GENDER AND INEQUALITY

Gender inequality is discrimination based on sex or gender causing one sex or gender to be
routinely privileged or prioritized over another.
Understanding Gender-based Discrimination

The discrimination embedded in social institutions – laws, social norms and practices – is a key
driver of this inequality, perpetuating gender gaps in education, employment and health, and
hindering progress towards rights-based social transformation.
One of the major causes of gender inequality is the lack of awareness among women about
their rights and their ability to achieve equality. This lack of awareness is often due to the
prevailing cultural and social norms, which dictate that women should be subservient to men.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
Structural-Functionalist Perspective
 A macro-level theory that views society as a system of interrelated parts that work together
to maintain stability and order. It focuses on how social institutions and culture work.
 As emphasized by Emile Durkheim, shared beliefs, languages, and symbols are what hold
society together (social facts); social institutions work together to meet the needs of a society.
 It emphasizes how various social institutions work together to meet needs of a society.
 It views society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and
social needs of individuals that make up the society.
 Gender inequality viewed as a functional part of society. It suggests that traditional gender
roles serve a purpose in maintaining social order. For example women as caregivers,
homemakers while men as breadwinners and providers
 It examines how gender roles and inequality contribute to overall stability and functiong of
society.
 It views family as the most integral component of society, assumptions about gender roles
within marriage assumed a prominent place in this perspective.
 It argues that gender roles were established well befre the pre-industrial era when men
typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home e.g. hunting, and women typically took
care of the domestic responsibiities in or around the house. These roles were considered
functional because women were often limited by physical restraints of pregnancy and nursing
and were unable to leavethe house for long periods of time.
 These roles were passed on to the subsequnet generations, since they served as an
effective means of keeping the family system functioning properly.
 When changes occurred in the social and economic climate, changes in the family structure
also occurred e.g. many women had to assume the role of breadwinners alongside their
domestic role in order to stabilize a rapidly changing society.
 It suggests that gender roles are a result of the division of labor where women and men
have different roles and responsibilities in society to maintain order. Gender roles are viewed as
a practical requirement.
 The functionalist perspective of gender roles suggests that gender roles exist to
maximize social efficiency.
 A theory that suggests that gender inequalities exist as an efficient way to create a
division of labor, or a social system in which a particular segment of the population is
clearly responsible for certain acts of labor and another segment is clearly responsible
for other labor acts.
 A broad social theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together
to promote solidarity and stability.
 A structural functionalist view of gender inequality applies the division of labor to view
predefined gender roles as complementary: women take care of the home while men
provide for the family. Thus gender, like other social institutions, contributes to the
stability of society.
 A division of labor is the dividing and specializing of cooperative labor into specifically
circumscribed tasks and roles.
 It sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and
stability. This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a
broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole and looks at both
social structure and social functions. Functionalism addresses society in terms of the
 function of its constituent elements, namely: norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.
A common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as
“organs” that work toward the proper functioning of the “body” as a whole.
 The functionalist perspective of gender inequality was most robustly articulated in the
1940s and 1950s, and largely developed by Talcott Parsons’ model of the nuclear
family. This theory suggests that gender inequalities exist as an efficient way to create a
division of labor, or as a social system in which segments are clearly responsible for
certain, respective acts of labor. The division of labor works to maximize resources and
efficiency.
 In sociological research, functional prerequisites are the basic needs (food, shelter,
clothing, and money) that an individual requires to live above the poverty line. Functional
prerequisites may also refer to the factors that allow a society to maintain social order.
 According to structural functionalists, gender serves to maintain social order by providing
and ensuring the stability of such functional prerequisites.
 This view has been criticized for reifying, rather than reflecting, gender roles. While
gender roles, according to the functionalist perspective, are beneficial in that they
contribute to stable social relations, many argue that gender roles are discriminatory and
should not be upheld. The feminist movement, which was on the rise while functionalism
began to decline, takes the position that functionalism neglects the suppression of
women within the family structure.
 This perspective can justify and perpetuate traditional gender roles and inequalities. It
recognizes the role of social norms and expectations in shaping gender roles.

Conflict theory

 This perspective views society is made up of individuals in different social classes wo

must compete for social, material, and political resources (food, housing, employment,
education, lesiure, time). social institutions (government, education, religion,etc.) reflect
this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal social
structure. Some individuals and organizations are able to obtain and keep more
resources than others, and they use their power and influence to maintain social
institutions. The perpetuation of power results in the perpetuation of oppression.
Inequalities of political power and social structure in addition to economic inequalities
cause conflict (Max Weber).
 Different groups were affected differently based on education, race, and gender, and
that people’s reaction to inequality were moderated by class differences and rates of
social mobility, as well as perceptions about legitimacy of those in power.
 According to conflict theory, society is defined by a struggle for dominance among
social groups that compete for scarce resources. In the context of gender, conflict
theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and
privilege to the detriment of women. Therefore, men can be seen as the dominant
group and women as the subordinate group. While certain gender roles may have been
appropriate in a hunter-gatherer society, conflict theorists argue that the only reason
these roles persist is because the dominant group naturally works to maintain their
power and status.
 According to conflict theory, social problems are created when dominant groups exploit
or oppress subordinate groups. Therefore, their approach is normative in that it
prescribes changes to the power structure, advocating a balance of power between
genders.
 Suggests that men, as the dominant gender, subordinate women in order to maintain
power and privilege in society.
 Conflict theory asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat
subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders.
 Women’s Suffrage Movement or the debate over women’s ‘right to choose’ their
reproductive futures. It is difficult for women to rise above men as dominant group
members create the rules for success and opportunitiy in society (Furringtonand
Chertok, 1993).
 Women assuming the role of the proletariat (workplace and household) due to women’s
dependence on men for the attainment of wages, which is even worse for women who
are entirely dependent upon their spouses for economic support.
  When women became wage earners, they can gain power in the family structure and
create more democratic arrangements in the home, although they may still carry the
majority of the domestic burden (Rismon and Johnson-Summerford, 1998).
 Men have historically had more power and have used it to preserve their dominance,
which is seen as the cause of gender disparity. It focuses on the exploitations and
oppression of women across a range of social institutions.
 Low value attached to women’s household and caregiving work is not an individual or
family matter. It is part of a larger system of inequality between men and women. It is
therefore, has to be dealt with through actions not just at the level of the individual or
the family but also by the government.
 Equality is an important principle of our Constitution. The Constitution says that being
male or female should not become a reason for discrimination. In reality, inequality
between the sexes exist.
 Frederich Engels compared the family structure to the relationship between the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat, suggesting that women had less power than men in the
household because they were dependent on them for wages.
 Men, like any other group with a power or wealth advantage, fought to maintain their
control over resources (in this case, political and economic power). Conflict between the
two groups caused things like the Women’s Suffrage Movement and was responsible
for social change.
 In most cultures, men have historically held most of the world’s resources. Until
relatively recently, women in Western cultures could not vote or hold property, making
them entirely dependent on men. Men, like any other group with a power or wealth
advantage, fought to maintain their control over resources (in this case, political and
economic power). Conflict between the two groups caused things like the Women’s
Suffrage Movement and was responsible for social change.
 Friedrich Engels, a German sociologist, studied family structure and gender roles from a
Marxist perspective. Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in
the labor force could also be seen in the household, with women assuming the role of
the proletariat. This was due to women’s dependence on men for the attainment of
wages.
 Contemporary conflict theorists suggest that when women become wage earners, they
gain power in the family structure and create more democratic arrangements in the
home, although they may still carry most of the domestic burden.
 Conflict theory is a social science perspective which holds that stratification is
dysfunctional and harmful in society, with inequality perpetuated because it benefits the
rich and powerful at the expense of the poor.

In sociology, social stratification occurs when differences lead to greater status, power, or
privilege for some groups over others. Simply put, it is a system by which society ranks
categories of people in a hierarchy. Members of society are socially stratified on many levels,
including socio-economic status, race, class, ethnicity, religion, ability status, and gender.
Gender stratification occurs when gender differences give men greater privilege and power over
women, transgender, and gender-non-conforming people.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

 This viewpoint puts special emphasis on the small-scale interactions and symbols that
influence people’s experience and perceptions. How subjective, repetitive, and
meaningful interactions between people establish society is more significant than its
actual structure.
 Gender is produced and reinforced through daily interactions and the use of symbols.
Scholars of interactionism study how individuals act within society and believe that
meaning is produced through interactions.
 According to interactionists, gender stratification exists because people act toward each
other based on the meanings they have for each other, and that these meanings are
derived from social interaction.
 According to Cooley’s concept of the “looking-glass self,” an individual’s understanding of
their gender role is based on how society perceives them. Thus, if society views a man
as masculine, he will also perceive himself to be masculine.

Critics:
 This viewpoint would not take into consideration societal factors/forcesthat have a
significant impact on what we perceive race and gender to mean in the contexts of race and
gender such as systemic recession or gender discrimination.
 Gender inequality is seen to be a result of social interaction and associations given to
gender. It implies that people create the gender identities through social interactions which can
strengthen prejudice and create uneven power structures.
 The use of symbols and language (gender-fair language (e.g. fisherfolks, freshies,
firefighters, chairpersons).
 “Doing gender” is the notion that masculinity and feminity are performed gender identities.
Gender is something we do or perform, not something we are. In sociology, interactionism is a
theoretical perspective that understands social processes (such as conflict, cooperation, identity
formation) as emerging from human interaction. Scholars of this perspective study how
individuals act within society and believe that meaning is produced through the interactions of
individuals. According to interactionists, gender stratification exists because people act toward
each other based on the meanings they have for one another. Interactionists believe that these
meanings are derived through social interaction, and that these meanings are managed and
transformed through an interpretive process that people use to make sense of, and handle, the
objects that constitute their social worlds.

Goffman and Control

Social interaction is a face-to-face process that consists of actions, reactions, and mutual
adaptation between two or more individuals. The goal of social interaction is to communicate
with others. Social interaction includes all language, including body language and mannerisms.
Erving Goffman, one of the forefathers of this theoretical perspective, emphasized the
importance of control in social interactions. According to Goffman, during an interaction,
individuals will attempt to control the behavior of the other participants, to attain needed
information, and in order to control the perception of one’s own image. If the interaction is in
danger of ending before an individual wants it to, it can be conserved through several steps.
One conversational partner can conform to the expectations of the other, he or she can ignore
certain incidents, or he or she can solve apparent problems.

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of
symbols in human interaction. This is certainly relevant to the discussion of masculinity and
femininity because the characteristics and practices of both are socially constructed,
reproduced, and reinforced through daily interactions. Imagine, for example, that you walk into a
bank, hoping to get a small loan for school, a home, or a small business venture. If you meet
with a male loan officer, you might state your case logically, listing all of the hard numbers that
make you a qualified applicant for the loan. This type of approach would appeal to the analytical
characteristics typically associated with masculinity. If you meet with a female loan officer, on
the other hand, you might make an emotional appeal, by stating your positive social intentions.
This type of approach would appeal to the sensitive and relational characteristics typically
associated with femininity.

Gender as Performance

The meanings attached to symbols are socially created and fluid, instead of natural and static.
Because of this, we act and react to symbols based on their current assigned meanings. Both
masculinity and femininity are performed gender identities, in the sense that gender is
something we do or perform, not something we are. In response to this phenomenon, the
sociologist Charles H. Cooley’s developed the theory of the “looking-glass self” (1902). In this
theory, Cooley argued that an individual’s perception of himself or herself is based primarily on
how society views him or her. In the context of gender, if society perceives a man as masculine,
that man will consider himself as masculine. Thus, when people perform tasks or possess
characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them, they are said to be doing
gender (rather than “being” gender), a notion first coined by West and Zimmerman (1987). West
& Zimmerman emphasized that gender is maintained through accountability. Men and women
are expected to perform their gender to the point that it is naturalized, and thus, their status
depends on their performance.
Feminist Perspective
 Feminist theory analyzes gender stratification through the intersection of gender, race,
and class.
 Gender stratification occurs when gender differences give men greater privilege and
power over women, transgender and gender-non-conforming people.
 Feminist theory uses the conflict approach to examine the reinforcement of gender roles
and inequalities, highlighting the role of patriarchy in maintaining the oppression of
women.
 Feminism focuses on the theory of patriarchy as a system of power that organizes
society into a complex of relationships based on the assertion of male supremacy.
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical discourse. It
aims to understand the nature of gender inequality, and examines women’s social roles,
experiences, and interests. While generally providing a critique of social relations, much
of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of
women’s interests.
 Intersectionality suggests that various forms of oppression– such as racism, classism,
and sexism — are interrelated to form a system of oppression in which various forms of
discrimination intersect. The theory was first highlighted by Kimberlé Krenshaw.
 Intersectionality suggests that various biological, social, and cultural categories–
including gender, race, class, and ethnicity — interact and contribute towards systematic
social inequality. Therefore, various forms of oppression do not act independently but
are interrelated.
 Mary Ann Weathers drew attention to the ways in which white women face a different
form of discrimination than working class women of color, who additionally must fight
racism and class oppression.
 Patriarchy: The dominance of men in social or cultural systems.
 Intersectionality: The idea that various biological, social, and cultural categories–
including gender, race, class, and ethnicity– interact and contribute towards systematic
social inequality.

Souces and Forms of Gender Discrimination:

 Family and parents
 Division of labor inside the home
 Appointment, promotion, and placement
 Property, incomes, and control over resources
 Education, textbooks, curriculum, and teachers
 Nutrition, helath, and leisure
 Government policies