Waf. Res. Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 363-368, 1986 0043-1354186 $3.00 + 0.

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Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved Copyright 0 1986 Pergamon Press Ltd

ROLE OF AQUATIC PLANTS IN WASTEWATER

TREATMENT BY ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS
R. M. GERSBERCI-*, B. V. ELKINS',S. R. LYON~ and C. R. GOLD MAN^
'Sari Diego Region Water Reclamation Agency, 10887 Woodside Avenue, P.O. Box 70, Santee, CA 92071
and 2Division of Environmental Studies, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A.

(Received August 1985)

Abstract-This report describes investigations using artificial wetlands which quantitatively assess the role
of each of three higher aquatic plant types, Scirpus validus (bulrush), Phragmites communis (common reed)
and Typha lalifola (cattail), in the removal of nitrogen (via sequential nitrification-denitrification), BOD
and TSS from primary municipal wastewaters. During the period August 1983-December 1984, the mean
ammonia concentration of 24.7mgl-' in the primary wastewater inflow (hydraulic application
rate = 4.7 cm day-') was reduced to mean effluent levels of 1.4 mg 1-' for the bulrush bed, 5.3 mg1-I for
the reed bed and 17.7mg1-I for the cattail bed, as compared to a mean value of 22.1 mgl-I for the
unvegetated (control) bed. For all three vegetated beds, the mean effluent ammonia values were
significantly below that for the unvegetated bed and for the inflow. The bulrushes and reeds (in that order)
proved to be superior at removing ammonia, both with mean effluent levels significantly below that for
the cattail bed. The high ammonia-N (and total N) removal efficiencies shown by the bulrush and reed
beds are attributed to the ability of these plants to translocate 0, from the shoots to the roots. The oxidized
rhizosphere so formed stimulates sequential nitrification-denitrification. Similarly BOD removal
efficiencies were highest in the bulrush and reed beds, both with mean effluent BOD levels (5.3 and
22.2 mg I-', respectively) significantly below that for the unvegetated bed (36.4 mg I-') and equal to or
better than secondary treatment quality (30 mg I-'). Our results demonstrate that higher aquatic plants
can indeed play a significant role in secondary and advanced (N removal) wastewater treatment by wetland
systems, a role that is completely distinct from that associated with their pollutant uptake capacity.

Key words-artificial wetlands, wastewater treatment, Scirpus, Phragmites Typha, nitrification-

denitrification, wetland treatment, rhizosphere

INTRODUCTION the roots (Armstrong, 1964). The rhizosphere or

rootzone will therefore offer an oxidized micro-
The capacity for wastewater purification by both environment in an otherwise anaerobic substrate,
natural and artifical wetlands is well documented which stimulates both the decomposition of organic
(Spangler et al., 1976; Tilton et al., 1976; 6ersberg et matter and the growth of nitrifying bacteria, the
al., 1984a). Wetlands remove aquatic pollutants latter which can convert ammonia to nitrate. The
through a complex variety of biological, physical and nitrate so formed can then diffuse or percolate
chemical processes. Although the higher aquatic through to the oxygen-poor zones where it will be
plants are the most obvious biological component of removed from the system by denitrification.
the wetland ecosystem, recent reports in the literature While a few studies have been reported on the
point to the fact that uptake of pollutants by wetland relation between the oxidizing ability of aquatic plant
vegetation cannot by itself account for the high roots and the microbial processes (including nitrogen
pollutant removal efficiencies often observed a t the transformations) occurring in the substrate (Sherr
high loading rates characteristic of many treatment and Payne, 1978; Iizumi et al., 1980), there remains
situations (Stephensen et al., 1980; Nichols, 1983). a lack of information on the quantitative role of a
Rather, the major mechanisms for pollutant removal variety of higher plants in actual treatment situations
in these wetland systems include both bacterial trans- where either natural or artificial wetlands are being
formations and physico-chemical processing includ- used for wastewater purification.
ing adsorption, precipitation and sedimentation This report will present the results of studies on
(Chan el al., 1982). This is not to say however, that artificial wetlands a t the Santee Water Reclamation
the higher plants d o not play an important role in Facility, Santee, Calif., which quantitatively assess
wastewater purification. In particular, the plant rhi- the role of each of three higher aquatic plants, Scirpus
zome provides surfaces for bacterial growth as well as validus (bulrush), Phragmites contrnunis (common
for filtration of solids. More importantly, plants are reed) and Typha latijola (cattail), in the removal of
known to translocate oxygen (0,) from the shoots to nitrogen (via sequential nitrification-denitrification),
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total sus-
pended solids (TSS) from primary (I0) wastewaters
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. by these wetland systems.
 METHODS Table 1. Mean concentration of nitrogen, BOD and
total suspended solids in the primary wastewater at
All water samples were analyzed according to EPA the Santee, California Treatment Facility (all values
approved methodology (U.S. EPA, 1979a). Ammonia-N in m g l - ' )
was analyzed with an Orion ion selective electrode or by Total nitrogen (TN) = 27.8
colorimetry by the phenol-hypochlorite method. Nitrate- Total inorganic nitrogen (TIN) = 25.0
N + nitrite-N was determined as nitrite after cadmium Ammonia-N = 24.7
reduction. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) was determined Nitrate-N + Nitrite-N = 0.3
by Kjeldahl digestion and potentiometric analysis of BOD = 118.3
ammonia with an Orion ion selective electrode. BOD was Total suspended solids = 57.3
measured using a 5-day incubation at 20°C. Total suspended
solids were determined gravirnetrically after filtration and
drying to a constant weight at 103-105°C. Oxygen was The levels of ammonia-N in the inflow and the
measured using a YSI 54A Oxygen meter. Sample pH was
measured using an Ecolab Model 102B meter. outflow of the four wetland beds which received
Samples were collected weekly by pumping water from a primary wastewater at the application rate of 4.7 cm
standpipe reaching to the bottom at the effluent end of each day-' (residence time = 6 days) are shown in Fig. 2.
bed. Valves at the inflow and outflow of each bed were used During the period from August 1983 to December
to regulate flow rates (application rates) and control water 1984, the mean influent ammonia-N concentration of
level.
Tests for significant differences between treatments (plant +
24.7 5.8 mg 1-' was reduced to mean effluent levels
types) were determined by comparing the critical values for +
of 1.5 1.7 mgl-' for the bulrush bed, 5.4 +
the F-distribution with F-ratios for each treatment contrast. +
5.1 mg 1-' for the reed bed and 17.7 6.9 mg 1-' for
the cattail bed, as compared to a mean value of
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 22.1 f 4.9 mgl-' for the unvegetated (control) bed.
For all three vegetated beds, the mean effluent values
The artificial wetlands beds at the Santee Water were significantly below that for the unvegetated bed
Reclamation Facility consisted of plastic-lined (Hyp- ( p < 0.01) and for the inflow ( P < 0.01). The bul-
alon, 30 ml) excavations, each 18.5 m long x 3.5 m rushes and reeds (in that order) were superior at
wide x 0.76 m deep, containing emergent vegetation removing ammonia, and both produced effluent val-
growing in gravel (Fig. 1). Primary municipal waste- ues significantly lower than did the cattail bed
water from the Santee Water Reclamation Facility ( P < 0.01). Obviously, the presence of plants (and
was used as the inflow to each of four wetland beds; indeed, the type of plant) can make a significant
three, planted in either bulrushes, reeds or cattails, difference in ammonia removal efficiency.
and the fourth serving as an unvegetated control bed. The fate of ammonia entering wetlands in primary
Mean concentrations of ammonia-N, nitrate-N and wastewater can be determined by examining the data
nitrite-N, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), BOD and in Table 2 which show mean effluent levels of nitrate
TSS in the primary effiuent at the Santee Water (NO;-N) plus nitrite (NO;-N) for more than a year.
Reclamation Facility are presented in Table 1. Note Generally, mean effluent (NO; NO;)-N+ levels
that ammonia comprises nearly 90% of the total were lower than for the inflow, and except for the
nitrogen flowing into the artificial wetlands. bulrush! bed in spring of 1984 (mean level of

Fig. 1. Photograph of the artificial wetlands site at the Santee Water Reclamation Facility. For scale, note
the person standing in foreground. Each wetland bed is 18.5 m long x 3.5 m wide. From left to right are
the unvegetated beds, the reeds, the cattails (directly to person's right) and the bulrushes (darkly shaded
vegetation).
 Role of aquatic plants in wastewater treatment

45 7

Fig. 2. Level of ammonia-N in the inflow (0-0) and effluent of the vegetated and unvegetated beds,
at a primary wastewater application rate of 4.7 cm day-'. Inflow; unvegetated; 0 cattails; V reeds;
0 bulrushes.

2.0mgl-I), levels for any quarter never exceeded 0.7 mg I-' for all beds throughout the period of study.
0.6 mg 1-'. Mean (NO; + NO;)-N concentrations Even the rate of plant growth and associated nutrient
were 0.29 mgl-' for the inflow and 0.99, 0.05, 0.15 uptake could not account for the highly efficient N
and 0.09 mg I-' for bulrush, reed, cattail and un- removal we have observed. With a maximum annual
vegetated beds, respectively. Such low effluent harvestable yield of biomass in the range of 15-20 g
(NO; + NO;)-N levels in all the vegetated beds, dry ~ t m day-'
- ~ (Gersberg et al., 1983) and an N
indicate that nearly all the ammonia that was nitrified content of approx. 1% of the dry weight, then plant
in these wetlands must have subsequently been uptake could only account for about 13u-
denitrified, and lost from the system as gaseous N2 or 200 mgN m-2. This is only 12-16% of the overall
N,O. Indeed, Gersberg et al. (1983) have shown that removal of 1213 mg N m-2 day - ' we measured for
when sufficient dissolved carbon is present, these the bulrush bed which had primary wastewater
artificial wetlands are very efficient at promoting applied at the application rate of 4.7 cm day-'. This
denitrification, with removal efficiencies of greater estimate is also at the upper range of values reported
than 95% of the nitrate present in secondary waste- for the aboveground biomass nitrogen removal
waters at application rates of up to 40 cm day-'. potential of reeds, bulrushes and cattails (27-
Aside from sequential nitrification-denitrification, 190 mg N m-2 day-', Stephenson et al., 1980).
there appear to be no other mechanisms of nitrogen A comparison of ammonia removal efficiencies in
loss which could explain the efficient removal of the vegetated beds versus the unvegetated bed shows
ammonia shown in Fig. 2 for the bulrush and reed that the presence of the plants did indeed make: a
beds. Waters flowing through the wetlands have a pH difference (although not just via N-incorporation into
of near neutrality, and therefore significant losses of plant biomass). We measured 94% removal for the
ammonia by volatilization would not be expected. bulrushes, 78% for the reeds and 28% for the cattails,
Losses of nitrogen as particulate N (PN) were also as compared with only 11% for the unvegetated bed.
low, with mean effluent PN values of less than Clearly, sequential nitrification-denitrification was

Table 2. Mean concentrations of nitrate-N + nitrite-N in the inflow and effluent of the artificial
wetland beds (all values in m e I-')
Summer 1983 Fa11 1983 Winter 1984 Spring 1984 Summer 1984
(Aug.-Sept.) (0ct.-Dec.) (Jan.-March) (April-June) (JulyUct.)
Inflow* 0.02 0.02 0.93 0.16 0.14
Cattails 0.03 0.01 0.59 0.02 0.03
Reeds 0.0 0.01 0.10 0.10 0.04
Bulrushes - - 0.43 2.05 0.19
Unvegetated 0.01 0.04 0.29 0.03 0.03
'Primary wastewater, hydraulic application rate = 4.7 cm day-'.
366 R. M. GER~BERG
et al.

somehow impeded in the cattail bed as compared to cattail has the shallowest root zone, most of its root
the two other plant types. The same situation was biomass being confined to the top 30 cm of substrate.
true for the unvegetated bed which also lacked any N The root zone of the bulrushes and reeds on the other
uptake by the plants. It had a mean effluent ammonia hand, extended to > 60 cm and 76 cm, respectively.
value significantly different (P < 0.05) than that for Therefore oxidized conditions favoring nitrification
the primary wastewater inflow, but only slightly were probably more extensive in these beds. We also
lower (11%). found that after 2-3 months of operation using
The high nitrogen removal efficiencies shown by primary wastewater as sole source of inflow, the
the bulrush and reed beds may be explained by the cattails showed a marked yellowing, and most had
ability of many aquatic macrophytes to transport died after 6 months. We have repeatedly observed
oxygen down to the roots, thereby establishing an this toxic effect whenever primary wastewater (but
oxidized rhizosphere (Armstrong, 1964). Teal and not secondary wastewater) from the Santee Facility
Kanwisher (1966) and Howes et al. (1981) showed was applied to the cattails. Since the Santee Water
that Spartina was able to oxidize the sediment in the Reclamation Facility receives little industrial waste,
rhizosphere and that the redox potential was higher the concentration of toxic heavy metals and organic
in the root zone of the grass than in unvegetated chemicals in the wastewater is very low. The presence
sediments. Sherr and Payne (1979) found that the of high levels (25mgl-') of ammonia-N in the
presence of aquatic plants (Spartina) enhanced the primary but not the secondary wastewater may ex-
formation of oxides of nitrogen in the rhizosphere. plain the toxic effect we observed (Haynes and Goh,
Iizumi et al. (1980) showed that oxygen released by 1978). Jackson and Gould (1981) using Typha sp.
ther roots of the eelgrass (Zostera) sustained a sedi- grown in a synthetic wastewater containing 33 mg I-'
ment nitrification rate of the same order of magnitude of ammonia-N also reported growth inhibition of
as the denitrification rate. Similarly, Hansen and cattail plants and found that when the wastewater
Andersen (1981) showed that the potential nitrifi- strength was reduced by dilution their growth was
cation rate in sediments from a Phragmites (reed) much improved. The bulrushes and reeds remained
swamp was three times higher than for sediments very healthy throughout our study, and indeed have
without plants from deeper waters. All this evidence been shown to grow well even when supplemented
supports the hypothesis that nitrifying bacteria can with raw wastewater in other studies (Seidel, 1976;
be directly stimulated by the oxidizing abilities of the Small, 1976).
rhizome. Our data are entirely consistent with this The BOD removal efficiencies for the vegetated and
hypothesis. unvegetated beds for the period from August 1983 to
Of the three plant types that we tested, the cattail October 1984 are presented in Fig. 3. The treatment
was the poorest performer with regard to ammonia afforded by the bulrush was superior to the other
removal. This may be attributed to the fact that the plant types, with a mean effluent BOD concentration

A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N
1983 1984
Fig. 3. Level of BOD, (biochemicaloxygen demand) in the inflow (0-e) and effluent of the vegetated
and unvegetated beds, at a primary wastewater application rate of 4.7cm day-'. Inflow;
unvegetated; 0 cattails; C7 reeds; 0 bulrushes.
 Role of aquatic plants in wastewater treatment 367

of 5.3 + 5.2 mg 1-I. This value is significantly lower of constructed wetlands would be required to treat
than values for both the reed and cattail beds and the one million gallons (3785 m') per day.
unvegetated bed ( P < 0.01). Mean effluent BOD Cost estimates (which include the expense of an
+
levels were 22.3 16.6 mg 1-' for reeds, 30.4 + annual biomass harvest) show that artificial wetland
+
21.7 mg 1-' for cattails and 36.4 18.9 mg I-' for the treatment is a lower-cost alternative to conventional
unvegetated bed with all values significantly below secondary treatment processes with regard to both
+
the mean BOD level of 118.3 45.4 mg I-' for the capital, and operation and maintenance (O&M) ex-
primary wastewater inflow. Mean BOD removal pense (Gersberg et al., 1984b). With regard to O&M,
efficiencies (relative to the inflow) were 96, 8 1, 74 and a major cost savings is due to the fact that forced
69%, for the bulrushes, reeds, cattails and un- aeration (as in the activated sludge process) is not
vegetated beds, respectively. The mean effluent value necessary with wetland treatment. Rather, the vegeta-
of 22.3 mg 1-' for the reed bed was also significantly tion translocates oxygen into the underlying substrate
lower ( P < 0.05) than the value for the unvegetated thereby stimulating both nitrification of ammonia
bed. The cattail bed was again the poorest performer and the breakdown of BOD. Such cost and energy
with regard to BOD removal, having a mean effluent savings make artificial wetlands planted with bul-
level not significantly different from the unvegetated rushes or reeds an attractive approach for integrated
bed. Only the reed and bulrush beds showed treat- secondary and advanced (N removal) treatment of
ment equal or better than secondary treatment qual- municipal wastewaters.
ity (30 mg I-'). Since BOD removal (organic carbon
compound degradation) is enhanced under aerobic Acknowledgements-We thank R. Brenner, D. Allen, C.
Loss and I. Cotton for technical support and the Board of
conditions, it is reasonable to assume that the supe- Directors, Manager (E. Houser) and Staff of the Padre Dam
rior treatment afforded by the bulrush (and to a lesser Municipal Water District for providing space and facilities.
extent the reeds) was due to plant translocation of We also thank V. Rosenbrook for help with manuscript
oxygen to an otherwise anaerobic zone, thereby preparation and R. Axler for critical review. The California
Department of Water Resources (Grant B-53459 AM IV; R.
stimulating breakdown of carbonaceous compounds. Lindholm, Project Officer), the U.S. Environmental Protec-
An examination of the data on ammonia-N and tion Agency (Grant CR-807299-03-0; L. Leach, Project
BOD removal in Figs 2 and 3 reveals no definitive Officer) and the members of the San Diego Region Water
seasonal trends. Of course, our studies were carried Reclamation Agency provided financial support.
out in the San Diego region of southern California
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