ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings

that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings. A substance, which
causes pollution, is known as pollutant. Pollutants can be solid, liquid or gaseous
substances present in greater concentration than in natural abundance and are
produced due to human activities or due to natural happenings.

Pollutants can be degradable, like discarded vegetables which rapidly break down
by natural processes. On the other hand, pollutants which are slowly degradable,
remain in the environment in an unchanged form for many decades. For example,
substances such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), plastic materials,
heavy metals, many chemicals, nuclear wastes etc., once released into the
environment are difficult to remove. These pollutants cannot be degraded by
natural processes and are harmful to living organisms. In the process of
environmental pollution, pollutants originate from a source and get transported by
air or water or are dumped into the soil by human beings.

1.1 ECOLOGY:

The scientific study of the interactions of organisms with their physical

environment and with each other is called Ecology.

The environment has biotic and abiotic components function together as an

ecological system or ecosystem. This ecosystem displays equilibrium under
given conditions.

The ecology is the study of ecosystems or the totality of the reciprocal

interactions between living organisms and their environment.

1.2 DISTRIBUTION IN ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM:

The ecosystem is a complex interaction between biotic and abiotic

components and it exists at an equilibrium under given condition.

Any change brought about by man’s activities or other circumstances places a

‘stress’ upon the system disturbing the equilibrium, then in response the
system set to new equilibrium which may or may not be beneficial to the
original components of the system including man.

In the natural ecosystem man has always played the role of destroyer, remover
and importer of various components and thus cause of disturbance in
ecological balance. This loss of balance may be defined as pollution.

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION (AIR POLLUTION)

The atmosphere that surrounds the earth is not of the same thickness at all heights.
There are concentric layers of air or regions and each layer has different density.
The lowest region of atmosphere in which the human beings along with other
organisms live is called troposphere. It extends up to the height of ~ 10 km from
sea level. Above the troposphere, between 10 and 50 km above sea level lies
stratosphere. Troposphere is a turbulent, dusty zone containing air, much water
vapour and clouds. This is the region of strong air movement and cloud formation.
The stratosphere, on the other hand, contains dinitrogen, dioxygen, ozone and little
water vapour. Atmospheric pollution is generally studied as tropospheric and
stratospheric pollution. The presence of ozone in the stratosphere prevents about
99.5 per cent of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiations from reaching the
earth’s surface and thereby protecting humans and other animals from its effect.

Tropospheric Pollution

Tropospheric pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous

particles in the air. The following are the major gaseous and particulate pollutants
present in the troposphere:

1. Gaseous air pollutants: These are oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon,
hydrogen sulphide, hydrocarbons, ozone and other oxidants.

2. Particulate pollutants: These are dust, mist, fumes, smoke, smog etc.

1. Gaseous air pollutants

(a) Oxides of Sulphur: Oxides of sulphur are produced when sulphur containing
fossil fuel is burnt. The most common species, sulphur dioxide, is a gas that is
poisonous to both animals and plants. It has been reported that even a low
concentration of sulphur dioxide causes respiratory diseases e.g., asthma,
bronchitis, emphysema in human beings. Sulphur dioxide causes irritation to the
eyes, resulting in tears and redness. High concentration of SO 2 leads to stiffness of
flower buds which eventually fall off from plants. Uncatalysed oxidation of
sulphur dioxide is slow. However, the presence of particulate matter in polluted air
catalyses the oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.
2SO2 (g) +O2 (g) → 2SO3(g)

The reaction can also be promoted by ozone and hydrogen peroxide.

SO2 (g) +O3 (g) → SO3(g) + O2 (g)

SO2(g) + H2O2(l) → H2SO4(aq)

(b) Oxides of Nitrogen: Dinitrogen and dioxygen are the main constituents of air.
These gases do not react with each other at a normal temperature. At high altitudes
when lightning strikes, they combine to form oxides of nitrogen. NO2 is oxidised
to nitrate ion, NO3 − which is washed into soil, where it serves as a fertilizer. In an
automobile engine, (at high temperature) when fossil fuel is burnt, dinitrogen and
dioxygen combine to yield significant quantities of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide ( NO2 ) as given below:
1483K
N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO(g)
NO reacts instantly with oxygen to give NO2
2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)

Rate of production of NO2 is faster when nitric oxide reacts with ozone in the
stratosphere.
NO (g) + O3 (g) → NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

The irritant red haze in the traffic and congested places is due to oxides of
nitrogen. Higher concentrations of NO2 damage the leaves of plants and retard the
rate of photosynthesis. Nitrogen dioxide is a lung irritant that can lead to an acute
respiratory disease in children. It is toxic to living tissues also. Nitrogen dioxide is
also harmful to various textile fibres and metals.
(c) Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are composed of hydrogen and carbon only and
are formed by incomplete combustion of fuel used in automobiles. Hydrocarbons
are carcinogenic, i.e., they cause cancer. They harm plants by causing ageing,
breakdown of tissues and shedding of leaves, flowers and twigs.

(d) Oxides of Carbon

(i ) Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the most serious air
pollutants. It is a colourless and odourless gas, highly poisonous to living beings
because of its ability to block the delivery of oxygen to the organs and tissues. It is
produced as a result of incomplete combustion of carbon. Carbon monoxide is
mainly released into the air by automobile exhaust. Other sources, which produce
CO, involve incomplete combustion of coal, firewood, petrol, etc. The number of
vehicles has been increasing over the years all over the world. Many vehicles are
poorly maintained and several have inadequate pollution control equipments
resulting in the release of greater amount of carbon monoxide and other polluting
gases. Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin,
which is about 300 times more stable than the oxygen-haemoglobin complex. In
blood, when the concentration of carboxyhaemoglobin reaches about 3–4 per cent,
the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is greatly reduced. This oxygen deficiency,
results into headache, weak eyesight, nervousness and cardiovascular disorder.

(ii) Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is released into the atmosphere by
respiration, burning of fossil fuels for energy, and by decomposition of limestone
during the manufacture of cement. It is also emitted during volcanic eruptions.
Carbon dioxide gas is confined to troposphere only. Normally it forms about 0.03
per cent by volume of the atmosphere. With the increased use of fossil fuels, a
large amount of carbon dioxide gets released into the atmosphere. Excess of CO2
in the air is removed by green plants and this maintains an appropriate level of
CO2 in the atmosphere. Green plants require CO2 for photosynthesis and they, in
turn, emit oxygen, thus maintaining the delicate balance. Deforestation and burning
of fossil fuel increases the CO2 level and disturb the balance in the atmosphere.
The increased amount of CO2 in the air is mainly responsible for Global Warming.

2. Particulate Pollutants
Particulates pollutants are the minute solid particles or liquid droplets in air. These
are present in vehicle emissions, smoke particles from fires, dust particles and ash
from industries. Particulates in the atmosphere may be viable or non-viable. The
viable particulates e.g., bacteria, fungi, moulds, algae etc., are minute living
organisms that are dispersed in the atmosphere. Human beings are allergic to some
of the fungi found in air. They can also cause plant diseases. Non-viable
particulates may be classified according to their nature and size as follows:

(a) Smoke particulates consist of solid or mixture of solid and liquid particles
formed during combustion of organic matter. Examples are cigarette smoke, smoke
from burning of fossil fuel, garbage and dry leaves, oil smoke etc.

(b) Dust is composed of fine solid particles (over 1μm in diameter), produced
during crushing, grinding and attribution of solid materials. Sand from sand
blasting, saw dust from wood works, pulverized coal, cement and fly ash from
factories, dust storms etc., are some typical examples of this type of particulate
emission.

(c) Mists are produced by particles of spray liquids and by condensation of vapours
in air. Examples are sulphuric acid mist and herbicides and insecticides that miss
their targets and travel through air and form mists.

(d) Fumes are generally obtained by the condensation of vapours during

sublimation, distillation, boiling and several other chemical reactions. Generally,
organic solvents, metals and metallic oxides form fume particles. The effect of
particulate pollutants are largely dependent on the particle size. Airborne particles
such as dust, fumes, mist etc., are dangerous for human health. Particulate
pollutants bigger than 5 microns are likely to lodge in the nasal passage, whereas
particles of about 10 micron enter into lungs easily. Lead used to be a major air
pollutant emitted by vehicles. Leaded petrol used to be the primary source of air-
borne lead emission in Indian cities. This problem has now been overcome by
using unleaded petrol in most of the cities in India. Lead interferes with the
development and maturation of red blood cells.
Smog

The word smog is derived from smoke and fog. This is the most common example
of air pollution that occurs in many cities throughout the world.

(a) Classical smog occurs in cool humid climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog and
sulphur dioxide. Chemically it is a reducing mixture and so it is also called as
reducing smog.

(b) Photochemical smog occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate. The main
components of the photochemical smog result from the action of sunlight on
unsaturated hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides produced by automobiles and
factories. Photochemical smog has high concentration of oxidising agents and is,
therefore, called as oxidising smog.

GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is the increase of average world temperatures as a result of what is

known as the greenhouse effect. Certain gases in the atmosphere act like glass in a
greenhouse, allowing sunlight through to heat the earth's surface but trapping the
heat as it radiates back into space. As the greenhouse gases build up in the
atmosphere the Earth gets hotter. This process is leading to a rapid change in
climate, also known as climate change.

CAUSES:

One of the main greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide (CO2).

As trees grow they take in CO2 from the air. When the wood dies the CO2 is
returned to the air. Forest clearance and wood burning (such as happens in tropical
rain forests) is increasing the latter half of the process, adding to the CO2 in the
atmosphere. Deforestation is now out of control.

However, as large a contribution as deforestation makes , it causes less than half

the yearly total of CO2, the rest comes from the burning of coal, oil and other
fossil fuels. These fossil fuels are burned in cars, power stations and factories of
the wealthier nations such as the USA, Western Europe and the USSR. The
concentration of CO2 has increased 25% since the industrial revolution, half of this
rise has been in the last 30 years. It is expected to double within decades.

Other Greenhouse Gases

CO2 contributes about 50% to the greenhouse effect. The other greenhouse gases
are methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrous oxide (N2O).

Methane - is released during coal-mining activities, oil exploration and when

vegetation is burnt during land clearance. The main source of methane though is
agricultural activity. It is released from wetlands such as rice paddies and from
animals, particularly cud-chewing species like cows. The problem with methane is
that as the world population increases, agricultural activity must increase and so
emissions of methane will also increase..

Nitrous oxide - comes from both natural and man-made processes. Human
influenced sources, which represent about 45% of output to the atmosphere, are
mainly: fossil fuel combustion, as in power stations; use of nitrogenous fertilisers;
burning rainforests and human and animal waste. N2O contributes about 6% to the
greenhouse effect at the moment.

CFCs - once found in fridges, air conditioners, aerosols etc. are extremely
effective greenhouse gases. Although there are lower concentrations of CFCs in
the atmosphere than CO2 they trap more heat. A CFC molecule is 10,000 times
more effective in trapping heat than a CO2 molecule, methane is about 30 times
more effective. Methane molecules survive for 10 years in the atmosphere and
CFCs for 110 years.

Due to their effect on the ozone, and their role in the ozone layer hole CFCs were
widely banned and their use discontinued
 OZONE DEPLETION

Formation of Ozone
Ozone is a colorless gas found in the upper atmosphere of the Earth. It is formed
when oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet photons, and undergo a chemical
reaction known as photo dissociation or photolysis.
In this process, a single molecule of oxygen breaks down into two oxygen atoms.
The free oxygen atom (O), then combines with an oxygen molecule (O2), and
forms a molecule of ozone (O3). The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower
portion of the stratosphere, about 20 to 30 km (12 to 19 miles) above the earth, The
ozone molecules, in turn absorb ultraviolet rays between 310 to 200 nm
(nanometers) wavelength, and thereby prevent these harmful radiations from
entering the Earth's atmosphere.

Without the protection of the ozone layer, millions of people would develop skin
cancer and weakened immune systems. However, various factors have led to the
depletion and damage of this protective layer.

A combination of low temperatures, elevated chlorine, and bromine concentrations

in the upper stratosphere are responsible for the destruction of ozone. The
production and emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), is the leading cause of
ozone layer depletion. CFC's account for almost 80% of the total depletion of
ozone.

Impact on Humans

 Skin cancer: Exposure to ultraviolet rays poses an increased risk of developing

several types of skin cancers, including malignant melanoma, and basal and
squamous cell carcinoma.
 Eye damage: Direct exposure to UV radiations can result in photokeratitis (snow
blindness), and cataracts.

 Immune system damage: Effects of UV rays include impairment of the immune

system. Increased exposure to UV rays weakens the response of the immune
system.
 Accelerated aging of skin: Constant exposure to UV radiation can cause photo
allergy, which results in the outbreak of rashes in fair-skinned people.
 Other effects: Ozone chemicals can cause difficulty in breathing, chest pain, throat
irritation, and hamper lung functioning.
 Effects on Amphibians
Ozone depletion is listed as one of the causes for the declining numbers of
amphibian species. Ozone depletion affects many species at every stage of their
life cycle. Some of the effects are mentioned below.

 Hampers growth and development in larvae

 Changes behavior and habits
 Causes deformities in some species
 Decreases immunity. Some species have become more vulnerable to diseases and
death
 Retinal damage and blindness in some species

Effects on Marine Ecosystems

Plankton (phytoplankton and bacterioplankton) are threatened by increased UV
radiation. Marine phytoplankton play a fundamental role in both the food chain as
well as the oceanic carbon cycle. It plays an important role in converting
atmospheric carbon dioxide into oxygen. Ultraviolet rays can influence the survival
rates of these microscopic organisms, by affecting their orientation and mobility.
This eventually disturbs and affects the entire ecosystem.
Impact on Plants

 In some species of plants, UV radiation can alter the time of flowering, as well as
the number of flowers produced by a plant.
 Plant growth can be directly affected by UV-B radiation. Despite mechanisms to
reduce or repair these effects, physiological and developmental processes of plants
are affected.

Other Effects
Another observation is an increase in the ozone present in the lower atmosphere
due to the decrease in the ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone present in the lower
atmosphere is regarded as a pollutant and a greenhouse gas, that can contribute to
global warming and climate change.
ACID RAIN

What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of
precipitation with acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the
ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog,
hail or even dust that is acidic.
 What Causes Acid Rain?

Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted
into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and
NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
While a small portion of the SO 2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural
sources such as volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The
major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:

 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2and one fourth of
NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid
rain a problem for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.
Forms of Acid Deposition
Wet Deposition
Wet deposition is what we most commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric and
nitric acids formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground mixed with rain, snow, fog,
or hail.

Dry Deposition
Acidic particles and gases can also deposit from the atmosphere in the absence of
moisture as dry deposition. The acidic particles and gases may deposit to surfaces
(water bodies, vegetation, buildings) quickly or may react during atmospheric
transport to form larger particles that can be harmful to human health. When the
accumulated acids are washed off a surface by the next rain, this acidic water flows
over and through the ground, and can harm plants and wildlife, such as insects and
fish.

The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that deposits to earth through dry
deposition depends on the amount of rainfall an area receives. For example, in
desert areas the ratio of dry to wet deposition is higher than an area that receives
several inches of rain each year.

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL AND ITS PREVENTION:

1. Meteorological factors
2. Control of Air Pollution by equipments.
3. Control of air pollution by process change and recovery.
4. Control of air pollution by legislation and regulations.
5. By plantation.
WATER POLLUTION

Water is essential for life. Without water there would be no life. We usually take
water as granted for its purity, but we must ensure the quality of water. Pollution of
water originates from human activities. Through different paths, pollution reaches
surface or ground water. Easily identified source or place of pollution is called as
point source. e.g., municipal and industrial discharge pipes where pollutants enter
the water-source. Non point sources of pollution are those where a source of
pollution cannot be easily identified, e.g., agricultural run off (from farm, animals
and crop-lands), acid rain, storm-water drainage (from streets, parking lots and
lawns), etc.

Causes of Water Pollution

(i) Pathogens: The most serious water pollutants are the disease causing agents
called pathogens. Pathogens include bacteria and other organisms that enter water
from domestic sewage and animal excreta. Human excreta contain bacteria such as
Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis which cause gastrointestinal diseases.

(ii) Organic wastes: The other major water pollutant is organic matter such as
leaves, grass, trash etc. They pollute water as a consequence of run off. Excessive
phytoplankton growth within water is also a cause of water pollution. These wastes
are biodegradable. The large population of bacteria

decomposes organic matter present in water. They consume oxygen dissolved in

water. The amount of oxygen that water can hold in the solution is limited. In cold
water, dissolved oxygen (DO) can reach a concentration up to 10 ppm (parts per
million), whereas oxygen in air is about 200,000 ppm. That is why even a
moderate amount of organic matter when decomposes in water can deplete the
water of its dissolved oxygen. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is
very important for aquatic life . If the concentration of dissolved oxygen of water is
below 6 ppm, the growth of fish gets inhibited. Oxygen reaches water either
through atmosphere or from the process of photosynthesis carried out by many
aquatic green plants during day light. However, during night, photosynthesis stops
but the plants continue to respire, resulting in reduction of dissolved oxygen. The
dissolved oxygen is also used by microorganisms to oxidise organic matter.
If too much of organic matter is added to water, all the available oxygen is used up.

CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION:

Water pollution can be checked or at least reduced by following measures

(1) By proper sewage treatment: The sewage should be properly treated before
disposing it in any water bodies. Sewage should be given all the three
degrees of treatment before disposal

Primary Treatment: To remove floating impurities, grit, inorganic particles,

settable solids etc. It mainly involves physicals method for removal of
impurities.

Secondary treatment: Mostly aimed to remove organic impurities using

mainly biological methods.

Tertiary Treatment: Mostly using strong oxidizing agents to remove

impurities, for e.g. chlorine gas. Chlorine gas is used to remove the
impurities remaining after primary and secondary treatment

(2) The industrial effluents should be properly treated before releasing them in
to water. Method of treatment will be different depending upon the nature of
the pollutants. For example the acid and alkalis can be neutralized; the
colloidal particles can be coagulated and settled. Biodegradable waste can be
treated by biological methods like Activated sludge process, Trickling filter,
Oxidation ponds etc.

(3) By enforcing stringent standards for disposal of sewage and industrial waste
in to water bodies.

(4) Washing of clothes and taking bath directly in river, lake which supply
drinking water should be prohibited.

(5) Pesticides and fertilizers should be judiciously used to reduce chemical

pollution due to surface runoff from farms. Less stable pesticides should be
used.

(6) Increasing the vegetative cover to reduce water pollution due to soil erosion.
(7) Encouraging reuse of water

(8) To avoid thermal pollution hot water should be cooled before releasing it in
to water bodies

(9) Advance treatments for removal of nitrates and: phosphates should be

adopted to prevent eutrophication.

WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

The definition of water quality depends on the intended use of the water which
may be either human consumption or it may be for industries, irrigation, power
generation, recreation etc.

Depending upon the purposed use of water, certain quality criteria are established
and based on these criteria, quality standards are specified by health and other
regulating agencies to ensure that the water quality is as per the proposed use.
Different types of water use require different levels of water purity. Drinking water
requires the highest standards of purity whereas. Water of relatively lower quality
is acceptable for other purposes like agriculture, industry, hydroelectric power
generation, recreation etc.

Main parameters which are required to be tested for determining the quality of
water can be divided in to

1. Physical

2. Chemical

3. Microbiological

Physical parameters includes

(a) Turbidity

(b) colour

(c) odour

(d) Taste

(e) Temperature
Chemical parameters includes

(a) Solids (suspended, dissolved, volatile)

(b) Hardness

(c) Chlorides

(d) pH

(e) Dissolved gases like Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, and Hydrogen Sulphide

(f) Nitrogen compounds like Nitrites, Nitrates, Ammoniacal Nitrogen,

Albuminoid Nitrogen

(g) Metals and other inorganic substances like Fluoride, Iron & Manganese,
Lead, Arsenic, Iodides, Boron, and Cadmium.

Microbiological parameters includes various microorganisms (bacteria, virus,

protozoa, worms) present in water it may be pathogenic or non pathogenic.

The agencies playing an important role in specifying the norms for various
effluents to be discharged in the water bodies as well as for drinking water are:

1. Indian Standards Institution (ISI)

2. World Health Organization (WHO)

3. United States Public Health Service (USPHS)

4. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)

WASTE WATER:

Wastewaters are usually classified as industrial wastewater and municipal

wastewater or sewage.

Industrial Wastewater: - Industrial wastewater is that which comes from

industries, factories and other trade production unit as a result of various
industrial processes.
Sewage: - Sewage results from the use of water in residences, hospitals,
schools and elsewhere. It is the most general term used to define all kinds of
liquid wastes produced in a community. Sewage is the wastewater from
kitchen, bathrooms, lavatories, laundries, laboratories, etc.

2.5.1 WASTEWATER COLLECTION, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL:

Water (liquid) wastes are usually disposed into natural surface waters such as
rivers, lakes, streams reservoirs, estuaries, and ocean or on the soil or injected
into ground water only after treating. In all cases those waters are also being
used for a variety as a source of water supply for residence, farm or industry,
bathing, fishing, transport and even for recreational purposes.

Collection and disposal of these wastes is primarily a matter of environmental

health and sanitation.

The wastes usually contain substantial proportions of organic and inorganic

matter and if not disposed of properly, will produce serious nuisances such as
bad odors, corrosion, and killing of fish. They also contain viruses, bacteria
and other organisms may be dangerous to man, animals, may contain toxins
and carcinogens or other constituents harmful to human, animal or vegetable
life or to particular activities such as industrial recreation, cultural life etc.
Therefore, from the point of view of public health and general sanitation in
any community, proper treatment and disposal of the water waste is most
essential.

The second reason for collection, treatment and disposal of wastewater is

increasing demand of water. Demands for water are increasing in highly
developed, industrialized and developing countries and in some areas this
demand exceeds the supply of water. This growing demand has developed the
need for management of water resources. In densely populated and
industrialized area there is unrestricted use of water and the discharge of water
directly to water courses causes pollution of natural water resulting both in
health danger and intolerable nuisances such as siltation and scum formation.
For effective pollution control water resources must be managed totally with
respect to water supply, waste disposal and reclamation of water, recovery of
waste-materials which otherwise would cause pollution.

2.5.2 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE:

Once the water is used for its intended purpose, it becomes wastewater. The
individual pipes used to collect and transport wastewater are called ‘sewers’
and the network of sewers used to collect wastewater from a community are
known as “collection system or sewerage system” through which sewage is
taken to a municipal treatment plant.

Sewage treatment, or domestic wastewater treatment, is the process of

removing contaminants from wastewater and household sewage, both runoff
(effluents) and domestic. It includes physical, chemical and biological
processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its
objective is to produce a waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste or
sludge suitable for discharge or reuse back into the environment. This material
is contaminated with many toxic organic and inorganic compounds.
Sewage is finally disposed off either in land or in large bodies of water.

The methods of sewage disposal can be classified as

(1) By dilution.
(2) By Disposal of Sewage in sea water
(3) By land treatment.
(1) Dilution: The disposal of sewage by discharging it into water courses such
as streams, rivers or large bodies of water such as lake, sea is called dilution.
This method of disposal is possible only when the natural water in required
quantity is available near the town. While discharging the sewage in this way,
care should be taken that the sewage should not pollute the natural water and
render it unfit for any other purposes such as bathing, drinking, fish culture,
rough industrial use and irrigation.
(2) Disposal of Sewage in sea water: The temperature of sea water is lower
than the sewage temperature; whereas the specific gravity is higher. Due to the
above reasons when the sewage is discharged into the sea water, due to lower
specific gravity the sewage remains at the surface and forms a thin film. The
various chemical actions and presence of dissolved matter in sea water reduce
its capacity to absorb more quantity of sewage. All these cause the sewage to
appear in milky color and to form sludge banks.

To overcome above difficulties, the sewage discharging pipe should be taken

sufficiently inside the sea (about 1.5 Km.) so that sewage may not come back
again to the shore by heavy tides.

(3) Land Treatment: When sewage is applied on to land, the suspended solids
get filtered out. The suspended and dissolved solids of organic nature are
degraded by the soil bacteria and mineralized.

When the land is sufficiently porous and permeable natural aeration of its void
space can take place and the bacterial action remains ‘Aerobic’, while if the
land is made up of heavy, sticky and fine grained material, it will get chocked
soon and aeration of voids will not be possible so that anaerobic conditions
will create and results in foul sight and smell. Application of too strong or a
heavy load of sewage will also result in the formation of an aerobic condition.
Excessive clogging of soil pores; cause ponding of sewage where mosquitoes
may breed in large numbers causing further nuisance.

To avoid such conditions, following care should be taken:-

(1) Giving suitable pretreatment to sewage.

(2) Limiting the quantity of water and organic load (BOD) depends upon the
nature of soil and climatic conditions.

In rural areas or in suburban areas of town and in case of isolated buildings

and institutions, hostels, hotels, school, hospital, small residential colonies,
where underground sewerage system with complete treatment of sewage may
be neither feasible no economical. Under such circumstances, ‘septic Tanks’
are provided.

From above we can say that whenever wastewater is to be discharged, the

treatment is necessary to reduce the pollutants. Bureau of Indian standards has
given the permissible values for different pollutants present in wastewater with
respect to their disposal site.

WASTEWATER QUALITY CRITERIA

Publication: IS: 2490, gives limits for disposal of treated effluent in inland
surface water, on land for irrigation, in sewer, and in sea.

Treated wastewater (domestic or industrial) is first to compared with these

limits and if certain constituents exceed the limits, efforts should be made to
reduce them.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management is a term that is used to refer to the process of collecting
and treating solid wastes. It also offers solutions for recycling itemsthat do not
belong to garbage or trash.

Various Sources of Solid Waste

Everyday, tonnes of solid waste is disposed off at various landfill sites. This waste
comes from homes, offices, industries and various other agricultural related
activities. These landfill sites produce foul smell if waste is not stored and treated
properly. It can pollute the surrounding air and can seriously affect the health of
humans, wildlife and our environment. The following are major sources of solid
waste:

Residential

Residences and homes where people live are some of the major sources of solid
waste. Garbage from these places include food wastes, plastics, paper, glass,
leather, cardboard, metals, yard wastes, ashes and special wastes like bulky
household items like electronics, tires, batteries, old mattresses and used oil.

Industrial

Industries are known to be one of the biggest contributors of solid waste. They
include light and heavy manufacturing industries, construction sites, fabrication
plants, canning plants, power and chemical plants.

Commercial

Commercial facilities and buildings are yet another source of solid waste today.
Commercial buildings and facilities in this case refer to hotels, markets,
restaurants, go downs, stores and office buildings. Some of the solid wastes
generated from these places include plastics, food wastes, metals, paper, glass,
wood, cardboard materials, special wastes and other hazardous wastes.

Institutional

The institutional centers like schools, colleges, prisons, military barracks and other
government centers also produce solid waste.
Construction and Demolition Areas

Construction sites and demolition sites also contribute to the solid waste problem.
Construction sites include new construction sites for buildings and roads, road
repair sites, building renovation sites and building demolition sites. Some of the
solid wastes produced in these places include steel materials, concrete, wood,
plastics, rubber, copper wires, dirt and glass.

Municipal services

The urban centers also contribute immensely to the solid waste crisis in most
countries today. Some of the solid waste brought about by the municipal services
include, street cleaning, wastes from parks and beaches, wastewater treatment
plants

Agriculture

Crop farms, orchards, dairies, vineyards and feedlots are also sources of solid wastes. Among the
wastes they produce include agricultural wastes, spoiled food, pesticide containers and other
hazardous materials.

Biomedical

This refers to hospitals and biomedical equipment and chemical manufacturing

firms. In hospitals there are different types of solid wastes produced. Some of these
solid wastes include syringes, bandages, used gloves, drugs, paper, plastics, food
wastes and chemicals. All these require proper disposal or else they will cause a
huge problem to the environment and the people in these facilities.

Methods of Solid Waste Management

There are different methods of solid waste management. The following are some of
the recognized methods:

Sanitary Landfill

A modern technique for land disposal of solid waste involves construction and
daily operation and control of so-called sanitary landfills. Sanitary landfills are not
dumps; they are carefully planned and engineered facilities designed to control
leachate and methane and minimize the risk of land pollution from solid-waste
disposal. Sanitary landfill sites are carefully selected and prepared with
impermeable bottom liners to collect leachate and prevent contamination of
groundwater. Bottom liners typically consist of flexible plastic membranes and a
layer of compacted clay. The waste material—MSW and C&D debris—is spread
out, compacted with heavy machinery, and covered each day with a layer of
compacted soil. Leachate is collected in a network of perforated pipes at the
bottom of the landfill and pumped to an on-site treatment plant or nearby
public sewerage system. Methane is also collected in the landfill and safely vented
to the atmosphere or recovered for use as a fuel known as biogas, or landfill gas.
Groundwater-monitoring wells must be placed around the landfill and sampled
periodically to ensure proper landfill operation. Completed landfills are capped
with a layer of clay or an impermeable membrane to prevent water from entering.
A layer of topsoil and various forms of vegetation are placed as a final cover.
Completed landfills are often used as public parks or playgrounds.

Incineration

This method involves burning of solid wastes at high temperatures until the wastes
are turned into ashes. Incinerators are made in such a way that they do not give off
extreme amounts of heat when burning solid wastes. This method of solid waste
management can be done by individuals, municipalities and even institutions. The
good thing about this method is the fact that it reduces the volume of waste up to
20 or 30% of the original volume.

Recovery and Recycling

Recycling or recovery of resources is the process of taking useful but discarded

items for next use. Traditionally, these items are processed and cleaned before they
are recycled. The process aims at reducing energy loss, consumption of new
material and reduction of landfills.

Composting

Due to lack of adequate space for landfills, biodegradable yard waste is allowed to
decompose in a medium designed for the purpose. Only biodegradable waste
materials are used in composting. Good quality environmentally friendly manureis
formed from the compost and can be used for agricultural purposes.

Pyrolysis

This is method of solid waste management whereby solid wastes are chemically
decomposed by heat without presence of oxygen. This usually occurs under
pressure and at temperatures of up to 430 degrees Celsius. The solid wastes are
changed into gasses, solid residue and small quantities of liquid.

LAND POLLUTION

Land pollution, the deposition of solid or liquid waste materials on land or

underground in a manner that can contaminate the soil and groundwater,
threaten public health, and cause unsightly conditions and nuisances.

The waste materials that cause land pollution are broadly classified as municipal
solid waste (MSW, also called municipal refuse), construction and
demolition (C&D) waste or debris, and hazardous waste. MSW includes
nonhazardous garbage, rubbish, and trash from homes, institutions (e.g., schools),
commercial establishments, and industrial facilities. Garbage contains moist and
decomposable (biodegradable) food wastes e.g., meatand vegetable scraps);
rubbish comprises mostly dry materials such as paper, glass, textiles,
and plastic objects; and trash includes bulky waste materials and objects that are
not collected routinely for disposal (e.g., discarded mattresses, appliances, pieces
of furniture). C&D waste (or debris) includes wood and metal objects,
wallboard, concrete rubble, asphalt, and other inert materials produced when
structures are built, renovated, or demolished. Hazardous wastes include harmful
and dangerous substances generated primarily as liquids but also as solids, sludges,
or gases by various chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries,
paper mills, smelters, machine shops, dry cleaners, automobile repair shops, and
many other industries or commercial facilities. In addition to improper disposal of
MSW, C&D waste, and hazardous waste, contaminated effluent from subsurface
sewage disposal (e.g., from septic tanks) can also be a cause of land pollution.

The permeability of soil formations underlying a waste-disposal site is of great

importance with regard to land pollution. The greater the permeability, the greater
the risks from land pollution.Soil consists of a mixture of unconsolidated mineral
and rock fragments (gravel, sand, silt, and clay) formed from
natural weathering processes. Gravel and sand formations are porous and
permeable, allowing the free flow of water through the pores or spaces between the
particles. Silt is much less permeable than sand or gravel, because of its small
particle and pore sizes, while clay is virtually impermeable to the flow of water,
because of its platelike shape and molecular forces.

Until the mid-20th century, solid wastes were generally collected and placed on top
of the ground in uncontrolled “open dumps,” which often became breeding
grounds for rats, mosquitoes, flies, and other disease carriers and were sources of
unpleasant odours, windblown debris, and other nuisances. Dumps can
contaminate groundwater as well as pollute nearby streams and lakes. A highly
contaminated liquid called leachate is generated from decomposition of garbage
and precipitation that infiltrates and percolates downward through the volume of
waste material. When leachate reaches and mixes with groundwater or seeps into
nearby bodies of surface water, public health and environmental quality are
jeopardized. Methane, a poisonous and explosive gas that easily flows through soil,
is an eventual by-product of the anaerobic (in the absence of oxygen)
decomposition of putrescible solid waste material. Open dumping of solid waste is
no longer allowed in many countries. Nevertheless, leachate and methane from old
dumps continue to cause land pollution problems in some areas.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND LEGISLATION

Several environment protection legislations existed even before Independence of

India. However, the true thrust for putting in force a well-developed framework
came only after the UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm,
1972). After the Stockholm Conference, the National Council for Environmental
Policy and Planning was set up in 1972 within the Department of Science and
Technology to establish a regulatory body to look after the environment-related
issues. This Council later evolved into a full-fledged Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF).

MoEF was established in 1985, which today is the apex administrative body in the
country for regulating and ensuring environmental protection and lays down the
legal and regulatory framework for the same. Since the 1970s, a number of
environment legislations have been put in place. The MoEF and the pollution
control boards ("CPCB", ie, Central Pollution Control Board and "SPCBs", ie,
State Pollution Control Boards) together form the regulatory and administrative
core of the sector.

Some of the important legislations for environment protection are as follows:

The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

The Environment Protection Act, 1986

The Hazardous Waste Management Regulations, etc.

These important environment legislations have been briefly explained in the

succeeding paragraphs.

The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 (No. 19 of 2010) (NGT Act) has been
enacted with the objectives to provide for establishment of a National Green
Tribunal (NGT) for the effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to
environment protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources
including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief
and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

To counter the problems associated with air pollution, ambient air quality
standards were established under the Air Act. The Air Act seeks to combat air
pollution by prohibiting the use of polluting fuels and substances, as well as by
regulating appliances that give rise to air pollution. The Air Act empowers the
State Government, after consultation with the SPCBs, to declare any area or areas
within the Sate as air pollution control area or areas. Under the Act, establishing or
operating any industrial plant in the pollution control area requires consent from
SPCBs. SPCBs are also expected to test the air in air pollution control areas,
inspect pollution control equipment, and manufacturing processes.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974 (the "Water Act") has
been enacted to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and to
maintain or restore wholesomeness of water in the country. It further provides for
the establishment of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution with
a view to carry out the aforesaid purposes. The Water Act prohibits the discharge
of pollutants into water bodies beyond a given standard, and lays down penalties
for non-compliance. At the Centre, the Water Act has set up the CPCB which lays
down standards for the prevention and control of water pollution. At the State
level, SPCBs function under the direction of the CPCB and the State Government.

Further, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in
1977 to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons
operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities.

The Environment Protection Act, 1986

Under the Environment Act, the Central Government is empowered to take

measures necessary to protect and improve the quality of environment by setting
standards for emissions and discharges of pollution in the atmosphere by any
person carrying on an industry or activity; regulating the location of industries;
management of hazardous wastes, and protection of public health and welfare.

In case of any non-compliance or contravention of the Environment Act, or of the

rules or directions under the said Act, the violator will be punishable with
imprisonment up to five years or with fine up to Rs 1,00,000, or with both.
Hazardous Wastes Management Regulations

Hazardous waste means any waste which, by reason of any of its physical,
chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive characteristics, causes
danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or
when in contact with other wastes or substances.

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the
ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vaporcondenses to form clouds.
Moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface
as precipitation. Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may
occur; 1) some of the water may evaporate back into the atmosphere or 2) the
water may penetrate the surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either
seeps its way to into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back into the
atmosphere through transpiration. The balance of water that remains on the earth's
surface is runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back
to the oceans, where the cycle begins again.
RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Rain water harvesting is collection and storage of rain water that runs off from roof
tops, parks, roads, open grounds, etc. This water run off can be either stored or
recharged into the ground water. A rainwater harvesting systems consists of the
following components:

catchment from where water is captured and stored or recharged,

conveyance system that carries the water harvested from the catchment to the
storage/recharge zone,

first flush that is used to flush out the first spell of rain,

filter used to remove pollutants,

storage tanks and/or various recharge structures.

1. Catchments: The catchment of a water harvesting system is the surface which
directly receives the rainfall and provides water to the system. It can be a paved
area like a terrace or courtyard of a building, or an unpaved area like a lawn or
open ground. A roof made of reinforced cement concrete (RCC), galvanised iron
or corrugated sheets can also be used for water harvesting.

2. Coarse mesh at the roof to prevent the passage of debris

3.Gutters: Source: A water harvesting

Channels all around the edge of a sloping roof to manual for urban areas
collect and transport rainwater to the storage tank.
Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular and could be made using:

4.Conduits
Conduits are pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop
area to the harvesting system. Conduits can be of any material like polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) or galvanized iron (GI), materials that are commonly available.

5. First-flushing
A first flush device is a valve that ensures that runoff from the first spell of rain is
flushed out and does not enter the system. This needs to be done since the first
spell of rain carries a relatively larger amount of pollutants from the air and
catchment surface.

6. Filter
The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants from rainwater collected over
roof. A filter unit is a chamber filled with filtering media such as fibre, coarse sand
and gravel layers to remove debris and dirt from water before it enters the storage
tank or recharge structure. Charcoal can be added for additional filtration.
 7. Storage facility

There are various options available for the construction of these tanks with
respect to the shape, size and the material of construction.

Shape: Cylindrical, rectangular and square.

Material of construction: Reinforced cement concrete, (RCC),
ferrocement, masonry, plastic (polyethylene) or metal (galvanised iron)
sheets are commonly used.

8. Recharge structures

Rainwater may be charged into the groundwater aquifers through any

suitable structures like dugwells, borewells, recharge trenches and recharge
pits.

GREEN BUILDING

A ‘green’ building is a building that, in its design, construction or operation,

reduces or eliminates negative impacts, and can create positive impacts, on our
climate and natural environment. Green buildings preserve precious natural
resources and improve our quality of life.
There are a number of features which can make a building ‘green’. These include:

 Efficient use of energy, water and other resources

 Use of renewable energy, such as solar energy
 Pollution and waste reduction measures, and the enabling of re-use and recycling
 Good indoor environmental air quality
 Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable
 Consideration of the environment in design, construction and operation
 Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design, construction and
operation
 A design that enables adaptation to a changing environment
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely

environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into account
inter-related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial
and adverse.

The purpose of the EIA process is to inform decision-makers and the public of the
environmental consequences of implementing a proposed project. The EIA
document itself is a technical tool that identifies, predicts, and analyzes impacts on
the physical environment, as well as social, cultural, and health impacts.

Overview of the stages of the EIA process

This section very briefly presents an overview of the stages of EIA to help place
them in the context of the whole process. More detail about each stage is provided
later.

Screening

The EIA process begins from the very start of a project. Once a developer has
identified a need and assessed all the possible alternatives of project design and
sites to select a preferred alternative, two important questions must be asked: 'What
will be the effects of this development on the environment? Are those effects
significant?' If the answer to the second question is 'yes', an EIA may be required.
Answering this question is a process known as screening and can be an essential
first step into a formal EIA.

The EIA process is, it must be stressed, iterative. This is demonstrated at this early
stage of screening where the requirement for a formal EIA and its associated cost
implications can lead the developer to reassess the project design with a view to
reducing the significant impacts to a level where an EIA is not legally required.
Scoping

Where it is decided that a formal EIA is required, the next stage is to define the
issues that need to be addressed, that is, those impacts that have a significant effect
on the environment. This is known as scoping and is essential for focusing the
available resources on the relevant issues.

Baseline study

Following on from scoping, it is essential to collect all relevant information on the

current status of the environment. This study is referred to as a baseline study as it
provides a baseline against which change due to a development can be measured.

Impact prediction

Once the baseline study information is available, the important task of impact
prediction can begin. Impact prediction involves forecasting the likely changes in
the environment that will occur as a result of the development.

Impact assessment

The next phase involves the assessment of the identified impacts - impact
assessment. This requires interpretation of the importance or significance of the
impacts to provide a conclusion, which can ultimately be used by decision-makers
in determining the fate of the project application.

Mitigation

Frequently, the assessment of impacts will reveal damaging effects upon the
environment. These may be alleviated by mitigationmeasures. Mitigation involves
taking measures to reduce or remove environmental impacts and it can be seen that
the iterative nature of the EIA process is well demonstrated here. For example,
successful design of mitigation measures could possibly result in the removal of all
significant impacts; hence a new screening exercise would reveal that there might
have been no need to carry out a formal EIA had the mitigation measures been
included from the start.

Producing the environmental impact statement

The outcome of an EIA is usually a formal document, known as an environmental

impact statement (EIS), which sets out factual information relating to the
development, and all the information gathered relating to screening, scoping,
baseline study, impact prediction and assessment, mitigation, and monitoring
measures. It is quite common that a requirement of an EIS is that it also produces a
non-technical summary. This is a summary of the information contained within the
EIS, presented in a concise non-technical format, for those who do not wish to read
the detailed documents. This is very important, as EISs are public documents
intended to inform the public of the nature and likely consequences of a
development in time to comment and/or participate in the final project design.

EIS review

Once the EIA is complete, the EIS is submitted to the competent authority. This is
the body with the authority to permit or refuse development applications. The
competent authorities are often in a position of having very little time to make a
decision and have a detailed and lengthy EIS to read through which may contain
errors, omissions, and developer bias. It is essential, therefore, that they review the
document. Review can take a number of forms: it may be purely an ad hoc process
whereby the document is read and commented on by decision-makers; it can be
more formalised and expert opinion is sought; or it can be through the use of
formal review methods designed specifically for the purpose. Basically, the review
process should enable the decision-maker to decide whether the EIS is adequate
(eg whether it is legally compliant), whether the information is correct, and
whether it is unbiased. If it is, they are then in a position to use the EIS as
information to be considered in determining whether the project should receive
consent. This issue of review is discussed in more detail elsewhere in this module.
The competent authority is now in possession of the information they require about
the possible effects of the development on the environment. They will use this
information, in combination with all of the other details and representations they
have received, to help them come to a decision.

Follow up

Follow up relates to the post-approval phase of EIA and encompasses monitoring

of impacts, the continued environmental management of a project, and impact
auditing. Without any form of follow up EIA would operate as a linear rather than
an iterative process, and an important step towards achieving environmental
protection will also have been omitted.

There are 4 discharge sites considered for effluent disposal: Inland surface water,
public sewers, onland for irrigation and marine disposal. According to IS 2450 for
wastewater disposal, BOD limits are 30 mg/l for inland water, 100 mg/l for marine
disposal, 350 mg/l for pubic sewers and 100mg/l for onland for irrigation.COD
limits are 250mg/l for inland surface water and for marine disposal.