ADDI S ABABA U N I V ERSI T Y

SCH OOL OF J OU RN ALI SM AN D COM M U N I CAT I ON

ETHICAL ISSUES IN NEWS REPORTING

WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO
THE ETHIOPIAN HERALD
NEWSPAPER

BY

HAILE-GEBRIEL ENDESHAW

A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of

Addis Ababa University in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of MA in
Journalism

AAU
Addis Ababa
December 2005

1
 ADDI S ABABA U N I V ERSI T Y
SCH OOL OF J OU RN ALI SM AN D COM M U N I CAT I ON

ETHICAL ISSUES OF NEWS REPORTING

WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO
THE ETHIOPIAN HERALD
NEWSPAPER

BY
HAILE-GEBRIEL ENDESHAW

Board of Examiners

Approved by Signature

Advisor ______________________________ __________

Examiner ______________________________ __________

Examiner ______________________________ __________

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my sincere thanks to my advisors professor Andargachew Tiruneh

and Ato Birhanu Tibebu for their invaluable comments and constructive criticism. My
thanks should also go to my instructors Dr. Nicol Jane Jones and Mr. Franz Krüger for
their appreciable comment. I am grateful to friends and classmates who had discussions
with me regarding this paper.

I would never forget the favour W/rt Alem Aberra did to me in typing all the papers I
wrote including this one. I am also grateful to my children, Mussie and Eyassu who
collaborated by keeping quite while their father was scribbling his thesis.

I owe the staff of The Ethiopian Herald Newspaper and officials at EPA a lot for their
collaboration in assisting me to accomplish my research.

Last but not least, my dear wife, Tsedi, please take my heartfelt thanks! I would not have
reached here had you not supported me morally and financially. Thank you a lot.

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 ABSTRACT

This research is a pilot study, or a kind done as experiment, intended to identify ethical
problems in news reporting with particular reference to The Ethiopian Herald
Newspaper. In conducting the research, the following major questions were taken in to
account. What are the ethical problems in news reporting in The Ethiopian Herald
newspaper? And what are the causes for these ethical problems? The research method
employed for the study is content analysis. Sampling population for the analysis was
taken from issues of The Ethiopian Herald published between March and August 2005.
Some 55 Election news stories printed during the stated period were drawn from the
sampling population as unit of analysis. Questionnaire and interview were also employed
as supportive instruments of data gathering for the study. Accordingly, the final results of
the study indicate in the first place that the majority of the election news stories published
in The Ethiopian Herald do not fulfill one of the major ethical principles of journalism,
fairness. Secondly, the journalists working for the paper carry out their journalistic duties
under the interference of their employers, government officials. Finally, it was possible to
see through the study that censorship, which is prohibited by the constitution of the land,
Article 29 (3a), is practiced by the state paper under study.

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 LIST OF TABLES

PAGE

Table 1: Coverage of Tone …………………………………….………… 31

Table 2: Coverage of Order of Appearance …………………...………… 33
Table 3: Coverage of Quoted Sources ………………………..…........….. 35
Table 4: Coverage of Headlines Favoured to: …………………...………. 36
Table 5: Coverage of Pictures Published …………………………....…… 38
Table 6: Journalists’ Response on the Fairness of News Reporting.............39
Table 7: Journalists’ Response on their Professional Independence........... 41
Table 8: Journalists Response on Censorship ............................................. 42

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 LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

Figure 1: Percentage of Tone ..................................................................... 31

Figure 2: Frequency of Tone ...................................................................... 32
Figure 3: Percentage of Order of Appearance............................................. 34
Figure 4: Frequency of Quoted Sources...................................................... 35
Figure 5: Frequency of Headlines................................................................ 37

Figure 6: Percentage of Pictures Published.................................................. 39

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS

CPJ --------- Committee to Protect Journalists

CUD ------- Coalition for Unity and Democracy
DPL -------- Draft Press Law
EDP -------- Ethiopian Democratic Party
ENA -------- Ethiopian News Agency
EPA --------- Ethiopian Press Agency
EPRDF ----- Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front
ICHRP ----- International Council on Human Rights Policy
IFJ ---------- International Federation of Journalists
IPI ---------- International Press Institute
MIC -------- Media and Information Commission
NEB -------- National Electoral Board
NEBE ------- National Electoral Board of Ethiopia
Proc. --------- Proclamation
RSB --------- Reporters without Borders
TPLF -------- Tigray People’s Liberation Front
USIA -------- United States Information Agency
WIC --------- Walta Information Center

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
ACKNOWLEGMENTS ………………………………………………………….... i
ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………….…. ii
LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………… iii
LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………………… iv
LIST OF ACRONYMS ………………………………………………………….….. v

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Statement of the Problem …………………………………………..…………. 1

1.2 Objectives of the Study …………………………………………….………… 2
1.3 Significance of the Study ……………………………………………………. 2
1.4 Limitations of the Study ……………………………………………………… 3
1.5 Organization of the Study ……………………………………………………. 3

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Defining Ethics ………………………………………………………………... 4

2.2 Ethics and Freedom of Expression ……………………………………………. 5
2.3 Principles of Media Ethics …………………………………………………….. 7

2.3.1 Independence ………………………………………………...…………. 7

2.3.2 Fairness ……………………………………………………………........ 10
2.3.3 Responsibility ………………………………………………………….. 12

2.4 Significance of Code of Ethics for Journalists ……………………………….. 14

2.5 Ethics and Censorship ………………………………………………………... 16
2.6 Role of Journalists in Election Coverage …………………………………….. 19
2.7 The Ethiopian Herald (Background) …………………………….…………… 22

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

3.1 Design of the Study ……………………………………………………..……. 23

3.2 Source of the Study …………………………………………………………... 23

3.2.1 The Election News Stories ……………………………………………... 23

3.2.2 Questionnaire and Interview …………………………………………… 24

3.3 Sampling Procedure ………………………………………………………….. 24

3.3.1 Samples of News Stories ……………………………………………… 24

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 PAGE
3.3.2 Unit of Analysis ……………………………………………………………….. 25
3.3.3 Samples of Journalists ………………………………......…….…….. 25
3.4 Instruments of Data Gathering ...............................................................…... 25

3.4.1 Content Analysis …………………………………………………… 26

3.4.2 Questionnaire ………………………………………………….…… 28
3.4.3 Interview ……………………………………………………..…….. 28

3.5 Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………….. 29

CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 Introduction …................................................................................................ 30

4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data …………………………………...…….. 30

4.2.1 Data Gathered Through Categorical Analysis …………………..…. 30

4.2.1.1 Tone ……………………………………………………..…… 30

4.2.1.2 Order of Appearance …………………………...…………….. 33
4.2.1.3 Quoted Sources …………………………………………….. 34
4.2.1.4 Headlines …………………………………………………… 36
4.2.1.5 Pictures ……………………………………………………… 38

4.2.2 Data Collected Through Questionnaire and Interview ……………. 39

4.2.2.1 Lack of Due Regard to Fairness ………………………....….. 40

4.2.2.2 Stumbling Block against Freedom of Expression ………...…. 41
4.2.2.3 Gatekeepers against Freedom of Expression ………………… 42
4.2.2.4 Special Emphasis on Responsibility and Code of Ethics ……. 43

4.3 Ethical Problems and the Consequent Legal Issues ……………...….……… 44

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary …………………………………………….….……...….………… 49
5.2 Conclusion …………………………………………………...……………… 49
5.3 Recommendations ………………………………………………...…………. 51

REFERENCES …………………………………………………………..…………….. 54
APPENDICES
Appendix I ………………………………………………………………………. 58
Appendix II ……………………………………………………………………… 61
Appendix III ………………………………………………………………….….. 62
Appendix IV …………………………………………………………….……….. 63

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Many people are heard complaining that they do not have interest in following the state
media because they do not give due attention to ethical journalistic principles needed in
news reporting. The state media, according to these people, do not consider fairness,
independence, responsibility and other ethical issues. At times they make errors by
distorting sources.

Basically the media have the responsibility of serving the people by providing fair,
balanced and accurate stories in a responsible manner. As they are described as being the
fourth estate, it is their primary duty to play a role of supervision against governments.
“Ideally, one of the powers of the media is to act as a check against government, and to
defend public interest by uncovering abuses of power in private and corporate
enterprises.” (Ronning, 2002: 60).

The major causes for the loss of interest in the media in Ethiopia are believed to be
ethical problems such as acts of being irresponsible. When the media act irresponsibly,
several things can happen. Ethical issues that should be given due attention may be
neglected and the media lose credibility. This weakens the media's vital role as watchdog.
As a result the wellbeing of democracy suffers (Retief, 2002: 5).

The Ethiopian Herald is the sole state daily newspaper published in the English language.
Like the other state media, this paper has also suffered a lot from ethical problems. Many
of the news stories are published without taking into consideration the major ethical

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principles like fairness, responsibility and independence. Because of these ethical
problems, the paper is seen losing its readers.

The purpose of the media is to provide accurate and well balanced information to the
public. “... [T]he proper role of the press is to provide editorial content that responds to
the interests of the public...” (Baker, 2002: 24). But unfortunately many state media,
especially in Africa, have failed to do so. As a state-owned paper The Ethiopian Herald is
believed to face similar problems. Therefore, it is this researcher's belief that the study
will do its level best in identifying these problems.

Thus, the research tries to identify ethical problems observed in news reporting in the
national English daily. To achieve this well, the study attempts to respond to the
following major questions:

1. What are the major ethical problems in news reporting in The Ethiopian Herald?

2. What are the causes of these ethical problems?

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The study is conducted with the objectives of:

1. Identifying the ethical problems in news reporting in the national English daily;

2. Indicating the causes of the problems; and

3. Providing possible solutions and recommendations to the ethical problems

identified.

1.3 Significance of the Study

Since ethical issues in the state media seem to have not yet been given due attention, the
study will be of paramount importance in discussing the issues, which have impact on

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credibility of state media. Accordingly, the study is made with a view to imparting the
following specific and practical benefits.

1. It will try to indicate where the real ethical problems lie so that the concerned
bodies can take measures to address them.

2. It may help others who are engaged in the media sector not to commit similar
mistakes in the future.

3. It may also provide other researchers with ideas that are useful for their studies,
etc.

1.4 Limitations of the Study

Due to time constraint, the study is conducted on six months issues of a single state
medium, The Ethiopian Herald. The researcher doesn’t miss the fact that it would have
been more advantageous had the study involved other state media.

1.5 Organization of the Study

The study is composed of five chapters. Chapter one, as already indicated, gives the
overall picture of the study; embracing statement of the problem, objectives, significance,
limitations and organization of the study.

Chapter two of the study deals with the review of related literature incorporating ethical
concepts, its definition, the significance of code of ethics, ethics and censorship,
principles of ethics and other related issues.

Chapter three of the study deals with methodology. Chapter four discusses the analysis
and presentation of data, while the last chapter deals with the summary, conclusion and
recommendations.

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 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Defining Ethics

Taking into account the purpose of the study attempts are made to define ethics in terms
of journalism. This is done with a view to strengthening the issues that are discussed all
the way through the study.

In defining ethics various scholars commonly raise the issue of moral. According to
them, ethics is concerned with moral concepts and its judgment on the rightness and
wrongness. Kruger (2004:1) states that ethics “deals with morality, moral judgments and
the meaning of concepts like right and wrong”. To give moral judgments or decisions of
the rightness and wrongness, there needed to be considered certain issues among which
culture is the major one. Intensifying this point Day (2003:5) says that “ethical decisions
are always made within a specific context, which includes the political, social and
cultural climate”. Thus ethics is described as “laying down norms or rules of right or of
good behavior”. (Ross, 1968: 311)

As Kasoma (1994 (b):5) puts it journalism ethics is concerned with making sound
decisions in journalistic performance, and it assumes the presence of societal morality.
Morality has to do with actions guided by generally acceptable human values and
responsibilities.

Obligation of the journalists for the social and individual responsibility is given emphasis
in media ethics. This is nothing but in reporting news the media practitioners are
expected to make sound decisions to abide by the generally acceptable human values and
responsibilities. Providing truthful information to the public is the major responsibility of
journalism. Some intensify the point by saying that truthfulness is one of the primary
ethical concerns in news and information. (Baker and Michael, 2003: 554)

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This study advocates the idea that to maintain truthfulness in news reporting the
journalists are expected to act ethically. This means they need to fulfill the basic
components of truth in journalism, which include “factual accuracy, balance and fairness
and adequate context” (Baker and Michael, 2003:554). To implement all these journalists
need to act responsibly, independently and ethically in general. On the other hand failure
to provide truthful information responsibly, independently and in a fair manner, is a
serious violation of journalism ethics.

2.2 Ethics and Freedom of Expression

In discussing freedom of expression, it is appropriate first to say a few things about
democracy because there can never be freedom of expression in a country where there is
no democracy. This is to say that freedom of expression and democracy are two sides of
the same coin.

According to Abraham Lincoln, democracy is a government “of the people, by the people
and for the people”. Thus democracy most commonly defined as “rule by the people”
(Mason, 1994:4). The decisive power in a democratic country, according to the
definition, is people. Sovereignty of the people, government based upon consent of the
governed, majority rule, minority rights, guarantee of basic human rights, free and fair
elections, equality before the law and others are referred to as the pillars of democracy.
Where one of these pillars is missing, it is hardly possible to say that democracy is
prevailing. “There can be no doubt that two of the most important characteristics of a
healthy democracy are free and independent media and free and fair elections.”
(Schnellinger, 2001:15).

Dhal (1998:48) says that basic human rights “are among the essential building blocks of a
democratic process of government”. Under these basic human rights, we have freedom of
speech, expression and of the press, freedom of religion, freedom of assembly and
association. These rights are referred to as inalienable to indicate that, as they exist
independently, they cannot be legislated away.

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Freedom of speech and expression is given special emphasis in democracy. It “is the life
blood of any democracy. To debate and vote, to assemble and protest, to worship, to
ensure justice for all-these all rely upon the unrestricted flow of speech and information”
(USIA, 1991:9).

Any government that claims to be democratic encourages the existence of a free press.
When there is a free press, other liberties are secured. The people will be free to convey
their thoughts to one another without any external interference including that of the
government; because people are born free to speak their minds.

Speech is natural and inseparable from the human person, the

breath of his social existence, and so intimate a tool of all mental
life that without free speech thought itself could not be fully free.
The press, by contrast, is an institution of developed society, a
machine-using institution, and one whose role tends to enlarge as
new instruments are devised. (Steinberg, 1996:152)

All views that are believed to be valuable should be disseminated for public hearing.
This, however, ought to be handled in a responsible way. “The watchdog role of the press
has...duties and responsibilities.” (Kasoma, 2000: 41).

Serving the public is the major responsibility of the public media; in doing so they are
also responsible to provide accurate, unbiased and fair information. According to the
social responsibility theory, “freedom of expression is a moral right with an aspect of
duty about it”. (Siebert, 1956:96) MacDougall (1977) underscores this in the following
way: the public's right to know of events of public importance and interest is the
overriding mission of the mass media (MacDougall, 1977:24).

Taking this into consideration, journalists have to make efforts to gather facts and
communicate them “in language that is stylish, accurate and instantly understood. They
must also lead the way in integrity, honesty and tenacity. They have to be ethical.”
(Herbert, 2001:12). In this way journalists are expected to live up to public expectations.

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Being free does not mean journalists are absolutely free to publish or broadcast whatever
they wish. They should note that there are ethical and legal limitations against free
speech. “One’s right to free expression must be balanced against the private rights of
others and against vital social interests.” (Siebert, 1956:97) Violating privacy, defamation
in the name of free speech, may result in unexpected consequences. “There are grounds
for limiting free speech, which are recognized in law, such as libel, slander or incitement
to riot. Apart from these legal limitations, there are ethical limitations, taken in a broad
sense, where the value of free speech conflicts with other values of society.”
(MacDonald, 1998:6)

2.3 Principles of Media Ethics

There are certain issues that should be considered as cornerstones of media ethics. These
are, among others, independence, truth, impartiality, fairness, decency, accuracy and
responsibility. Some scholars add “minimizing harm” and “accountability” to their list.
But here as the study has its major focus on independence, fairness and responsibility,
attempts are made to discuss only these three principles of ethics.

2.3.1 Independence
Independence is one of the major principles of ethics that should be given due emphasis.
On the other hand it means that “…the question of independence is crucial to journalism
ethics.” (Kruger, 2004:54). The free dictionary (Free Dictionary, 2005: Internet) defines
independence as freedom from control or influence of another or others. This part of the
study discusses issues in the realm of independent journalism on the basis of this
particular definition.

In the same way as the above mentioned definition, independent media is a media that is
free from any external influence. According to Black (1995) in Retief (2002:22),
independent media remain free of associations and activities; seek out and disseminate
competing perspectives without being unduly influenced by those who would use their
power or position counter to public interest. If journalists are needed to seek the truth
and report it fully to the public, they should be allowed to act independently. They are

16
also expected to keep themselves away from activities that may compromise their
integrity or damage their credibility. It is only then the press has been said to have played
a watchdog roles or regarded as fourth estate. Yes, “Public trust relies on journalists
being able to remain independent of outside agendas” (Kruger, 2004: 54). On the other
hand any journalistic work that is not accomplished independently may raise the question
of credibility.

Commercial, proprietor and governmental interferences are believed to be the major

factors that influence the independence of journalism. Many agree that the government or
the private media owners can employ journalists, but should leave them alone to proceed
with their job in accordance with the editorial policy of the respective media. “In any
democratic society individual media organizations and journalists should be free to
choose their own role without interference from governments or other outside groups.”
(Dadge, 2005: Internet). However, the existing reality in many countries shows the
opposite. Mostly the media are under strict control of the government. “...The African
government has never left the press alone to operate freely with the minimum
interference within and outside the law like most democratic governments do” (Kasoma,
2000: 88). Regarding the situation of the state media in Ethiopia, Kruger, (2005: Internet)
said, “[t]he heavy-handed state control…caused considerable discomfort to the journalists
working there.” According to Kruger, journalists in state media in Ethiopia “felt unhappy
and deeply compromised by the tight controls being exercised over their work”. (Ibid)

For various reasons, particularly impositions, certain media tend to be partisans. They do
not act independently. They prefer to stick to one side. This is clearly reflected in their
reporting and editorial policies. For instance, after the 9/11 attacks on the United States
“the US television network Fox News Channel came to incarnate this school of thought,
by adopting the news of the US Administration and criticizing media positions that
sought to report in a more independent or more critical manner” (ICHRP, 2002: 86).
Serving the public honestly is the duty of a good journalist. To accomplish this well s/he
must remain independent from any engagement that affects journalism. Freedom of the
press by itself does not mean any thing but being free from imposition from government

17
and proprietors. “What is special about the principle of free speech is that it provides a
degree of immunity from government control” (MacDonald, 1998:5). In countries where
media are under the strict control of the state, there is much violation of independence
and events will not get fair coverage. For instance, “In many African countries
government-controlled media are not allowed to cover activities and speeches of the
opposition.” (Mwaura, 1994:107)

There are many African countries that are dangerous for journalists according to CPJ. For
instance, in 2005 many journalists were harassed, imprisoned and attacked in Uganda,
Niger, Kenya, Mozambique, Mali, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Burundi, and
other African countries (CPJ, Cases, 2005:Internet). The legal actions being taken against
journalists in some of these countries violate the independence of the journalists. Where
there is no independence, it is hardly possible to expect authentic information. Regarding
the point Kovach (2001) says the following:

The notion of freedom of the press is rooted in independence. Only

a press free of government censors could tell the truth. In a modern
context, that freedom was expanded to mean independence from
other institutions as well-parties advertisers, business, and more.
The conglomeration of the news business threatens the survival of
the press as an independent institution as journalism becomes a
subsidiary inside large corporations more fundamentally grounded
in other business process (Kovach, 2001:32).

In Zimbabwe government took measure in 2003 to ban the country’s only daily, The
Daily News. This shows “the complicated challenges of a legal and economic kind,
including government interference, undemocratic laws…the independent press faces in
many parts of Africa”. (Ronning, 2005)

Media in any democratic country act as a watchdog regarding the activities of the
incumbent government. “... [T]he press should play a watchdog role by altering the
citizenry against misuse of power and governance.” (Kasoma, 2000:40) To implement
this in a better way the media are expected to act independently without the interference
of government or proprietors.

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In the same way the media must not lose their editorial independence due to commercial
interference. Commercial interference affects the independence of media for it is always
after its interest, which is definitely profit. They do not bother about the interest of the
readers (audience). “Often advertisers want different editorial content than do readers or
viewers...” (Baker, 2002: 24).

Conflict of interest is also the other factor that affects independence in journalism.
Therefore, journalists are to guard themselves against all such things like party
partisanship receiving offers and invitation. These highly affect independence.

Independence is one of the fundamental principles of journalism

ethics because it sets up a defense against conflicts of interest and
competing loyalties. It says publicly that our work is guided by no
allegiance except that to professional standards and the audiences...
Journalists must remain free of associations and activities that may
compromise their integrity or damage their own or their
organization's credibility. (Kruger, 2004:95)

Therefore, journalists should do their level best to avoid this; because their “real social
responsibility is met by doing [their] job, providing trustworthy and independent accounts
of what is going on” (Kruger, 2004:99).

2.3.2 Fairness
Fairness in news reporting, according to Kasoma, (1994 (a):336), “means that the
journalist gives a hearing to all the contending sides in a story”. He further states that
fairness gives “the accused the right to reply in the same story not waiting to publish what
they say in a subsequent issue or, worse still, never giving them a story at all”. (Ibid: 336-
337) It is only when these sides have equal opportunity to reflect their views, a news
story said to be fairly reported.

Pavlic (2001:93) says that fairness means nothing but “providing balanced coverage
reflecting all sides of an issue”. It also includes completeness, relevance and honesty. It
implies impartiality that the journalist has nothing personal to gain from a report, that
there are no hidden benefits to the reporter or to the source from the story being presented

19
(Biagi, 1999:346). When it is said a news story should be fair and balanced, it means that
it should be impartial and without bias or the journalist is expected to give all sides of the
argument a fair hearing (Frost, 2000:36). The reporting must be made in such a way that
it is not focused on a particular point of view. The issue of balance should be given due
focus of attention. However, the reality on the ground in many countries is different. Let
us look at an example. This refers to the 2000 Ethiopian elections.

Although there was a more active debate in national newspapers,

there were only minor columns on the elections in the regional
newspapers during the week before the election. In the government
owned Herald of Tigray, [?] one article presented general
information about the meaning of elections, but also campaigned
unapologetically in favour of the ruling party. It sated that
EPRDF’s five-year programme should be a model for other parties
that spend most of their time making false promises to the people
and criticizing their rivals (Aalen, 2002: 89-90).

Kruger (2004:83) says that while reporting journalists should put into consideration
whether all affected parties have been spoken to, if efforts have been made to give the
appropriate weight and consideration, whether the report has gone beyond the obvious
sources. A review of ethical violations committed by newspapers in Ghana since 1992
shows that “journalists did not bother to check up on the information before reporting
them as facts. In short, biased coverage, partial coverage, partisan coverage, gossipy
headlines and unfair reporting were painful manifestations of the period under study”.
(Koomson, 1996:55)

To ask for fairness and balance is to ask that evaluative language be avoided, that the
material should not be slanted (MacDonald, 1998:60). However, many media scholars
argue that journalism can never be value-free. A report that is written by a journalist is
expected to reflect his or her feelings, opinions and values. Ronning (2002:86) states that
news media tend to construct accounts of events that are structured and framed by the
dominant values and interests of the society in which they exist. That is why MacDonald
(1998:62) says: “Journalism's failure to be objective is because it can not free itself of
value judgments”.

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Though any reporting cannot be free from value judgments, it does not mean that one
should not be concerned to maintain fairness in news making at all. Since efforts are
made to represent relevant viewpoints on matters of importance, it is definitely said the
issue of fairness has been considered. On the other hand the more unfair a journalist is the
greater harm s/he is likely to cause. After all “[N]o journalist can do without a
commitment to fairness” (Kruger, 2004:83).

Mostly media in many African countries seem to be negligent in reporting news fairly. A
senior reporter for one private news paper in Ethiopia said: “because of the fact that many
officials and organizations are not willing to talk to us we often publish unbalanced
stories….” (Kruger, 2005: Internet). This is one of the causes for journalists in third
world countries not to report with due fairness. “For the media to be fair and free and to
effectively check abuse of power, journalists must have access to information”. (Mason,
1994:52)

2.3.3 Responsibility
We focus on this particular principle of ethics to give emphasis on its significance in fair
and independent reporting. Responsibility in the media means that reporters and editors
must be careful as to how they should use the information they gather (Biagi, 1999: 361).
This means that journalist should feel responsibility in reporting a story. A report that
does not entertain different sides fairly is not expected from responsible journalists. “The
news media are the central nervous system of society and ought to act responsibly and
constructively to help the public better define and develop democracy.” (Dennis, 1998:
xvi)

Ethical journalism acts responsibly facilitating the democratic process and serving the
public interest (Belsey, 1998:11). According to a review of ethical violations committed
by newspapers in Ghana since 1992, journalists acted irresponsibly. “…Others freely dug
into people’s past, when it was not pertinent or important. What is worse, the language
was mostly offensive, scurrilous or lacking in elegance and precision.” (Koomson, 1996:
55)

21
A good journalist accomplishes his/her duty with ethical decisions, which emanates from
individual responsibility. This is to say that “good ethical decisions require individual
responsibility” (Kruger, 2004:14). An interview conducted for research in Nigeria
revealed that government owned broadcast media could not be trusted for their
irresponsible behaviour. “One of the respondents cited the instance of the widely reported
death in 1990 of Dr. Nnambi Azikiwe, the first indigenous Governor-General of Nigeria.
Dr. Azikiwe, however, died six years later, in 1996” (Soola, 1996:111). This shows how
responsibility is of paramount importance in fairness.

Here one can say that a reporter is free to do whatever s/he likes so long as freedom of
expression is in place. But “[t]he notion of freedom raises the issue of responsibility,
attending to the consequences of our actions” (Sanders, 2003:74). One may be said to
have freedom in calling others in bad names, cause terror. But is s/he right to do so? Why
does s/he do this? What kind of person does s/he want to be? The individuals must
inquire these kinds of moral questions. These may help them to gain some clues as to
how they should act. “If we accept that we are, to a certain extent, free, we can accept too
that we can be responsible.” (Ibid: 75). By responsible journalism is meant journalistic
action that takes into account its effect on people both as news /information sources and
news/information consumers.

The opposite, irresponsible journalism, is reportage that does not care about
consequences to the people arising from what is reported (Kasoma, 2000:82). News
stories that were reported irresponsibly created dismay among people. For instance,
coverage of the ethnic conflict in Northern Mali, especially after the slaughter of innocent
populations by armed movements created unfavorable situations among people. Some
publications caused the readers to be suspicious of all persons (Sangho, 1996:71). Retief
(2002: 216) indicates that “[T]he freedom of the press can never mean the absence of
responsibility…Real freedom should always be accompanied by responsibility”. Yes,
“[p]ress freedom only has a meaning when it is used responsibly” (Kasoma, 1994

22
(a):339). Therefore, as the media have influence on people, programs should be
entertained with a sense of responsibility.

2.4 Significance of Code of Ethics for Journalists

Many journalists in various parts of the world adopt codes of ethics to guide themselves
in a responsible manner. As journalists do their duties “not for themselves but on behalf
of their public” (Kruger, 2004:3), they need to have codes of ethics, which suggest that
news must be accurate and error-free.

Having codes of ethics is of paramount importance for journalists that shoulder the big
responsibility of serving the public. Kruger (2004:3) says, “[c]odes of ethics are a good
place to find lofty and sometimes even elegant expressions of the view that journalism is
basically about public service”. Apart from this, the codes outline the conditions of
journalists’ accountability, responsibility. This indicates that having or adopting code of
ethics obliges the journalists to be accountable to the public, their sources, to their
professions and accomplish their duties in a responsible way.

Code of ethics also plays significant roles in protecting the freedom, integrity and identity
of journalism (Campbell, 2004:148). In particular codes are very essential in Africa,
where there is no much freedom. This would play a role in easing pressure of
interference. “If African journalists observed professional ethics, governments,
individuals, groups, organizations and other pressure groups would find it more difficult
to intervene and interfere with the practices of the profession” (Mwaura 1994:113).

Many media scholars say that lacking codes, among others, is one of the causes for
journalism not to be considered as a profession. Having codes of ethics and enforcing
journalists to abide by them, like other medical and legal professions, can help journalism
to be taken as profession. Ronning (20002:61) says supporting this that codes have been
seen and developed as part of a process giving journalism a professional status.
MacDonald, (1998) also says the following:

23
 One way of asserting professionalism is to have self-regulatory
councils and codes of practice. These have come into being in an
attempt at self-regulation in the face of public criticism and also in
an attempt, it might be suggested, to gain or maintain public
credibility, to establish journalism as a profession. The adoption of
a code can be seen as an important symbol of the fact that the
occupation is seeking to justify itself in terms of professional
norms. (MacDonald, 1998:78)

Keeble (2001:131) adds that professionalism is usually linked to the promotion of codes
of conduct. “Ethical codes, in effect, serve to create a collective conscience of a
profession.”

Journalists who are bound by their codes gain credibility from the wider public. They use
freedom of expression in a responsible manner. They are committed to protect their
confidential sources. Ronning (2002:61) says that apart from restricting certain immoral
practices on the part of journalists, codes of press conduct have another function to
safeguard press freedom itself. “... Media ethics becomes a guarantee for media
independence. It is for this reason that press codes, for example, commit journalists to
protecting confidential sources of information.”

Some principal underlying values in codes throughout the world, according to Keeble
(2001:14), are fairness, the separation of fact and opinion, the need for accuracy linked
with the responsibility to correct errors, maintaining confidentiality sources, upholding
journalists’ responsibility to guard citizens’ right to freedom of expression, recognizing a
duty to defend the dignity and independence of the profession, protecting people’s right
to privacy; respecting and seeking after truth, struggling against censorship, avoiding
discrimination on grounds of race, sexual orientation, genders, language, religion or
political opinion; avoiding conflicts of interest (particularly with respect to political and
financial journalists or editors holding shares in companies they report on).

Therefore, journalists, including senior editors are advised to unite with others to adopt
common codes of ethics, which are believed to improve the ethical environment of media
institutions. Moreover, “such codes can also be cited as evidence of socially responsible
institution that is unwilling to condone unethical practices.” (Day, 2003:441)

24
Some may say that codes established at national level can serve all these purpose.
However, the national codes are so general that they can hardly serve as a basis for
genuine ethical blue print. “... [T]he detailed standards of some news papers and the
commercial TV networks, for example can be valuable in at least serving as guide posts
for journalists and other media practitioners as they confront moral dilemmas.” (Day,
2003:441).

African journalists, in particular, need protection from the state, their editors and
employers. However, they themselves are the best ones to secure their protection. This
can be implemented through the amelioration of journalistic standards and observation of
a strict code of professional ethics.

2.5 Ethics and Censorship

Receiving and imparting information are among the basic rights of human beings. That is
why nations across the world enshrine this right in their respective constitutions. Article
19 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights also states that “[e]very one has the right to
freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without
interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and
regardless of frontiers”.

In a country where democratic rights of the public have not been well protected,
governing bodies regard the press as a threat. Due to this, they never leave a stone
unturned to stifle it. They use censorship to stop direct opposition against their ruling.
“Governments control the media by censoring what is reported or by prosecuting those
who write or say things critical of the government.” (Mason, 1994:52) This trend, which
is unethical in journalism, has long been a common practice in many African countries.
Reporters without Borders (RSB) indicates in its 2003 report that about 180 journalists
were detained in Africa during 2002, and more than 80 news media were censored in the
region during 2002. (Ronning, 2005) Restrictive media laws are also taken as direct
censorship that threatens freedom of expression. The recent draft press law of Ethiopia is

25
a good example. Commenting on the draft press law, The IPI Editor and African
Coordinator, Dadge, (2005: Internet) says the following:

The DPL carries articles on Licensing, Registration, a Media

Council, a Freedom of Information section, as well as proposed
offences, the judicial process and possible penalties. Many of these
Articles are unnecessary for a healthy media environment while a
number of others do not provide sufficient detail, particularly the
articles dealing with freedom of information. The overall result is
unwieldy law that is in immediate need of revision and further
discussion. (Dadge, 2005: Internet).

Thus the DPL is restrictive or a direct form of censorship. The surprising thing is that the
Ethiopian Constitution Article 29 (3a) stipulates the “prohibition of any form of
censorship”. Proclamation 34/1992 also states that censorship of the press and any
restriction of a similar nature are prohibited. In this way censorship is used by many
governments to prevent journalists from reporting independently, fairly and responsibly.

Mwaura (1994:107) indicates that freedom of expression and speech, investigative

journalism, freedom of movement, self-censorship and newspapers and magazines, are
regarded as the major areas of censorship.

As investigative journalism is after corruption, misappropriation of responsibilities and

misconduct, in government and private sectors, the ruling body of a country, especially in
Africa, regards it with suspicion. “The involvement of government in the press in Africa
has throughout history been so heavy that it can rightly be said that the African
government is obsessed with the press.” (Kasoma, 2000:88). For instance, the
government-controlled Media and Information Commission (MIC) in Zimbabwe shut
down the independent regional newspaper The Weekly Times after just eight weeks of
publication, saying the newspaper violated the country’s media legislation. “Local
journalists told CPJ the closure was part of a systematic clampdown on critical media in
the run-up to parliamentary elections scheduled for March 31.” (CPJ, Protests, 2005:
Internet).
There should be freedom of movement in a country so that a journalist is able to seek
stories worth publishing or broadcasting. However, many undemocratic nations do not

26
abide by this universal rule. They bar journalists from areas where anti-government
movements are thought to be observed. In Africa, a journalist should have special
permission from a government to enter into an area.

As indicated above newspapers and magazines are targets for censorship. A government
may issue a guideline for magazines or newspapers that obliges the publishers to fill a
written form, or submit a general report about the issues before they are published. The
other way of censorship can also be implemented in the form of “economic pressures”.
The government may impose taxes on papers to discourage publishers. It can also
withdraw advertising from the private press or push, through various means, the private
sector to do so. This is commonly practised in Africa to cause the collapse of the
threatening newspapers or magazines. In this way the government indirectly implements
censorship, which in turn stops the journalists not to implement journalism ethics.

The other tactic the government may use to suppress the press is by becoming the media
owner itself. This is quite common in Africa. Governments take measures to put the
media under their ownership. For instance, the New Nigerian newspaper owned by the
federal government has been consistently supportive of federal government, particularly
in times of national crises (Soola, 1996:113). Wilcox (1982:209) as quoted by Sand-
brook (2000: 41) says that in 1980, about 90 per cent of Sub-Saharan Africa’s ninety
daily newspapers were owned by governments or governing parties in single party states.
As the top management bodies, including editors and reporter, are government
employees, they do not have the courage to speak out against the wrongdoings of their
employer (the government). States try to control the media using different “techniques
ranging from outright censorship and expression to more subtle means, which often
combine state ownership of the media with a system of economic awards to journalists
who tow the line and reprisal against those who do not” (Ronning, 2005). Editors-in-chief
in most state media in Ethiopia are government appointees. This is the same in many
other African countries. For instance, Le Soleil (A pro government daily) is a state
monopoly of information in Senegal. The state is the majority shareholder of this paper
and its board chairman is an advisor in the president’s office (Ndao, 1996:130). “In such

27
situations, the media become nothing but mouth pieces for ruling individuals or parties.”
(Mwaura, 1994:109)

Self-censorship is also against the ethics of journalism. A journalist, who restricts himself
or herself from providing the truth, in a journalistic manner and frequently uses
unnecessary adjectives, is practising self-censorship.

When journalists feel obliged not to publish information, which

might otherwise be deemed suitable for publication or to publish
such information, because of fear of reprisals or to please certain
quarters, they are engaging in self-censorship, the most malignant
journalistic disease in Africa. Self-censorship has become so
endemic among African journalists that it had turned into a culture,
complete with its own vocabulary in which terms like 'patriotism',
'nation buildings', 'responsibility', 'peace', 'love and unity' feature
prominently to justify blatant censoring and doctoring of news.
(Mwaura, 1994:109)

Broadcasters in Nigerian media are accused of doctoring news and information to suit
their ends and those of government (Soola, 1996:111).

Censorship is the enemy of press freedom and journalistic ethics. It aggravates

disagreements and causes undesired results. Moreover, it “makes counter arguments
silent. Under censorship difference is portrayed as enmity opponents are demonized.
Censorship makes people stupid and fanatic.” (Demszky, 1998:76)

2.6 Role of Journalists in Election Coverage

“Print and electronic journalism is arguably of prime importance in securing
accountability when elections are far apart and manipulated and party systems and
legislatures weak.” (Sandbrook, 2000:40)

It is unquestionable that journalism plays a pivotal role in promoting democracy in

general. As a free and fair election is one of the pillars of democracy, the involvement of
journalism is of considerable importance here. Basically, maintaining objectivity,
impartiality and balance are the challenging characteristic of journalism. However, this
gets most challenging in political elections. “The election provides a further challenge to

28
media because it brings into sharp focus the need of media to provide citizens with access
to all the facts, opinions and ideas being canvassed in campaigns.” (IFJ) But the reality
on the ground is very different. For instance, during the 2000 national election, the
Ethiopian Herald, the national Daily, published the following.

Woreda Council Elections conducted smoothly. EPRDF wins 98

per cent of votes in Addis. [These two sentences seem to be
headlines]. The government media, EPRDF and NEB stated that
the elections were ‘free and fair’. Private newspapers, on the other
hand, published the opposition’s claims about the misdeeds of
election officials, local administrators and the ruling party during
the polls. Opposition leaders voiced their disappointment with the
process, but stress the need for a long-term approach to the
development of democracy. (Aalen and Siegfried, 2002:196)

Therefore, the larger public or voters need to have well-balanced and impartial reporting
on elections. It “must also provide access to media so that citizen's voices can be heard
above the babble of political debate” (IFJ).
Media scholars urge that journalists should have the right to do their reporting without
any external interference. State-owned media in particular should not become propaganda
machines of the ruling body. During the 2000 national election in Ethiopia “Radio
Woyane, the local radio station owned by TPLF, was frequently used as a channel for
propaganda. The fact that there are no privately owned media in Tigray region ensured
that the opposition had and continues to have a hard time getting access to channels for
spreading its idea” (Aalen, 2002:90). Such issues must be considered in order that the
media can produce free and fair reportage of elections. Therefore, the real media freedom
is essential to enable journalists, editors and publishers to advance the public interest by
publishing, broadcasting or circulating facts and opinions without which a democratic
electorate cannot make responsible judgments (IFJ). “[Journalists] can watch over the
electoral campaign to guard against abuses of the process and distortion of the truth.”
(Schnellinger, 2001:15)

During an election, the voting public learns about electoral process through media
coverage. This can include information on the election, on candidates and thought of the
voters on campaigns as well as on candidates. Such information on electoral process can

29
be used by the voters to make an informed choice on election day. In doing so journalists
must do their duties in a responsible way.

Reporting on elections is an important responsibility. For the press

to fulfill its election integrity role, its reporting must be
responsible, accurate and professional. Uniformed or biased
reporters can spin a story, giving the public an unfair and
inaccurate perception of a candidate or the process. Given the
nature of public trust that most of the press enjoys, the press must
have the highest standards for accurateness and fairness. (Nelson,
2000: Internet)

During an election editors in particular are expected to discharge their responsibilities in

an ethical manner. They should check that candidates are given, in the media, equal
opportunity to reach the voters. Editors have also the responsibility to make sure an
election news story is fair, relevant, balanced and accurate.

Experiences during the past Ethiopian elections show that media coverage was not fair to
all contending parties. Most of the state media gave wider coverage to the incumbent
government.
…Media coverage of and public interest in the elections were
meager. They paid little attention of the programs of the political
parties and the public debates in the pre-election period….The
government media aired reports on EPRDF accusations that EDP
was ‘trying to make the EPRDF a scapegoat for their weakness’
and beating up their candidates, but no evidence was provided.
(Aalen and Siegfried, 2002: 189)

Sometimes state media are seen giving full support to the government during election.
This is not expected from a media, whose role is to serve the public fairly, independently
and responsibly.

30
2.7 The Ethiopian Herald (Background)
The English daily, The Ethiopian Herald is the sole state owned newspaper which was
launched in 1943. It is among four state papers that are published under EPA. Currently
there are about 32 people working for The Ethiopian Herald. Some 17 of them are
journalists while the rest are supportive staff members.

The Ethiopian Herald newspaper, which is published every day except Monday,
entertains home and world news including various soci-economic and political issues in
nine daily as well as weekly columns and pages. Most of the local news stories published
in the paper are dispatched by two government, ENA, and party news agencies like WIC.
A very limited number of news items is written by staff reporters. As the staff reporters
are too little to cover all daily events, the paper is highly dependant on the above
mentioned state news agencies as its major news sources.

Two editorial meetings that are conducted two times a day are most important in
determining the day to day activities of the paper. These meetings attended by editors-in-
chief and chaired by a department head, who is the second top official of the agency,
EPA, next to the general manager. Various issues that should receive coverage by the
paper get their final decisions at these meetings. Every conference participant receives
copies that carry tip off (List that indicates events to be covered by the media). Theses
copies are distributed to every conference participant ahead of the meetings. Most of the
time the tip off is commonly sent from ENA. By reading the lists one by one the
conference participants, mostly editors-in-chief, discuss which of the four papers
(including the Amharic Daily, Addis Zemen the weeklies Berissa and Al-Alem) should
cover which events. If an event is assigned to be covered by The Ethiopian Herald, the
editor-in-chief of the paper will assign a reporter. It is in this way events get coverage in
the national English daily. The daily circulation of The Ethiopian Herald is between 9-
10, 000.

31
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

3.1 Design of the Study

The major purpose of this study is to find out ethical problems The Ethiopian Herald
faces in its news stories coverage and suggest possible solutions that may help to solve
the problems observed. The study focuses in particular whether the ethical principles,
independence, fairness and responsibility, were given due consideration in news
reporting. Thus, news stories selected for the study were examined to identify how far
ethical principles and related issues were taken into account in reporting them.

In finding out the ethical problems the study analyses election news. Thus data were
gathered from purposely selected election news stories published in The Ethiopian
Herald newspaper within six months of time. Due to time constraint, the study has been
limited to only six months issues of the paper. Moreover, as the election news taken for
the study should entertain the views of the ruling and other contending parties, the
researcher had to base his study only on a few selected ones. Apart from analytical
analysis, interview and questionnaire were also employed as supportive sources of
information for the study. As this study can be regarded as pilot study or a kind done as
experiment, only basic statistical analysis, interview and questionnaire were employed.

3.2 Source of Information

3.2.1 The Election News Stories

The primary data for the study was collected from election news stories published in The
Ethiopian Herald. Three issues of a week published between March 01, 2005 and August

32
30, 2005, totally 79, were randomly selected for the purpose. The election news stories
published during the third national election in the above stated time were the unit of
analysis or sources of information for the study. Accordingly, 79 issues of the paper were
selected for the study. Of these issues only 55 were found to have carried the election
news appropriate for the study. As the rest 24 issues neither carried any election news
stories nor had the ones with themes compatible with the study, they were discarded. All
the 55 news stories selected for the study were either the ones that entertained issues of
both the ruling and contending parties or the ones that state views or any thing related
with theses political parties.

3.2.2 Questionnaire and Interview

Fifteen journalists working with The Ethiopian Herald and an official with EPA,
publisher of The Ethiopian Herald, were also involved in the study as sources of
information. The journalists, reporters and editors, working for The Ethiopian Herald
were made to fill in the questionnaire. Their responsibilities in writing and editing news
stories made their inclusion crucial. An Interview was also conducted with a senior
government official of EPA. This individual is a responsible government official who has
the power to decide whether a news story should be published or not. Due to his decisive
responsibility, his involvement for the study was significant.

3.3 Sampling Procedure

3.3.1 Samples of the News Stories

Due to time constraint, the researcher determined to limit his study to some selected
issues of the paper. Therefore, he applied a random sampling technique to select
sampling population from issues published between March 01, 2005 and August 30,
2005. Thus the selection of newspaper was done starting from Tuesday, the first day of
the week the paper is issued, and skipping a day. Accordingly, issues of Tuesday,
Thursday and Saturday were selected. Besides, as the Tuesday’s issue of the paper has a

33
weekly column, "Home News", it was essential to include it with the assumption that it
would carry election news stories. It is the researcher’s belief that the sample is large
enough to be a representative one.

3.3.2 Unit of Analysis

The unit of analysis of this study is election news. Election news reported during the third
national election and in particular the ones that carried issues on both the ruling and other
contending political parties were examined carefully using five categories that were
employed for the study. The analysis was done in order to assess whether contending
political parties in the third national election were reported on fairly in the news coverage
under study.

3.3.3 Samples of Journalists

The Ethiopian Herald Newspaper is the sole daily English state paper with entire staff
members numbering about 32 of whom only 17 are serving as journalists. The rest are
supportive staff members who are not involved in the actual news production process.
Fifteen reporters and editors working for the paper have direct contact with news making.
Due to this, the researcher selected all of them to fill in the questionnaire. Moreover, the
election conducted for the third time across the nation required active participation of the
entire journalists working for the paper in making election news. This has made the
involvement of all reporters and editors significant.

3.4 Instruments of Data Gathering

The necessary data were gathered using categorical analysis (for the content),
questionnaire and interview. News items numbering about 55 were analyzed for their
fairness using five categories. Journalists that are working with the paper were made to
fill in the questionnaire. The interview was also conducted with a government official at
EPA. The questions in both instruments of data collection were designed in such a way

34
that they could help the researcher get the needed information about ethical issues in
news reporting in The Ethiopian Herald.

3.4.1 Content Analysis

Seventy-nine newspapers (three issues per week) of The Ethiopian Herald published in
six months were employed for analysis. Of these, only 55 were found to have carried the
election news appropriate for the study. This means the publications picked for the study
carried election news on contending political parties or views or other issues that concern
them. Once having the sampling of content, the next step was to construct categories that
enable the researcher to identify the fairness of the sampling election news stories.
Accordingly, five categories were established. These are tone, order of appearance,
quoted sources, headlines and pictures.

Furthermore, the researcher used certain techniques to determine the tone of the election
news stories. For instance, in the news stories if more paragraphs were given to a political
party named ‘A’ than the other political party named ‘B’, then the tone of that given
election news would be determined to be positive towards party ‘A’. Here the number of
paragraphs is taken as one of the techniques used to measure the tone of the election news
under study (see appendix IV). In this way all the 55 election news stories were analyzed
to identify their fairness. As 24 issues of The Ethiopian Herald newspaper didn’t carry
election news stories that were believed to fit the study, they were discarded. Let’s see
the techniques applied to determine the tone of the election news stories.

Name-calling: This is taken to be the negative labeling of contending parties. Words or

phrases that might prompt readers to take side with a party are given due consideration in
this section. Moreover, if a contending party is named ‘anti-peace elements’, it is
believed the naming will have negative connotation. It will be much better if political
parties involved in the election are called ‘contending parties’, ‘contesting parties’ etc.
Some of the election news taken for the study used these terms.

35
Highlighting: This technique is examined to identify if additional backgrounds are given
to a contending party to promote it or distract readers’ attention. Highlighting depends on
background paragraphs or statements that recount the positive sides of a contending
party.

Direct agitation or promotion: Here the technique is considered when readers are pushed
or agitated to vote for a political party. This can be used in various ways to distract
attention or prompt readers. Words or phrases like ‘patriots’ choice’, ‘peace loving’, and
the like were given special consideration to determine the tone of the news.

Paragraphing: Here the numbers of paragraphs given to every contending party in the
election news stories were examined as they are believed to have influences in attracting
or distracting the attentions of the readers. If the news story gives more paragraphs to a
single party than the other one, and uses various techniques in support of one party, then
it can be concluded that the story’s tone is positive to one side.

Let’s see few more sentences about some of the categories. ‘Order of appearance’ is one
of the five categories used in the research to identify which party was given prominence
in the story. Basically prominence in news stories has impact on issues that are coming
next. Due to this, ‘order of appearance’ was employed as a category to determine the
fairness of the news stories.

‘Headline’ is the other category. In news reporting headline plays significant roles in
determining the fate of a news story. Is the headline favored to one party? Or is it neutral?
Or which party has repeatedly been mentioned in the headlines? This by itself is believed
to bring about positive or negative impacts to a given contending political party.

Whose pictures (photographs) have been used repeatedly for the news? This was also
considered to identify whether the contending parties were represented fairly in the news
stories. It is the researcher’s belief that all the categories employed for the study enable
him to judge whether or not the election news stories are fairly reported.

36
In counting and coding items, the researcher being assisted by two individual coders
analyzed every news item, headline, paragraph, etc. The researcher believes that having
assistant coders helps to avoid subjectivity, ensure accuracy and consistency as much as
possible. The group of two coders including the researcher worked on the selected
election news stories individually. Then they came together to code or insert the final
results, which were common for both. Total consensus was reached between the
researcher and a group member before any result was taken. When there was not
agreement in the coding process, another individual was invited and consulted for a final
decision. All the coding and counting process was finalized in full agreement in this way.
Presentation and analysis of the data were carried out being supported by SPSS computer
data system.

3.4.2 Questionnaire

The questionnaire used in the study was composed of both open and closed-ended
questions. The entire questions can be categorized into two parts. In the first part attempts
were made to collect personal information like job title, experience and educational
background. The second part was dedicated to questions that enable to gather as much
information as possible on censorship, code of ethics, and some ethical principles such as
independence, fairness and responsibility. Efforts were also made to produce the
questions with simple and easily understandable sentences. The questions were designed
in a bid to systematically elicit the needed information on the stated issues. Fifteen copies
of the questionnaire were distributed to journalists working for the national daily, The
Ethiopian Herald.

3.4.3 Interview

Interview was used in the study to enrich information collected through content analysis
and questionnaire. Here also the interview was composed of two parts. The first part was
about personal profile of the interviewee. Age, job experience and educational
background were included. The second part of the interview included questions that were

37
thought to help elicit information about censorship, and certain ethical principles like
independence, fairness and responsibility. The information obtained through the
interview was presented and analyzed along with the questionnaire.

3.5 Data Analysis

The information gathered through categorical analysis, questionnaire and interview will
be presented and analyzed separately in the next section of the study, chapter four. As
indicated all the way through the study, the contents of the election news stories will be
analyzed to find out ethical problems in news reporting in The Ethiopian Herald
newspaper. This is done in particular by showing whether or not all the election news
stories were reported fairly.

The data gathered through questionnaire and interview will also be presented and
analyzed together to discover how far censorship, fairness and independence including
code of ethics as well as responsibility were considered in news reporting in The
Ethiopian Herald Newspaper.

38
 CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 Introduction
As stated in the previous chapter, categorical analysis or content data (for the content),
questioner and interview were used as data gathering instruments in this study. Almost all
the questions distributed as questionnaire and interview were filled in properly and
returned. The government official at EPA gave response to the questions posed as
interview in a hand written Amharic language. (See appendix III) All the data collected in
this way are presented and analyzed being supported by SPSS computer data system.

In the first section of this chapter attempts are made to present and analyze the data
collected through categorical analysis of the content. In the same way, the second part
deals with the data gathered using questionnaire and interview. The last part of the
chapter discusses the ethics and the consequent legal issues.

4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data

4.2.1 Data Gathered Through Categorical Analysis

4.2.1.1 Tone
Here various techniques were employed to examine and determine whether the tone of
the election news coverage was positive or negative towards one or other of the parties
that took part in the election. The techniques investigated to determine the tone of the
news were name-calling, highlighting, direct agitation, and paragraphing. So far as this
study is concerned paragraphs, highlighting, and name-calling were the most frequently
employed techniques in determining the tone of the election news in this paper.

39
Table 1: Coverage of Tone

Frequency Percent
Negative to contending parties 18 32.7
Positive to ruling party 34 61.8
Positive to contending parties 1 1.8
Neutral 2 3.6
Total 55 100

It is evident from Table 1 or Fig. 1 that the tone of the examined election news stories
favoured the ruling party. The coding evinces that 61.8 per cent of the news stories had
favourable tone towards the ruling party, EPRDF, which was one of the contending
parties in the third national election. This means that in 34 of the 55 election news taken
for the study EPRDF and the government were portrayed positively. This does not mean
that the remaining percentage of the news coverage were unfavourable towards EPRDF.
The fact is the ruling party received more positive tone than the other contending political
parties. On the other hand it is evident from the coding that news coverage numbering 18
or 32.7 per cent carried negative tone against the other contending political parties in
general. This means the political parties were labeled negatively or made to have negative
image in the reporting. They were not given equal treatment like the ruling party. Since
unfair treatment of different sides in news coverage is quite beyond journalism ethics, the
news reports taken for the study are judged as unfair.

Figure 1: Percentage of Tone

70 Positive to
ruling party.
60 61.8

50 Negative to
contending
40 parties. 32.7
30
20 Positive to
contending
10 Neutral. 3.6
parties. 1.8
0
Percent

40
As Fig. 1 and 2 indicate, there is a marked difference between the ruling and contending
political parties in frequency and percentage of the tone. Apart from this, the news reports
used name-calling, highlighting and paragraphing techniques (See Appendix IV) on one
hand in support of the ruling party and on the other in labeling the other contending
political parties negatively. “…illegal activities being waged by CUD (one of the
contending political parties); opposition parties engaged in destructive activities…”
These and other reports (read in the paper) with similar spirit are believed to have
negative connotation towards contending political parties involved in the election. On the
other hand, reports like, “EPRDF strengthens on going development;…speed up
development, or livelihood,…”; and others that highlight election victory in some parts of
the country prior to the official announcement of NBE including reports that give wider
coverage to demonstrations ‘staged’ in support of the ruling party give positive image to
EPRDF.

Thus, the coding revealed that the tone of the news coverage was highly positive towards
the ruling party, EPRDF. Based on this it can be judged that the news taken for the study
had been reported without fulfilling the basic principle of ethics; fairness. This seems to
have been done with a belief of promoting the political interest of the ruling party or
winning the attention of the majority of the readership during the national election.

Figure 2: Frequency of Tone

Positive to
ruling party. 34

Positive to
Negative to Neutral. 2 contending
contending parties. 1
parties. 18

41
4.2.1.2 Order of Appearance
The order in which all contending political parties are reported on can show whether
there is fairness or not in the news reporting. Taking this into consideration, the election
news stories selected for the study were analyzed concerning the order of appearance of
the parties in every news story.

Table 2: Coverage of Order of Appearance

Frequency Percent
Ruling party appeared first 17 30.9
Contending parties appeared first 1 1.8
News that were not considered 37 67.3
Total 55 100

Therefore, it is evident from Table 2 that the ruling party, EPRDF, appeared first in most
of the news stories under study being supported mostly by background paragraphs. In
some 17 news stories, 30.9 per cent of the entire coverage, the ruling party was given
prominence. On the other hand, this means of the 18 news stories that were appropriate to
be considered for this particular case here, 17 or 94 per cent, gave priority to EPRDF.
News stories that were labeled ‘not considered’ in the tables (they are about 37) are the
ones that state either about a single political party or other issues. Because of this they
were not considered for this particular case.

As most of the time readers have their primary glance on the first few paragraphs of the
story, the ruling party is assumed to have the chance of getting better attention of the
readers for the election news under study. This is believed to have influence by itself on
issues that come later in the news story. It was noted during the coding process that the
issue of taking prior order of appearance in the news stories was seen to occur during the
official campaign period. Other contending political parties were not given the same
opportunity of appearance in the first few paragraphs of the news stories as the ruling
party. It is clearly seen in Table 2 other contending political parties were given
prominence only one time, which is 1.8 percentage of the total number.

42
Some news stories reported on the dissent of contending political parties appeared being
patched up or connected beneath other news stories by ‘meanwhile’. Therefore, in this
analysis, it seems that contending political parties other than EPRDF were not given fair
order of appearance in the election news under study. This order of appearance in which
other contending political parties were reported on far behind EPRDF can reveal an
element of unfairness.

Figure 3: Percentage of Order of Appearance

Ruling party
appeared first.
30.9

Contending
News that parties
were not appeared first.
considered. 1.8
67.3

4.2.1.3 Quoted Sources

It is the researcher’s belief that agents quoted as sources of the news can play significant
roles in determining the fairness of the entire news content. Taking this into account,
attempts were made to code the quoted sources of the election news stories under study.
Thus it is evident from Table 3 that most of the quoted news sources numbering about 26
(the aggregate of EPRDF and government news agency) or 47.3 per cent, happened to
have direct or indirect relations with the incumbent government. Parties affiliated to
EPRDF, Woreda (district) government officials, a government as well as party news
agencies (ENA and WIC) and ministries were among the quoted news sources that took
the lion’s share of the frequency of quoted sources in the news stories under study. Other
contending political parties were quoted as sources only nine times in the election news
under study. This is accounted for only 16.4 percent of the entire news coverage.

43
Table 3: Coverage of Quoted Sources

Frequency Percent
NEBE 10 18.2
EPRDF 21 38.2
Government news agency 5 9.1
Contending political parties 9 16.4
Others 10 18.2
Total 55 100

Depending only on the stated government agents as news sources highly affects the
fairness of the news. Even if the information obtained from these sources is said to be
genuine, ethical principles oblige that the readers should be given the opportunity of
hearing the views of both sides. The news will have the chance of acceptance by various
readers so long as due attention is given to the issue of fairness. Therefore, it is the
researcher’s belief that the fact that the quoted sources had not been balanced well
blurred the fairness of the election news stories.

Figure 4: Frequency of Quoted Sources

Contending
political Others. 10
NEBE. 10
parties. 9

Goverenmen
EPRDF. 21
t news
agency. 5

44
4.2.1.4 Headlines
In this study, headlines of the examined election news were analyzed in terms of whether
they reflected a political party positively, negatively or neutrally.

Table 4: Coverage of Headlines Favoured to:

Frequency Percent
Ruling party 20 36.4
Contending political parties 3 5.5
Neutral 24 43.6
Negative to contending political parties 8 14.5
Total 55 100

Headlines have the power of stealing the attention of readers. Besides “[m]any readers
are in the habit of reading only the headlines of most items.” (Hildick, 1966: 44) Thus a
reader who grabs a newspaper by chance may have enough time only to glance at the
headlines, which alone may have influence on his/her decision during election times.

It is thus evident from Table 4 that 20 headlines, 36.4 per cent, under study devoted more
attention to EPRDF. This means that the headlines were not made in such a way that they
should consider fair representation of other contending parties. This implies that by
making the headlines to shout in favour of the ruling party, the paper did not discharge its
responsibility of giving fair treatment for both sides. Even worse, other contending
political parties received eight negative headlines coverage. Meaning, these parties were
quoted in the headlines with terms that downgrade them. Some 24 news stories or 43.6
percent were coded to be neutral. The headlines that are favored to other contending
political parties are only three, which accounts for 5.5 per cent of the total headlines
coverage of the election news taken for the study. The data show that apart from being
represented negatively in the headlines, these political parties were not given equal
chance of having positive image as the ruling party.

45
Figure 5: Frequency of Headlines

Negatrive to
contending
political
parties. 8

Ruling party.
Contending
Neutral. 24 20
political
parties. 3

Therefore, from the analysis of headlines, it is evident that the election news inclined to
portray the positive picture of the ruling party. The coverage in this particular case thus
violates the principles established for headlines in the editorial policy of the Ethiopian
Press Agency, which is believed to be binding for the Ethiopian Herald newspaper.
According to the editorial policy, the headlines should be concrete and fair. (EPA, 2002:
79).

The following are some of the headlines that are thought to have negative connotation
towards the contending (opposition) political parties.

• Oppositions fail to show up for debate on youth issues. (March 15, 2005)
• Inmates say CUD campaign man has criminal records. (May 5, 2005)
• Government warns violence inciting opposition party leaders to refrain from their
activities. (June 7, 2005)
• Associations condemn opposition parties. (August 13, 2005)
• CUD’s position said contradictory. (August 18, 2005)

46
 • Political parties urged to refrain from inciting violence. (August 20, 2005)

4.2.1.5 Pictures

In the study pictures (Photographs) were used as a category to determine the fairness of
the election news. It is thus evident from Table 5 that almost all pictures used in the
news, even if they are very few, entertained all the parties fairly. Accordingly, 5 pictures,
or 9.1 per cent, were used representing both the ruling and other contending political
parties. However, most of the election news stories, 49 out of 55, were published without
pictures.

Table 5: Coverage of Pictures Published

Frequency Percent
Ruling party 1 1.8
Used for both (common) 5 9.1
Used no picture for both 49 89.1
Total 55 100

In conclusion it can be said the once a reporter enters a working news room s/he acquires
“access to one of society’s great powers, the power to give or deny information” (Teel,
1992: 132). Journalists in a democratic nation are expected to stick to the power that
gives fair information to the public. However, as the data in this study evince, the same
doesn’t hold true for the Ethiopian Herald. News reports taken for the study clearly
acquired the power to deny fair information to the readers. In general, according to four
of the five categories employed in the study, unfairness prevailed in the election news
stories taken for the study.

47
Figure 6: Percentage of Pictures Published

Used no picture
for both. 89.1

Used for both Ruling party.

(common). 9.1 1.8

4.2.2 Data Collected Through Questionnaire and Interview

Here follows the presentation and analysis of data based on journalists’ (reporters and
editors working for The Ethiopian Herald) response concerning their attitude towards
ethical issues in general in news reporting. The response obtained from the interview,
which was held with the government official at EPA, is also included in the presentation
and analysis of data.

Table 6: Journalists’ Response on the Fairness of News Reporting

Items Frequency Percent

Yes 2 13.3
No 12 80
I do not know/No idea 1 6.7
Total 15 100

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4.2.2.1 Lack of Due Regard to Fairness
Journalists, nine editors and six reporters, involved in the study were asked to indicate
whether news stories published in The Ethiopian Herald are reported fairly. Here the
term fairness was taken in its sense that in news reporting the journalist should give equal
balance to all contending parties. To avoid confusion with regard to the term ‘fairness’,
the questions were posed in different ways. For instance, whether there is fair reporting in
the paper, or the ruling and other contending political parties are given equal coverage.
This helped the researcher to elicit the needed information on fairness of news reporting.

Accordingly, it is evident from the Table-6 that 12 of the 15 respondents, 80 per cent,
indicate that the news stories published in The Ethiopian Herald are not reported fairly.
Only two respondents, 13.3 percent, rated indicating the existence of fair news coverage
in the newspaper. All the editors (they are eight) involved in the study also intensified the
unfairness of news reports in the Ethiopian Herald by saying that they do not seem to be
pushed to send reporters to report on the weak sides of the government. Stating their
reasons some of them wrote the following:

• The government never likes its weakness to be printed.

• To avoid accountability. For there is no freedom of expression.
• Because it is the state media favoring itself.
• …the media [are] the mouthpiece of the government…
• It is not allowed.
• Because there is always censorship.
• Conditions do not allow doing so.
• Bosses never allow that to happen.

The information obtained from the respondents here strengthens what has been found out
through content analysis. Based on this we can conclude that the paper under study does
not give proper attention to fairness in news reporting. Furthermore, the journalists are
not in a position to implement fair news reporting.

49
The interviewee (the official at EPA) indicated regarding the raised issue that all news
stories published in The Ethiopian Herald are reported fairly. Responding to a question
that inquires whether all the contending (opposition) parties were treated equally in the
paper, he said, “The [contending political parties] had equal chance, but they did not use
the medium as desired”. He was also asked whether his agency encourages reporters to
do reporting on the weak sides of the ruling party. In his response he indicated that the
reporters “are encouraged” to report the weak sides of the ruling party.

However, what has been analyzed through content data and questionnaire clearly evinces
the reality on the ground. Moreover, contending political parties “did not use the paper as
desired” does not necessarily mean there is fair reporting in The Ethiopian Herald.
Therefore, it can be possible to draw a conclusion that the data gathered through
interview and questionnaire confirms the existence of unfairness in news reporting with
The Ethiopian Herald newspaper.

Table 7: Journalists’ Response on their Professional Independence

Items Frequency Percent

Yes 2 13.3
No 10 66.7
I do not know/No idea 3 20.0
Total 15 100

4.2.2.2 Stumbling Block against Freedom of Expression

Here a few questions were forwarded to identify whether the journalists proceed their
work independently without government interference. ‘Independence’ was used to
indicate the journalists’ freedom in accomplishing their duties without undue interference
from officials or government. Accordingly, it is evident from Table 7 that the items
highly rated indicate most of the respondents, ten of the fifteen respondents or 66.7 per
cent, seem to accomplish their respective journalistic duties under the influence of their
employer, which is indirectly the government. The journalists are civil servants employed

50
by the top official of EPA. The general manager, who is appointed by the government,
shall “employ and…fix the salaries…of journalists…” (Proclamation No. 113/1995 and
the amended proclamation No.75/1997)

Thus all the responses forwarded directly or indirectly evince lack of independence in
the journalistic profession. Two respondents indicated that they do their job
independently. Considering the total number of respondents, which is 15, two is
insignificant. The interviewee said that the reporters “are working independently”.
Furthermore, he stated his view that government officials should not interfere in the day
to day activities of journalists. However, what has been found out from the majority of
respondents indicates that the journalists do not pursue their duties independently.
Denying independence in journalism is tantamount to placing a stumbling block against
people’s right of freedom of expression. This undoubtedly brings about unethical effects
on news reporting.

Table 8: Journalists’ Response on Censorship

Items Frequency Percent

Yes 11 73.3
No 2 13.3
I do not know/No idea 1 6.7
No given answer 1 6.7
Total 15 100

4.2.2.3 Gatekeepers against Freedom of Expression

The journalists involved for the study were asked if they could witness the existence of
censorship in whatsoever forms in the paper they are working for. With regard to the
response it is evident that 11 respondents, which accounts for 73.3 per cent of the entire
number, testify to the existence of censorship in its direct or indirect forms in the medium
they are working for. Furthermore, a significant number of respondents (eleven out of
fifteen) indicated that they are accustomed to practicing self-censorship while writing or
editing news stories. Here the journalists act as gate keepers (Teel, 1992: 29) barring the

51
path to publication. They denied the public right of receiving information. Stating the
reasons some of them indicated the following:

• The government is intolerant of reports that go against it.

• Not to be held accountable.
• For fear of the consequences.
• …I expect that my editors do not allow it to be published.

The interviewee indicated in his response that self-censorship is practiced due to lack of
confidence and insufficient journalism training. What one can understand here is that
self-censorship is a real practice in The Ethiopian Herald newspaper. The respondent also
stated answering question number 19 that at times journalists are given questions
prepared by the editorial committee of EPA. This is taken as a guideline to limit the
independence of the journalist not to pass a certain state-made boundaries. This is a
manifestation of censorship.

4.2.2.4 Special Emphasis on Responsibility and Code of Ethics

Few of the questions in the interview and questionnaire were about ‘responsibility’ and
‘code of ethics’. With regard to questions on responsibility, the journalists were asked
whether they observed any problems related to responsibility. Responsibility in the media
was taken to indicate journalists’ obligation to be careful as to how they should use the
information they gather. To avoid confusion regarding the term ‘responsibility’ the
questions were posed in simple and clear way.

Accordingly, eight respondents, out of the fifteen, indicated that they witnessed the
problems of responsibility in the profession. Some seven respondents, however, rated in
the questionnaire that they “do not see” any problem of that sort. The interviewee stated
in his response that such problems are interrelated with lack of trained human power. His
response ensures the existence of irresponsibility. Nine respondents among the journalists
expressed their views that the absence of code of ethics for journalists in Ethiopia seems
to have affected journalism profession.

52
4.3 Ethical Problems and the Consequent Legal Issues
The Ethiopian Herald is the first national English daily established in 1943. As a first
newspaper it has played significant roles in reflecting the images of the country to the
outside world. The paper had served the foreign readerships as the only source of
information regarding the soci-economic and political situations of the country before
other English papers and magazines were launched.

Apart from the news and opinions published daily, The Ethiopian Herald covers a wide
range of politics and social issues using different columns and pages. ‘Present Day
Ethiopia’ in which political issues of the country are entertained, ‘Arts and Culture’ for
arts as well as cultural issues of the people, ‘Society’, ‘The Battle against AIDS’, ‘Focus
on Women’, ‘Herald Sports’, ‘Investment and Tourism’, ‘Just a few Points’ (which
entertains jokes and quotations), and ‘Economy and Development’ are the weekly pages
and columns currently appear in The Ethiopian Herald.

The paper has made a successful step in granting contending political parties a forum for
discussion during election periods. Moreover, the editorial policy of EPA, which is the
publisher of The Ethiopian Herald, states that the editorial policy that determines the
contents and working process of the newspapers as well as magazines published by it has
its bases on the constitution of the land, Proclamation No. 113/1995 (a proclamation to
provide the establishment of EPA) and Proclamation No. 34/1992 (a proclamation to
Provide for the Freedom of the Press) (EPA, 2002: 7).

What we can understand here is that the papers that are published under EPA, including
The Ethiopian Herald, are wanted to act in accordance with the constitution of the
country, which grants in its article 29 (2) the right to freedom of expression without any
interference. However, the freedom does not seem to be effective at least as far as this
study is concerned. “It is not enough to tell a man that he is free to achieve his goals; one
must provide him with the appropriate means of attaining those goals” (Siebert, 1956:
94). MacDonald (1998: 14) strengthens this point by saying that “Free speech will be

53
without value if the public can not obtain the information it needs from government and
other bodies”.

It is evident from the data gathered in the study that the election news stories under study
were reported unfairly. Contending political parties, other than the ruling EPRDF, were
denied their right of expressing ideas fairly. They did not get the same chance of
expressing their views as the ruling party. In the process of coding the researcher
observed that some news stories that are about complaints or accusations of political
parties were not reported in a fair manner. Simply the news stories either stated the
accusation of a given political party or said nothing about the views of the accused party.
Therefore, “[b]y giving the accuser exclusive publicity, the press treats the accused party
unfairly” (Kasoma, 1994 (a): 337). This is what The Ethiopian Herald is doing.

We have seen in the previous section that the election reporting was unethical. The
ethical problems identified in this study are believed to harm the democratic process the
country has been engaged in. It is the sincere belief of the researcher that failing to
maintain ethical issues in reporting news stories can have legal consequences too.
Though law “functions as a system of externally imposed constraints on behaviour,
whereas ethics functions as self-imposed constraints” (Herrera, 2005: Internet), the two
have interrelations. Thus the impact necessitated the discussion of legal issues in this
particular section of the paper.

It is evident from the data that by failing to give fair coverage to all, the paper under
study ignored their constitutional right to freedom of expression without any interference.
Or The Ethiopian Herald Newspaper is evident to violate Article 29 (1) of the 1995
Ethiopian Constitution, which states, “[e]veryone has the right to freedom of expression
without any interference. This right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas of all kinds…through any media of his choice”.

Furthermore, owing to its failure to entertain “diverse opinion” (Article 29 (4), the paper
violated the people’s right to “receive…ideas of all kinds”, enshrined in Article 29 (2) of

54
the constitution. In doing so the paper also ignored the core purpose of the press
stipulated in Proclamation 34/1992. The proclamation issued to provide for the freedom
of the press states that “Freedom of the press is recognized and respected in Ethiopia”;
“press stands for the pursuit of fundamental freedom…democracy…for the acceleration
of social and economic development”. Moreover, the unfair reporting of the paper is
quite contrary to the free flow of information, ideas and opinions that are essential to the
functioning of a democratic order as stipulated on Article 29 (4) of the constitution.

Apart from this, the paper seems to take no heed of the editorial policy, which is
supposed to be binding at EPA, publisher of the Ethiopian Herald. According to the
editorial policy, views that are forwarded from any side should be entertained fairly
(EPA, 2002: 21). Furthermore, the editorial policy clarifies its objectives stating that
enabling political forces to have fair representation is one of the responsibilities of the
agency (EPA, 2002: 25). In general, the negligence of the paper to do fair reporting is
against the editorial policy, which underscores its concern on the constitutional right of
the freedom of expression. (EPA, 2002: 14).

Above all, by denying the political parties equal forum, The Ethiopian Herald violates
Article 3, 1(h) of Proclamation 6/1991. This proclamation issued to provide the
determination of the application of state owned mass media states the following. “The
mass media shall transmit criticisms and complaints made against the government by the
different sections of the society…” Article 3, 1(h) of Proc. 6/1991.

The data evince that the journalists working for The Ethiopian Herald are engaged in
their journalistic duties with interference from their employers; government officials.
Mason, (1994: 121), states that freedom of expression is the right to communicate and to
receive information and ideas without interference from the state or others. This is also
clearly indicated on Article 29 (2) of the Ethiopian constitution. Article 29 (4) of the
constitution also stipulates that “…the press shall…enjoy legal protection to ensure its
operational independence”. The editorial policy of EPA also underscores that journalists
should pursue their duties without any state interference. (EPA, 2002: 15)

55
Therefore, the ‘undue interference’ being practiced by employers, or on the other hand
the government officials, is completely against the constitution and editorial policy of
EPA. Thus it can hardly be said that, due to this interference, the journalists are
accomplishing their duties in accordance with media ethics. Or we can say the paper does
not give due attention to the principle of free speech or expression; because “what is
special about the principle of free speech is that it provides a degree of immunity from
government control” (MacDonald, 1998: 5). The consequences seem to have affected the
credibility the paper should have among readers.

It is evident from the data that censorship is practiced in The Ethiopian Herald.
Furthermore, journalists are likely accustomed to exercising self-censorship on their
duties. It seems they prefer to save their hides. This indirectly affects the public right of
imparting and receiving information without any interference.

Basically censorship is prohibited by the constitution and proclamation 34/1992. Article

29 3(a) of the constitution states that freedom of the press shall specifically include
prohibition of any form of censorship. Proclamation 34/1992 also stipulates that
censorship of the press and any restriction of a similar nature are prohibited. The editorial
policy of EPA, which has its bases on these two proclamations in the same way,
denounces any form of censorship.

Therefore, apart from its violence against rules and regulations of the land, censorship,
which is evinced to be practiced in The Ethiopian Herald, can be taken as a stumbling
block that bans people’s right of receiving diverse opinions and views. The fact that The
Ethiopian Herald is practicing censorship can show attempts “to control what citizens
see, hear or think” (Mason, 1994: 52). This is, then, believed to affect the authenticity of
information disseminated through the paper in particular and harm the democratic
process being built in the country in general.

56
“Newspaper is responsible for the public welfare, that its readers are entitled to sincerity
and impartiality in news presentation, and that the principals in news stories are entitled
to fair play, [which is] not only good taste, but the best preventive for libel suits”
(Radder, 1942: 83). However, the reality with The Ethiopian Herald is the opposite. The
data collected through content analysis, questionnaire and interview evince that
unfairness, lack of independence and censorship have been reflected as major ethical
problems in reporting election news examined for the study.

57
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

This study was conducted with the major objectives of:

• Finding out ethical problems in news reporting in The Ethiopian Herald

Newspaper;
• Indicating the major causes of the problems; and
• Suggesting possible recommendations that may help resolve the problems
witnessed.

Therefore, the information gathered based on content analysis, questionnaire and

interview depict that ethical problems are witnessed in news reporting in The Ethiopian
Herald. Accordingly:

1 It was possible to find out in the study that the majority of the news
stories in The Ethiopian Herald Newspaper are reported unfairly;
2 Journalists working for the paper do not accomplish their
journalistic duties independently;
3 Journalists working for the paper are exercising self-censorship
while accomplishing their journalistic duties; and
4 Censorship is practiced in the Newspaper.

5.2 Conclusion

Journalism ethics is among the very essential issues in public media in general.
Journalism which does not give the proper attention to ethics can be counted as a failure.

58
It is on this fundamental principle this study was conducted. Accordingly, the study tried
its level best in pointing out the major ethical problems witnessed in reporting news
stories in a state medium, The Ethiopian Herald. Concerned bodies in the media sector,
civil societies and any well-meaning individuals, who believe in the public right to seek,
receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds without any undue interference, are
to give due attention to the recommendations forwarded in the study and put forth efforts
towards its implementation.

The study indicates that of the five categories employed to judge fairness four have been
found out to attest to the fact that there is unfair reporting in the election news taken for
the study. This can lead us to conclude that there is no fair reporting in the paper in
general under study. Therefore, this study, based on the major findings, forwards the
following conclusion.

1 It is thus observed in the study that since the tone of the 61.8 percent of the
election news is in favour of the ruling party, EPRDF, the paper has been
proved to lack fairness. What can be drawn as a conclusion from the
information gathered through the questionnaire is that The Ethiopian Herald
does not give proper attention to fairness in news reporting.

2 Regarding order of appearance it can be said that contending (opposition)

political parties were not treated in accordance with the ethical principles of
journalism. It was found out that most of the election news stories were
reported with EPRDF appearing first. Other contending political parties
follow far behind paragraphs that state about the ruling party.

3 The study further indicates that the quoted sources used in the news reporting
were not balanced well and as a result of this the election news stories taken
for the study were found out to be unfair.

59
 4 Similarly, headlines taken for the study were discovered to unfairly portray
only the positive picture of the ruling party. On the contrary the contending
political parties were treated negatively. This kind of reporting is against the
ethical principles of journalism.

5 The questionnaire and interview employed in the study have also been seen
strengthening the findings of the study. For instance, respondents of the
questionnaire indicated that they do not pursue their duties independently.
What they are saying is that they are under the strict imposition of their
bosses. This undoubtedly affects one of the major principles of journalism
ethics, independence.

6 Censorship which is believed to have adverse impact on journalism ethics has

also been discovered to be one of the problems of The Ethiopian Herald.
Respondents of both the questionnaire and interview indicated that censorship
is being practiced in the paper directly or indirectly.

In general what can be concluded from this study is that The Ethiopian Herald newspaper
followed partisan type news reporting in its coverage. This means the news reports are
favourable to EPRDF and critical towards the contending political parties.

5.3 Recommendations

The media should represent the public and speak for and to the public interest in order to
hold government accountable (Schudson, 1998:31). Taking this basic issue into
consideration the researcher proposes the following recommendations.

1 Siebert (1956: 95) says “[t]he government must not allow freedom; it must
also actively promote it”. Thus as government bodies, the Federal Ministry of
Information and the Ethiopian Press Agency, publisher of The Ethiopian
Herald, should first and foremost take the fact into account that the state

60
 media is funded by the tax payer, the wider public. Therefore, they should
abide by the constitution of the land which grants freedom of expression
without their interference. It is only then they show government’s
commitment to the real implementation of democracy. This will help ensure
that journalism ethics are well maintained in news reporting in the state media
in general and The Ethiopian Herald in Particular. They should also discharge
their responsibilities by encouraging journalists to provide fair and well
balanced news stories to their readerships.

2 Concerned bodies like civil societies and others should devise ways (this can
go to the level of compelling the government) that enable journalists to work
independently without any ‘undue’ interference. This can include the
establishment of an independent body that appraises the press performance.

3 Censorship is the enemy of press freedom and journalism ethics. Therefore,

“[t]he government should not act with a heavy hand…Since freedom of
expression is the key stone of political liberty, it must be especially protected”
(Siebert, 1956: 95). This is a binding principle a country that promote
democracy should stick to. Hence, concerned bodies in the media in general
and the Ethiopian Press Agency in particular are duty bound to discharge their
responsibilities in ensuring that the constitutional rights of every citizen is
protected regarding the freedom of the press without any undue interference
including censorship;

4 The quality of the journalists determines the quality of the press. Therefore,
the journalists should do their work responsibly for the general good of the
society. To enhance this, the Ministry of Information, the Ethiopian Press
Agency and other concerned bodies must give due attention to the issue of
training for journalists.

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5 Code of ethics is of paramount significance in journalism profession. As
journalists do their duties “not for themselves but on behalf of their public”
(Kruger, 2004:3), they need to have codes of ethics, which suggest that news
must be accurate and error-free. Therefore, journalists across the country need
to join forces and chart out their own code of ethics. The government and
other concerned bodies should also assist and encourage initiatives taken by
journalists to have their own code of ethics without any interference.

6 Above all these, all stake holders; the people, civic societies, the government
and others should take initiatives to help promote democracy in the media
sector by involving in the establishment of press council, which can play
significant roles in maintaining self-regulations or looking into readers
complaints. It will also help the media to act independently. The independent
council that may include non-press members can have contributions to protect
press freedom and helps to promote responsible reportage.

7 Taking hold of the belief that an independent media should be encouraged to

run the press, civic societies, non-governmental organizations and other
concerned bodies including the government should live up to public
expectations to work towards the transformation of the state media at large
into a real public media that safeguard press freedom.

62
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 Appendix I

Questionnaire to be filled in by journalists

Thank you for your cooperation to fill in this questionnaire. As the
questionnaire is very essential for my study entitled “Ethical Issues of News
Reporting with Particular Reference to the Ethiopian Herald”, I would like you to
fill it in carefully. This questionnaire will never be used for different
purposes other than the one mentioned here. So feel free to give the real
answers you believe in. Show your answers by putting a √ mark on the spaces
provided. You don't need to write your name.
Thank you!
1. Your age __________ Sex __________
2. Your responsibility with The Ethiopian Herald newspaper __________________
3. Your academic background and in what field ___________________________
4. Tell me your experience in the media in general?
A. Less than a year B. 1 year
C. 2 years D. 3 years
E. 4 years_______________ F. 5 years and above
5. How long have you served in The Ethiopian Herald newspaper?
A. Less than a year B. 1 year
C. 2 years D. 3 years
E. 4 years_______________ F. 5 years and above
6. Have you ever had the opportunity of attending training on journalism?
If yes, for how long?
A. Less than a year B. 1 year
C. 2 years D. 3 years
E. 4 years F. 5 years and above
7. Do you work independently; with out unnecessary interference of government
officials on your journalistic profession?
A. Yes B. No C. I don’t know ________

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8. Do you go out for reporting with questions prepared by your bosses?
A. Yes _______ B. No ________ C. No idea _______
9. Do you think news stories in The Ethiopian Herald are reported fairly or in a
balanced manner?
A. Yes, most of them are reported fairly. B. No, most of them are
not reported fairly. _________ C. I don’t know.
10. Have the ruling and other contending parties been given equal chance to
Forward their views in the news coverage during the third national election
in your paper, The Ethiopian Herald?
A. Yes_______ B. No _______ C. I don’t know ________
11. Do you think your editor will allow your story that shows the weak sides of
the government to be published?
A. Yes ______ B. No. ______ C. No idea _______
!2. Can you report the weak sides of the government in the same way as you do
to the other political parties?
A. Yes ______ B. No. ______ C. No idea _______
13. If your answer for question number 12 is ‘B’, please state the reasons.
_______________________________________________________________________
14. (For editors) Have you ever asked reporters to report the weak sides of the
government? A. Yes B. No
15. If your answer for question number 14 is ‘No’, please state the reasons.
_________________________________________________________________________
16. (For editors) Do you allow a news story that shows the weak sides of the
government to be published? A. Yes B. No ________
17. If your answer for question number 16 is ‘B’, please state the reasons.
_________________________________________________________________________
18. (For editors) Do you believe The Ethiopian Herald treated the last election
freely and fairly?
A. Yes B. No _______ C. I don’t know _________
19. (For editors) Do you believe that journalists working for The Ethiopian
Herald report news stories in a responsible manner?
A. Yes B. No C. No idea

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20. Are you really working without any unnecessary influences imposed on you
by your employers? A. Yes ______ B. No _______ C. I have no idea _______
21. Do you remember a colleague who has been accused of defamation,
violation of the cultures as well as values of the society or any other
undisciplined problems? A. Yes _____ B. No _____
22. Do you practice self-censorship while writing your news stories?
A. Yes B. No C. I don’t know _________
23. If your answer for question number 22 is ‘yes’, please state the reasons
_______________________________________________________________________
24. (For editors) Do you think there is direct or indirect censorship in The
Ethiopian Herald Newspaper?
A. Yes B. No C. I don’t know ________
25. Do you think the absence of code of ethics for journalists in Ethiopia
affects journalism?
A. Yes _______ B. No. ________C. I don’t know _________
26. Are you satisfied with news reporting in The Ethiopian Herald?
A. Yes B. No. C. I don’t know ________
27. If your answer for question number 26 is ‘B’, please, state the reasons.
__________________________________________________________________________

I re a lly a ppre c ia te your c oope ra tion to re spond a ll the que stions!

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 Appendix II

Questions of interview posed to a government official at the Ethiopian Press Agency

1. Would you please tell me your experience in the state media?
2. Is your position in the Ethiopian Press Agency an appointment?
3. How long have you served with the Ethiopian Press Agency?
4. Would you please tell me your academic background?
5. Have you ever had the opportunity of attending training on journalism?
If yes, for how long?
6. Do you believe that reporters of the state media in general and that of The
Ethiopian Herald in particular work independently; without the unnecessary
interference of government officials in the journalistic profession?
7. Do you oppose the interference of government officials in the day to day activities
of journalists? Why?
8. Do you believe all the contending parties, were treated equally in news reporting
with The Ethiopian Herald during the third national election?
9. Should the government censor the news stories before they are issued?
10. How do you think journalists can achieve fair reporting?
11. Do you think independence, fairness and responsibility can be decisive factors for
journalism ethics?
12. Are these given due attention in your Agency?
13. Many people are not satisfied with the state-owned media in general. What do you
think are the reasons?
14. Do you believe a journalist should proceed his/her journalistic work
independently, without the interference of government officials?
15. Are there any problems of responsibility in the journalistic activities with The
Ethiopian Herald?
16. Have you ever come across a reporter who has been blamed for irresponsibility in
his job? If yes, explain about your experience.
17. What do you think are the causes of irresponsibility among journalists in
reporting news stories in general and election news in particular?
18. Do you encourage your reporters to do reporting on the weak sides of the ruling
party? If no, why?
19. Do you give ready made questions to journalists before they go out to interview
some senior government officials?
20. Most reporters in the state media are heard practicing self-censorship. What do
you think are the causes?
21. Most of the news stories in The Ethiopian Herald and other state media are said
to give more positive light to the ruling party than others. Do you think this is
fair?
22. What can you tell me about the circulation of The Ethiopian Herald?
23. What is your agency doing to improve the professional capacity of journalists?
Thank you

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 Appendix III

Translated response of interview

1. I have worked for over 15 years at Ethiopian Press Agency, the Ethiopian Mass
media Training Institute and the Ethiopian Press Agency.
2. I secured the position on competition.
3. Six years.
4. MA degree in journalism
5. Attended various training on journalism
6. Yes.
7. I am of the opinion that government officials should not interfere in the day-today
activities.
8. Yes, they had equal opportunity. However, they didn’t use the media as desired.
9. No.
10. Yes.
11. These three basic issues are decisive in journalism profession.
12. Attention is given as far as possible.
13. The content and ‘lay out’ are the problems. The other may be due to our failure in
reporting in due course.
14. (The respondent skipped question number 14.)
15. Due to lack of trained human power.
16. (No response was given.)
17. (No answer was given here.)
18. Yes, they are encouraged to do.
19. Some times reporters are given questions prepared by the editorial committee of
the agency.
20. Lack of confidence occurred as a result of deficiency of sufficient training on
journalism. Preferring to do what is likely the safest.
21. I don’t think it is fair.
22. It is at its average distribution. Much is expected from it.
23. It trains in short and long term journalism courses.

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 Appendix IV

EPRDF says on steady move

towards reducing unemployment as
oppositions put blame on ruling party
ADDIS ABABA (ENA)- The Ethiopian peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front
(EPRDF) says it has been making steady progress to reduce the deep-seated problem of
unemployment in Ethiopia.
Opposition political parties on their part said youths have been facing serious problems,
some have even gone into exile, due to lack of employment.
The ruling EPRDF and opposition parties debated a relevant topic at a forum organized
by a Youth Association of the Kolfe Keranio Subcity here Sunday.
FPRDF representatives said that a sizable number of young people have now become
owners of their own enterprises in activities carried out to extricating the youth from the
gripe of unemployment.
EPRDF has exerted utmost efforts to alleviate the problem of the deep-seated
unemployment in Addis Ababa, the representatives said.
They said encouraging achievements were made in activities so far by organizing the
youth in micro and small-scale businesses.
Indicating that some oppositions were accusing EPRDF that poverty was the legacy of
the rule of the incumbent government, they said that it has been exerting utmost efforts to
alleviate the complex problems inherited from previous regimes.
EPRDF has been providing the necessary support for the enhancement schemes, which
by their nature are labour intensive, they said.
Considerable activities have got underway to open youth recreational centers, they said,
efforts have also been launched to establish such centers at every Kebele, they added.
They also said that the necessary support is being provided towards strengthening arts
and AIDS clubs by the youth.
The opposions on their part said that a number of youths have gone to exile for failure on
the part of EPRDF to give due attention to the problem of unemployment.
Youths get employment opportunity when they serve EPRDF and those who do not have
access to any job, he said.
According to oppositions, sweeping political change is needed to solve the problem of
unemployment, and vowed to live up to their words if they win the elections.
They said the right to organize is becoming increasingly difficult and to get organized
civic associations are facing difficulties.
Represented at the debate attended by 800 youth, were EPRDF, Coalition for Unity and
Democracy, United Ethiopian Democratic Force, All Ethiopian Democratic Party.

(The Ethiopian Herald March 22, 2005)

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