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Ore Geology Reviews 136 (2021) 104257
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Ore Geology Reviews

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Mineralogy of the Svetloye epithermal district, Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanic

belt, and its insights for exploration
Tamara Yu. Yakich a, *, Yury S. Ananyev a, Alexey S. Ruban a, Roman Yu. Gavrilov a,
Dmitry V. Lesnyak a, b, Darya V. Levochskaia a, b, Olesya V. Savinova a, Maksim A. Rudmin a
a
Division for Geology, National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk 634050, Russia
b
Svetloye Limited Liability Company, Khabarovsk 680000, st. Muravyov-Amursky, 18, Office 219, Russia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The Svetloye epithermal district (SED) is located within the Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanic belt (OCVB), 220 km
Epithermal gold deposits southwest of Okhotsk. The OCVB, which formed during the Cretaceous with ore potential, is a large marginal
Alteration zonation volcanic rock belt associated with continental subduction. Svetloye occupies two volcanic edifices of different
Paragenetic succession
ages – the northwestern volcanic center (including the Emmy deposit) consists of basaltic-andesite of the Khe
Pyrite
tanian suite (Coniacian-Santonian time (K2), and the southeastern volcanic center (hosts the Elena, Tamara,
Tennantite-tetraedrite
Au-Ag-tellurides Lyudmila, and Larisa deposits) comprises the dacite-rhyolite-leucogranite formation of the Urak suite (Campa
nian-Maastrichtian time (K2). Distinct host rocks and different levels of erosion in the two edifices of Svetloye led
to various altered rocks, mineral assemblages, and diverse types of gold mineralization. The alteration halo of the
Emmy deposit contains vuggy residual quartz, with Au-Ag-telluride and Au-Ag mineralization plus other
tellurium-bearing minerals (goldfieldite, kawazulite, coloradoite, melonite, altaite, tellurobismuthite, tellur
antimony, and native tellurium). Altered rocks of the other deposits are characterized by variable halos,
including vuggy residual quartz, alunite, dickite, quartz-alunite-dickite, illite-chlorite, illite, illite–smectite,
smectite, quartz-carbonate, and quartz-white mica alteration, hypogene and supergene processes. The hydro
thermal (hypogene) and supergene ore processes within the SED occurred in 3 stages: leaching and barren
quartz-rutile-pyrite zone with halos of quartz-alunite-dickite-pyrite (or quartz-illite-chlorite-calcite-pyrite), then
quartz-pyrite with polysulfides and gold, gold-silver telluride, and finally supergene with ’mustard’ gold. The
alteration halo, epithermal ore bodies as hydrothermal veins and breccias with vug infill, colloform, and crus
tiform textures, hypogene sulfide assemblage represented by galena, sphalerite, tennantite-tetraedrite, and
chalcopyrite of SED are typical of epithermal styles with an high-intermediate sulfidation signature, possibly
indicates a porphyry deposit at depth. The lack of high-sulfidation-state sulfides such as hypogene covellite,
enargite, famatinite, luzonite in the residual quartz may be due to their erosion at shallower paleodepth, and/or
to their supergene oxidation below the present day surface.
1. Introduction Hedenquist and Arribas, 2000). Intermediate sulfidation (IS) deposits, in

general, have a closer affiliation with HS deposits and porphyries than
Epithermal deposits confined to the convergent boundaries of active with LS deposits (Sillitoe and Thompson, 1998; Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
continental margins or subduction zones, formed at low temperature 2003; Camprubí and Albinson, 2007).
(<300 ◦ C), represent the upper parts (<1 km depth) of the ore-forming Epithermal deposits of the HS and IS variety may have a transition at
hydrothermal system (Hedenquist et al., 1996, 1998; Hedenquist and depth to porphyry deposits (Arribas, 1995; Heinrich et al., 2004; Sillitoe,
Arribas, 2000). The origin of the hydrothermal fluids that form epi 2010; Chang et al., 2011). Recent porphyry discoveries that illustrate
thermal deposits can be varied; from predominantly magmatic in high this transition include Pampa Escondida (Chile), Cukaru Peki (Serbia),
sulfidation (HS) epithermal deposits to predominantly meteoric in low Ridgeway (New South Wales), and Resolution (Arizona) (Cooke et al.,
sulfidation (LS) deposits (Arribas, 1995; Hedenquist et al., 1996, 1998; 2020). The linkage between porphyry and volcanic arc-hosted
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (T.Yu. Yakich).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104257
Received 13 December 2020; Received in revised form 15 May 2021; Accepted 22 May 2021
Available online 25 May 2021
0169-1368/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
T.Yu. Yakich et al. Ore Geology Reviews 136 (2021) 104257
epithermal deposits in the Circum-Pacific rim, particularly those of the Several methods, such as consideration of wall rock alteration pro
HS-IS style, has been well demonstrated on the following deposits such cesses (Cherkasova et al., 2015; Timkin et al., 2015; Ziaii et al., 2019)
as Lepanto–Victoria and Far Southeast porphyry in the Philippines have been used in previous works of the authors to rate the potential for
(Arribas, 1995; Hedenquist et al., 1998; Sillitoe, 1999, 2010; Claveria, gold deposits and porphyry-type mineralization at depth.
2001; Chang et al., 2011), Nevados del Famatina–La Mejicana in
Argentina (Losada-Calderón and McPhail, 1996), or Maricunga in Chile 2. Geological background
(Muntean and Einaudi, 2001). Nevertheless, in the Circum-Pacific rim in
Russia, with the presence of epithermal gold deposits, porphyry copper The SED is located in the Ulinsky mountain trench composed of
deposits are limited, such as the Malmyzh deposit (Khabarovsk Terri Cretaceous volcanic formations of the OCVB. The SED occupies two
tory) and Peschanka (Baimsky ore area). These occur within the volcanic centers of different late Cretaceous ages – the northwestern
Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanic belt (OCVB), one of the largest continental center (with the Emmy deposit) formed in Khetanian time (Coniacian-
marginal and subduction-related volcanic belts on the Earth with sig Santonian (K2), and the southeastern (with the Elena, Tamara, Lyud
nificant ore potential. Its economical importance is attributed to the mila, and Larisa deposits) is Urak in timing (Campanian-Maastrichtian
metal reserves of Au (20%), Cu (12%), and Ag (11%) by the total amount (K2). The Khetanian suite is represented by andesites, basaltic andesites,
of the country’s one. The OCVB has Cretaceous age (Hourigan and their agglomerate lavas, and a few tuffaceous units. The most abundant
Akinin, 2004; Ispolatov et al., 2004; Tikhomirov et al., 2006, 2008) and rocks are pyroxene andesites of dark gray, almost black color. The Urak
length is about 3300 km (from the Okhotsk Sea to the Chukotka suite, overlain on eroded rocks of the Khetanian suite, is composed of
Peninsula) with a width of 100–300 km. glassy and felsic rhyolites, dacites of white, grayish-lilac, and creamy-
The main purpose of this paper is to study the specifics of wall rock yellow ignimbrites, and various tuffs and tuffaceous lavas (Fig. 1). The
alterations and mineralogical features, primarily for the minerals U–Pb SHRIMP zircon age of the analogous dacitic andesites at the
involved in the hydrothermal ore process of the SED, including pyrite, headwaters of the Net River is 107 Ma (Mishin et al., 2008).
tennantite-tetraedrite, and Au-Ag tellurides to establish the type of The SED is strongly tectonized, with longitudinal transverse fractures
mineralization, insights for exploration, and assess forecast of mineral present, parallel to the northeastern strike of the OCVB. Subvolcanic
ization at depth. This work can provide supports for the exploration of intrusions and two volcanic centers with zones of subsidence are located
regional epithermal deposits and continuous epithermal-porphyry sys at fault intersection. In the areas of subsidence and on their slopes, re
tems not only in the OCVB, and beyond it, for similar settings and sidual quartz and clay alteration occurs. Areas with potentially eco
characteristics of mineralogical assemblage and mineralogical compo nomic mineralization are controlled by the intersection of ring faults
sition, specifics of gangue and sulfide minerals, and types of gold related to subsidence with northwestern faults (Khanchuk, 2006; Mis
mineralization in any region with epithermal-porphyry ore potential. hin, 2011; Ananyev et al., 2019).
Fig. 1. Schematic geological map of the Svetloye epithermal district.
2
SED ore reserves were estimated at 435 thousand ounces of gold with the majority diversity of hydrothermal-altered rock types were selected
an average grade of 2.6 ppm and 0.6 million ounces of silver with an and marked on cross-sections for detailed describing its mineralogy and
average grade of 4 ppm. Mineral resources were evaluated at 133 prevailing textures (Table 1) from five drill holes of the Elena (Fig. 2),
thousand ounces of gold (2.4 ppm) and 0.2 million ounces of silver (3 Emmy (Fig. 3), and Larisa deposits (Fig. 4).
ppm), according to the Polymetal International PLC. Ninety polished and two hundred twenty-nine thin sections of sam
ples from mineralized veins and alteration zones were studied by elec
3. Samples and methods tronic and optical microscopy. Suitable sections and doubly polished
sections were selected for more study by TESCAN VEGA 3 SBU scanning
Four hundred twenty samples of altered rocks and ores were electron microscope (SEM) and an OXFORD X-Max 50 energy-dispersive
collected from eleven drill holes and four surface workings in the Emmy, adapter (EDS) with a 20 kV accelerating voltage, specimen current of
Elena, Lyudmila, Tamara, and Larisa deposits. Twenty samples covering 12nA, and a spot diameter of approximately 2 µm. Particular
Table 1
Mineralogical petrographic characteristics of the selected samples from hydrothermal-altered zones, volcanic and volcanogenic-sedimentary formations within the
Svetloye epithermal district.
Number of samples/ Mineral composition Rock structure Rock texture Quartz texture
Rock type
Elena deposit
El2_1/Massive Quartz 80…100%, phyllosilicates 0…10%, opaque Microgranular, relict, blastoporphyritic Heterogeneous, banded, Crustified, mosaic
residual quartz minerals, including hydrous ferric oxides 0…15% spotted, nested, fractured,
core veined
El2_2/Residual Quartz 80…100%, phyllosilicates 0…5%, opaque Inequigranular, relict blastoporphyritic Heterogeneous, porous, Crustified, mosaic,
quartz with vuggy minerals, including hydrous ferric oxides 0…20% spotted, fissured, platy, collomorphic
texture veined
El1_3/Residual Quartz 75…85%, phyllosilicates 10…15%, opaque Inequigranular, relict blastoporphyritic Heterogeneous, brecciated, Mosaic, crustified,
quartz with minerals, including hydrous ferric oxides 5…10% spotted, fractured collomorphic
brecciated texture
El2_4/Alunite quartz Quartz 50…70%, alunite 20…50%, opaque minerals, Inequigranular, micro-grained Heterogeneous, porous, Crustified, mosaic
zone including hydrous ferric oxides 0…20% heteroblastic, relict blastoporphyritic, fractured, spotted
porphyroblastic
El2_5/Alunite dickite Quartz 30…50%, alunite 20…35%, dickite 20…35%, Microgranular, heteroblastic, Heterogeneous, porous, Crustified, mosaic
quartz zone opaque minerals, including hydrous ferric oxides 5… blastoporphyric, porphyroblastic, fractured, spotted, veined
10% granoblastic
El1_6/Dickite quartz Quartz 50…70%, dickite 20…50%, carbonate- Inequigranular, micro-grained, Heterogeneous, porous, Crustified, mosaic
zone hydromica aggregate 0…10%, opaque minerals, heteroblastic fractured, spotted
including hydrous ferric oxides 0…10%, barite 0…1%.
Emmy deposit
Em2_1/Massive Quartz 80…100%, phyllosilicates 0…10%, opaque Inequigranular, micro-grained, Heterogeneous, banded, Collomorphic,
residual quartz minerals, including hydrous ferric oxides 0…15% heteroblastic nested, fractured, veined feathery, crustified,
core mosaic
Em2_2/Residual Quartz 80…100%, phyllosilicates 0…10%, opaque Inequigranular Heterogeneous, nested, Collomorphic,
quartz with vuggy minerals, including hydrous ferric oxides 0…15% porous, fractured feathery, crustified,
texture mosaic
Em2_3/Brecciate Quartz 75…85%, phyllosilicates 10…15%, opaque Microgranular Heterogeneous, brecciated,
residual quartz minerals, including hydrous ferric oxides 5…10% spotted, fractured
Em2_4/Alunite Quartz 60…70%; alunite 30…40% Microgranular, heteroblastic, Heterogeneous, veined, Mosaic
quartz zone porphyroblastic spotted
Em2_5/Dickite Quartz 75…80%, dickite 15%, opaque minerals 5… Inequigranular, heteroblastic Heterogeneous, fractured, Mosaic
quartz zone 10% veined
Em2_6/Hydro-mica Quartz 65…70%, white mica 25…30%, opaque Microgranular, porphyroblastic Porous, fissured, veined, Crustified, mosaic
quartz zone minerals 5% spotted
Em2_7/Altered Plagioclase 50…75%, volcanic glass 15…35%, calcite Porphyry Veined, fractured
andesites 5…30%, hornblende 5…10%, biotite 5…10%, chlorite
5%, white mica 5%, opaque minerals < 1…15%
Em2_8/Altered tuffs Plagioclase 15…40%, volcanic glass 20…70%, calcite Lithoclastic, crystalloclastic, Massive, porous, fluid,
10…40%, quartz 5…15%, illite + chlorite + white lithocrystallineclastic, felsitic veined
mica 15…50%, opaque minerals < 1…20%
Larisa deposit
La1_1/Alunite dickite Quartz 30…50%, alunite 20…30%, dickite 20…30%, Microgranular, heteroblastic, relict, Heterogeneous, spotted, Crustified
quartz zone phyllosilicates plus hydroxides 0.0.15%, opaque porphyroblastic porous
minerals 0…10%
La1_2/Dickite quartz Quartz 50…60%, dickite 20…30%, phyllosilicates plus Microgranular, heteroblastic, relict, Heterogeneous, spotted, Crustified
zone hydroxides 0.0.15%, opaque minerals 0…10% porphyroblastic porous, collomorphic,
veinleted, hested
La1_3/Illite-chlorite Quartz 0…30%, feldspar altered by phyllosilicates 0… Microgranular, crystalloclastic, Porous, oriented
zone 50%, phyllosilicates (leptochlorite, illite, hypocrystalline with felsitic protolith
illite–smectite) 20…50%, calcite 0.0.15%, opaque structure
minerals 0…20%
La1_4/calcite- Quartz 20…30%, leptochlorite 30%, calcite 0.0.10%, Inequigranular, relict, crystalloclastic, Spotted, veinleted
leptochlorite zone vermiculite 20%, opaque minerals 10% with felsitic protolith structure
La1_5/quartz-calcite Calcite 60…70%, plagioclase (Ab) plus fillosilicates Inequigranular, porphyroblastic Heterogeneous, spotted,
zone 15…20%, quartz 15…20%, opaque minerals 1…2% massive
La1_6/quartz- Calcite 30…40%, plagioclase (Ab) plus fillosilicates Inequigranular, porphyroblastic Heterogeneous, spotted,
chlorite-calcite 10…15%, chlorite 17…20%, quartz 10…15%, opaque veined
zone minerals 5…7%
3
Fig. 2. Sketch of alteration zonation with marked selected samples of the Elena deposit with photos of hand specimens.
Fig. 3. Sketch of alteration zonation with marked selected samples of the Emmy deposit with photos of hand specimens.
mineralogical characterization of samples from open-pit side carried out 4. Results

by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The bulk mineralogical composition of forty-
two samples was determined using a Rigaku Ultima IV X-ray diffrac 4.1. Structural and tectonic features of SED
tometer at the Tomsk Oil and Gas Research and Design Institute, with
Cu-Kα radiation at a current of 30 mA and voltage of 40 kV. Bulk samples As a result of structural-material interpretation of SED using data
were prepared by crushing selected core material in a laboratory from multispectral space surveys Landsat ETM +, Aster, Landsat 8, and a
crusher, followed by grinding in isopropyl alcohol to reduce the particle digital elevation model created based on materials from radar surveys
size to approximately < 10 μm in a McCrone mill. Powdered samples < SRTM and AsterGDEM (Ananyev et al., 2019) it was established that the
10 µm fraction were scanned over the range 3-70◦ 2φ with a step of 0.02◦ SED is confined to two volcanic edifices of the central type. In the
at a scanning rate of 1 s and divergence slit (DS) of 1.2 mm. In all northwestern edifice (6.5 km in diameter) the Emmy deposit is located,
samples the clay fraction (<2 µm) was separated by initial disaggrega in the southeastern (8.3 km in diameter) – the Elena, Tamara, Lyudmila,
tion, followed by preparing aqueous suspensions in distilled water and and Larisa deposits.
sedimentation over 8–16 h and air drying onto glass slides. Each sample The general plan for the development of faults repeats the regional
was scanned initially in the air-dried state and the ethylene–glycol sol zones – northeastern (parallel to the axial part of the Okhotsk-Chukotka
vated state following placement in a desiccator for 24 h at ~ 60 ◦ C. Clay volcanic belt) and northwestern ones prevail among the faults. The areas
minerals were comprehensively identified according to the procedures of the conjugation of these faults are controlled by systems of ring
described in Moore and Reynolds Jr. (1997) and Hillier (2003). Quan structures with a diameter of 45–60 km. We interpret these structures as
titative mineralogical analysis of the whole rock data was performed volcano-tectonic depressions developed over intracrustal magma
using Rietveld analysis (Bish and Post, 1993) with PDXL and Siroquant chambers, volcano-plutonic complexes, and areas of their influence. Ore
software (Taylor, 1991). districts tend to the marginal parts of volcano-tectonic depressions. The
structural criteria for identifying potential ore districts are systems of
ring structures with a diameter of 1 to 10 km. We interpret these
4
Fig. 4. A schematic section of alteration zonation with marked selected samples within the drill hole La1 (Larisa deposit) with photos of hand specimens.
structures as private volcanic structures of the central type with subsi dickite, alunite-dickite, and quartz-alunite is noted (Figs. 2 and 6).
dence calderas. The position of volcanic edifices is controlled by the Hydrothermal quartz-carbonate and quartz-white mica altered rocks
junction of the northeastern and northwestern faults. Ore-bearing vol are limited (Figs. 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9). They form thin interbeds within illite-
canic edifice with acid-sulfate mineralization and altered halo in the SED chlorite alteration as the result of less acidic conditions that formed the
is more than 30 km2. residual quartz and halos. The quartz-white mica alteration is also
present in residual quartz as small thickness interlayers (Fig. 3). Ag
4.2. Alteration zonation and rock description of SED gregates of white mica fill cracks and pores, indicating its later forma
tion with respect to earlier alteration (Fig. 9f).
The SED is characterized by diverse alterations of the volcanic host Several main types of altered rocks were distinguished in the Emmy
rocks from the felsic Urak suite and andesitic Khetanian suite. Surficial deposit: residual quartz with varying degrees of leaching, vuggy texture
altered rocks from deposits confined to the Urak suite are oxidized, and brecciation, dickite (dickite-kaolinite, kaolinite), white mica-
which has an ocher-yellow color (Fig. 5). The indications of original kaolinite, and white mica with quartz, and rare sulfate (alunite)
(parental) rocks were distinguished only within the Lyudmila and Emmy quartz (Fig. 10).
deposits (Fig. 5). They are represented by basaltic andesites, andesites, The main host of disseminated ore is associated with residual vuggy
and tuffs. In all these rocks, alteration changes were manifested in quartz, where sulfide minerals with gold are generally concentrated in
varying degrees, expressed primarily in the replacement of feldspars and the leached and porous space. The sulfides occur both in the veins and as
mafic minerals (hornblende, biotite) with clay and hydromica minerals. intergrowths disseminated in the matrix and fracture fillings.
Altered rocks are characterized by variable halos, including vuggy re The morphology of mineralized veins within the SED is linear, sub-
sidual quartz, alunite, dickite, quartz-alunite-dickite, illite-chlorite, tabular, keel- and mushroom-shaped swells. The parameters of miner
illite, illite–smectite, smectite, quartz-carbonate, and quartz-white mica alized veins are variable up to 700 m long and 100–240 m wide, 12–60
alterations (Figs. 2, 3 and 4). m thick with swelling in volcanic necks up to 110 m. The vertical range
Altered rocks have a clear distinction, expressed in the alternation of of the mineralized veins is about 300 m. The dip of the ore bodies is
both large zones of typical varieties of residual quartz and clay alteration gentle, near the volcanic necks it is steep with an uneven distribution of
and narrow zones (on a scale of meters) with different ratios of phyl ore constituent. The structure of ores is micro-and fine-grained,
losilicates. The ratio between phyllosilicates has changed in different porphyritic, hypidiomorphic-grained, collomorphic. The texture of the
zones of alteration. Smectite and chlorite with content up to 25% are ores is stockwork, nested, crustifying, brecciated, and banded (Figs. 6, 7
characterized for propylite zones, argillic alteration consists of illite and and 8).
illite–smectite up to 15%. Dickite and partly kaolinite occur in a hypo The field observations, zoning, areal distribution of the altered as
gene advanced argillic zone with alunite and quartz. semblages in hand specimens from drill holes (Figs. 6, 7 and 8), and the
The most common type of altered rocks is residual quartz, commonly textural relations in thin sections (Fig. 9) indicate a hypogene origin for
with a vuggy texture (Fig. 5c). Massive, porous, and brecciated varieties most of the altered rocks. The association of sulfide minerals with the
are present. Within the SED residual quartz compose multi-layered de quartz-alunite zone also shows that the alunitization and silicification
posits of irregular elongated shape, which have inclined bedding (Figs. 2 are hypogene, and the zonal arrangement of progressively less altered
and 3). Sulfides in residual quartz in the upper horizons of the Elena, rocks around these highly altered cores suggests a contemporaneous
Larisa, Tamara, and partly Lyudmila deposits are commonly oxidized, origin. However, the gross zoning (e.g. Larisa deposit, Fig. 4) reflects
which is expressed in the intense processes of limonite and goethite hypogene alteration, the origin of some minerals in the different zones is
alteration (Figs. 2, 5 and 6). The rheological properties of the various less certain. The widespread jarosite, limonite, partly kaolinite, and free
forms of residual quartz favored the formation of numerous veinlets high quality/fineness of ’mustard’ gold located upper paleo-grounded
during subsequent alteration (quartz, alunite, kaolinite, dickite) and table are attributed to weathering and indicate the secondary super
deposition of ore minerals and hydroxides (Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9). As a rule, gene stage of mineralization.
the residual quartz has a halo of quartz-alunite, whereas, in some areas The depth of supergene advanced argillic alteration and sulfide
(for example, the Elena deposit), the transition of pure residual quartz to oxidation in the SED is varied (Figs. 2, 4, 6 and 8) typically ranging from
5
Fig. 5. Panoramic views and field photographs showing lithological units and alteration zonation exposed at the SED: (a-b, f) Elena deposit; (a, c-e) Emmy deposit;
(g) Tamara deposit represented by the depleted pit with an artificial lake.
20 to 100 m. However, locally it can be largely absent (e.g. Emmy de crystallizing by their defects or by cleavage and forms a sagenite lattice
posit) (Figs. 3 and 7). (Fig. 11 a). Pyrite I is unalloyed (Fig. 11a), corresponding to rutile in
size.
4.3. Mineral assemblages A halo of alteration to the residual quartz is represented by two
distinct alteration assemblages: quartz-alunite-dickite-pyrite (Fig. 11 b)
All but one of the SED deposits is hosted by Urak suite rocks, with and quartz-illite-chlorite-calcite-pyrite (Fig. 11 c) mineral associations
only the Emmy deposit being confined to the older Khetanian suite. The appeared in different deposits. A halo of alteration is characterized by
hydrothermal and supergene ore processes within the SED proceeded in the following minerals: quartz (II), alunite, dickite, pyrite (II), illite,
3 main stages: early barren hydrothermal (pre-ore), ore, which sub chlorite, white mica, barite, kaolinite, calcite, swanbergite, wood
divided into two subgroups, and supergene alteration (Table 2), forming houseite. Quartz (II) of these zones is characterized mainly by micro-and
the following mineral zones: quartz-rutile-pyrite, quartz-alunite-dickite- fine-grained structures with a crustified banded or cross-vein texture.
pyrite, quartz-illite-chlorite-calcite-pyrite, quartz-pyrite with polysulfides and The alunite-dickite association formed under acidic conditions; an in
gold, gold-silver telluride, and supergene with ’mustard’ gold (Figs. 6, 7, 8 crease in the pH of the fluids in the Larisa deposit led to an illite-chlorite-
and 11). calcite-pyrite association (Fig. 11 c). White mica as a result of the
The early barren hydrothermal stage includes quartz-rutile-pyrite replacement of the parent mica (muscovite, biotite) forms tiny-scale
assemblage is pre-ore in timing, is widespread within all deposits within aggregates within the Emmy deposit.
the SED. Quartz (I) is characterized by a micro-granular (0.01–0.05 mm) The overall cubic crystal habit of pyrite (II) shows an increase in size
structure with a predominantly allotriomorphic-granular texture, compared with the residual quartz zone. Pyrite of this association is also
among which small-crystalline (no more than 10 µm) clusters of acicular impurity-free. Pyrite (II) is characterized by an irregular, isometric,
rutile are formed. Rutile in spots replaces the initial silicates cubic habit of crystals with a dimension of ~ 0.05–0.5 mm, in some
6
Fig. 6. Drill samples (drill hole El 2) of the Elena deposit presented 3 stages of mineral assemblages.
Fig. 7. Drill samples (drill hole Em 2) of the Emmy deposit presented 3 stages
Fig. 8. Drill samples (drill hole La 1) of the Larisa deposit presented 3 stages of
of mineral assemblages.
mineral assemblages.
places it is cataclastic, broken, and filled with calcite, quartz, sphalerite,

supergene stage.
tennantite- tetrahedrite (Fig. 11 d-f).
The initial ore deposition (Table 2) ended with the formation of a
Compared to the pyrite in the central residual quartz zone I, pyrite II
quartz-pyrite-polymetallic assemblage. Ore-bearing areas are located in
has a larger crystal size (Fig. 11 a, b). The ore-forming stage (I) is rep
zones with residual quartz, quartz-alunite and quartz-hydro-mica zones.
resented by a quartz-pyrite with polymetallic sulfides and gold zone. The
Quartz (III) in the ore stage differs mainly in collomorphic textures.
following mineral assemblage was formed: gold, galena, sphalerite,
Despite the rare sulfide mineralization in this complex, most native gold
pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite I, cinnabar, antimonite, tennantite-tetrahedrite.
was precipitated at this stage, distinguished by grain with an average
Chalcopyrite I is represented by small grains with irregular shapes and is
size of 3 μm. Pyrite (III) is characterized by sporadic dissemination and
in association with base-metal sulfides, partial is replaced by covellite of
micro-granularity (Fig. 11 d).
7
Fig. 9. Transmitted-light microphotographs of altered rocks in ore deposits of the SED (cross-polarized (a-f) and plane (c) light). (a) Quartz-iron hydroxide aggregate
in vuggy quartz (Drill hole El 1, depth 27.4 m); (b) Quartz-alunite (Drill hole El 3, depth 34.6 m); (c) Quartz-dickite (Drill hole El 2, depth 37.1 m); (d) Quartz-alunite-
dickite (Drill hole El 2, depth 58.4 m); (e) Hydrothermal quartz-carbonate (Drill hole La 1, depth 122.0 m) and (f) quartz-white mica (Drill hole Em 1, depth 25.0 m).
Qz – quartz; Ght – goethite, Alu – alunite; Dck – dickite; Cal – calcite; W.mica – white mica. Mineral abbreviations after Whitney and Evans(2010).
The ore-forming stage (II) consisted of an Au-Ag telluride assemblage of hydrothermal activity whereas bournonite, iodargite, acanthite
(Table 2). The main veinlets mineral is quartz, sulfides – pyrite, replaced forms of early sulfides of hydrothermal (ore stage I).
tennantite-tetrahedrite, and chalcopyrite II. Pyrite of this stage is rep Chalcopyrite II, in contrast to the early generation of a polymetallic
resented by two morphological varieties: colloform and crystalline. mineral complex, where it is associated with cubic pyrite and is ubiq
Colloform pyrite composes the central parts, followed by crystalline uitously replaced by covellite, is closely paragenetic with tennantite-
pyrite (III) (Fig. 10g). Despite the various morphology, both correspond tetraedrite (II) in which it forms emulsion inclusions (Fig. 11 k) with
to the third type (III) of pyrite and contain Cu and other elements such as the Cu-bearing pyrite (III) (Fig. 11 j). In association with chalcopyrite II
Sb, Te, Se. Crystalline pyrite (III) is characterized by a diverse crystal are observed melonite, altaite, tellurantimony, tellurobismuthite as
habit: prismatic, tetrahedral, pentagondodecahedral, etc., different from syngenetic inclusions.
the cubic form of earlier (I and II) types. Pyrite (III) from the Emmy The supergene alteration stage is represented by a mineral complex
deposit is in close paragenetic relationship with tennantite-tetrahedrite, with ’mustard’ gold. This stage is characterized by the formation of low-
hemusite, goldfieldite, kawazulite, calaverite, sylvanite, petzite, mel temperature sulfate phases (jarosite, mikasaite, anglesite, cerussite,
onite, and others. other hydroxides with reprecipitated ’mustard’ gold). As a result of su
Tennantite-tetrahedrite has a diverse chemical composition, pergene processes, the re-deposition of gold tellurides to the native form
reflecting the vertical zonation in the Emmy deposit, and will discuss in occurs, as well as the formation of minerals such as covellite, mikasaite,
detail in the following chapter. Native forms of sulfur, selenium, and and iodargite due to the replacement of earlier minerals. Disseminated
tellurium (and their variations), bismuth formed during the final phases ’mustard’ gold aggregates into irregular shapes that occur among the
8
Fig. 10. Complex alteration mineral assemblages in the sides of the Emmy pit (630 m pit bank) according to the data of an integrated XRD survey.
porous space of quartz veinlets. The size of such ’mustard’ gold aggre to another. Thus, different ratios of phyllosilicates form zones in the
gates varies from first to a score of microns (Fig. 11 i-m). sides of the Emmy pit (Fig. 10). This variability is sometimes manifested
in the alternation of narrow zones of 1–3 m thickness composed of
4.3.1. Gangue minerals (quartz and phyllosilicates) dickite (or kaolinite) quartz zone, quartz-white mica zone and, residual
The main hydrothermal alteration mineral within the SED is quartz quartz zone. The section often shows changes in zones of dickite-
and, in rare cases, cristobalite or an amorphous type of silica in the form kaolinite, white-mica, white-mica-kaolinite, and residual quartz zones,
of chalcedony. Other minerals include phyllosilicates and sulfates, less the thickness of which may not exceed 1 m. In some zones of residual
commonly carbonates. Depending on the composition of the protolith, quartz, up to 8.7% of the high-temperature variety of quartz, cristoba
the prevailing composition of phyllosilicates changes from one deposit lite, is recorded (Fig. 10, sample Em 010–3).
9
Table 2
Paragenetic succession of the SED: mineralogical evolution with time.
Within the Emmy deposit, illite is common, at the Elena and Tamara and Elena (up to 0.65 wt% Cu) deposits. In some samples of the Emmy
deposits dickite is typical; the Lyudmila deposit contains dickite and illite, deposit, two different morphological varieties of pyrite are found (col
and the Larisa deposit has dickite and illite as well as chlorite (Fig. 12). lomorphic and idiomorphic; Fig. 13 a-d), both of which contain copper
(Cu).
4.3.2. Metallic minerals (pyrite and tennantite-tetraedrite) The largest variation in the iron content in pyrite is observed for the
Pyrite is the most common and dominant sulfide of the SED. All other Emmy and Lyudmila deposits (Fig. 13 e,f). Most analyzed copper
sulfides such as chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, covellite, pyrrhotite, cin concentrated pyrites fall into the field of 0.5–2.0 wt% Cu, with an
nabar, stibnite, acanthite occur locally. Within the SED, pyrite forms at average content in the total sample of 0.45 wt% Cu. The widest varia
least three types in each deposit. The most widespread is alloy-free pyrite tions and values of the content of copper coincide with the scatter of
(pre-ore stage). As a rule, it is hosted by clay minerals and quartz, and imagine points in the iron content and are characteristic at 38 to 46 m
characterized by leached, irregular shapes with a cubic habit of primary depth in the Emmy deposit (drill hole Em 2) (Fig. 13 f). Two types of
crystals. pyrite are simultaneously developed – crystalline and collomorphic,
Pyrite relating to the telluride association of the Emmy deposit is both morphological varieties contain copper. Together with the copper
characterized by a high copper content (0.63–6.03 wt% Cu). Pyrite with in pyrite from the Emmy deposit, Sb, Te, Se is locally present. Arsenic
Cu impurity sporadically occurs within the Lyudmila (1.72–1.8 wt% Cu) occurs within the Emmy and Lyudmila deposits and Se within the Larisa
10
Fig. 11. (a) Quartz-rutile-pyrite with irregular and leached crystals of pyrite (Py I) in association with needles of rutile (Rt) and quartz (Qz I); (b) Quartz-alunite-dickite-
pyrite zone composed of alunite (Alu) elongated crystals and finely-scale aggregates of dickite (Dck) with the association of crystals of pyrite (Py II) and quartz (Q II)
(Elena deposit, drill hole El 2, depth 53.6 m); (c) Quartz-illite-chlorite-calcite-pyrite association with cubic crystals of pyrite (Py II) in chlorite aggregate with calcite
grains (Larisa deposit, drill hole La1, depth 92.8 m); (d) Quartz-pyrite with local polymetallic sulfides of sphalerite (Sp), galena (Gn) and Py (Py III) (Larisa, drill hole
La1, depth 122.0 m); (e) Pyrite crystals (Py_II) host epigenetic inclusion of sphalerite, containing Cu (SpCu) and inclusion of dolomite (Dol). Crystal of galena hosted
in pyrite III; (f) Cataclastic pyrite (II) with Fe tennantite (TntFe) and quartz (Qz); (g) Collomorphic aggregate of pyrite III (Col_PyCu (III)), overgrown by crystalline
pyrite (Cry_PyCu (III)) in association with hemusite (Hemu), sylvanite (Sylv), native tellurium with B (TeB), tetrahedrite with Fe (TtrFe) and coloradoite (Color); (h)
Grain of the tetrahedrite with Te (TtrTe)-tennantite (Tnt), hosts inclusions of chalcopyrite (Ccp) and tellurantimony (Telant), in association with pyrite III. Mixed
sulfo-phosphates of Sb and Te? (Sul_P_Sb_Te) with sylvanite (Sylv) confined to splits of Ttr-Tnt; (j) Inclusions of colomorphic copper-bearing pyrite (PyCu (III) with
tetrahedrite (TtrFe,Ag), the intergranular space of which is filled with sylvanite (Sylv) and native gold (Au92.0) in chalcopyrite grain; (k) Emulsion inclusions of
chalcopyrite (Ccp) and tetrahedrite (TtrFe) in the matrix of tennantite (TntFe); (i-m)Supergene complex with gold (Au99.0-97.0) in the vugs of quartz (Qz) (Elena deposit,
drill hole El 2, depth 18.3 m).
11
Fig. 12. Secondary electron images of the illite (Ilt) flakes. (a) In residual quartz of the Emmy deposit; dickite (Dck) set of crystals with domain structure; (b) In the
residual quartz of the Elena deposit; chlorite (Chl) aggregate with the association of apatite (Ap) (c) In the illite-chlorite alteration within the Larisa deposit.
Fig. 13. Backscatter electron images of the different morphological varieties of pyrite represented by (i) idiomorphic crystals (Cry_PyCu) of tetrahedral habit and (ii)
collomorphic aggregates (Col_PyCu) (a). In close association with pyrite occurs tennantite (Tnt) and tetrahedrite with Te (TtrTe) (b) in intergrowth with chalcopyrite
(Ccp) (a) (Emmy deposit, drill hole Em 2, depth 46.4 m). Pyrite collomorphic aggregates (Col_PyCu), overgrown by idiomorphic pyrite (Cry_PyCu) in quartz (Qz) (c)
with goldfieldite and coloradoite (Color) (d). (Emmy deposit, drill hole Em 2, depth 38.2 m). Coloradoite in backscattered electron image. Diagrams of the pyrite
compositions within the SED in the coordinates: Fe-S (e) and Fe-Cu (f). Different colors of dotes and numbers indicate the various depths of occurrence, while the
shape of dotes represents different deposits.
deposit. stutzite, and minor hessite.

The most tennantite-tetrahedrite group occurs within the Emmy Tennantite-tetrahedrite series containing silver (n = 9) occurs over
deposit, plus a minor amount in the Lyudmila deposit. The cross-section the depth range 31.6–62.0 m (drill hole Em 2). In this case, silver-
of the Emmy deposit chemical composition of tennantite-tetrahedrite containing fahlore forms two separate compositional fields – arsenic-
indicates vertical zonation. At the depths of 31.6–38.2 m (drill hole tellurium varieties (3.94–6.11 wt% Sb) and tetrahedrite (14.55–21.34
Em 2), the main variety is tetrahedrite with silver content. The coex wt% Sb), respectively (Fig. 14 a). At the same time, there is a positive
isting minerals in this assemblage are argentotetrahedrite and tellurides of correlation between the increase in silver content and an increase in the
gold and silver with the predominant role of silver, mainly petzite, amount of antimony, the most significant dependence is explained by
12
Fig. 14. Composition of tennantite-tetrahedrite in atom per formula unit for S = 13 [apfu] on (a) Binary diagram in coordinates Sb–As and (b) Triangular diagram in
coordinates As–Te–Sb. The numbers indicate the depth of occurrence. The red arrows reflect the linear trend of chemical composition variability with depth.
Backscatter electron images of goldfieldite zonal crystals enriched with Bi alloy (Bi-rich bands) in association with (c) Sylvanite (Sylv) and coloradoite (Color), (d)
Hemusite (Hemu), (e) Pyrite with Cu-alloy (PyrCu), and (f) Native tellurium (Te). Diagram of the As-Sb-Bi-Te compositions of goldfieldite and tellurium-containing
species of the tennantite-tetrahedrite group (c).
13
the occurrence of argentotetrahedrite at a depth of 31.6 m (drill hole Em the absence of arsenic, bismuth, and silver. In the fractured zones of
2) (Fig. 14 a). goldfieldite, the tellurides coloradoite and sylvanite, as well as native
In the depth interval, 38.2–46.5 m (drill hole Em2), the Te-bearing tellurium (Fig. 14c–f) are noted.
variety of fahlore is goldfieldite, in which bismuth and silver occur A tellurium-tetrahedrite-tennantite series of solid solution in close
(Fig. 14 b). The zoning of goldfieldite crystals within the Emmy deposit paragenetic relations at 46.5 m (drill hole Em 2) coexist with tellurides
is determined by the different contents of Bi (1.66–3.66 wt% Bi; of nickel (melonite), lead (altaite), bismuth (tellurium bismuthate),
Fig. 14c–f). Goldfieldite is also noted up to 5 µm in size within the antimony (tellurantimon), gold and silver (sylvanite), and chalcopyrite.
Lyudmila deposit, where, unlike the Emmy deposit, it is characterized by In general, the content of arsenic in the tennantite-tetrahedrite solid
Fig. 15. Changes in the chemical composition of Tn-Td in terms of: (a) Sb/As–Sb; (b) As–Sb; (c) Cu + Ag–Fe + Zn; (d) Te–Sb; (e) Zn–Sb; (f) Fe–Zn. Linear trends (red
arrows) with depth in the Emmy and Lyudmila deposits. Different colored dots and numbers indicate the depth of fahlore occurrence. [Apfu] – atom per formula units
for S = 13.
14
solution of the Emmy deposit varies significantly (Fig. 15 a, b), with two alterations: silicic (dominated by residual quartz) with advanced argillic
trends in the development of stable compositions of tennantite- halos (dominated by alunite, pyrophyllite, and dickite) alteration
tetrahedrite: with a high content of arsenic (tennantite varieties) and a (Hedenquist, 2018; Hedenquist and Henley, 1985; Heinrich et al., 2004;
high content of antimony (tetrahedrite varieties) (Fig. 15 b). Tennantite Melfos et al., 2019; Sillitoe, 1977, 1993; Sillitoe and Thompson, 1998;
is more common at depths of 60–80 m (drill hole Em 2), while they White, 1955; White and Hedenquist, 1995; Chang et al., 2011; Cooke
coexist at the same depth tetrahedrite varieties are characterized by the et al., 2017; Henley, 1991; Lindgren, 1933).
highest zinc content (Fig. 15c). The iron content in fahlore increases The SED is characterized by zoned alteration halos typical for HS-IS
with depth (Fig. 15 e). At depths of 62.0–109.0 m (drill hole Em 2), the ore systems with the predominant role of sulfate-sulfide mineralization
end members of the Tn-Td series are developed. Only tennantite variety in residual quartz with varying degrees of leaching. Andesites and
with iron content was found in the Lyudmila deposit. andesitic basalts of the Khetanian suite host the Emmy deposit and the
Thus, the variability of the chemical composition of tennantite- dacite-rhyolite-leucogranite of the Urak suit host all other deposits. The
tetrahedrite with depth within the Emmy deposit (drill hole Em2) widespread development of calcite in the alteration halo of the Larisa
from 31.6 to 110 m depth is represented by the following sequence: deposit should be considered as one of the criteria for the regime cor
silver-mixed tetrahedrite → silver-mixed tennantite → bismuth and responding to the IS type mineralization (Heald et al., 1987; Hedenquist
silver-mixed goldfieldite → tellurium-containing tennantite-tetrahedrite et al., 1995; White and Hedenquist, 1995; Song et al., 2018; Wang et al.,
varieties → end members of the tennantite-tetrahedrite series against an 2019).
increase in the content of zinc and iron. The indicated sequence of sta
bility of the tennantite-tetrahedrite compositions reflects the vertical 5.2. Mineral assemblage characteristics and relationship with a porphyry
mineral zonation of the Emmy deposit is consistent with the general system
changes in mineral assemblages.
Pyrite is the most widespread metallic mineral within the SED. Pyrite
4.3.2.1. Gold mineralization. There are several gold mineralization composition reflects the composition of ore-forming fluids due to its
types in deposits of the SED: (i) gold-silver including ’mustard’ gold, sensitivity to changes in physicochemical fluid composition (Pals et al.,
typical for most deposits, and (ii) gold-silver telluride type largely in the 2003; Reich et al., 2013; Deditius et al., 2014; Keith et al., 2018, 2020).
Emmy deposit. A typomorphic feature of the sulfides and native gold of the SED is the
The main form of gold occurrence in the Elena, Lyudmila, Tamara, presence of copper-bearing pyrite, copper-bearing sphalerite, and
Larisa, and less in the Emmy deposits is native, including ’mustard’ gold, copper-bearing goldHeterogeneity of pyrites from epithermal Au-Ag
which is confined to the supergene oxidation zones in pores of quartz, deposits associated with copper impurities has also been recorded in
with a minor occurrence adsorbed on dickite, kaolinite, limonite, illite, hydrothermal systems of the Kamchatka Region (e.g., the Aginskoe and
or pyrite. Ozernovskoe deposits) (Okrugin et al., 2014). One of the versions of the
The Emmy deposit is characterized by the presence of both types of increased copper content in pyrite is the presence of chalcopyrite
gold mineralization – gold-silver and gold-silver telluride type. microinclusions. Another more likely option for the incorporation of
The native gold in the SED has a high content of Au, ranging from copper into pyrite may be scattered Cu element in the crystal lattice of
900‰ to 1000%; however, variations in fineness and degree of occur pyrite. Copper impurities in pyrite within the SED may point at the
rence can be diverse. Firstly, the largest amount of gold was noted for presence of the porphyry-type mineralization at the depth (Reich et al.,
the Elena deposit. In most cases, gold has a size of about 4 µm and is 2013; Song et al., 2015, 2019; Takács et al., 2017; Bukhanova et al.,
characterized by high fineness ~ 957‰ Au. Aggregates of ’mustard’ 2020; Mavrogonatos et al., 2020). This assumption is also supported by
gold with fineness ~ 1000‰ Au (drill hole El 2, depth 18.3 m, Elena the regional factor. For example, pyrite of the epithermal stage from the
deposit) are characterized by a spongy texture, apparently due to its Malmyzh porphyry deposit, located in the Khabarovsk Territory
reprecipitated nature (formed during the supergene stage). Such gold (Bukhanova et al., 2020) is also characterized by an increased Cu to 1.4
consists of individual nanoparticles, confined to the pores of quartz, and wt%, and is represented by two morphological varieties – colomorphic
is associated with other native metals, including native selenium- and crystalline, similar to pyrite from SED. Moreover, the hypogene
tellurium and native iron. Some analyses show that the ’mustard’ gold sulfide assemblages of the epithermal stage from the Malmyzh porphyry
contains tellurium and selenium contents, which also supports a rede deposit is characterized by a similar set of minerals with a predominance
posited nature of gold that originated as earlier gold tellurides. An in group of tennantite-tetraedrite, tellurides, including hessite, colo
termediate gold composition of ~ 935‰ occurs in the Larisa deposit, radoite, calaverite, altaite, as well as polymetallic sulfide assemblage:
whereas the largest amount of silver in gold is characteristic of the chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite, similarly to SED containing up to
Emmy deposit ~ 900‰, where it is associated with tellurides of gold and 4.3 wt% Cu. The chemical composition of gold is also characterized by a
silver: krennerite, sylvanite, petzite, hessite, stutzite and argentote Cu impurity up to 0.66 wt% (Bukhanova et al., 2020). SED over used
trahedrite (Fig. 16). vertical metal zonation with higher copper contents at deeper levels and
Tellurides of silver and gold are characterized by vertical zonation. greater abundances of gold or gold-silver along with local tellurium and
Changes in the chemical composition of Au-Ag tellurides from the sur antimony, in shallow levels. Given the ability of tennantite-tetraedrite to
face to deep horizons within the drill hole Em 2 (Emmy deposit) in the form solid solutions, this mineral group is useful to determine the
direction from 30.5 m → 105.6 m expressed the following sequence: environment of mineral formation. The variability of the chemical
stutzite → hessite → petzite → sylvanite → krennerite → mutmanite → composition tennantite-tetraedrite can be considered as an element of
calaverite (Fig. 16). the zoning porphyry-epithermal system (Hu et al., 2018; Lyubimtseva
et al., 2019; Repstock et al., 2016; Sack, 2017; Sack et al., 2002, 2003;
5. Discussion Sack and Brackebusch, 2004; Sack and Ebel, 1993; Plotinskaya et al.,
2015). According to Catchpole et al. (2012) chemical compositions of
5.1. Specific features of SED alteration zonation major and even minor ore-forming minerals, including
tennantite-tetraedrite reflect metal content, oxidation and sulfidation
Epithermal deposits provide challenges for explorers as they tend to state, and degree of buffering of an evolving hydrothermal fluid by the
have large and lateral zonation patterns defined by clay minerals, which host rock on a district-scale. Thus, higher contents of Ag and Sb are
are difficult to determine. HS and IS epithermal deposits are commonly observed at a distance from the center of the porphyry system, i.e. in
associated with zones that are characterized by two main hypogene West Biksizak (Plotinskaya et al., 2015), and the highest arsenic contents
are in East Biksizak, near intrusion of diorite porphyrites. Whinin the
15
Fig. 16. (a) Ternary Au-Ag-Te diagram showing the phase relationships for Au-Ag tellurides with native Au and native Te within the SED. Most points correspond to
the chemical composition of minerals from the Emmy deposit. The numbers indicate the depth of mineral occurrence; (b) Native gold (Au90.0) in association with
pyrite (Py) in the Emmy deposit; (c) Pyrite with Cu (PyCu) and rutile (Rt) cemented by Au-Ag tellurides with a predominant role of Ag on the depth of the 31.6 m (drill
hole Em 2) of the Emmy deposit represented by petzite (Ptz) and Hessite (Hess) with Ag-tetrahedrite (TtrAg); (d) Sylvanite (Sylv) in association with tellurantimony
(TelAn), goldfieldite (Gold), tetrahedrite (Ttr), pyrite with Cu content (PyCu) and quartz (Qz) on the depths from 38.2 to 62.m (drill hole Em 2); (e) Pyritohedron
pyrite with Cu content (PyCu) cemented by calaverite (Cal) on the depth of 105.6 m (drill hole Em 2). Secondary electron image (b) and Backscatter electron images
(c-e).
16
SED the established sequence of stability of the tennantite-tetraedrite 2007; Pan et al., 2018; Zhong et al., 2018).
compositions similarly reflects the concentration of Ag in the shallow The epithermal systems from SED have several similarities with giant
depth and an increase in As and Fe in a deeper level with Te accumu deposits (Kochbulak, Kairagach, Kyzylalmasay, Akturpak, Chadak) from
lation at intermediate horizons. Established oscillatory zoning of the Kuramin ore region (Sredinny Tien Shan, Uzbekistan) (Kovalenker
Te-goldfieldite crystals may be explained by the influence of “external” et al., 2003). The similarity is manifested in volcanic rocks (andesitic-
factors, that is, by any periodic changes in the mineral-forming medium, dacite composition), mineralization, ore types, and structural position.
leading to a periodic transition of Te from the oxidized state (Te4+ in Thus, the hypogene sulfide assemblage of the Kocbulak deposit (Kova
goldfieldite) to neutral (native Te) or reduced (Te2- in tellurides of gold lenker et al., 2003) is characterized by an abundance of tellurides,
and silver (sylvanite) and mercury (coloradoite)). Similar oscillatory including calaverite, sylvanite, petzite, hessite, stutzite, altaite, tellur
zoning is established for goldfieldite from other epithermal HS-IS gold obismuthite, tellurantimony, coloradoite, melonite, kawazulite, and
deposits Elshitsa (Srednegoirie, Bulgaria), Prasolovskoe (Kuril Islands), native tellurium similar to SED. This mineral assemblage is closely
Kochbulak (Uzbekistan), and Ozernovskoe (Kamchatka) (Plotinskaya related to residual quartz and a fewer amount of carbonates. Gold
et al., 2005). mineralization similar to SED is subdivided into two types: Au-Ag and
Special aspects of the SED are the presence of gold-telluride type Au-Te.
mineralization mainly in quartz-enriched alteration assemblages. The Overall, the SED has a strong structural association with volcanic
gold-telluride association was explained as an indication of melting of centers, hydrothermal alteration, hypogene sulfide mineral assem
Te-rich sediments and subsequent mixing with mantle-sourced magma blages, and corresponds to known epithermal-porphyry systems. This
under subduction settings around the Pacific Rim (Cook et al., 2006). makes it possible to predict the presence of porphyry roots at depth. The
Typical examples of epithermal gold-tellurides mineralization can be abundance of tellurides, and in particular of gold and silver tellurides
found in the Emperor (Fiji) (Pals et al., 2003), Porgera, Ladolam (Papua within the Emmy deposit makes it possible to distinguish a separate
New Guinea), and the Montana Au-Ag telluride belt (Cook et al., 2006), gold-telluride type of mineralization, suggesting a certain ore- process
and Cripple Creek (Colorado) (Keith et al., 2020). Moreover, changes in ing scheme, different, for example, from the standard heap-leaching
fluid parameters, for example, sulfidation-oxidation reactions at redox scheme applicable to other deposits of SED.
fronts appear to be highly favorable for the fractionation of telluride
minerals from ore fluids (Cook et al., 2006). 5.3. Deposit type
Thus, the Perama Hill telluride-enriched epithermal gold deposit
located in altered silicic-and argillic andesite rocks contain an early Epithermal Au-Ag deposits may be grouped into HS, IS, and LS types
stage residual quartz with argillic hypogene halo and followed by the based on the sulfidation states of their hypogene sulfide assemblages
deposition of sulfide-, sulfosalt-and telluride-bearing quartz veins and (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). HS and IS epithermal deposits differ in
stockworks (Voudouris et al., 2011; Repstock et al., 2015). The Perama the mineral composition of altered rocks, vein filling, and indicator
Hill deposit similarly to the SED contains hessite, petzite, sylvanite, hypogene sulfide assemblages (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). Quartz,
krennerite and has genetic significance in relation to the adjacent alunite, dickite, pyrophyllite are developed in the HS-type altered rocks;
epithermal-porphyry prospects in western Thrace (Voudouris et al., the veins are composed of quartz and barite; indicator ore minerals –
2019). Besides that, in Greece, a well-known example is in the enargite, luzonite, famatinite, hypogene covellite. IS-type is composed
Kassiteres-Sapes district, where hypogene advanced argillic alteration of quartz, white mica, and albite; the veins contain only quartz and
zones host HS-IS ores, which overprint or form laterally to carbonates; typical ore minerals include sphalerite, galena, tennantite –
porphyry-type mineralization (Voudouris et al., 2006). In telescoped tetrahedrite, and chalcopyrite.
systems, telluride-enrichment mineralization is common in late-stage The studied hypogene sulfide assemblage within the SED allows to
LS, IS to HS epithermal veins that overprint porphyry-stage veins in classify it as the IS type, due to no HS minerals such as enargite, luzonite,
several calc-alkaline Cu-Au porphyry deposits, including, for example, famantinite, bornite, hypogene covellite, but typically for IS deposit are
Acupan, Philippines (Waters et al., 2011) and Emperor, Fiji (Pals et al., wide-spread chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite-tennantite, galena, and sphal
2003). A similar situation observed in the porphyry Cu-Mo ± Re ± Au erite. Given the information that ascending IS fluids enter advanced
system transitioned to an IS-HS epithermal Cu-Au-Ag-Te environment in argillic alteration may evolve to HS fluids (Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
Pagoni Rachi, where a porphyry and IS mineralization represents the 2003), it’s safe to assume there may be HS minerals, but they have been
root zones of now-eroded alunite-bearing HS veins at upper elevations of eroded from shallower depth, and/or have been supergene oxidized at
the system (Voudouris et al., 2013) similar to the possible scenario at the shallow levels of the present system (Steven and Ratte, 1960; Stoffregen,
Emmy deposit. 1987), where deeper tennantite-tetrahedrite evolve on cooling at a
Within the OCVB Maletoyvayam-Vetrovyamsk epithermal group shallower depth to enargite (Hedenquist and Taran, 2013). Eventual
deposits belonging to the HS-IS types characterized similarly to SED neutralization and lowering of sulfidation state by wall rock interaction
their hypogene sulfide assemblages (Tolstykh et al., 2019). Thus, the can convert HS back to IS fluids, as confirmed by both spatial and
Gaching HS epithermal Au–Ag deposits (Maletoyvayam Ore Field) paragenetic transitions from HS to IS mineralization (Sillitoe and
contain analogous two types of gold mineralization: native Au-Ag, Hedenquist, 2003).
including ’mustard’ gold and Au-Ag-telluride type (Tolstykh et al., SED ore system is rich in base metals of Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, that corre
2019). Typical features of ’mustard’ gold are porous or colloform texture sponds to the essential parameters of IS deposits listed by Song et al.
and are easily scattered during crushing and the resulting fine powdered (2018). Also, like most IS deposits total content of sulfides in ore-bearing
fraction may become progressively enriched in gold. ’Mustard’ gold was veins in the Emmy deposit is over 5% especially rich in tennatite-
previously studied by several researchers (Lindgren, 1933; Wilson, tethraedrite and chalcopyrite. IS type deposits also have a close rela
1984; Okrugin et al., 2014; Tolstykh et al., 2019; Zhao and Pring, 2019). tionship with andesitic-dacitic volcanic-subvolcanic rocks analogous to
Au-Te-Pb-Zn epithermal mineralization similar to the SED is wide SED (Wang et al. 2019).
spread in the Zhilingtou gold epithermal deposit of the South China Fold According to Wang et al. (2019) IS deposits are subdivided into “NC
Belt (SCFB). In geotectonic terms, the SCFB, as well as the OCVB, belong (Neutral-Compressional)-type IS” and “E (Extensional)-type IS”. A
to the active continental margin of the Upper Mesozoic age. According notable feature of E-type IS deposits is their large Ag endowment
to the model of the Yanshan volcano-plutonic epithermal-porphyry compared to NC-type IS, when NC-type IS (Au ± Ag) deposits can be
system of the SCFB: Zhilingtou Au-Te-Pb-Zn epithermal deposit (Pirajno associated with porphyry Cu-Au and/or HS Au-Cu deposits (Wang et al.,
and Bagas, 2002) has a close temporal, spatial, and genetic association 2019). According to the geotectonic setting, the set of gangue, and
with porphyry Zijinshan Cu-Au-Ag deposit (So et al., 1998; Mao et al., metallic minerals, SED is correspond to the NC-type IS, which enhances
17
its prospects for a close relationship with the potential porphyry deep Acknowledgments
system.
On the other hand, SED is characterized by several features indica We are very grateful prof. Jeffrey W. Hedenquist for a significantly
tive for HS deposits such as abundant alunite and other sulfate minerals: revised draft of the manuscript, which allowed to improve it. The au
barite, anglesite, cerussite, celestine, mikasaite, jarosite, and dickite. IS thors thank the editor, an anonymous reviewer, and Dr. Hossein Kou
deposits are typically a few alunite and other sulfates contrary to the hestani for their constructive reviews, which led to the improvement of
SED, that alloys us define the SED as HS-IS type deposit. the manuscript. Laboratory investigations were carried out at Tomsk
Polytechnic University within the framework of a Tomsk Polytechnic
6. Conclusions University Competitiveness Enhancement Program grant.
1 The ore process within the SED was closely related to zones of Appendix A. Supplementary data
tectonism, ring-shaped and radial faults, and acidic alteration of the
host volcanic rocks. As a result, zones of residual quartz with quartz- Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
alunite-dickite halos were initially formed. The quartz-alunite and org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104257.
overlapping of quartz-dickite or dickite-kaolinite pass outward into
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Ore Geology Reviews 136 (2021) 104257

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ore Geology Reviews

Mineralogy of the Svetloye epithermal district, Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanic

1. Introduction Hedenquist and Arribas, 2000). Intermediate sulfidation (IS) deposits, in

Fig. 1. Schematic geological map of the Svetloye epithermal district.

mineralogical characterization of samples from open-pit side carried out 4. Results

places it is cataclastic, broken, and filled with calcite, quartz, sphalerite,

deposit. stutzite, and minor hessite.

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