Operating Systems and Networks

How the operating system manages computer hardware:

Operating systems work as an interface between the user and the computer hardware. It is a
software which performs the basic tasks like input, output, disk management, controlling
peripherals etc. Windows, Linux etc. are some examples of operating systems.
These are some important tasks of the OS by which it manages the system hardware efficiently,
which are as follows −
1) Memory management:
2) Device management
3) Processor management
4) File Management
5) I/O Management
6) Fans and Cooling
7) Networking

Memory management:

Memory management refers to the management of the primary memory

⚫ Each executing process resides in main memory.
⚫ OS keeps track of memory,
⚫ Allocates memory between processes,
⚫ Deallocates the memory when the process does not require the memory.
Device management
OS can communicate between devices using drivers in order to use the devices efficiently the
⚫ OS keeps track of devices
⚫ Allocates these devices to different processes as per the request made by the processes.
⚫ De-allocates these devices to different processes as per the request made by the processes.
Processor management
Like memory and devices, managing the processor is one of the important tasks of an OS.
It allocates the processor to different processes in main memory to do so the OS uses some
scheduling algorithms also these are like First Come First Serve, Priority Scheduling, Shortest job
first, etc.
File Management
The operating system also keeps track of the file system of a computer normally the file system is
divided in directories which can be handled by the OS.

I/O

I/O management is one of the important tasks of the operating system. OS manages the IO devices
like mouse, keyboard, printer, display, LED's etc.
I/O devices can be of two types which are as follows −
Synchronous I/O − Here, the CPU waits for the i/o device
Asynchronous I/O − Here, the CPU execution takes place parallel to the IO device.
The operating system helps the processor in communicating to the IO devices.
These communications are Special instruction I/O, Memory-mapped I/O, Direct memory access.

Fans and Cooling

In a computer system, one of the important hardware components is the cooling system. The CPU
fan helps the CPU from overheating. Overheating sometimes causes permanent damage to a CPU.
The operating system plays role in communicating with both the CPU and the fan which helps to
ensure that the system stays cool. This process is also done by the motherboard's internal controls,
called the BIOS, and can be overwritten by applications running in the OS.

Networking

Networking plays an important role in distributed system environment where a group of processors
can memory, hardware devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one another with the
help of the network only.

Flynn’s Taxonomy:

Flynn’s classic taxonomy (Flynn, 1966) depends on the number of control units and the multiple
processors available in a computer. Flynn’s introduced the following notion.

Single Instruction Single Data (SISD):

In a SISD architecture, there is a single processor that executes a single instruction stream and
operates on a single data stream. This is the simplest type of computer architecture and is used in
most traditional computers.

Multiple Instruction Single Data (MISD):

In a MISD architecture, multiple processors execute different instructions on the same data stream.
This type of architecture is not commonly used in practice, as it is difficult to find applications that
can be decomposed into independent instruction

Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD):

In a SIMD architecture, there is a single processor that executes the same instruction on multiple
data streams in parallel. This type of architecture is used in applications such as image and signal
processing.
Multiple Instruction Multiple Data (MIMD):

In a MIMD architecture, multiple processors execute different instructions on different data

streams. This type of architecture is used in distributed computing, parallel processing, and other
high-performance computing applications.

Operating Systems and Networks

Operating Systems (OS)

An Operating System is software that manages computer hardware resources and provides a platform
for running applications.

Key Components:

1. Process Management: manages processes (programs) running on the system.

2. Memory Management: allocates and deallocates memory for programs.
3. File System Management: manages file creation, deletion, and access.
4. Input/Output (I/O) Management: handles user input and output operations.
5. Security: controls access to system resources.
6. Networking: manages communication between systems.

Types of Operating Systems:

1. Single-User, Single-Tasking (e.g., MS-DOS)
2. Multi-User, Multi-Tasking (e.g., Unix, Linux)
3. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)
4. Mobile Operating Systems (e.g., Android, iOS)
5. Embedded Operating Systems (e.g., firmware)

Networks
A Network is a collection of interconnected devices that communicate and share resources.

Network Fundamentals:
1. Topology: physical and logical arrangement of devices.
2. Protocols: standards for data communication (e.g., TCP/IP).
3. Devices: routers, switches, hubs, and network interface cards (NICs).
4. Media: wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).
Network Types:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4. Wireless Network (WLAN)
5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

Network Layers:
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1): defines physical connections.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2): error-free transfer of data frames.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3): routing and addressing.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4): reliable data transfer.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5): establishes and manages connections.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6): data formatting and encryption.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7): supports user applications.

Network Security:
1. Firewalls
2. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)
3. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
4. Encryption
5. Access Control Lists (ACLs)

Network Protocols:

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
4. DNS (Domain Name System)
5. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

Operating System Components

1. Kernel: manages hardware resources
2. Device Drivers: interface between kernel and hardware
3. System Libraries: provide APIs for applications
4. System Services: manage system resources

Hardware Management
CPU Management
1. Process Scheduling: allocates CPU time to processes
- Scheduling Algorithms: FCFS, SJF, Priority, Round Robin
2. Context Switching: switches between processes
3. Interrupt Handling: handles hardware interrupts

Memory Management
1. Memory Allocation: allocates memory to processes
- Memory Allocation Algorithms: First-Fit, Best-Fit, Worst-Fit
2. Paging: divides memory into fixed-size pages
3. Segmentation: divides memory into variable-size segments
4. Virtual Memory: uses disk space to extend physical memory

Storage Management
1. File System Management: manages file creation, deletion, access
- File System Types: FAT, NTFS, ext2, ext3
2. Disk Scheduling: optimizes disk access
- Disk Scheduling Algorithms: FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN
3. Cache Management: optimizes data access

Input/Output (I/O) Management

1. I/O Scheduling: optimizes I/O operations
- I/O Scheduling Algorithms: FCFS, Priority, Round Robin
2. Buffering: temporarily stores data during I/O operations
3. Spooling: manages print jobs and other I/O tasks
Security Management
1. Authentication: verifies user identity
2. Authorization: controls access to system resources
3. Encryption: protects data from unauthorized access
4. Access Control Lists (ACLs): define access permissions

Operating System Hardware Interaction

1. BIOS (Basic Input/Output System): initializes hardware
2. Boot Process: loads operating system into memory
3. Device Drivers: interface between operating system and hardware
4. Interrupts: notify operating system of hardware events
5. System Calls: provide interface between applications and operating system

Hardware Components
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. Memory (RAM)
3. Storage Devices (Hard Disk, Solid State Drive)
4. Input Devices (Keyboard, Mouse)
5. Output Devices (Monitor, Printer)
6. Network Devices (Network Interface Card, Router)

Network
Definition: Network protocols are standardized sets of rules that govern data communication between
devices on a network.
Basic Protocols:
1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
4. DNS (Domain Name System)
5. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

Step-by-Step Explanation:

TCP/IP Protocol:
1. Data encapsulation: breaks data into packets
2.Addressing: assigns IP addresses to devices
3. Routing: forwards packets between networks
4. Error detection: ensures data integrity

HTTP Protocol:
1. Request: client sends request to server
2. Response: server sends response to client
3. Status codes: indicate response status (e.g., 200 OK)

FTP Protocol:
1. Connection establishment: client connects to server
2. File transfer: client uploads/downloads files
3.Disconnection: client disconnects from server

DNS Protocol:
1.Domain name resolution: maps domain names to IP addresses
2. Name server queries: retrieves IP addresses

DHCP Protocol:
1. IP address assignment: assigns IP addresses to devices
2. Lease management: manages IP address leases

Industrial Issues:)
1. Network congestion
2.Security threats (e.g., hacking, malware)
3.Scalability limitations
4. Interoperability issues
Modern Scope:)
1. Cloud computing
2. Internet of Things (IoT)
3.Software-defined networking (SDN)
4. Network function virtualization (NFV)

Advantages:)
1. Standardization
2. Interoperability
3 Scalability
4. Flexibility

Disadvantages:)
1. Complexity
2. Security risks
3.Compatibility issues
4. Performance limitations

Real-World Examples:)
1. Web browsing (HTTP, TCP/IP, DNS)
2. File sharing (FTP, TCP/IP)
3. Email communication (SMTP, TCP/IP)
4. Online gaming (TCP/IP, UDP)
Key Concepts:)
1. OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection)
2. Network topology
3. Protocol layers (application, transport, network, link, physical)
4. Network devices (routers, switches, hubs)