1 s2.0 S0254629921004920 Main

South African Journal of Botany 146 (2022) 481 490
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
South African Journal of Botany

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sajb
Efficacy of essential oils against gray mold and effect on fruit quality
during cold storage in table grapes
Mohamed I. Elsayeda,*, Adel D. Al-Qurashia, Najeeb Marei Almasaudia,
Kamal A.M Abo-Elyousra,b
a
Department of Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 80208, Saudi Arabia
b
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Assiut, Assiut 71526, Egypt
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: This study investigated the effect of thyme, cinnamon, and oregano essential oil treatment (spraying and
Received 23 February 2021 fumigation) on gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) and the quality of Taify table grapes in cold storage. Fruit were
Revised 23 November 2021 sprayed with 0.5% and 1% concentrations, fumigated with 2% or 4% concentrations, and stored at 2 °C § 1 °C
Accepted 24 November 2021
for 4 weeks. Compared with the untreated controls, all treatments had a stronger effect on quality mainte-
Available online 5 December 2021
nance. In addition, spraying was more effective than fumigation. Fruit sprayed with oregano oil with 1% con-
Edited by Dr O.O. Olarewaju centration exhibited the least weight loss, decay, infection, and physical damage. They also exhibited the
least changes in soluble solid content, vitamin C, and berry coloring. The second most effective treatment
Keywords:
was spraying with cinnamon oil with 1% concentration. Furthermore, all treatments reduced the natural
Antioxidant
occurrence of B. cinerea. The highest reductions were observed in the oregano treatments (spraying with 1%
Cinnamon
and 4% concentrations). The lowest reductions were observed in the thyme treatments (spraying with 0.5%
Thyme
Oregano and 1% concentrations). The lowest levels of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes were observed in
Essential oils the treatments with oregano (spraying with 0.5% and 1% concentration) and cinnamon (spraying with 1%
Cold storage concentration). Our results suggest that cinnamon and oregano essential oils could be used as natural anti-
Table grape fungal compounds during postharvest storage.
© 2021 SAAB. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Botrytis spp. kills the host cells through the production of reactive
oxygen species and toxins and the induction of a plant-produced oxi-
Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most valuable fruit crops dative burst (Choquer et al., 2007; Abdel-Rahim, and Abo-Elyousr,
worldwide. The table grape is a nonclimacteric fruit characterized by 2018). Two groups of nonspecific phytotoxins have been identified:
a relatively low rate of physiological activity (Youssef et al., 2020). botcinic acid and its botcinin derivatives, and sesquiterpene botrydial
Thousands of years of cultivation have resulted in various cultivars and related compounds. Botrydial is produced during plant infection
and improved fruit quality. With a growing market share for table and induces chlorosis and cell collapse (Tani et al., 2006).
grapes, the need for processing, storage, and marketing technologies Methods for controlling fungal diseases commonly involve apply-
that allow table grapes to remain fresh and visually appealing while ing chemical fungicides. However, the use of fungicides leads to the
not affecting the taste has increased (Khan et al., 2020). selection for resistant strains, environmental pollution, and human
Gray mold disease, caused by Botrytis cinerea, is one of the most health impacts (Bagy et al., 2021). Therefore, researchers have been
detrimental diseases affecting table grapes (Simone et al., 2020), searching for new and nontoxic control methods. Ideal methods pro-
affecting approximately 90% of the production during postharvest, vide efficient pathogen control and cause no or little impact on non-
handling, and storage (Hernandez-Montiel et al., 2018). Because pathogenic organisms (Sallam et al., 2012; Lachhab et al., 2015;
grapes have a high water content, pH, and nutrient composition, they Youssef et al., 2019). Essential oils provide one such means. They can
are easily affected by fungi. Such fungi produce mycotoxins, which be used to control postharvest pathogens and preserve fruit quality.
are toxic to both humans and animals (Gatto et al., 2011; Zain, 2011). Essential oils consist of various volatile compounds that act synergis-
tically and exhibit antifungal and antimicrobial effects (Abdel-
Rahim and Abo-Elyousr, 2017). Numerous opportunities exist for
exploring their utility in the management of postharvest diseases
Abbreviation: TH, Thyme; CI, Cinnamon; OR, Oregano; PPO, Polyphenol oxidase; POD,
peroxidase with a wide range of natural fungicidal plant volatiles (Blasi and Cos-
* Corresponding author. signani, 2020). The bioactivity in the vapor phase is one of the
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.I. Elsayed).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2021.11.046
0254-6299/© 2021 SAAB. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.I. Elsayed, A.D. Al-Qurashi, N.M. Almasaudi et al. South African Journal of Botany 146 (2022) 481 490
advantages of essential oils, a characteristic that makes them attrac- The treatments comprised one of the following essential oil
tive as possible fumigants for stored product protection. Essential oils applications:
play a vital role in plant defense mechanisms against phytopatho-
genic microorganisms (Kumar and Kudachikar, 2018) Thyme (TH) 0.5% (T1) and thyme (TH) 1% (T2);
Essential oil vapor treatment is ideal for controlling fruit mold Cinnamon (CI) 0.5% (T3) and cinnamon (CI) 1% (T4);
because it leaves no residuals on the fruit (Tian et al., 2011; Solgi and Oregano (OR) 0.5% (T5) and oregano (OR) 1% (T6).
Ghorbanpour, 2014). The antioxidant properties of essential oils have
been abundantly verified in vitro, and the antioxidant capacity of
some phenolic compounds has allowed them to be used as natural 2.2.2. Vapor sheets
additives (Fontana et al., 2020). Nieto (2020) suggested that the anti- This treatment was applied by placing polyethylene bags
fungal activity of essential oils might be based on two distinct mecha- (20 £ 30 cm) containing the grapes at the bottom of cardboard boxes
nisms: one of these irreversibly disrupts the cell membrane by cross- (3 kg for each box) that were placed in cold storage. Each bag had 12
linkage reactions, and the other one involves selective insertion into holes (diameter, 0.5 cm) and contained four filter sheets (size, No. 1)
the lipid-rich portion of the cell membrane, thereby disturbing mem- that were impregnated with each of the oils. To prepare the sheets,
brane function. Carvacrol has a proven fungicidal activity, and it the oils were dissolved according to the requisite amount for each oil
exhibited the highest inhibitory activity against several postharvest (20 mL/L) in 25 mL of 0.05% tween-80 and then mixed with 955 mL
pathogens in a study by Spadaro and Gullino (2014). In addition, in a of water for a concentration of 2%, and (40 mL/L) in 25 mL of 0.05%
study by Pei et al. (2020), a reduction of infection by the application tween-80 and then mixed with 935 mL of water for a concentration
of carvacrol was associated with a reduction in the respiration rate of 4%. All treated bunches were packed in one layer in the cardboard
caused by maintained tissue integrity, and damaged tissue exhibited boxes and stored at 2 °C § 1 °C with 90% 95% relative humidity for 4
a higher respiration rate than nondamaged tissue in fruit. weeks. Samples were taken from three replicates of each treatment
The main objective of this research is to evaluate the effects of and examined weekly.
applying thyme, cinnamon, and oregano essential oils in the vapor The treatments comprised one of the following essential oil
phase and as spray on the physiological response of table grapes dur- applications:
ing cold storage at 2 °C as well as on the reduction of gray mold dis-
ease caused by B. cinerea. Thyme (TH) 2% (T7) and thyme (TH) 4% (T8);
Cinnamon (CI) 2% (T9) and cinnamon (CI) 4% (T10);
Oregano (OR) 2% (T11) and oregano (OR) 4% (T12);
2. Material and methods
Control (untreated fruit; T13).
2.1. Source of essential oils
The following pure-grade essential oils (without synthetic chemi- 2.3. Measurement of physical and chemical properties
cals or non-natural components; 99% 100% pure) were used: thyme
[Thymus vulgaris; the main compounds in thyme are thymol 2.3.1. Weight loss percentage
(58.77%), menthol (46.45%), and R (+) citronellal (27.59%)], cinnamon Fruit were periodically weighed, and the percentage of weight
[Cinnamomum verum L.; the main compounds in cinnamon are cinna- loss was calculated as the difference between the initial weight and
maldehyde (79.73%), linalool (4.08%), cinnamaldehyde paramethoxy the weight recorded on the sampling date according to Youssef and
(2.66%), eugenol (2.37%), and trans-caryophyllene (2.05%)], and oreg- Roberto (2014).
ano [Origanum vulgare L.; the main compounds in oregano are carva-
crol (63.97%), p-cymene (12.63%), and linalool (3.67%)]. Essential oils 2.3.2. Gray mold incidence
were purchased from EL-Masrayia For Natural Oils (Egypt) and stored The incidence of naturally occurring rot caused by gray mold was
in opaque bottles at 4 °C until further use. evaluated, and the amount of infected grape berries was expressed as
the percentage of rotten berries according to Junior et al. (2019).
2.2. Grapes and treatments 2.3.3. Physical damage to berries

The percentage of berries exhibiting physical damage was evalu-
For this study, Taify table grapes (V. vinifera L.) were harvested at a ated weekly by counting the loose berries inside a box and expressed
private orchard in the Taif region of Saudi Arabia. Mature fruit were as a percentage according to Junior et al. (2019).
picked according to Tourkey et al. (1995). Bunches that were sym-
metrical, similar in size, and free from pathological symptoms or 2.3.4. Berry texture (g/cm2)
physical damage were used in the experiment. After harvest, fruit Berry texture was assessed through measurement with a digital
were immediately transported to the laboratory and placed in refrig- basic force gage (model BFG 50 N, Mecmesin, Sterling, Virginia, USA)
erated rooms. They were retrieved when the pulp temperature was supplemented with a probe of 2 mm diameter independently in 10
between 0.5 °C and 0.5 °C. Fruit were randomly assigned to groups fruit per replicate. Results were expressed as Newton (N).
and subjected to the treatments described in the following subsec-
tions. 2.3.5. Total soluble solids
A digital refractometer (Pocket Refractometer PAL 3, ATAGO,
2.2.1. Spraying Japan) was used to determine the percentage of total soluble solids in
Thyme, cinnamon, and oregano oils were dissolved according to the fruit juice according to A.O.A.C. (2000)
the requisite amount of each oil (5 mL/L) in 23 mL of 0.05% tween-80
and then mixed with 972 mL of water for a concentration of 0.5%, 2.3.6. Titratable acidity and vitamin C
and (10 mL/L) in 23 mL of 0.05% tween-80 and then mixed with Titratable acidity was determined by potentiometric titration with
968 mL of water for a concentration of 1%. Grapes were sprayed with 0.1 N NaOH up to pH 8.2 using 10 mL of diluted juice in 40 mL of dis-
these solutions of each oil using a hand sprayer and air-dried at room tilled water. The results were expressed as tartaric acid percentage
temperature (Hadizadeh et al., 2009). Samples were retrieved from (%). Vitamin C value, which was estimated according to A.O.A.
three replicates for each treatment and examined weekly. C. (2000), was presented as a fraction (mg/100 mL) of the juice.
482
2.3.7. Hue angle activity was defined as the amount of enzymes that increased the O.
Grape color was measured using a model colorimeter (color D. by 1.0 per 1 min under standard assay conditions.
reader CR-410, Konica Minolta Inc., Japan), and estimation of a, b, hue Polyphenol oxidase assay. Polyphenol oxidase (EC 1.14.18.1) (PPO)
angle (h°), and lightness (L.) was performed according to activity was assayed according to Jiang et al. (2002). A total of 0.2 mL
McGuire (1992). of extract was mixed rapidly with 2.8 mL of 20 mM catechol solution
prepared in 0.01 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.8). At 400 nm, the
2.4. Determination of biochemical properties increase in absorbance was detected for 3 min. One unit of enzyme
activity was defined as the amount of the enzymes causing a change
2.4.1. Phenol and flavonoid contents of 0.1 in absorbance per min.
Preparation of the methanol extract. Two grams of grape tissue was
extracted with 20 mL of methanol (80%) by shaking at 150 rpm for 2.5. Statistical analysis
24 h and then filtered using filter paper No. 1. The filtrate was desig-
nated as the methanol extract. Data were statistically analyzed using a randomized design with
Estimation of total phenols. Total phenol concentration was deter- three replicates (Snedecor and Cochran, 1980). Samples were taken
mined according to Hoff and Singleton (1977) by adding 100 mL of from three replicates for each treatment and examined weekly. Com-
Folin Ciocalteu reagent and 850 mL of methanol to 50 mL of the parisons among means were performed using least significant differ-
methanol extract. The mixture was left at ambient temperature for ence test at p 0.05.
5 min. Then, 500 mL of 20% sodium carbonate was added, and the
mixture was incubated for 30 min. Absorbance at 750 nm wavelength 3. Results
was used for the measurement of the samples.
The calibration curve of the absorbance of known concentrations 3.1. Weight loss
of gallic acid was used to quantify total phenol concentration and
was expressed as g/kg 1 FW gallic acid equivalent. Fruit weight loss increased with storage duration for all treated
Estimation of total flavonoids. Total flavonoid concentration was and untreated fruit (Table 1). On average, the treated groups exhib-
measured according to Zhishen et al. (1999). A mixture of 250 mL of ited less weight loss than the control group, except for the fumigated
methanol extract and 1.25 mL of distilled water was added to 75 mL fruit with 2% TH (8.4%) or 4% CI (6.5%). However, these differences
of NaNO2 solution (5%). After 6 min, 150 mL of AlCl3 (10%) was added, were not statistically significant. Although all essential oil treatments
followed by 0.5 mL of NaOH (1 M) and 275 mL of distilled water. The exhibited lower weight loss than the control group, sprayed fruit
mixture was left for 5 min. Sample absorbance was measured at exhibited a lower weight loss than fumigated fruit. The data reveal
510 nm. The total flavonoid content was quantified and expressed as that the interaction at the final sampling was the lower than that of
g/kg 1 FW catechin according to the calibration curve of the absor- the control. Furthermore, fruit sprayed with 1% OR exhibited the low-
bance of known concentrations of catechin. est weight loss (0.61%), followed by fruit sprayed with 1% CI, both on
the basis of average data and at the end of storage. By contrast, fruit
2.4.2. Measurements of enzymes in the control group exhibited the highest weight loss (4.05%).
Crude extract. Two grams of fruit was homogenized with 20 mM
Tris HCl and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min at 4 °C. The super- 3.2. Gray mold incidence
natant was designated as the crude extract and stored at 20 °C for
peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase assay. In general, decay was caused by B. cinerea. The decay caused by
Peroxidase assay. According to Miranda et al. (1995), peroxidase other fungi (i.e., Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp.) was negligible.
(EC 1.11.1.7) activity (POD) was assayed using 1 mL of the reaction The incidence of gray mold disease increased toward the end of the
mixture [0.008 mL of 0.97 M H2O2, 0.08 mL of 0.5 M guaiacol, 0.25 mL experiment (4 weeks). Most disease occurrence was observed in the
of 0.2 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.5), and the least amount of control group. The greatest reductions of disease incidence were
enzyme preparation]. At 470 nm change in absorbance for 1 min achieved by 0.5% CI (spraying) and 4% OR (fumigation) treatments,
(referring to guaiacol), oxidation was measured. One unit of enzyme and mold occurrence was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in these
Table 1
Effect of treatments with essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum L.) and oregano
(Origanum vulgare L.) on weight loss percentage of ‘Taify’ grapes.
Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 0.0 0.79 1.36 1.93 2.41 1.30
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 0.0 1.24 1.51 1.78 1.95 1.27
Cinnamon (CI) 0.5% spray 0.0 0.7 1.27 1.93 2.13 1.2
Cinnamon (CI) 1% spray 0.0 0.3 0.61 0.9 1.23 0.61
Oregano (OR) 0.5% Spray 0.0 0.3 0.63 0.73 1.4 0.61
Oregano (OR) 1% Spray 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.28
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 0.0 2.59 3.72 4.67 8.4 3.88
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 0.0 1.9 3.0 4.1 4.3 2.63
Cinnamon (CI) 2% Vapors 0.0 2.45 4.59 6.53 6.96 4.11
Oregano (OR) 2% Vapors 0.0 2.15 3.06 3.97 4.16 2.64
Control 0.0 1.94 3.85 5.7 8.84 4.05
Mean 0 1.2 2.23 3.11 3.99
Samples were taken from three replicates for each treatment and examined every week. The comparisons among
means were done by the Least Significant Difference (LSD) at P 0.05.
LSD Value at 0.5% Treatments (A)= 0.23 Time (B)= 0.14 Interaction A*B = 0.5.
483
Table 2
(Origanum vulgare L.) on gray mold incidence (%) of ‘Taify’ grapes.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 0.0 0.0 2 3 6.33 2.28

Thyme (TH) 1% spray 0.0 0.0 2.33 4 8.26 2.92
Cinnamon (CI) 0.5% spray 0.0 0.0 1 0.33 2.67 0.79
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 0.0 0.0 1 1.6 4.63 1.42
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 0.0 0.0 0.67 1.33 1.33 0.67
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 0.0 0.0 1.33 3.17 5.1 1.92
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 0.0 0.0 1 2 1.93 0.98
Cinnamon (CI) 2% Vapors 0.0 0.0 2 1.33 3.9 1.44
Oregano (OR) 2% Vapors 0.0 0.0 1 1 2.27 0.84
Oregano (OR) 4% Vapors 0.0 0.0 0 1.33 2.27 0.71
Control 0.0 0.0 3 8 17.67 5.70
Mean 0.0 0.0 1.37 2.30 4.85
Samples were taken from three replicates for each treatment and examined every week. The comparisons among means
were done by the Least Significant Difference (LSD) at P 0.05.
LSD Value at 0.5% Treatments (A)= 0. 15 Time (B)= 0.1 Interaction A*B = 0.34.
treatments than in the control group, with means of 0.71 and 0.79, 3.4. Berry texture
respectively. The next highest reductions in disease incidence were
achieved by 2% OR (fumigation) and 1% OR (spraying). The lowest Texture quality diminished during storage (Table 4). All treat-
reduction was observed in fruit sprayed with 1% TH Table 2. ments exhibited a significant positive effect in texture compared
with the control group. Treatments with 1% OR (spraying) yielded
the highest values for texture (12.5 N) at the end of storage. In terms
3.3. Physical damage
of average values, the second highest value was observed in treat-
ments with 1% CI (spraying). By contrast, the control group exhibited
All treatments exhibited a lower average percentage of physical
the lowest value for texture, followed by the treatments with 2% TH
damage during cold storage than the control group (Table 3). How-
(fumigation, 10.9 N).
ever, with extended storage time, both treatment and control groups
exhibited an increased percentage of physical damage. The reduced
physical damage was attributed to the application of essential oils 3.5. Total soluble solids
(spraying and fumigation). However, spraying was associated with
the lowest percentage of physical damage throughout the storage. In The effect of postharvest treatments on fruit total soluble solids
general, spraying with 1% OR was associated with the lowest degree (SSC) is presented in Table 5. During storage, a gradual increase in
of physical damage (1.11%), followed by spraying 1% CI. The control fruit SSC percentage was observed until the middle of the storage
groups exhibited the highest percentage of damage, followed by the time. After that point, it decreased in all treatments and the control
treatments with 2% TH (fumigation, 7.18%). group. Although no significant differences were observed between all
Table 3
Effect of treatments with essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum L.) and oregano (Orig-
anum vulgare L.) on shattered berries (%) of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 0.0 1.86 4.47 7.97 11.97 5.25
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 0.0 0.47 1.43 4.16 7.8 2.76
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 0.0 0.49 1.23 2.36 7.06 2.23
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 0.0 0.1 0.32 1.46 3.67 1.11
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 0.0 2.63 5.7 9.7 17.9 7.18
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 0.0 1.8 4.07 7.73 12.07 5.12
Control 0.0 2.86 6.85 11.7 18.73 8.02
Mean 0.0 1.29 3.13 6.21 10.9
484
Table 4
Effect of treatments with essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum L.) and oregano (Origanum
vulgare L.) on berry texture in newton (N) of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% Spray 14.54 11.9 11.73 11.27 9.97 11.8
Thyme (TH) 1% Spray 14.54 11.1 12.33 11.5 10.63 12.0
Cinnamon (CI) 0.5% Spray 14.54 12.24 10.83 11.0 10.77 11.8
Cinnamon (CI) 1% Spray 14.54 12.4 12.2 12.13 11.3 12.5
Oregano (OR) 0.5% Spray 14.54 12.73 10.9 7.56 10.87 11.3
Oregano (OR) 1% Spray 14.54 11.67 12.4 11.83 11.6 12.5
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 14.54 13.2 12.3 11.17 9.33 12.1
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 14.54 10.87 10.5 10.4 9.23 11.1
Control 14.54 11.67 10.87 9.13 8.56 10.9
Mean 14.54 12.06 10.61 9.97
Table 5
Effect of treatments with essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum L.) and oregano (Origanum
vulgare L.) on total soluble solids (%) Of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 13.37 15.5 15.67 16.5 15.3 15.27
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 13.37 13.27 16.4 16.53 13.93 14.71
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 13.37 13.8 15.17 14.6 14.67 14.35
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 13.37 16.83 16.13 14.93 12.2 14.72
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 13.37 15.47 14.97 13.8 14.17 14.37
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 13.37 16.8 15.4 13.43 13.03 14.43
Cinnamon (CI) 2% Vapors 13.37 17 15.67 14.33 13.23 14.72
Control 13.37 14.83 13.77 10.67 11.53 12.82
Mean 13.37 15.43 15.51 14.50 13.42
postharvest treatments, the control group exhibited the lowest SSC 3.8. Hue angle
percentage (12.82%) among all treatments Table 6.
The hue angle (h°) of all fruit significantly decreased during stor-
age (Table 8). A decreasing hue angle means that the fruit color
3.6. Titratable acidity changed from green to yellow. All treatments exhibited a change in
color, but the change occurred more severely in the control group.
A gradual decrease in total acidity was observed in all fruit as the The smallest change in hue angle was observed in the 1% OR treat-
storage period progressed. Although no significant differences were ment (spraying, 74.77°), followed by the 1% CI treatment (spraying).
observed among any treatments, the control group exhibited the By contrast, the largest change was observed in the control group
lowest acidity percentage (0.7%). (59.31°), followed by the 2% TH treatment (fumigation).
3.9. Total phenols

3.7. Vitamin C
The total phenol levels decreased rapidly during storage in all
The deterioration rate in vitamin C content increased during stor- treatments (Table 9). However, the control group exhibited the low-
age in all treatments (Table 7). No significant differences were est phenol levels (0.06 g/kg 1 FW) among all treatments. Differences
observed between most treatments. However, the 1% OR treatment were not statistically significant, except for the treatment with 1%
(spraying) yielded a deterioration (2.176 mg/100 mL) that was lower OR, which exhibited a significantly higher level of total phenols
than that of the control group. (0.11 g/kg 1 FW).
485
Table 6
(Origanum vulgare L.) on titratable acidity (TA%) of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 0.9 0.83 0.73 0.6 0.7 0.73
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 0.9 0.8 0.73 0.7 0.63 0.75
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.63 0.6 0.72
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 0.9 0.8 0.66 0.63 0.66 0.73
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 0.9 0.76 0.7 0.66 0.66 0.74
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 0.9 0.83 0.63 0.63 0.6 0.71
Control 0.9 0.73 0.66 0.66 0.6 0.7
Mean 0.9 0.8 0.68 0.65 0.62
Table 7
(Origanum vulgare L.) on Vitamin C (mg/100 ml) of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 2.9 2.46 1.86 1.76 1.43 2.082
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 2.9 2.46 2.2 2 1.33 2.178
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 2.9 2.46 2.23 1.86 1.43 2.176
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 2.9 2.46 2.23 2.23 1.53 2.27
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 2.9 2.07 2.1 1.93 1.13 2.02
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 2.9 2.23 2.23 1.77 1.53 2.13
Cinnamon (CI) 2% Vapors 2.9 2 2.06 1.73 1.39 2.01
Oregano (OR) 2% Vapors 2.9 2.23 2.06 2 1.53 2.14
Control 2.9 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.53 1.94
Mean 2.81 2.29 2.09 1.84 1.43
Table 8
(Origanum vulgare L.) on Hue angle (h°) of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 75.97 71.17 68.67 67.53 63.1 69.28
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 75.97 71.63 70.10 69.3 66.4 70.68
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 75.97 74.2 72.8 68.53 63.7 71.04
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 75.97 75.53 74.35 74.1 73.9 74.77
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 75.97 71.5 68.2 64.2 61.1 68.19
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 75.97 73.37 70.13 69.53 64.1 70.62
Oregano (OR) 4% Vapors 75.97 71 69.23 66.2 59.1 68.3
Control 75.97 65.83 59.77 52.9 42.1 59.31
Mean 75.97 72.4 69.97 67.2 62.69
LSD Value at 0.5% Treatments (A)= 1.571 Time (B)= 0. 97 Interaction A*B = 3.514.
486
Table 9
Effect of treatments with essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum L.) and oreg-
ano (Origanum vulgare L.) oils on total phenolic content (g / kg 1 FW.) of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.08
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.08
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 0.12 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.08
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.1 0.1 0.11
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 0.12 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.07
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 0.12 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.07
Control 0.12 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.06
Mean 0.12 0.081 0.069 0.059 0.052
Table 10
Effect of treatments with essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum L.) and
oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) on flavonoid contents (g kg 1 /FW.) of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 0.2 0.12 0.1 0.07 0.04 0.11
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 0.2 0.14 0.1 0.09 0.07 0.12
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 0.2 0.18 0.13 0.11 0.06 0.13
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 0.2 0.21 0.16 0.08 0.05 0.14
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 0.2 0.18 0.17 0.08 0.06 0.14
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 0.2 0.14 0.1 0.09 0.08 0.12
Control 0.2 0.13 0.09 0.05 0.03 0.09
Mean 0.2 0.16 0.13 0.08 0.05
Samples were taken from three replicates for each treatment and examined every week. The comparisons
among means were done by the Least Significant Difference (LSD) at P 0.05.
LSD Value at 0.5% Treatments (A)= 0.02 Time (B)= 0. 014 Interaction A*B = 0,05.
3.10. Total flavonoids POD enzyme activity (0.52 unit/min), followed by the 0.5% OR (spray-
ing) and 1% CI (spraying) treatments.
Total flavonoids decreased considerably during storage in all
treatments (Table 10). The highest decrease in total flavonoid content
was observed in the control group (0.09 g/kg 1 FW). By contrast, the 4. Discussion
lowest decrease was observed in the 1% CI treatment (spraying;
0.15 g/kg 1 FW), followed by the 1% OR (spraying) and 2% TH (fumi- The objectives of this study were to evaluate the efficacy of thyme,
gation) treatments. cinnamon, and oregano essential oils in controlling gray mold disease
in Taify table grapes and to evaluate the effects on the physical and
chemical properties that determine grape quality.
3.11. Enzyme activity Our results indicate that fruit weight loss increased over time in
all treatments and the control group. On average, the treated fruit
The results regarding the PPO and POD enzyme activity are pre- exhibited a significantly lower fruit weight loss than the control fruit,
sented in Tables 11 and 12. The average PPO and POD activity except for the 2% TH and 4% CI (fumigation) treatments, for which
declined in all treatments during storage. The control treatments the difference was not significant. The greatest reduction of disease
exhibited the highest average and final activity (0.88 unit/min). The incidence was achieved by spraying with 0.5% CI and fumigation with
lowest average PPO enzyme activities were observed in the 0.5% OR 4% OR (p < 0.05), followed by fumigation with 2% OR and spraying
(spraying) treatment (9.70 unit/min) and the 1% CI (spraying) treat- with 1% OR. The lowest reduction was observed in the 1% TH (spray-
ments (9.76 unit/min), followed by the 1% OR (spraying) treatment ing) treatment. Essential oils are primarily conjugated with phenolic
(10.76 unit/min). However, differences were not statistically signifi- compounds, which interact with membrane proteins and alter micro-
cant. The 1% OR (spraying) treatment exhibited the lowest average bial cell permeability, reducing decay and infection.
487
Table 11
Effect of treatments with essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum L.) and oregano (Origa-
num vulgare L.) on activity (Unit/minute) of Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 17.2 13.63 12.75 6.497 4.26 10.87
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 17.2 12.44 11.03 11.22 7.13 11.8
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 17.2 10.53 9.67 6.34 4.26 9.70
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 17.2 14.38 11.05 6.347 5.03 10.97
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 17.2 16.42 13.39 8.137 4.15 11.79
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 17.2 16.17 13.53 12.79 8.20 13.66
Control 17.2 17.44 17.13 17.5 18.10 17.47
Mean 17.12 14.71 12.13 9.58 6.41
Table 12
Effect of treatments with essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum L.) and oreg-
ano (Origanum vulgare L.) on activity (Unit/minute) of Peroxidase (POD) of ‘Taify’ grape.
0 1 2 3 4
Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 0.85 0.63 0.54 0.26 0.24 0.5
Thyme (TH) 1% spray 0.85 0.66 0.44 0.4 0.25 0.52
Oregano (OR) 0.5% spray 0.85 0.78 0.43 0.36 0.31 0.55
Oregano (OR) 1% spray 0.85 0.46 0.59 0.36 0.33 0.52
Thyme (TH) 2% Vapors 0.85 0.47 0.43 0.38 0.33 0.5
Thyme (TH) 4% Vapors 0.85 0.63 0.56 0.48 0.323 0.57
Control 0.85 0.87 0.87 0.9 0.92 0.88
Mean 0.84 0.62 0.52 0.42 0.35
Samples were taken from three replicates for each treatment and examined every week. The comparisons
among means were done by the Least Significant Difference (LSD) at P 0.05.
Essential oils are natural compounds containing a complex mix- components of essential oils may disrupt the cell membrane by
ture of odorous and volatile constituents. Abdel-Rahim and Abo- cross-linkage reactions, causing leakage of electrolytes and depletion
Elyousr (2017) reported that the use of thyme oil had a substantial of amino acids and sugars, whereas other components may selec-
antifungal effect on B. cinerea in vitro. In addition, they stated that the tively be inserted into the lipid-rich portion of the cell membrane,
MIC value of thyme was 0.2 mL/mL. By contrast, the essential oils of thereby disturbing membrane function. In addition, the antifungal
onion and garlic exhibited MIC values of 0.4 mL/mL. Analysis of mechanisms of some essential oils are based on the synthetic inhibi-
thyme essential oil by GC MS revealed 16 components contributing tion of DNA, RNA, proteins, and polysaccharides (Martínez et al.,
90.04% of the total analytes. Kedia et al. (2014) confirmed that thyme 2019).
essential oil was rich in monoterpenes, which may have fungicidal Thymol, carvacrol, and eugenol oil have a proven fungicidal activ-
properties that protect fruit against qualitative and quantitative ity, and essential oils rich in these components exhibited the highest
losses, thereby enhancing shelf life. inhibitory activity against numerous postharvest pathogens in a
This would cause deformation in cell structure and functionality study by Spadaro and Gullino (2014). Carvacrol (14.5% 49.5%) and
and would encourage the loss of macromolecules from the fruit inte- thymol (63.18%) are the main compounds in thyme and oregano oils,
rior (Rattanapitigorn et al., 2006). Pectin is a cell wall compound that respectively. Marongiu et al. (2007) reported that the main compo-
is abundant in the middle lamella and plays a crucial role in cell adhe- nent (77.1%) of cinnamon bark oil was transcinnamaldehyde, which
sion. Fungal infections attack the plant cell wall through pectinases is highly effective in controlling fungal pathogens. The essential oil
hydrolyze enzymes. Therefore, by inhibiting the pectinases, the abil- from the relative cinnamon species, Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume,
ity of fungal infections to hydrolyze and invade the plant cell wall is has been reported to show anti-tyrosinase activity, and cinnamalde-
diminished (Pinto et al., 2021). It appears that a similar role is per- hyde was found to be mainly responsible for this inhibition effect
formed by the phenolic compounds in essential oils. (Marongiu et al., 2007). The C. cassia essential oil (CC-EO) has hypour-
Kahkashan et al. (2020) suggested that the antifungal action of essen- icemic and antifungal activities (Zhao et al., 2006). Carvacrol is an
tial oils could be based on two distinct mechanisms. Some innovative and effective alternative to synthetic fungicides, such as
488
SO2, in preventing decay in table grapes during storage. In addition, applications of essential oils, including spraying and fumigating, had
carvacrol leads to a reduction in the respiration rate through the a positive effect on maintaining grape quality. For the first half of the
maintenance of tissue integrity (Abd El Aal et al., 2017). storage time, the effects of the vapor and spray treatments were simi-
According to our results, all treatments exhibited a significant lar. However, in the second half of the storage period, spraying was
positive effect in texture compared with the control group. The 1% more effective than fumigation. The reason for this might be a
OR (spraying) treatment yielded the highest average and final values decrease in the concentration of essential oil in the vapor caused by
for texture, followed by the 1% CI (spraying) treatment. Berry texture drying filter sheets saturated with essential oils. In future studies, the
(firmness) is a crucial factor affecting quality in postharvest fruit. Tis- filter should be replaced throughout the experiment to ensure effec-
sue softening generally occurs toward the end of storage. The faster tive fumigation. Spraying with 1% OR led to superior results, followed
reduction in firmness in the control group might be attributable to by spraying with 0.5% OR and 1% CI.
the normally occurring ripening process during storage, which occurs
mainly because of the degradation of the middle lamella of the cell Funding
wall (Samra et al., 2006). Essential oils function as a protective layer
against bacteria and fungi and therefore prevent damage in fruit This project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research
(Abd El-Gawad et al., 2018). Essential oils also seem to aid in main- (DSR) at King AbdulAziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia under grant
taining the cell wall carbohydrate metabolism during storage, which no (G:811 155 1441). The authors, therefore, acknowledge with
is associated with decreased susceptibility to infection by fungal thanks DSR for technical and financial support.
pathogens and therefore improves quality. In the control group, firm-
ness probably decreased because of fungal infection, causing hydro- Ethics approval and consent to participate
lyzed pectin and cell wall breakdown (Abo-Elyousr et al., 2021).
In all treatments, the deterioration rate in vitamin C content This manuscript is in accordance with the guide for authors avail-
increased during storage. This was associated with the reduced capa- able on the journal’s website. Also, this work has not been published
bility of preventing oxidative damage and with the incidence of phys- previously and is approved by all authors and host authorities
iological disorders during storage. The degradation of vitamin C in the
control group was the highest probably because of physiological dis- Consent for publication
orders, weight loss, and decay. In addition, the high respiration rate
of fruit in the control group probably exacerbated the deteriorative Not applicable
oxidation reaction of vitamin C (Lee et al., 2007). The positive effect
of essential oils is attributable to the reduction of the respiration rate, Availability of data and material
which delays the ripening processes. This, in turn, reduces the meta-
bolic activity and vital process of fruit, thus reducing the occurrence Not applicable
of soluble solids and affecting total acidity percentage and color (hue
angle h°; Abd El wahab, 2015). Furthermore, essential oils may stimu- Declaration of Competing Interest
late antioxidant activity by enhancing flavonoids in the fruit bodies
(Tongtong, 2020; Zhang et al., 2021). Consumer acceptance could The authors declare no conflict of interests
decrease because of inferior flavor and changes in aroma caused by
the intense odor of essential oils. However, with low concentrations, CRediT authorship contribution statement
these limitations are negligible (Sangsuwan et al., 2016).
Treatment with different essential oils led to decreased levels of total
Mohamed I. Elsayed: Conceptualization, Data curation, Valida-
phenols. The decrease of the total level of phenols during storage might
tion, Writing original draft, Writing original draft. Adel D. Al-
be attributable to the breakdown of cell structure at senescence
Qurashi: Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing original draft,
(Ghasemnezhad et al., 2010; Youssef et al., 2020). It is likely that the
Writing original draft. Najeeb Marei Almasaudi: Writing review
effect of treatments with essential oils on the maintenance of total phe-
& editing, Writing original draft. Kamal A.M Abo-Elyousr: Writing
nol content is attributable to a delay in senescence or to the delayed oxi-
original draft.
dation of phenol substances through the reduction of the PPO activity
(Abdolahi et al., 2010). The inhibition of PPO activity by essential oils
Acknowledgement
may be due to the antioxidant activities of essential oils (Karimirad et al.,
2019). Phenol compounds are responsible for the flavor and color of fruit
This project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research
(Jeong et al., 2008) and act as antioxidants (Abo-Elyousr et al., 2012).
(DSR) at King AbdulAziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia under grant
PPO activity causes the browning of tissue in fruit through the oxidation
no (G:811 155 1441). The authors, therefore, acknowledge with
of phenolic compounds (Dias et al., 2020). All postharvest treatments
thanks DSR for technical and financial support.
exhibited a lower decrease in total phenols during storage compared
with the control group. This may be because oxidized phenols are more
References
active in decayed fruit. Postharvest essential oil treatment maintained
the total phenolic content because essential oils containing more pheno- A.O.A.C., 2000. Official methods of analysis. Assoc. Off. Anal. Agric. Biol. 12, 516–520.
lic compounds provided antifungal activity. This suggests that essential Abd El Aal, H.A., Ahmed, L.A., Hassan, W.A., Fawzy, H.M., Moawad, H., 2017. Combina-
oils could be used as an effective and safe method for the preservation of tion of carvacrol with simvastatin improves the lipid-lowering efficacy and allevi-
ates simvastatin side effects. J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol. 31, e21981. https://doi.org/
table grapes (Abdolahi et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2020). In addition,
10.1002/jbt.21981.
Mejdoub et al. (2020) reported that fumigation with essential oils Abd El wahab, S.M., 2015. Maintain postharvest quality of nectarine fruit by using some
increased the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, which led to the essential oils. Middle East J. Appl. 5 (4), 855–868.
Abd El-Gawad, M.G., El-Moghazy, T.A., 2018. Extracting some essential oils and study-
removal of free radicals and the enhancement of antioxidant capacity.
ing their effects on extending storage life and improving quality of “Florida Prince”
peach fruit. Middle East J. Agric. Res. 7 (4), 1545–1560.
5. Conclusion Abdel-Rahim, I.R., Abo-Elyousr, K.A.M., 2017. Using of endophytic Saccharomycopsis
fibuligera and thyme oil for management of gray mold rot of guava fruit. Biol. Con-
trol 110, 124–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2017.04.014.
Essential oils constitute an eco-friendly and safe alternative to Abdel-Rahim, I.R., Abo-Elyousr, K.A.M., 2018. Talaromyces pinophilus strain AUN-1 as a
chemical compounds for the treatment of fruit. In this study, all novel mycoparasite of Botrytis cinerea, the pathogen of onion scape and umbel
489
blights. Microbiolog Res 212- 213, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. characterization and antityrosinase activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55, 10022–10027.
micres.2018.04.004. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf071938f.
Abdolahi, A., Hassani, A., Ghosta, Y., Bernousi, I., Meshkatalsadat, M., 2010. Study on the
Martínez, J.M., Carlota, D.I., Alvarez, J.R., 2019. Pulsed electric field-assisted extraction
potential use of essential oils for decay control and quality preservation of 'Tabar- of valuable compounds from microorganisms. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 19,
zeh' table grape. J. Plant Prot. Res. 50 (1), 45–52. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10045- 530–552. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12512.
010-0008-2. McGuire, R.G., 1992. Reporting of objective colour measurements. Hort. Sci. 27 (12),
Abo-Elyousr, K.A.M., Ibrahim, Y.E., Balabel, N.M., 2012. Induction of disease defensive 1254–1255. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.27.12.1254.
enzymes in response to treatment with acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM) and Pseudo- Mejdoub, K., Mami, I.R., Belabbes, R., Dib, M.A., DJabou, N., Tabti, B., Benyelles, N.G.,
monas fluorescens Pf2 and inoculated with Ralstonia solanacearum race 3, biovar2 Costa, J., Muselli, A., 2020. Chemical variability of atractylis gummifera essential oils
(phylotype II). Journal of Phytopathology 112, 382–389. https://doi.org/10.1111/ at three developmental stages and investigation of their antioxidant, antifungal
j.1439-0434.2012.01915.x. and Insecticidal Activities. Curr. Bioact. Compd. 16 (4), 489–497. https://doi.org/
Abo-Elyousr, K.A.M., Al-Qurashi, A.D., Almasoudi, N.M., 2021. Evaluation of the synergy 10.2174/1573407215666190126152112 9.
between Schwanniomyces vanrijiae and propolis in the control of Penicillium digita- Miranda, M.V., Fernandez, L.H.M., Cascone, O., 1995. Horseradish peroxidase extraction
tum on lemons. Egypt. J. Biol. Pest Control 31, 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41938- and purification by aqueous two-phase partition. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 53,
021-00415-4. 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02788604.
Bagy, M., Khalil, H.M., Badawy, I.M., Abou-Zaid, E.A., Badawy, M.S., Sallam, N.M., 2021. Nieto, G., 2020. A review on applications and uses of thymus in the food industry.
Control of green mold disease using chitosan and its effect on orange properties Plants 9, 961. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9080961.
during cold storage. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Protect. https://doi.org/10.1080/ Pei, S., Ruiling, L., Haiyan, G., Hangjun, C., Weijie, W., Xiangjun, F., Yanchao, H., 2020.
03235408.2020.1847568. Inhibitory effect and possible mechanism of carvacrol against Colletotrichum fructi-
Choquer, M., Fournier, E., Kunz, C., Levis, C., Pradier, J.M., Simon, A., Viaud, M., 2007. cola. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 163, 111126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharv-
Botrytis cinerea virulence factors: new insights into a necrotrophic and polypha- bio.2020.111126.
gous pathogen. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 277, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574- Rattanapitigorn, P., Arakawa, M., Tsuro, M., 2006. Vanillin enhances the antifungal
6968.2007.00930.x. effect of plant essential oils against Botrytis cinerea. Int. J. Aromather. 16, 193–198.
Dias, C., Alexandre, M.A., Fonseca, A.L., Amaro, A.A., Vilas-Boas, A.O., Sonia, A.O., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijat.2006.09.003.
Santos, J.D., Silvestre, S.M., Rocha, N.I., Manuela, P., 2020. Natural-based antioxi- Sallam, N.M.A., Badawy, I.F.M., Ibrahim, R.A., 2012. Biocontrol of green mold of orange
dant extracts as potential mitigators of fruit browning. Antioxidants 9 (8), 715. using some yeasts strains and their effects on postharvest quality parameters. Int.
https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9080715. J/ Plant Pathol. 3 (1), 14–24. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijpp.2012.14.24.
Gatto, M.A., Ippolito, A., Linsalata, V., Cascarano, N.A., Nigro, F., Vanadia, S., Samra, N.R., Mansour, A.M., Tourky, M.N., Tarabih, M.E., 2006. Pre and post-harvest
Di Venere, D., 2011. Activity of extracts from wild edible herbs against postharvest treatments on peach fruit grown under desert conditions. J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura
fungal diseases of fruit and vegetables. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 61, 72–82. Univ. 31, 7835–7846.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2011.02.005. Sangsuwan, J., Pongsapakworawat, T., Bangmo, P., Sutthasupa, S., 2016. Effect of
Ghasemnezhad, M., Shiri, M.A., Sanavi, M., 2010. Effect of chitosan coatings on some chitosan beads incorporated with lavender or red thyme essential oils in
quality indices of apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) during cold storage. Casp. J. Envi- inhibiting Botrytis cinerea and their application in strawberry packaging sys-
ron. Sci. 8 (1), 25–33. tem. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 74, 14–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Hadizadeh, I., Peivastegan, B., Hamzeh, H., 2009. Antifungal activity of essential oils lwt.2016.07.021.
from some medicinal plants of Iran against Alternaria alternate. Am. J. Appl. Sci. 6 Simone, N.D., Pace, B., Grieco, F., Chimienti, M., Tyibilika, V., Santoro, V., Capozzi, V.,
(5), 857–861. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajas.2009.857.861. Colelli, G., Spano, G., Russo, P., 2020. Botrytis cinerea and table grapes: a review of
Hernandez-Montiel, L.G., Gutierrez-Perez, E.D., Murillo-Amador, B., Vero, S., the main physical, chemical, and bio-based control treatments in post-harvest.
Chiquito-Contreras, R.G., Rincon-Enriquez, G., 2018. Mechanisms employed by Debar- Foods 9, 1138. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091138.
yomyces hansenii in biological control of anthracnose disease on papaya fruit. Posthar- Snedecor, G.W., Cochran, W.G., 1980. Statistical Methods, 7th ed. Iowa State University
vest Biol. Technol. 139, 31–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2018.01.015. Digital Press. Low USA.
Hoff, J.F., Singleton, K.I., 1977. A method for determination of tannin in foods by means Solgi1, M., Ghorbanpour, M., 2014. Application of essential oils and their biological
of immobilized enzymes. J. Food Sci. 42, 1566–1569. https://doi.org/10.1111/ effects on extending the shelf-life and quality of horticultural crops. Trak. J. Sci. (2),
j.1365-2621.1977.tb08427.x. 198–210.
Jeong, H.L., Jin, W.J., Kwang, D.M., Kee, J.P, 2008. Effects of anti-browning agents on pol- Spadaro, D., Gullino, M.L., 2014. Use of essential oils to control postharvest rots on
yphenoloxidase activity and total phenolics as related to browning of fresh-cut pome and stone fruit. Post-Harvest Pathology. Springer International Publishing,
'fuji' apple. Asian Food J. 15 (1), 79–87. Cham, Switzerland, pp. 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07701-7_9.
Jiang, Y.M., Zhang, Z.Q., Joyce, D.C., Ketsa, S., 2002. Postharvest biology and handling of Prusky, D., Gullino, M.L.ISBN 978-3-319-07701-7.
longan fruit (Dimocarpus longan Lour.). Postharvest Biol. Technol. 26, 241–252. Tani, H., Koshino, H., Sakuno, E., Cutler, H.G., Nakajima, H., 2006. Botcinins E and F and
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-5214(02)00047-9. botcinolide from Botrytis cinerea and structural revision of botcinolides. J. Nat.
Junior, O.C., Youssef, K., Koyama, R., Ahmed, S., Dominguez, A.R., Mu € hlbeier, D.T., Prod. 69, 722–725. https://doi.org/10.1021/np060071x.
Roberto, S.R., 2019. Control of gray mold on clamshell-packaged 'benitaka' table Tian, J., Ban, X., Zeng, H., He, J., Huang, B., Wang, Y., 2011. Chemical composition
grapes using sulphur dioxide pads and perforated liners. Pathogens 8, 271. https:// and antifungal activity of essential oil from Cicuta virosa L. var. latisecta Celak.
doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8040271. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 145, 464–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmi-
Kahkashan, P., Bokhari, N.A., Al-Rashid, S.A.I., Al-Humaid, L.A., 2020. Chemical composi- cro.2011.01.023.
tion of essential oil of ocimum basilicum L. and its potential in managing the alter- Tongtong, Q., Beibei, L., Xiaofei, H., Xianxian, L., Yang, D., Jifeng, C., Xuanming, T., 2020.
naria rot of tomato. J. Essential Oil Bear. Plants 23 (6), 1428–1437. https://doi.org/ Effect of peppermint oil on the storage quality of white button mushrooms (Agari-
10.1080/0972060X.2020.1868351. cus bisporus). Food Bioproc. Tech. 13, 404–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-
Karimirad, R., Behnamian, M., Dezhsetan, S., 2019. Application of chitosan nanopar- 019-02385-w.
ticles containing Cuminum cyminum oil as a delivery system for shelf life extension Tourky, M.N., El-Shahat, S.S., Rizk, M.H., 1995. Evaluation of some new grape cultivars
of Agaricus bisporus. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 106 (4), 218–228. https://doi.org/ in relation to growth, yield, berry quality and storage life. J. Agric. Sci. Mansoura
10.1016/j.lwt.2019.02.062. Univ. 29 (12), 153–5167.
Kedia, A., Prakash, B., Mishra, P.K., Dubey, N., 2014. Antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic Youssef, K., Roberto, S.R., 2014. Salt strategies to control Botrytis mold of 'Benitaka'
properties of Cuminum cyminum (L.) seed essential oil and its efficacy as a preser- table grapes and to maintain fruit quality during storage. Postharvest Biol. Technol.
vative in stored commodities. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 168, 1–7. https://doi.org/ 95, 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2014.04.009.
10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.10.008. Youssef, K., Roberto, S.R., De Oliveira, A.G., 2019. Ultra-structural alterations in Botrytis
Khan, N., Fahad, S., Naushad, M., Faisal, S., 2020. Economics of Agriculture in the World. cinerea-the causal agent of gray mold-treated with salt solutions. Biomolecules 9
Available at https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3603274. or https://ssrn.com/ (10), 582. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom9100582.
abstract=3603274. Youssef, K., Roberto, S.R., Tiepo, A.N., Constantino, L.V., De Resende, J.T.V.,
Kumar, A., Kudachikar, V.B., 2018. Antifungal properties of essential oils against Abo-Elyousr, K.A.M., 2020. Salt solution treatments trigger antioxidant defense
anthracnose disease: a critical appraisal. J. Plant Dis. Protect. 125, 133–144. https:// response against gray mold disease in table grapes. J. Fungi 6 (3), 179. https://doi.
doi.org/10.1007/s41348-017-0128-2. org/10.3390/jof6030179.
Lachhab, N., Sanzani, S.M., Fallanaj, F., Youssef, K., Nigro, F., Boselli, M., Ippolito, A., Zain, M.E., 2011. Impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals. J. Saudi Chem. Soc. 15,
2015. Protein hydrolysates as resistance inducers for controlling green mould of 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jscs.2010.06.006.
citrus fruit. Acta Hortic. 1065, 1593–1598. https://doi.org/10.17660/Acta- Zhang, L., Bao, G., Yun, W., 2021. Clove essential oil confers antioxidant activity and
Hortic.2015.1065.203. lifespan extension in C. elegans via the DAF-16/FOXO transcription factor Compara-
Lee, S.O., Choi, G.J., Jang, K.S., Lim, H.K., Cho, K.Y., Kim, J.C., 2007. Effect of some Chinese tive. Biochem. Physiol. Part C 242, 108938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
medicinal plant extracts on five different fungi. Food Control 18, 1547–1554. cbpc.2020.108938.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2006.12.005. Zhao, X., Zhu, J.X., Mo, S.F., Pan, Y., Kong, L.D., 2006. Effects of cassia oil on serum and
Liu, C., Chen, C., Yanhui, Z., Aili, J., Wenzhong, H., 2020. Aqueous ozone treatment inhib- hepatic uric acid levels in oxonate-induced mice and xanthine dehydrogenase and
ited degradation of cell wall polysaccharides in fresh-cut apple during cold storage. xanthine oxidase activities in mouse liver. J. Ethnopharmacol. 103, 357–365.
Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 67 (3), 102550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.08.040.
ifset.2020.102550. Zhishen, J., Mengcheng, T., Jianming, W., 1999. The determination of flavonoid contents
Marongiu, B., Piras, A., Porcedda, S., Tuveri, E., Sanjust, E., Meli, M., Sollai, F., Zucca, P., in mulberry and their scavenging effects on superoxide radicals. Food Chem. 64,
Rescigno, A., 2007. Supercritical CO2extract of Cinnamomum zeylanicum: chemical 555–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(98)00102-2.
490

1 s2.0 S0254629921004920 Main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 s2.0 S0254629921004920 Main

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 s2.0 S0254629921004920 Main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

South African Journal of Botany 146 (2022) 481 490

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

South African Journal of Botany

2.2. Grapes and treatments 2.3.3. Physical damage to berries

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Thyme (TH) 0.5% spray 0.0 0.0 2 3 6.33 2.28

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

3.9. Total phenols

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

Treatments (oils) Concentration Methods of application Week after treatment Mean

You might also like