1.3 Deductive and Inductive

1.
3 Deductive and inductive
Arguments may be classified into deductive and inductive (non-deductive). The classification
is based upon the nature of relationship between the premises and the conclusion. In a
deductive argument the premises imply the conclusion. As such, the conclusion cannot be
false, if the premises are true. The following argument is deductive:
All birds have feathers.
All crows are birds.
All crows have feathers.

Since the premises of a deductive argument imply the conclusion, they provide sufficient
evidence for it (the conclusion). That is, nothing more is required to demonstrate the
conclusion.
We also come across arguments in which the premises do not provide sufficient evidence for
the conclusion. Such arguments are said to be inductive. Consider the following inductive
argument:
Socrates, Plato and other men (who have died so far) are mortal.
. All men are mortal.
The evidence for the conclusion consists of the cases of those men who have died in the past.
Now it is possible that what has occurred in the past may not occur in future.
This shows that the evidence is not sufficient.
It follows from the above that the conclusion of a deductive argument is certain, while that of
an inductive argument is probable. To bring out the probable character of inductive
arguments, Bennet and Baylis call them "empirical probability arguments". This expression is
used to show that sciences use inductive arguments.
Different inductive arguments have different degrees of probability. And the
scientific value of an argument depends upon its degree of probability.

For testing the validity of deductive arguments, it is possible to find exact criteria.
These criteria can be applied mechanically. But there are no such criteria for determining the
scientific value of inductive arguments.®️
We may bring out the difference between deductive and inductive arguments in another way
too. Since in a deductive argument the premises imply the conclusion, the conclusion cannot
go beyond the premises. On the other hand, the conclusion of an inductive argument goes
beyond the premises. As a consequence, the premises of an inductive argument may be true,
and yet its conclusion may be false. This cannot be the case with a deductive argument.
According to the modern logicians, logic is a science of deductive systems. So they do not
include induction in the scope of logic. However, today logicians hold that logic
consideration.
Features of Deductive and Inductive Logic
Deductive Logic:
1. In deductive reasoning, the premises imply the conclusion with certainty. If

the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.
2. Deductive arguments provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion without

needing any additional information.
3. The relationship between premises and conclusion is such that the

conclusion cannot go beyond the premises.
4. Deductive logic aims to produce absolute certainty, making it ideal for

establishing truths based on prior statements.
5. Exact criteria exist for testing the validity of deductive arguments, making
them mechanically verifiable.
Inductive Logic:
1. In inductive reasoning, the premises provide probable, rather than certain,

evidence for the conclusion.
2. The premises do not fully imply the conclusion; the argument’s evidence
only suggests a likely outcome based on observed cases.
3. The conclusion in an inductive argument extends beyond the premises, often

generalizing from specific instances.
4. Inductive logic acknowledges a degree of uncertainty, with conclusions
typically being highly probable but not guaranteed.
5. There are no exact criteria for testing the strength or probability of an

inductive argument, making such arguments subject to scientific evaluation
rather than definitive truth.
Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Logic
Uses of Deductive and Inductive Logic in Courts
Deductive Logic in Courts:
1. Application of Legal Rules: Deductive reasoning is often applied in court

decisions where judges interpret and apply established laws to specific
cases. If the premises (laws) are true, and a particular case meets these
criteria, the decision or verdict follows with certainty.
2. Structuring Legal Arguments: Lawyers use deductive logic to frame

arguments around statutes or precedents, demonstrating how the facts align
precisely with legal rules, which leads to a specific legal conclusion.
Inductive Logic in Courts:

1. Evaluating Evidence and Witness Testimony: Courts often use inductive
reasoning to evaluate patterns in evidence, such as witness credibility based
on past behavior or similar testimonies. While this doesn’t guarantee
accuracy, it provides probable support for conclusions.
2. Inferring Probable Causes and Trends: Inductive reasoning helps in cases

involving forensic evidence, psychological profiles, and statistical analyses
to infer patterns and make probable determinations about guilt or innocence,
especially where direct evidence may be lacking.
Inductive arguments are used in weighing evidence or establishing

circumstantial connections, while deductive arguments focus on applying laws
and precedents to derive definite legal conclusions.
Uses of Deductive and Inductive Logic in Courts
Deductive Logic in Courts:
1. Application of Legal Rules: Deductive reasoning is often applied in court

decisions where judges interpret and apply established laws to specific
cases. If the premises (laws) are true, and a particular case meets these
criteria, the decision or verdict follows with certainty.
2. Structuring Legal Arguments: Lawyers use deductive logic to frame
arguments around statutes or precedents, demonstrating how the facts align
precisely with legal rules, which leads to a specific legal conclusion.
Inductive Logic in Courts:
1. Evaluating Evidence and Witness Testimony: Courts often use inductive

reasoning to evaluate patterns in evidence, such as witness credibility based
on past behavior or similar testimonies. While this doesn’t guarantee
accuracy, it provides probable support for conclusions.
2. Inferring Probable Causes and Trends: Inductive reasoning helps in cases

involving forensic evidence, psychological profiles, and statistical analyses
to infer patterns and make probable determinations about guilt or innocence,
especially where direct evidence may be lacking.
Inductive arguments are used in weighing evidence or establishing

circumstantial connections, while deductive arguments focus on applying laws
and precedents to derive definite legal conclusions.

1.3 Deductive and Inductive

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1.

3 Deductive and inductive

All birds have feathers.

All crows are birds.

All crows have feathers.

. All men are mortal.

This shows that the evidence is not sufficient.

scientific value of an argument depends upon its degree of probability.

Features of Deductive and Inductive Logic

1. In deductive reasoning, the premises imply the conclusion with certainty. If

2. Deductive arguments provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion without

3. The relationship between premises and conclusion is such that the

4. Deductive logic aims to produce absolute certainty, making it ideal for

1. In inductive reasoning, the premises provide probable, rather than certain,

3. The conclusion in an inductive argument extends beyond the premises, often

5. There are no exact criteria for testing the strength or probability of an

Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Logic

Uses of Deductive and Inductive Logic in Courts

Deductive Logic in Courts:

1. Application of Legal Rules: Deductive reasoning is often applied in court

2. Structuring Legal Arguments: Lawyers use deductive logic to frame

Inductive Logic in Courts:

2. Inferring Probable Causes and Trends: Inductive reasoning helps in cases

Inductive arguments are used in weighing evidence or establishing

Uses of Deductive and Inductive Logic in Courts

Deductive Logic in Courts:

1. Application of Legal Rules: Deductive reasoning is often applied in court

Inductive Logic in Courts:

1. Evaluating Evidence and Witness Testimony: Courts often use inductive

2. Inferring Probable Causes and Trends: Inductive reasoning helps in cases

Inductive arguments are used in weighing evidence or establishing

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