is
correct, it is clear that our proposal to the quantum noncommutative Kerr black hole entropy
will be a good approximation for small values of J when compared to the values of U2,
whatever be the exact expression for the rotating case. For our proposal, in the vicinity of small
values of angular momentum, λ and γ, the coordinates of the minisuperspace are the same
than in the Schwarzschild case. Therefore, the corrected entropy that will be analyzed is:
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 4 1
⋆
S ¼ 2π Γ U þ U J 2
ln 2π Γ U þ U4 J 2 :
2
ð44Þ
2

A clarification must be made that Eq. (44) is not a unique valid generalization for the quantum-
corrected noncommutative entropy of a rotating black hole in the neighborhood of small J.
However, we claim that this is the most natural extension from the Schwarzschild case to the
Kerr one. Although, to our knowledge, there is no general argument to support that Eq. (43)
remains valid for any other black hole besides the Schwarzschild one. However, there is some
evidence that for the case of charged black holes, the functional form of Eq. (43) is maintained,
at least partially [35].
 Deformed Phase Space in Cosmology and Black Holes 189
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Through the rest of this section, all thermodynamic expressions with superindex ⋆ will stand
for noncommutative quantum-corrected quantities derived from Eq. (44), meanwhile, all ther-
modynamic functions without subindexes or superindexes will represent the corresponding
noncommutative Bekenstein-Hawking counterparts. It is known that noncommutativity
parameter θ in spacetime is small, from observational evidence [36, 37]; although in this study,
noncommutativity on the coordinates of minisuperspace is considered instead, it is expected
such parameter to be also small [38]; nonetheless, its actual bounds are not well known yet. We
will consider that parameter Γ is bounded in the interval 0 < Γ ≤ 1. As previously mentioned
for the non-corrected Kerr black hole, Eq. (44) is now assumed to be a fundamental thermody-
namic relation for the rotating black hole, when noncommutative and quantum corrections are
considered. It is well known from classical thermodynamics that fundamental equations con-
tain all the thermodynamic information of the considered system [39], and, as a consequence,
modifications introduced by corrections to entropy (which imply modifications to thermody-
namic information) are carried through all thermodynamic quantities.
In Figure 1, plots for both Bekenstein-Hawking entropy and its quantum-corrected counter-
part are presented for Γ ¼ 1. Figure 1a shows plots for S ¼ SðUÞ and S⋆ ¼ S⋆ ðUÞ; Bekenstein-
Hawking entropy is above the quantum-corrected one, in all its dominion, even in the region
of low masses, where entropy is thermodynamically stable [22, 24]. Figure 1b presents the
same curves as function of angular momentum instead, for U ¼ 1; a similar behavior can be
noticed in this case. If this analysis is performed over the noncommutative relation, it is found
that for small values of θ, differences between both SBH and S* are negligible.

4.2. Equations of state

Working in entropic representation, fundamental Bekenstein-Hawking thermodynamic rela-

tion for a Kerr black hole has the form SBH ¼ SBH ðU;JÞ. For these systems, partial derivatives of
SBH T  ð∂S UÞJ and Ω  ð∂J UÞS play the role of thermodynamic equations of state; here, T

(a) (b)

Figure 1. A comparison between Bekenstein-Hawking entropy (solid line) and its quantum-corrected counterpart (dash-
dot line) is presented; both relations exhibit a region where entropy is a concave function, implying the existence of
metastable states. (a) Entropy as a function of internal energy, J = 1. (b) Entropy as a function of angular momentum for U
= 1, S ¼ Sð1; JÞ.
190 Trends in Modern Cosmology

stands for Hawking temperature and Ω is the angular velocity. In entropic representation,
equations of state are defined by:
   
1 ∂SBH Ω ∂SBH
 ;  : ð45Þ
T ∂U J T ∂J U

For the entropy of the quantum-corrected entropy S*, the above relations remain valid. In
entropic representation, T and Ω for the noncommutative quantum-corrected entropy are
given by:
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
4 2 2
U 4π Γ U J þ 4π ΓU 1
1
¼ ð46aÞ
T⋆
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ;
U4 J2
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
4 2 2
J 4π Γ U J þ 4π ΓU 1
Ω⋆ 1
¼   ð46bÞ
T⋆ 2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi :
U4 J2 U2 þ U4 J2

The same relations for noncommutative Bekenstein-Hawking entropy are calculated as:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
1 4π ΓUðU þ U
4
J 2 Þ2
¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; ð47aÞ
T 4 2
U J

Ω 2π ΓJ
¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð47bÞ
T
U4 J2

When the overall effect over T and T* of noncommutativity was analyzed, different values of
parameter Γ were tested, including Γ ¼ 1 (commutative case). The corresponding curves
present a noticeable effect by the presence of Γ; nonetheless, functional behavior either of T
or T* is not modified. A comparison of the plots of both temperature is presented in Figure 2
for Γ = 1, in order to illustrate how quantum corrections introduced in entropy affect ther-
modynamic properties of black holes. Resulting curves of T and T* are very similar, although
the latter one is slightly higher than TðU;JÞ, an opposite result to the one obtained when
entropy was studied; it indicates that for a given change in its internal energy, variations of
entropy are greater for quantum-corrected entropy when compared to the Bekenstein-
Hawking one.

As previously mentioned, when values in the vicinity of Γ = 1 are considered, temperature is

minimally affected by noncommutativity. We also tested smaller values of noncommu-
tativity parameter, it was found that the maximum values that T and T* are able to reach are
noticeably increased. However, the shape of both curves is not modified by changing the
value of Γ.
 Deformed Phase Space in Cosmology and Black Holes 191
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An interesting result is obtained for angular velocity Ω, this property seems to be independent
of both quantum and noncommutative corrections to entropy, namely:

J
Ω ¼ Ω⋆ ¼  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð48Þ
2U U 2 þ U 4 J 2

In Figure 3, plots for angular velocity are presented. As this equation of state is not modified
by any of the considered corrections, only one curve per graphic appears; first, in Figure 3a, Ω
as a function of the black hole internal energy is presented, as can be noticed, angular velocity
steadily decreases as black hole mass is increased, asymptotically going to zero. Figure 3b
considers instead the case where the black hole mass is fixed at U ¼ 10, for which Ω grows
until it reaches a maximum value determined by the square root that appears in the denomi-
nator of Eq. (48), beyond this value angular velocity becomes complex.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Temperature in the commutative case Γ = 1 for Bekenstein-Hawking usual entropy and its quantum-corrected
counterpart. (a) Plots of TðU; 1Þ (solid line) versus T ⋆ ðU; 1Þ (dash-dot line) as a function of internal energy for a fixed value
of angular momentum J = 1. (b) The same curves, considering instead for variations in J at a fixed U ¼ 1.

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Angular velocity for Bekenstein-Hawking entropy and the quantum-corrected version are presented in Eq. (44).
(a) Ω as a function of internal energy considering a fixed value of angular momentum (J = 1). (b) Angular velocity as a
function of angular momentum considering U ¼ 10.
192 Trends in Modern Cosmology

5. Conclusions

In section 2, if we turn our attention to the case where there is no deformation on the coordinates.
Taking the noncommutative parameter θ = 0, we have that the frequency and the effective
cosmological constant are given by:

β2 3β2
~ 2 ¼ ω2
ω ; and ˜
Λ ef f ¼ Λef f þ : ð49Þ
4 8

From the last equation, we get the most interesting result of this section. We can see that
noncommutative parameter β and Λef f compete to give the effective cosmological constant
3β2
Λ˜ ef f . If we consider the case of a flat universe with a vanishing Λef f , we see that Λ˜ ef f ¼ 8 . This
shows the relationship between the cosmological constant and the deformed parameter.
Recently, some evidence on the possibility that the effects of the phase space deformation
could be related to the late time acceleration of the universe as well as to the cosmological
constant were presented [8]. Interestingly, in the particular case of β ¼ ω2 θ, we find that
~ 2 ¼ ω2 and we have that Λ˜ ef f ¼ Λef f . In this case, even as we have done
frequency reduces to ω
a deformation on the minisuperspace of the theory, the effects cancel out and the resulting
theory behaves as in the commutative theory. The results are similar for model 2 (Section 3),
where under a totally classical regime, we find the same functional relationship between the
cosmological constant and the deformation parameter β. Therefore, we conclude that
noncommutative phase space deformations can hold the answer to the cosmological constant
problem.

Then, in Section 4, an analysis on the thermodynamic properties of noncommutative quantum-

corrected Kerr black holes using an approximate relation was presented. Although the
resulting expressions are mathematically more complicated, the thermodynamic properties
still retain the same functional behavior with respect to those calculated through Bekenstein-
Hawking entropy. It can be proved that Kerr black holes do not pass through a first-order
phase transition [4]; since the local criteria to find the critical point are not fulfilled for any
value in the domain, corresponding isotherms do not exhibit van der Waals loops, and the
Maxwell construction cannot be obtained; all of which are characteristic of this kind of transi-
tion. Regarding the effective noncommutativity incorporated in the coordinates of
minisuperspace, outside the vicinity where Γ ≈ 1, changes introduced by this parameter over
the thermodynamic information of the system are relevant. For a complete analysis using this
phase deformations, for example, thermodynamic response functions, thermodynamic stabil-
ity, and phase transitions for Kerr black holes, see Ref. [4].

Acknowledgements

Eri Atahualpa Mena Barboza thanks the financial support from C.U.CI., U. de G. project
Desarrollo de la investigación y fortalecimiento del posgrado 235506.
 Deformed Phase Space in Cosmology and Black Holes 193
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68282

Author details

E.A. Mena-Barboza1*, L.F. Escamilla-Herrera2, J.C. López-Domínguez3 and J. Torres-Arenas4

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 Centro Universitario de la Ciénega, Universidad de Guadalajara Ave. Universidad, Ocotlán,

Jalisco, México

2 Instituto de Ciencias Nucleares, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de,

México

3 Unidad Académica de Física, Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Calzada Solidaridad,

Zacatecas, México

4 Departamento de Física de la Universidad de Guanajuato, León, Guanajuato, México

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