Incompressible Line Sizing Calculator Guide

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW CALCULATOR
Simon Learman
Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

www.blackmonk.co.uk
Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

www.blackmonk.co.uk
Contents
Contents ....................................................................................................... 2
Introduction ................................................................................................... 3
Calculation Inputs ......................................................................................... 3
Line Details ............................................................................................... 3
Fluid Properties ......................................................................................... 3
Elevations.................................................................................................. 3
Pipelines.................................................................................................... 4
Fittings....................................................................................................... 4
Calculation Outputs ...................................................................................... 5
Incompressible Flow in a Pipe ...................................................................... 6
Static Head Loss ....................................................................................... 6
Frictional Head Loss ................................................................................. 6
Pipe Friction Factor ................................................................................... 7
Fittings Frictional Head Loss ..................................................................... 7
Total Frictional Head Loss ........................................................................ 9
Total Head Loss ........................................................................................ 9
Calculation of Fluid Velocity ...................................................................... 9
Pipe Relative Roughness ........................................................................ 10
Reynolds Number ................................................................................... 10
Flow Regime ........................................................................................... 10
Pressure Drop and Head Loss ................................................................ 10
Calculation of Incompressible Pressure Drop ............................................ 11
Nomenclature ............................................................................................. 12
Example 1 ................................................................................................... 13
Description: ............................................................................................. 13
Requirement:........................................................................................... 13
Solution: .................................................................................................. 13
Incompressible Flow Calculator Screenshot Example 1: ........................ 14
Example 2 ................................................................................................... 17
Description: ............................................................................................. 17
Requirement:........................................................................................... 17
Solution: .................................................................................................. 17
Example 3 ................................................................................................... 21
Description: ............................................................................................. 21
Requirement:........................................................................................... 21
Solution: .................................................................................................. 21

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Introduction
This document describes the basis and operation of the Blackmonk

Engineering Incompressible Flow Calculator.
The calculation methodology is based on that described in Crane Technical

Paper 410M “The Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings and Pipes”.
The calculator determines the pressure drop for incompressible flow through a
line given the required fluid flow rate and details of the piping system. The
system can be comprised of up to 3 pipes in series of differing diameters.
The calculator determines the static and frictional pressure drop based on the
Darcy-Weisbach formula.
Calculation Inputs
The following parameters are user specified inputs to the calculation:
Line Details
Input Description Units

Line number Optional user specified line number N/A
Source Optional user specified source of line N/A
Destination Optional user specified destination of line N/A
Fluid Properties

Fluid Optional user specified name of fluid N/A
Phase Optional user specified phase of fluid N/A
Flow rate Mandatory user specified mass flow rate kg/hr
3
Density Mandatory user specified fluid density kg/m
Viscosity Mandatory user specified fluid viscosity cP
Elevations

Mandatory user specified line inlet centre line
Line inlet centreline elevation m
elevation above the datum
Mandatory user specified line outlet centre line
Line outlet centreline elevation m
elevation above the datum

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Pipelines

Mandatory user specified pipe nominal bore (nominal
Pipe nominal diameter inch
diameter)
Mandatory user specified pipe schedule. Selected from a
Pipe schedule drop down list of valid values for the specified pipe nominal N/A
bore
Pipe length Mandatory user specified pipe length m
Mandatory user specified absolute roughness of the inside
Absolute roughness mm
of the pipe
Fittings

Mandatory user specified quantity of 90°
90° LR bends N/A
long radius bends (can be zero)
90° Std elbows N/A
standard radius elbows (can be zero)
45° LR bends N/A
long radius bends (can be zero)
45° Std elbows N/A
standard radius elbows (can be zero)
Mandatory user specified quantity of
Straight tees (flow thro' run) straight tees with the fluid flow through the N/A
tee (can be zero)
Straight tees (flow thro' branch) straight tees with the fluid flow through the N/A
branch of the tee (can be zero)
Mandatory user specified quantity of pipe
Pipe entrances N/A
entrances (can be zero)
Pipe exits N/A
exits (can be zero)
Pipe contractions N/A
contractions (can be zero)
Pipe expansions N/A
expansions (can be zero)
Mandatory user specified quantity of gate
Gate valves N/A
valves (can be zero)
Mandatory user specified quantity of globe
Globe valves N/A
Mandatory user specified quantity of swing
Swing check valves N/A
check valves (can be zero)
Mandatory user specified quantity of lift
Lift check valves N/A
Mandatory user specified quantity of tilting
Tilting disc check valves N/A
Mandatory user specified quantity of stop
Stop check valves N/A
Poppet foot valves (with strainers) N/A
poppet foot valves (can be zero)
Hinged disc foot valves (with strainers) hinged disc foot valves with strainers (can N/A
be zero)
Ball valves Mandatory user specified quantity of ball N/A
4

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Butterfly valves N/A
butterfly valves (can be zero)
Mandatory user specified quantity of plug
Plug valves N/A
Miscellaneous losses miscellaneous velocity head losses (can be N/A
zero)
Mandatory user specified design factor to
Fittings factor be applied to the total number of fittings N/A
velocity head losses
Calculation Outputs
The following parameters are calculated by the software and displayed to the
user:
Output Description Units

The pipe internal diameter determined from the
Pipe internal diameter mm
selected pipe nominal diameter and schedule
Volumetric flow rate of fluid calculated from the 3
Volumetric flow rate m /hr
specified mass flow rate and the fluid density
Ratio of absolute pipe roughness to pipe internal
Relative roughness N/A
diameter
2
Flow area Cross sectional area of the inside of the pipe m
Fluid velocity through the pipe based on the flow 2
Velocity m/s
area
Fluid Reynolds number based on the pipe internal
Reynolds No. N/A
diameter
Laminar, transition or turbulent based on the
Flow regime N/A
Reynolds number
Friction factor Darcy friction factor N/A
Velocity head loss resistance coefficient for the
Pipe velocity head loss N/A
pipe excluding fittings
Total velocity head loss resistance coefficient for
Fittings total velocity head loss N/A
the pipe fittings including the fittings factor
Frictional pressure loss Frictional pressure drop through pipe bar
Frictional head loss Frictional head loss through pipe m
Static pressure loss Static pressure drop through line from inlet to outlet bar
Static head loss Static head loss through line from inlet to outlet m
Total pressure loss through the system including
Total pressure loss bar
static and frictional pressure losses
Total head loss through the system including static
Total head loss m
and frictional pressure losses

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Incompressible Flow in a Pipe
Incompressible flow applies to the flow of liquids in a pipe. It can also apply to
the flow of gases and vapours under the following circumstances:
1. If the calculated pressure drop between the pipe inlet and outlet is less
than 10% of the inlet pressure, it is reasonable to use the Darcy-
Weisbach formula for incompressible flow using the fluid density at
either the pipe inlet or outlet.
2. If the calculated pressure drop between the pipe inlet and pipe outlet is
between 10% and 40% of the inlet pressure, the Darcy-Weisbach
formula for incompressible flow using a fluid density based on the
average of the pipe inlet and outlet conditions will give reasonable
accuracy.
Static Head Loss
The static head loss in a system is the loss in pressure head due to
differences in elevation between the system inlet and system outlet. Static
head loss is calculated using the following:
H static _ head _ loss = z out − z in Equation 1
Frictional Head Loss
The total frictional head loss in a system is the sum of the frictional head loss
in the pipe and the frictional head loss in the fittings.
H friction _ head _ total = H friction _ head _ pipe + H friction _ head _ fittings Equation 2
Frictional head loss through a pipe is calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach

formula (Ref: Crane Technical Paper 410M, Page 1-6):
L u2
H friction _ head _ pipe = f Equation 3
d 2g
This relationship can also be expressed in terms of velocity head loss

resistance coefficient:
u2
H friction _ head _ pipe = K pipe Equation 4
2g
Where

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L
K pipe = f Equation 5
d
Pipe Friction Factor
For laminar flow (Re<2000) the friction factor is given by (Ref: Crane
Technical Paper 410M):
64
f = Equation 6
Re
For turbulent flow (Re>4000) the friction factor is calculated using the
Churchill equation (Ref: Perry’s 7th Ed, Page 6-11):
!2
( ( 0.27! " 7 %0.9 ++
f = 4 *!4 log * + $ ' -- Equation 7
*) *) d # Re & -,-,
In the transition zone between 2000 < Re < 4000 the friction factor is
indeterminate and has lower limits based on laminar flow conditions and
upper limits based on turbulent flow conditions. To produce a conservative
value for the calculated friction factor, the turbulent flow friction factor equation
is used throughout the transition zone in this calculation.
Fittings Frictional Head Loss
Frictional head loss through pipe fittings is calculated using the “resistance
coefficient” version of the Darcy-Weisbach equation (Ref: Crane Technical
Paper 410M, Page 2-8):
u2
H friction _ head _ fittings = K fittings Equation 8
2g
The resistance coefficient of the various pipe fittings used in the calculator are
based on data from Crane Technical Paper 410M. In general the resistance
coefficient for each type of fitting is dependent on the nominal size of the pipe
fitting.
In these cases, the resistance coefficient for each type and size of fitting is
calculated from the following equation:
K fitting = C × fT Equation 9
Where C is a constant representing the equivalent length:diameter of the

particular fitting and fT is the friction factor for the appropriate size of the fitting.

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Table 1: Fitting Friction Factors
Nominal Pipe Size Fitting Friction

(in) Factor fT
0.125 0.036
0.25 0.031
0.375 0.028
0.5 0.027
0.75 0.025
1 0.023
1.25 0.022
1.5 0.021
2 0.019
2.5 0.018
3 0.018
4 0.017
5 0.016
6 0.015
8 0.014
10 0.014
12 0.013
14 0.013
16 0.013
18 0.012
20 0.012
22 0.012
24 0.012
Table 2: Equivalent Length:Diameter Constants for Various Fittings
Fitting C K
90° LR bends 14 -
90° Std elbows 30 -
45° LR bends 10 -
45° Std elbows 16 -
Straight tees (flow thro' run) 20 -
Straight tees (flow thro' branch) 60 -
Pipe entrances - 0.5
Pipe exits - 1
Pipe contractions - 0.5
Pipe expansions - 1
Gate valves 8 -
Globe valves 340 -
Swing check valves 50 -
Lift check valves 600 -
Tilting disc check valves 40 -
Stop check valves 400 -
Poppet foot valves (with strainers) 420 -
8

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Hinged disc foot valves (with strainers) 75 -

Ball valves 3 -
Butterfly valves 45 -
Plug valves 18 -
Sometimes, the exact type and quantities of fittings in a line are undefined. In
this case the length of the line is often multiplied by a “fittings factor” to
provide some allowance for the head loss of the undefined fittings.
The calculator provides the facility to apply a “fittings factor” to each pipe
length. By default, the fittings factor is 1. The “fittings factor” has the effect of
modifying the pipe frictional head loss as follows:
'
K pipe = xK pipe Equation 10
Total Frictional Head Loss
The total frictional head loss of the pipe and fittings combined is given by the
following equation:
'
K total = K pipe + K fittings Equation 11
The total frictional head loss can then be calculated by:
u2
H friction _ total = K total Equation 12
2g
Total Head Loss
The total head loss is the sum of the total static and frictional head losses in
the system.
H total _ head _ loss = H friction _ total + H static _ head _ loss Equation 13
Calculation of Fluid Velocity
Fluid velocity is calculated using the user specified mass flow rate, the fluid
density and the internal pipe diameter defined by the selected nominal pipe
size and schedule.
The flow area is given by:
πd 2
A= Equation 14
4
9

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The volumetric flow rate is determined using:
m
Q= Equation 15
ρ
The fluid velocity is then determined by:
Q
u= Equation 16
A
Pipe Relative Roughness
The pipe relative roughness is the ratio of the absolute roughness of the
inside of the pipe to the pipe inside diameter.
ε
Relative roughness = Equation 17
d
Reynolds Number
Reynolds number is determined using the relationship:
ρud
Re = Equation 18
µ
Flow Regime
The calculator classifies the flow regime as laminar, transition or turbulent

based on the Reynolds number.
Table 3: Flow Regime Classification
Reynolds Number Flow Regime

Re < 2000 Laminar
2000 < Re < 4000 Transition
Re > 4000 Turbulent
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
Pressure drop and head loss are related to each other via the following
equation:
10

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ΔP = Hρg Equation 19
Calculation of Incompressible Pressure Drop
The incompressible pressure drop is determined from the specified fluid

properties, inlet conditions, pipe details and fittings details.
The calculation routine is described in the following steps:
1. Calculate the volumetric flow rate using Equation 15

2. Calculate pipe relative roughness for each specified pipe using
Equation 17
3. Calculate flow area for each specified pipe using Equation 14
4. Calculate the fluid velocity for each specified pipe using Equation 16
5. Calculate Reynolds number for each specified pipe using Equation 18
6. Determine flow regime for each specified pipe using Table 3
7. Calculate pipe friction factor for each specified pipe using Equation 6
for laminar flow and Equation 7 for transition and turbulent flow
8. Calculate pipe velocity head loss for each specified pipe using
Equation 5
9. Calculate fittings velocity head loss for each specified pipe using
Equation 9, Table 1 and Table 2 for each fitting
10. Calculate total velocity head loss for the pipe and fittings for each
specified pipe using Equation 11
11. Calculate the total frictional pressure and head loss for each specified
pipe using Equation 12 and Equation 19
12. Calculate the total system static pressure and head loss using
Equation 1 and Equation 19
13. Calculate the total system pressure and head loss using Equation 13
and Equation 19
11

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Nomenclature
m = mass flow rate of fluid through pipe (kg.s -1 )

ρ = Density of fluid (kg.m -3 )
µ = Viscosity of fluid (Pa.s)
z in = Elevation of centreline of line inlet (m)
z out = Elevation of centreline of line outlet (m)
g = Accelerati on due to gravity (m.s - 2 )
f = Darcy friction factor (dimension less)
f T = Fitting friction factor (dimension less)
L = Length of pipe (m)
d = Inside diameter of pipe (m)
u = Fluid velocity (m.s -1 )
Re = Reynolds number (dimension less)
ε = Absolute roughness of pipe inside wall (m)
K pipe = Resistance coefficien t of pipe (dimension less)
K 'pipe = Resistance coefficien t of pipe incorporat ing " fittings factor" (dimension less)
K fittings = Resistance coefficien t of pipe fittings (dimension less)
K fitting = Resistance coefficien t of a particular pipe fitting (dimension less)
K total = Total resistance coefficien t of pipe and pipe fittings (dimension less)
x = Fittings factor (dimension less)
C = Equivalent length : diameter coefficien t of a particular pipe fitting
A = Flow area (m 2 )
Q = Volumetric flow rate through pipe (m 3 .s -1 )
H = Head of fluid (m)
H friction _ head _ pipe = Frictional head loss through pipe (m)
H friction _ head _ fittings = Frictional head loss through fittings (m)
H friction _ head _ total = Total frictional head loss through pipe and fittings (m)
H static _ head _ loss = Static head loss through system (m)
H total _ head _ loss = Total head loss through system (m)
ΔP = Pressure difference (Pa)
ΔPfriction _ head _ pipe = Frictional pressure loss through pipe (Pa)
ΔPfriction _ head _ fittings = Frictional pressure loss through fittings (Pa)
ΔPfriction _ head _ total = Total frictional pressure loss through pipe and fittings (Pa)
ΔPstatic _ head _ loss = Static pressure loss through system (Pa)
ΔPtotal _ head _ loss = Total pressure loss through system (Pa)
12

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Example 1
The following example was adapted from Crane Technical Paper 410M “Flow
of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings and Pipes” Example 1 Page 3-10.
Description:
Water at 90C flows through a 4 inch Schedule 40 new steel pipe at 92000
kg/hr.
Fluid density = 965

Fluid viscosity = 0.31 cP
Requirement:
Find the pressure drop per 100 metres of pipe.
Solution:
Calculated pressure drop per 100 metres of pipe = 0.83 bar (cf: 0.85 bar
published in Crane)
The published result in Crane is slightly higher due to the use of an

approximated friction factor of 0.017 rather than the more accurate value of
0.01694 used in the calculator.
13

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Incompressible Flow Calculator Screenshot Example 1:
LINE DETAILS
From T-1000
To T-1001
Line Number Line 1
FLUID PROPERTIES
Fluid Water
Phase Liquid
Flow rate m 92000.00 kg/hr
Density ρ 965.00 kg/m3
Viscosity µ 0.3100 cP
ELEVATIONS
Line inlet centreline elevation zin 0.00 m

Line outlet centreline elevation zout 0.00 m
PIPELINES
Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3

Pipe nominal diameter 4 3 4 inch
Pipe schedule Sch 40 Sch 40 Sch 40
Pipe internal diameter d 102.3 77.9 102.3 mm
Pipe length L 100 0 0 m
Absolute roughness e 0.046 0.046 0.046 mm
FITTINGS
Quantities Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3

90° LR bends 0 0 0
90° Std elbows 0 0 0
45° LR bends 0 0 0
14

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Straight tees (flow thro' run) 0 0 0

Straight tees (flow thro' branch) 0 0 0
Pipe entrances 0 0 0
Pipe exits 0 0 0
Pipe contractions 0 0 0
Pipe expansions 0 0 0
Gate valves 0 0 0
Globe valves 0 0 0
Swing check valves 0 0 0
Lift check valves 0 0 0
Tilting disc check valves 0 0 0
Stop check valves 0 0 0
Poppet foot valves (with strainers) 0 0 0
Hinged disc foot valves (with
strainers) 0 0 0
Ball valves 0 0 0
Butterfly valves 0 0 0
Plug valves 0 0 0
Miscellaneous losses (no. of velocity heads) 0 0 0
Fittings factor 1 1 1
OUTPUTS
Volumetric flow rate Q 95.337 m3/hr

Relative roughness e:d 0.00045 0.00059 0.00045
Flow area A 0.00822 0.00477 0.00822 m2
Velocity u 3.22 5.56 3.22 m/s
Reynolds No. Re 1026025 1347399 1026025
Flow regime turbulent turbulent turbulent
Friction factor f 0.01694 0.01776 0.01694
Pipe velocity head loss Kpipe 16.554 0.000 0.000
Fittings total velocity head loss Kfittings 0.000 0.000 0.000
Frictional pressure loss ΔPfriction 0.83 0.00 0.00 bar
Frictional head loss Hfriction 8.76 0.00 0.00 m
Static pressure loss ΔPstatic 0.00 bar
15

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Static head loss Hstatic 0.00 m

Total pressure loss ΔPtotal 0.83 bar
Total head loss Htotal 8.76 m
16

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Example 2
of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings and Pipes” Example 4-14 Page 4-8.
Description:
Water at 15C is flowing through a piping system consisting of the following

components at a flow rate of 1500 litres per minute:
• 4” Schedule 40 pipe, 34 m long

• 4” x 5” reducing welding elbow (r:d = 1.5)
• 5” 90° welding elbow (r:d = 1.5)
Inlet elevation = 0 m
Outlet elevation = 22 m
Fluid density = 999 kg/m3
Fluid viscosity = 1.1 cP
Requirement:
Find the fluid velocity in both the 4” and 5” pipes and the pressure difference
between the system inlet and outlet.
Solution:
Flow rate = 1500 lpm = 1.5 x 999 x 60 = 89910 kg/hr
4” x 5” reducing welding elbow modelled as 1 pipe expansion and a 5” LR 90°

elbow
Calculated velocity in 4” pipe = 3.04 m/s (cf: 3.04 m/s published in Crane)
Calculated pressure difference = 2.66 bar (cf: 2.6 bar published in Crane)
The calculated result is slightly higher than the published result in Crane due
to the use of a more conservative value of the resistance coefficient of a 4” x
5” expansion of 1 in the calculator compared to 0.32 used in Crane.
17

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LINE DETAILS
From T-1000
To T-1001
Line Number Line 1
FLUID PROPERTIES
Fluid Water
Phase Liquid
ELEVATIONS

PIPELINES

FITTINGS

90° LR bends 0 2 0
45° LR bends 0 0 0
18

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Pipe exits 0 0 0
Gate valves 0 0 0
Globe valves 0 0 0
strainers) 0 0 0
Ball valves 0 0 0
Plug valves 0 0 0
Miscellaneous losses (no. of velocity heads) 0 0 0
OUTPUTS

Flow area A 0.00822 0.01291 0.00822 m2
Velocity u 3.04 1.94 3.04 m/s
Reynolds No. Re 282584 225494 282584
Flow regime turbulent turbulent turbulent
19

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20

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Example 3
of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings and Pipes” Example 4-9 Page 4-5.
Description:
S.A.E. 70 Lube Oil at 40C is flowing through a piping system consisting of the
following components at a flow rate of 2300 litres per minute:

• 5” gate valve with full area seat wide open
• 5” steel angle valve with full area seat wide open
• 5” welding elbow (r:d = 1)
Inlet elevation = 0 m
Outlet elevation = 15 m
Fluid density = 899 kg/m3
Fluid viscosity = 450 cP
Requirement:
Find the fluid velocity in both the pipe and the pressure difference between the
system inlet and outlet.
Solution:
Flow rate = 2300 lpm = 2.3 x 899 x 60 = 124062 kg/hr
5” steel angle valve with full area seat wide open modelled as a miscellaneous
fitting with a velocity head loss resistance coefficient of 2.4 as per Crane
example.
Calculated pressure difference = 3.65 bar (cf: 3.64 bar published in Crane)
21

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LINE DETAILS
From T-1000
To T-1001
Line Number Line 1
FLUID PROPERTIES
Fluid Lube Oil

Phase Liquid
ELEVATIONS

PIPELINES

FITTINGS

90° LR bends 0 0 0
45° LR bends 0 0 0
22

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Pipe exits 0 0 0
Gate valves 1 0 0
Globe valves 0 0 0
strainers) 0 0 0
Ball valves 0 0 0
Plug valves 0 0 0
Miscellaneous losses (no. of velocity heads) 2.4 0 0
OUTPUTS

Flow area A 0.01291 0.00822 0.00822 m2
Velocity u 2.97 4.66 4.66 m/s
Reynolds No. Re 761 953 953
Flow regime laminar laminar laminar
23

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24

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INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW CALCULATOR

Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

This document describes the basis and operation of the Blackmonk

The calculation methodology is based on that described in Crane Technical

The following parameters are user specified inputs to the calculation:

Input Description Units

Input Description Units

Input Description Units

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

Input Description Units

Input Description Units

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

valves (can be zero)

Output Description Units

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

Incompressible Flow in a Pipe

Static Head Loss

H static _ head _ loss = z out − z in Equation 1

Frictional Head Loss

Frictional head loss through a pipe is calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach

This relationship can also be expressed in terms of velocity head loss

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

Pipe Friction Factor

Fittings Frictional Head Loss

Where C is a constant representing the equivalent length:diameter of the

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

Table 1: Fitting Friction Factors

Nominal Pipe Size Fitting Friction

Table 2: Equivalent Length:Diameter Constants for Various Fittings

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

Hinged disc foot valves (with strainers) 75 -

Total Frictional Head Loss

The total frictional head loss can then be calculated by:

Total Head Loss

H total _ head _ loss = H friction _ total + H static _ head _ loss Equation 13

Calculation of Fluid Velocity

The flow area is given by:

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

The volumetric flow rate is determined using:

The fluid velocity is then determined by:

Pipe Relative Roughness

Reynolds number is determined using the relationship:

The calculator classifies the flow regime as laminar, transition or turbulent

Table 3: Flow Regime Classification

Reynolds Number Flow Regime

Pressure Drop and Head Loss

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

Calculation of Incompressible Pressure Drop

The incompressible pressure drop is determined from the specified fluid

The calculation routine is described in the following steps:

1. Calculate the volumetric flow rate using Equation 15

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

m = mass flow rate of fluid through pipe (kg.s -1 )

Copyright © 2009 Blackmonk Engineering Ltd

Fluid density = 965

Find the pressure drop per 100 metres of pipe.

The published result in Crane is slightly higher due to the use of an