UNIT- 4: SATELLITE LINK DESIGN

BASIC TRANSMISSION THEORY: The This equation is known as the link equation.
calculation of the power received by an earth In this the denominator term is called the path
station from a satellite transmitter is loss Lp.
fundamental to the understanding of satellite
communications. If Pt is the transmitted Collecting all the factors we can write
power by an isotropic antenna, then at a

In decibels we can write the same equation as

distance, R The power received is given by

All real antennas are not isotropic. If the gain

of the transmitting antenna is Gt then The
received power is given by

This equation is an ideal case. It describes

The product PtGt is called the effective
transmission between two ideal antennas in
isotropically radiated power or EIRP. If we
otherwise empty space. In practice we have to
have a practical receiving antenna with an
consider the losses in the atmosphere due to
effective aperture area of Ae sq.m then the
attenuation by oxygen, water vapor, rain and
received power is given by
losses at the ends of transmitting and receiving
antennas. More generally

We know that in antenna theory the relation

between gain and effective area is given by

Where 𝜆𝜆 is the wave length in meters.

Substituting for Ae then the received power is SYSTEM NOISE TEMPERATURE AND G/T
given by RATIO:

Noise temperature is a useful concept in

communication receivers, since it provides a
way of determining how much thermal noise
is generated by active and passive devices in
the receiving system. At microwave The satellite link is composed primarily of
frequencies the noise power is given by three segments:

(i) the transmitting Earth station and the

uplink media;

(ii) the satellite; and

To determine the performance of a receiving
system we need to find the total thermal noise
(iii) the downlink media and the receiving
power against which the signal is
Earth station.
demodulated. We do this by determining the
system noise temperature Ts. In terms of Ts The carrier level received at the end of the
The noise power is given by link is a straightforward addition of the losses

The link equation can be written in terms of

(C/N) at the earth station as

The last term in the square brackets is usually

quoted as simply G/T in decibels with units
Db/k can be used to specify the quality of a
receiving earth station or satellite receiving
system. and gains in the path between transmitting
and receiving Earth stations.
DOWNLINK DESIGN The design of any
satellite communication is based on two UPLINK DESIGN: The uplink design is easier
objectives: Meeting a maximum C/N ratio than the down link in many cases, since an
and carrying the maximum revenue earning accurately specified carrier power must be
traffic at minimum cost. presented at the satellite transponder.

A satellite link is defined as an Earth station - Analysis of uplink requires calculation of the
satellite - Earth station connection. The Earth power level at the input to the transponder so
station - satellite segment is called the uplink that the uplink C/N ratio can be found.
and the satellite - Earth station segment is
If the power received at the input to the
called the downlink.
transponder is Prxp then is given by
The Earth station design consists of the
Transmission Link Design, or Link Budget, and
the Transmission System Design. The value of (C/N)up at the LNA input of the
satellite receiver is given by
The Link Budget establishes the resources
needed for a given service to achieve the
performance objectives.
 3. Determine the parameters of the
transmitting and receiving earth stations.

The downlink is always at a different 4. Start at the transmitting earth station.

frequency from the uplink, a downlink Establish an uplink budget and a transponder
attenuation of A dB must be scaled to noise power budget to find (C/N)up in
estimate uplink transponder.

5. Find the output power of the transponder

based on transponder gain or output.
attenuation. The scaling factor used is
typically 6. Establish down link power and noise
budget for the receiving earth station.
Calculate (C/N)dn and (C/N)o for a station at
where a is typically between 2.0 and 2.4. the edge of the coverage zone.

DESIGN FOR SPECIFIED C/N: When more 7. Calculate S/N in the base band channel.
than one C/N ratio are present in the link we Find the link margins.
can add the individual C/N ratios reciprocally
8. Evaluate the result and compare with the
to obtain an overall C/N ratio represented as
specification requirements. Change parameters
(C/N)o. i.e.
of the system as required to obtain acceptable
(C/N)o or S/N values.(several trials)

9.Determine the propagation conditions

under which the link must operate. Calculate
outage times for the up links and down links.

This is some times referred to as the 10.Redesign the system by changing some
reciprocal C/N formula. The C/N values must parameters if the link margins are inadequate.
be linear ratios not decibel values. Expanding Check that all parameters are reasonable, and
the formula by cross multiplying gives the that the design can be implemented within the
over all (C/N)o as power ratios not in decibels expected budget.
as

The design procedure for a one-way satellite

communication link can be summarized by the
following 10 steps. The return link design
follows the same procedure.

1. Determine the frequency band in which the

system must operate. Comparative designs
may be required to help make the selection.

2. Determine the communication parameters

of the satellite. Estimate any values that are
not known.
Satellite Link Design Considerations
Satellite links are used to deliver long distance telecommunications voice/data
services, broadband internet services, television broadcast and communications with
remote and hard to reach locations. Satellite link consists of an uplink and a downlink.
Uplink connects transmit earth station to satellite and downlink connects satellite to
the receive earth station. Signal quality in the uplink depends on how strong the signal
is transmitted from the source earth station and how the satellite receives it. On the
downlink side, signal quality depends on how strong the satellite retransmits the signal
and how the earth station receives it.

Earth stations are categorized by the size of the earth station antenna. Large earth
station has antenna with 10 to 30 meters in diameter. Small earth station has antenna
with diameter between 1 to 10 meters. VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) earth
station has antenna with 0.3 to 1 meter in diameter. There are three earth station
system parameters need to be considered when designing satellite links. The first one

is transmitter EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power) which is equal to Pt (transmitter

output power) × Gt (transmit antenna gain). EIRP measures the signal power sends out
from the transmit earth station. The second parameter is the earth station Figure of
Merit which is equal to G (receive antenna gain) ÷ T (system noise temperature). G/T
measures the sensitivity of the receiving system and the quality of the received signal.
The third parameter is the earth station system noise temperature which measures the
amount of noise power generated by the receive earth station.

The main objective of satellite link design is to maximize link data rate while
minimizing the BER (Bit Error Rate) at the receiver subjects to the constraint of received
power and channel bandwidth. The BER of a satellite link is a function of Eb/No (energy
per bit noise density ratio) in the information channel. A satellite communications
system designer must attempt to ensure a minimum Eb/No in the receiver channels to
satisfy the link BER criteria which also meet the constraints on satellite transmit power
and RF bandwidth. In digital transmission, Eb/No in a baseband channel depends
on C/N (carrier to noise ratio) of the receiver, the type of modulation used in the
baseband channel and the channel bandwidth. Hence, the main concern in design and
analysis of satellite link is to calculate and evaluate the link C/N in which C is the
received carrier power in the earth station/satellite and N is the noise plus interference
(caused by earth stations of adjacent satellite) power in the receiver.

Loss due to rain is the most important impairment to the transmission of satellite
signal. Rain attenuation is a function of rain rate at earth station location and satellite
link carrier frequency. Average value of rain rate (mm/hr) of a country can be obtained
from the department of Meteorology of that country. Rain effects become severe at
wavelength approach the rain drop size. If the satellite link is to maintain during rainfall,
then extra transmit power is needed to overcome the maximum attenuation induced
by the rain. Hence accurate assessment of expected rain loss needs to be made when
evaluating link parameters.

The earth station antenna look angle (azimuth & elevation) can be calculated using
the longitude of the geosynchronous satellite plus the latitude and longitude of the
earth station. The deviation of the earth station antenna pointing direction from the
antenna electric axis is termed the antenna pointing error. This error reduces the gain
of the earth station antenna because the antenna gain is maximum when measured at

its electric axis. Hence, antenna pointing loss needs to be evaluated in satellite link
design and it applies to both transmit and receive antennas.

Intelsat
Intelsat S.A. (formerly INTEL-SAT, INTELSAT, Intelsat) is a multinational satellite services
provider with corporate headquarters in Luxembourg and administrative headquarters
in Tysons Corner, Virginia, United States.[1][2] Originally formed as International
Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO, or INTELSAT), from 1964 to 2001, it
was an intergovernmental consortium owning and managing a constellation of
communications satellites providing international telecommunications and broadcast

services.

As of June 2022, Intelsat operated a fleet of 52 communications satellites which was

then one of the world's largest fleets.[7] In 2020, the company announced plans to
procure, build and launch seven C-band satellites over the next several years.[8] These
C-band satellites will contribute to the acceleration of America's 5G buildout.[8] In early
2022, the company announced contracts for four GEO software defined satellites (SDS),
two in partnership with Airbus and two in partnership with Thales Alenia Space, that
are scheduled to launch in 2023.[9] These contracts point to the pursuit of a multi-year
network transformation plan with investments designed to deliver higher speeds, more
flexibility, redundancy, and backwards compatibility.[10]

As of 2022, the company served approximately 1,800 customers and employed a staff
of approximately 1,790 people.[11] INTELSAT was originally formed as International
Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO) and operated from 1964 to 2001 as
an intergovernmental consortium owning and managing a constellation of
communications satellites providing international broadcast services. In 2001, the
international satellite market was fully commercialized, and INTELSAT was privatized
after 2001 as Intelsat was formed up as a private Luxembourg corporation.

On 6 April 1965, INTELSAT's first satellite, the Intelsat I (nicknamed Early Bird), was
placed in geostationary orbit above the Atlantic Ocean by a Delta D rocket. As of 2018,
Intelsat provides service to over 600 Earth stations in more than 149 countries,
territories and dependencies. By 2001, INTELSAT had over 100 members.[18] It was

also this year that INTELSAT privatized and changed its name to Intelsat.

By the 1990s, building and launching satellites was no longer exclusively a government
domain and as country-specific telecommunications systems were privatized, several
private satellite operators arose to meet the growing demand. In the U.S., satellite
operators such as PanAmSat, Orion Communications, Columbia Communications,
Iridium, Globalstar, TRW and others formed under the umbrella of the Alliance for
Competitive International Satellite Services (ACISS).

As of March 2011, Intelsat has agreed to purchase one-half of the 2,000 kg (4,400 lb)
propellant payload that an MDA Corporation spacecraft satellite-servicing
demonstration project would take to geostationary orbit. Catching up in orbit with
four or five Intelsat communication satellites, a load of 200 kg (440 lb) of fuel delivered
to each satellite would add somewhere between two and four years of additional
service life.[45] A near-end-of-life Intelsat satellite will be moved to a graveyard orbit
200 to 300 km (120–190 mi) above the geostationary belt where the refueling will be

done, "without consequence" to the Intelsat business.

Over time, Intelsat has worked with most of the commercial launch services providers
worldwide. Their satellites are often among the most massive of their generation,
requiring the most powerful and reliable rockets on the market at a given time. In the
21st century, most Intelsat missions were conducted by Arianespace with the European
Ariane 4 and Ariane 5 launchers, and by International Launch Services (ILS) with
Proton-K and Proton-M rockets manufactured by Khrunichev in Russia.
Inmarsat
Inmarsat is a British satellite telecommunications company, offering global mobile
services. It provides telephone and data services to users worldwide, via portable or
mobile terminals which communicate with ground stations through fifteen
geostationary telecommunications satellites.[3]

Inmarsat's network provides communications services to a range of governments, aid

agencies, media outlets and businesses (especially in the shipping, airline and mining
industries) with a need to communicate in remote regions or where there is no reliable
terrestrial network. The company was listed on the London Stock Exchange until it was
acquired by Connect Bidco, a consortium consisting of Apax Partners, Warburg Pincus,
the CPP Investment Board and the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan, in December 2019.

The present company originates from the International Maritime Satellite Organization
(INMARSAT), a non-profit intergovernmental organisation established in 1979 at the
behest of the International Maritime Organization (IMO)—the United Nations
maritime body—and pursuant to the Convention on the International Maritime
Satellite Organization, signed by 28 countries in 1976.[5][6] The organisation was
created to establish and operate a satellite communications network for the maritime
community.[5][7] In coordination with the International Civil Aviation Organization in
the 1980s, the convention governing INMARSAT was amended to include
improvements to aeronautical communications, notably for public safety.[5] The
member states owned varying shares of the operational business.[6] The main offices
were originally located in the Euston Tower, Euston Road, London.[8]

In April 1999, INMARSAT was succeeded by the International Mobile Satellite

Organization (IMSO) as an intergovernmental regulatory body for satellite
communications, while INMARSAT's operational unit was separated and became the
UK-based company Inmarsat Ltd.

Inmarsat at first provided services using Marisat[16] and MARECS,[17] which were
launched by the US Navy and ESA respectively. In the early 1990s Inmarsat launched
its first dedicated satellite constellation, Inmarsat-2. These satellites provided the
Inmarsat-A service for maritime uses.[18] Between 1996 and 1998 Inmarsat's second
constellation, Inmarsat-3, was launched. Consisting of five geostationary L-band
satellites the constellation provides the Inmarsat-B and Inmarsat-C services, primarily
providing low bandwidth communications and safety services for global shipping.[19]
Following privatisation in 1999 Inmarsat developed and launched the first satellite
communications system offering global coverage, BGAN.[20] This service was provided
initially through the three Inmarsat-4 satellite launched between 2005 and 2008, and
was then extended with the addition of Alphasat in 2013
Services include traditional voice calls, low-level data tracking systems, and high-speed
Internet and other data services as well as distress and safety services. The Broadband
Global Area Network (BGAN) network provides General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) -
type services at up to 800 kbit/s at a latency of 900-1100 ms[43] via an Internet
Protocol (IP) satellite modem the size of a notebook computer,[44] while the Global
Xpress network offers up to 50 Mbit/s at a latency of 700 ms[45] via antennas as small
as 60 cm.[46] Other services provide mobile Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
services used by the media for live reporting on world events via videophone,[47] and
inflight Internet access via the European Aviation Network.

There are three types of coverage related to each Inmarsat I-4 satellite.[51]

Global beam coverage

Each satellite is equipped with a single global beam that covers up to one-third of the
Earth's surface, apart from the poles. Overall, global beam coverage extends from
latitudes of −82 to +82° regardless of longitude.

Regional spot beam coverage

Each regional beam covers a fraction of the area covered by a global beam, but
collectively all of the regional beams offer virtually the same coverage as the global
beams. Use of regional beams allow user terminals (also called mobile earth stations)
to operate with significantly smaller antennas. Regional beams were introduced with
the I-3 satellites. Each I-3 satellite provides four to six spot beams; each I-4 satellite
provides 19 regional beams.

Narrow spot beam coverage

Narrow beams are offered by the three Inmarsat-4 satellites. Narrow beams vary in
size, tend to be several hundred kilometres across. The narrow beams, while much
smaller than the global or regional beams, are far more numerous and hence offer the
same global coverage. Narrow spot beams allow yet smaller antennas and much
higher data rates. They form the backbone of Inmarsat's handheld (GSPS) and
broadband services (BGAN). This coverage was introduced with the I-4 satellites. Each
I-4 satellite provides around 200 narrow spot beams.
Domes�c Satellite Communica�on System
Indian National Satellite System
The Indian National Satellite System INSAT, is a series of multipurpose geostationary
satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology,
and search and rescue operations. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest
domestic communication system in the Indo-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the
Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological
Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and
management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination
Committee.

INSAT satellites provide transponders in various bands to serve the television and
communication needs of India. Some of the satellites also have the Very High
Resolution Radiometer (VHRR), CCD cameras for meteorological imaging. The
satellites also incorporate transponder(s) for receiving distress alert signals for search
and rescue missions in the South Asian and Indian Ocean Region, as ISRO is a member
of the Cospas-Sarsat program.

The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system was commissioned with the launch of
INSAT-1B in August 1983 (INSAT-1A, the first satellite was launched in April 1982 but
could not fulfil the mission). INSAT system ushered in a revolution in India's television
and radio broadcasting, telecommunications and meteorological sectors. It enabled
the rapid expansion of TV and modern telecommunication facilities to even the remote
areas and off-shore islands. Together, the system provides transponders in C, Extended
C and Ku bands for a variety of communication services. Some of the INSATs also carry
instruments for meteorological observation and data relay for providing
meteorological services. KALPANA-1 is an exclusive meteorological satellite. The
satellites are monitored and controlled by Master Control Facilities that exist in Hassan
and Bhopal.

Satellites in service
Of the 24 satellites launched in the course of the INSAT program, 11 are still in
operation