Dogs and

Dog Control
in Developing
5 CHAPTER

Countries
J.F. Reece

Introduction

O
f all the mammals with ued for the protection they afford Dogs’ activities in these areas are
which humans have a close to both men and livestock from widely thought to keep the popula-
relationship, the domestic human intruders and wild animals tions of other less desirable crea-
dog (Canis familiaris) has the (Butler and Bingham 2000). In tures, such as rats, mice, and cock-
longest association with man. The some cultures in western Africa roaches, under control.
bond is believed to have begun and in southeast Asia, dogs are val- Even among very similar societies
some ten to twelve thousand years ued as a source of protein in the the relationship with dogs may vary.
B.C. in Eurasia (World Health Orga- human diet. In Polynesia the two In a number of European cultures,
nization [WHO] 1990) as wolves enjoy a complex relationship, as there is no word that readily corre-
learned to follow the encampments dogs can be seen as food, gifts, and sponds to the English word “pet.”
of man to secure easy food. A offerings. In many cultures dogs The relationship between urban
degree of mutual acceptance devel- are associated with the forces of Americans and their pet dogs is dif-
oped between the two species, with the supernatural, either divine or ferent—if not in type, then in mag-
each gaining something from the demonic. Some religions consider nitude—from that seen among most
association. Mankind gained pro- dogs to be unclean in a spiritual of the dog-owning public in the
tection from having the animals sense, for example, Islam (Beck United Kingdom. Within the United
around its camps and, probably, 2000). However, in some predomi- Kingdom, the relationship between
some assistance in hunting activi- nantly Muslim countries, such as many country folk and their dogs is
ties. Dogs gained a degree of pro- Tunisia in North Africa, dogs are very different from that of urban-
tection from the human groups and seen in a positive light. In contrast, dwelling people and their dogs.
from a ready and constant source of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cul- The relationship between a com-
food arising from human hunting tures, such as in India and Nepal, munity and its dogs is not always
and other human waste, including teach a “no kill” philosophy (yet entirely positive, and many cul-
excrement. Individual animals were are among the societies where the tures identify similar problems
then selected by man for their bid- greatest levels of destruction of associated with having dogs in
dable character, and the ancestors unwanted dogs are prevalent) their midst. For example, in South
of the current dogs were born. (WHO 1990). In some developing Africa, the Soweto community
Few human societies today do countries, pet dogs are kept far identified the problems caused by
not have a relationship with dogs. more for social status than for dogs as road accidents, barking
Man-dog relationships are almost companionship. Throughout much and fighting, biting children and
as numerous as the varieties of of the developing world, dogs are killing livestock, and uncontrolled
human society (World Health essential to the management of fecal contamination (Beck 2000).
Organization 1990). In many cul- domestic waste, especially in areas Such problems exist in many cul-
tures in Africa, in Zimbabwe and of higher human population densi- tures, throughout the developed
Kenya, for example, dogs are val- ty, such as big towns and cities. and developing worlds.

55
 It is against this background of a entirely from abandoned pets and breed in an uncontrolled manner.
wide range of man-dog relation- often bears a striking resemblance It is these animals who are largely
ships that dogs in the developing to identifiable breeds. However, in responsible for the various nui-
world must be seen and understood. developing countries, most of the sances identified with human-dog
Knowledge about and understand- stray dog population, whether association mentioned earlier. In
ing of the complexity of the rela- neighborhood dogs or feral dogs, is addition to problems associated
tionships between dogs and local much more uniform in conforma- with noise, ordure, and aggression,
people is essential to any attempts tion and appearance (Matter and much of the developing world is
to regulate the human-dog relation- Daniels 2000). afflicted by zoonotic diseases that
ship officially and to control any The proportion of the dog popu- these free-roaming dogs are, in
problems caused by dogs. lation that is owned varies consid- part, responsible for spreading.
Given the wide range of relation- erably throughout the world. In Estimates vary between sixty and
ships between societies and the Chad a maximum of 10.6 percent one hundred for the number of dis-
dogs associated with them, it is not of the total dog population is con- eases that may be transferred from
surprising that the structures of sidered “ownerless,” while in Sri dogs to man; however, many of
canine population vary consider- Lanka the figure is over 19 percent these are somewhat esoteric and
ably too. Various attempts to classi- (Kayali et al. 2003). In Hong Kong rare or theoretical in nature.
fy the canine population have been 75 percent of the stray dog popula-
made. These classifications all use tion is considered to arise from
the degree of dependence on and abandoned pet dogs (Dahmer, Zoonotic Diseases
supervision by man. Beck, based in
the United States, has identified
Coman, and Robinson 2000). Be-
tween 5 and 15 percent of the dog
Spread by Dogs
A few diseases stand out as the
three types of dogs seen: pets who population in Tunisia was consid-
main zoonoses associated with
never roam without supervision; ered “stray.” In much of Africa,
dogs: rabies, echinococcosis, and
pets who stray or roam; and owner- many owned dogs are never re-
toxocariasis.
less animals who are free to roam stricted and stray freely: 78 per-
(Matter and Daniels 2000). WHO cent of owned dogs in Nigeria and
recommends a four-point classifica- 54 percent in Zambia (Beck 2000).
Rabies
tion system (1990): In Nepal and Indonesia, up to 70 Rabies is a viral disease of all mam-
Restricted dogs, who are fully percent of the dog population is mals, including man. It is often said
restricted or supervised and fully associated with more than one that rabies is 100 percent fatal but
dependent on man for food and household (WHO 1988). 100 percent preventable by vacci-
other resources; The population density of dogs nation. This is slightly misleading,
Family dogs, who are semire- varies considerably throughout the since the disease is only 100 per-
stricted (and thus roam for part of world, too, although the figures cent fatal once patients become
the time) and fully dependent on arrived at are often little more symptomatic (Briggs 2002). Rabies
one or more families for food and than guesses. The figures given for has been recognized as a disease
shelter; the dog-to-man ratio vary from for perhaps five thousand years,
Neighborhood dogs, who are 1:3.5 in rural Tunisia, to 1:4.5 in and the relationship between a
either semirestricted or entirely the communal lands of Zimbabwe, rabid animal’s bite and a new case
free to roam and who are only to 1:8 in Sri Lanka and 1:16 in has also been known for a very long
semidependent on one or more urban Zimbabwe (WHO 1988; But- time. The disease is untreatable
families for food and shelter; ler and Bingham 2000). Among but preventable by either pre-expo-
Feral dogs, who live wholly unre- the factors that contribute to this sure prophylactic vaccination or,
stricted lives and do not depend at large variation are the socioeco- because of the long incubation
all for food deliberately given by nomic class of the community, period, by post-exposure vaccina-
any person or group. land type and use, and the degree tion with concomitant administra-
As a survival strategy in develop- of urbanization. Generally, dog tion of passive immunity through
ing countries, neighborhood dogs population density rises as the rabies immunoglobulins. In devel-
in urban areas often behave the human population rises (Butler oping countries dog bites are the
same as well-socialized pet dogs and Bingham 2000). cause of the vast majority of human
and are thus often indistinguish- These few figures show that rabies cases. In India over 90 per-
able from owned-but-straying dogs throughout much of the develop- cent of human cases were caused
(Matter and Daniels 2000). In ing world, a large population of by exposure to a rabid dog (WHO
many Western societies, the stray dogs roams freely throughout the 1988). Although only twelfth on
dog population comes almost human community and is able to WHO’s list of causes of mortality,

56 The State of the Animals III: 2005

rabies has a special place in soci- in the dog’s feces and then dis- dogs are seen in China. In Kath-
eties where it is endemic because of persed over considerable distances mandu, Nepal, 5.7 percent of free-
the well-known and ghastly symp- in the environment, where they are roaming dogs near slaughterhouses
toms that accompany the disease. ingested by intermediate hosts were infected, as were a smaller
Official estimates put the total such as sheep, goats, and other ani- percentage in the rest of the city. In
number of rabies cases worldwide mals. When people ingest echinoc- Uruguay 13.2 percent of the dog
as twenty-five to thirty thousand occus eggs they become at risk of population was infected, and the
human deaths per annum (Kayali developing echinococcosis, which infection was attributed to poor
et al. 2003). There is considerable is the development of hydatid cysts slaughterhouse practice (Macpher-
evidence that these figures may be in humans, commonly in the liver son and Craig 2000).
underestimates, with work from or lungs but also, and more serious-
Tanzania suggesting that the ly, in the brain (Macpherson and Toxocariasis
underestimation may be by a factor Craig 2000). The free-roaming dog This is a disease caused by expo-
of between ten and one hundred population is at greatest risk of sure to an environment contami-
(Cleaveland et al. 2002). Of these becoming infected, and this is espe- nated by canine feces. Toxocara
human rabies deaths, the largest cially true in areas where poor canis is a common roundworm
number occurs in south Asia, most slaughterhouse hygiene is normal. (nematode) of dogs (Overgraauw
notably in India, though, curiously, In many cultures in the developing and van Knapen 2000). Adult
recent work in India suggests that world, across much of North Africa, worms live freely in the lumen of
the number of human cases in that the Levant (the region of the east- the guts of dogs, where they feed
country may have been overesti- ern end of the Mediterraneqn Sea), off intestinal contents. They pro-
mated. Because of the close affinity and into south Asia, dogs are the duce large numbers of eggs, which
between children and young dogs, principle method of disposing of are shed in the feces. The eggs are
most of the human cases are in unwanted offal from many small- not immediately infectious and
young people (Wright 1991; Shar- scale, often unofficial, slaughter- must undergo development over
ma, Kumar, and Chawla 2002). houses. Education of slaught- several weeks or months in the en-
WHO states that 45 percent of erhouse workers is often very poor, vironment before becoming infec-
rabies cases occur in children since they typically come from the tious. (The time taken for develop-
under fifteen years of age. Most of most downtrodden and oppressed ment depends on environmental
these cases are males, probably due sections of society, and thus the conditions.) Upon ingestion of
to the bolder, more adventurous risks associated with poor work contaminated soil or oral contact
play of boys and youths, and most practices are not appreciated with soil-exposed hands, the larvae
of the cases from the developing (Hammond and Sewell 1990). hatch and migrate via the blood-
world occur among the socially dis- Home slaughter of stock for con- stream throughout the body as vis-
advantaged. This partly explains sumption is also a common factor, ceral larval migrans. In young dogs
the underreporting of cases and since community dogs are likely to they migrate from the lungs up the
the low priority attached to rabies be given the unwanted offal. Some trachea and into the gut, where
in most developing countries. tribal peoples, especially in Kenya they develop to maturity. In non-
and Sudan, are particularly at risk target species, such as humans,
Echinococcosis of echinococcosis because of cul- however, the larvae remain as lar-
This is a disease caused by interme- tural practices that encourage very vae in the various body tissues,
diate forms of the canine cestode close associations between dogs where they survive for long periods
worms Echinococcus granulosus and food preparation practices. but do not develop further. Dogs
and E. multilocularis. Dogs are There is also no veterinary care with a Toxocara infestation are not
infected with these parasites by eat- available to these people or their themselves infectious because of
ing hydatid cysts found in the offal animals, so worm burdens in dogs the period of larval development in
of many mammals, including com- remain high. Women of these tribes the environment that is needed.
mon ruminants. The ingested are at increased risk, because they Nursing bitches and young pups
forms attach to villi and develop in are mainly involved in food prepara- pose a risk, however, as pups can
the dog’s small intestine. On matu- tion and disposal. Infection rates in acquire infection from their dam’s
rity the worms produce eggs, typi- dogs can be very high, ranging milk. Migrating Toxocara larvae
cally thirty-four to fifty-eight days from less than 1 percent of dogs pose a health risk to young chil-
following ingestion by the dog. infected in Pretoria, South Africa, dren. Although a number of dis-
Eggs are produced for at least to 50 percent and 60 percent in ease entities are recognized as a
eighty days and in enormous num- Kenya, Sudan, and Tanzania. Simi- result of infection with Toxocara
bers. Echinococcus eggs are passed lar high infestation rates among larvae, the most serious and best
Dogs and Dog Control in Developing Countries 57
known is the ocular larva migrans dogs found on the streets. In many removed to some central facility to
form of the disease, where larvae, cases these campaigns do not dis- be killed. The techniques used for
often many years after their inges- criminate between the owned-but- catching are often far from humane
tion, cause damage to the retina of roaming-unsupervised animals and themselves. In India, where there is
the eye. This can result in loss of neighborhood dogs in an area. Con- some of the most thorough animal
visual acuity and even blindness. sequently, there is often consider- welfare legislation in the world, the
Although the disease is generally able antagonism between the gov- method laid down by law involves
considered in developed countries ernment functionaries charged catching the free-roaming dog in a
as a risk to children who play in with collecting dogs and the popu- large sack (Prevention of Cruelty
playgrounds contaminated with lation at large, particularly where, [Capture of Animals] Rules 1979).
dog feces, it clearly poses a risk to as in much of south Asia, there is a This method, which is used in the
children in developing countries general religious (Hindu, Buddhist, Jaipur animal birth control (ABC)
where high numbers of free-roam- and Jain) sentiment against killing program, has been examined by
ing dogs defecate freely through- animals. Societies often become many veterinary surgeons and wel-
out the environment and where very polarized, with some sections fare activists and adjudged humane
infant and child hygiene has not strongly advocating the removal of by all except one animal welfare
reached the obsessive levels seen in all dogs from the streets and other group, which could provide no justi-
some developed countries. groups arguing equally forcefully to fication for its opinion. However, in
abandon the culling policies. much of the developing world, even
Many of the methods civic where laws do exist, they are poorly
Control Issues in authorities use to remove dogs are enforced, and such is the case with
the Developing less than satisfactory when viewed
from an animal welfare perspective.
dogcatching in India. Most munici-
pal dogcatchers use other methods
World The government employees charged that are contrary to the provisions
While figures for the incidence of with the task are often from the of the animal welfare legislation.
echinococcosis and toxocariasis least-educated, socially deprived, This can include using long iron
are not readily available, and those and oppressed sections of society. In tongs, similar to very large fire
for rabies fatalities are subject to northern India, for example, only tongs, with which the animals are
considerable error from poor Dalits of the lowest caste, Harijan, grabbed by whichever part of their
reporting procedures in developing will catch dogs. These poorly edu- anatomy presents itself. This can
countries, it is obvious that large cated people are poorly trained and often lead to penetrating injuries of
populations of poorly regulated poorly supervised, since few higher soft tissues. In other cases the ani-
dogs pose a risk to the health of officials in the government service mals are lassoed variously with
the human population. Coupled want to be associated either with chains or ropes often held on poles.
with the types of problems associ- the Harijan dogcatchers or with the This method is favored in Hong
ated with free-roaming dogs act of dog catching itself. The meth- Kong and throughout much of
reported in Soweto, South Africa, ods used to remove dogs vary. In India. It is also the method advocat-
there is a strong case for introduc- some places, such as Kathmandu ed by the group referred to earlier
ing some means of dog control in and, formerly, in Jaipur, it is done by that objected to the sack method.
most developing countries. The indiscriminate use of poison, the Catching dogs by nooses often
success of such control measures most commonly used of which is results in partial or complete loss of
depends heavily on an understand- strychnine. Not only does such poi- consciousness due to cerebral anox-
ing of the dog ecology and the soning risk poisoning other crea- ia through occlusion of the carotid
nature of the dog-human bond in tures, including children, but also and other arteries to the brain.
the locale under consideration. few poisons are humane in action. Having restrained the dog, no
Lack of appreciation of these (Strychnine, which causes respira- matter how poorly, the dogcatcher
issues is, I believe, one of the main tory arrest through paralysis of the must then move the animal into a
reasons why efforts to control free- respiratory muscles, for example, is suitable vehicle for transport to
roaming dogs in developing coun- clearly distressing to the poisoned central depots. With the sack
tries so often fail. animal.) Indiscriminate distribu- method of catching, this is done by
In many developing countries, tion of poison also has the environ- carrying the dog to the vehicle in
efforts to control the often large mental disadvantage of dead and the sack and then emptying the
populations of free-roaming dogs dying animals left throughout the sack into the vehicle. With the
typically focus on mass removal of environment who must be removed. tongs method, the dog is lifted up
dogs. In most cases, in south Asian In many places where poisoning by the tongs and put in the vehicle.
countries, this is done by killing the is not used, dogs are caught and To make this process easier, the

58 The State of the Animals III: 2005

tail or a hind leg is often held by an oping world. In Delhi a concerted overrepresented in young animals.
assistant, and the animal is effort at dog removal killed a third Thus, by removing dogs, the rate of
stretched to reduce struggling. of straying dogs with no reduction population turnover and the pro-
With nooses and chains, the catch- in the dog population (Blue Cross portion of young animals are
er will whirl the animal around his of Hyderabad/Animal Welfare increased. Both lead to conditions
head on the end of the noose Board of India 2000). In Hong that encourage rabies transmis-
before releasing it, airborne, into Kong approximately twenty thou- sion. Many areas endemic for
the catching vehicle. Some catch- sand dogs were killed by the gov- rabies already have high rates of
ing teams carry truncheons with ernment and another thirteen dog population turnover and high
which to beat the animal if the dog thousand by welfare organizations proportions of young dogs in the
attempts to bite during the catch- every year, in an operation that has population (Daniels and Bekoff
ing process. been described as “annual harvest- 1989). In Tunisia 30–35 percent of
Once in the vehicle, animals may ing,” similar to that practiced in the population is replaced each
be held for many hours, even days, wild animal control in Africa, with year. In Mexico 38 percent of the
usually without food or water. In little impact on the free-roaming dog population is between three
some cities in India, it is the prac- dog population (Dahmer, Coman, and twelve months of age (Beck
tice to fill a caged vehicle until no and Robinson 2000). In Ecuador 2000). In West Bengal, India, only a
more dogs can be stuffed in. In the elimination of 12–25 percent third of pups survive one year (Beck
such cases some animals have to of the dog population each year for 2000). In Zimbabwe’s communal
stand on dogs beneath them. Once five years did not reduce the popu- lands, 71.8 percent of dogs die in
returned to the central depot, lation (WHO 1988). In rural Aus- their first year, and pup mortality is
these dogs may be electrocuted, tralia a 76 percent reduction in the estimated at 52.6 percent in the
gassed, or drowned. In a method free-roaming dog population failed first month of life (Butler and Bing-
documented in the city of to achieve a lasting reduction in ham 2000). The causes of young
Vishakhapatnam, the caged dogs the population, and the number of dogs’ deaths is not fully known and
were doused with water and the free-roaming dogs returned to pre- will vary from culture to culture but
metal cage connected to the elec- cull levels within one year (Beck will include distemper and par-
trical supply to electrocute the ani- 2000). In Kathmandu street dogs vovirus infection; road and other
mals en masse. In India, the elec- have been poisoned for at least 50 accidents; active culling by man in
trical current is often variable in years with little long-term effect on some countries, particularly of
supply, and due to overcrowding, the population. In Chennai (former- female pups; fights; and starvation.
many animals are not in contact ly Madras), India, the municipal Although the reproductive poten-
with the metal fabric of the cage. authorities’ dog-culling program tial of dogs is high generally, it may
Thus, this method of electrocution had been in operation for 120 years not be as high in all environments
was far from efficient, with some yet is still required because of the as some workers have assumed. Fig-
animals taking many minutes dog problem (Blue Cross of Hyder- ures from Jaipur show that breed-
before expiring. Those who were abad/Animal Welfare Board of ing of street dogs in that city follows
not killed in the ordeal were India 2000). Dog-removal pro- a unipolar seasonal pattern as is
clubbed to death. grams do not control the dog pop- seen in many wild canids, but which
It is unfortunate, given the con- ulation, or the various diseases and is not considered normal for Canis
siderable effort and the very seri- nuisances associated with dogs, familiaris. In Jaipur there is a very
ous welfare implications for the because of their high reproductive marked breeding season in autumn
dogs concerned, that it is now well potential and the continuing pres- (Chawla and Reece 2002). Clearly,
recognized that mass removal of ence of an empty biological niche being receptive to breeding only
dogs will not work as a means of with unexploited resources. More once a year reduces the reproduc-
controlling the population or the puppies are born to the surviving tive potential of the species. Anec-
spread of diseases such as rabies. animals, and more of them survive, dotal evidence, however, suggests
As long ago as 1988, WHO “strong- and more dogs migrate into the these findings may not apply
ly insisted that administrators area recently rendered dog-free. throughout the subcontinent, em-
obtain proof that elimination has a Dog removal may indeed be coun- phasizing the need for knowledge of
significant positive impact on terproductive when considered the local ecology of the free-roam-
rabies’ endemnicity and/or epi- from a rabies-control perspective. ing dog population in any control
demiology before deciding to con- The spread of rabies among the program.
tinue dog removal” (WHO 1988). dog population is encouraged by Despite the considerable mass of
The evidence for this statement is high population turnover (Blancou evidence and the advice of WHO,
fairly clear throughout the devel- 1988; Beran 1991). Rabies is also many municipal authorities in India

Dogs and Dog Control in Developing Countries 59

and elsewhere in the developing The relocated dogs can cause on a lead and in an appropriate
world continue to chose the removal severe disruption to livestock in place. Governments play a role in
option over other alternatives of dog their efforts to find food, which are this with a sensible licensing regime
or rabies control. In part this is often unsuccessful and lead to to regulate dog ownership. Licenses
because of the lack of understand- dogs dying of starvation. can be made less costly for steril-
ing and awareness of the issues In some developing countries, ized and vaccinated dogs, thus
involved. In part it is also because some of the problems caused by encouraging these desirable act-
transient politicians and officials street dogs are addressed through ions. Such a regime of responsible
feel under pressure to act—and to mass parental vaccination cam- pet ownership would be particularly
be seen to act—when dog problems paigns in an attempt to eradicate valuable in many developing coun-
are drawn to their attention, as they rabies from the cities involved. tries where the increasingly affluent
frequently are, particularly by the This method has been used on a middle classes have taken to keep-
better-educated and more influen- truly heroic scale in parts of South ing dogs as status or fashion sym-
tial members of society. America (Largi et al. 1988). A sim- bols. This trend tends to mean that
Not every attempt to remove ilar scheme was recently piloted many people have no knowledge of
dogs ends in their killing. Recently successfully in Chad (Kayali et al. correct dog care and appropriate
in Jodhpur in Rajasthan a removal 2003). Millions of doses of rabies social etiquette. In the Western
program was begun which included vaccine have been given annually world it is now commonplace for
keeping the dogs in pounds. This to free-roaming dogs. This method dog owners to be expected to clean
has also been attempted in Turkey. has worked to control rabies in the up the ordure their charges leave in
As a means of controlling the free- areas where it is applied but, of public places. Municipal laws
roaming dog population, this has course, does nothing to address demand such activity. However, in
not worked for the same reasons the other problems of disease and much of south Asia, especially, such
that killing the removed dogs does nuisance caused by a burgeoning a law would have little chance of
not work. Furthermore, keeping street dog population. Recently a success because of deeply ingrained
large numbers of dogs in pounds is modified rabies virus has been attitudes based on caste and the
expensive and difficult to do if the incorporated into an oral vaccine quasi-religious concept of impurity
animals’ welfare is taken into preparation for dogs. This should and pollution that would prohibit
account. Diseases tend to spread make mass vaccination of large much of society from even contem-
more rapidly among large groups proportions of the free-roaming plating handling, even indirectly,
of dogs and establishing a social dog population much easier, which their dog’s feces. For licensing sys-
order within such groups results in will enable the threshold level tems for dogs to be effective, they
fighting and injuries. The number required for rabies control to be would need to be enforced and pos-
of dogs found in the typical city in reached. It is hoped that trials of sibly accompanied by the removal,
a developing country also pre- this vaccine will be allowed by the after suitable warnings, of unli-
cludes this approach. One Indian Indian government shortly to con- censed animals. This requires con-
city, Hyderabad, is believed to have trol rabies in this country. siderable municipal investment in
a dog-to-man ratio of 1:40 (Blue The control efforts, which are identifying licensed dogs and
Cross of Hyderabad/Animal Wel- advocated by WHO and others, humane removal and kenneling of
fare Board of India 2000), which involve a three-part program fea- apparently unlicensed dogs while
implies a total dog population of turing responsible pet ownership awaiting confirmation of the ani-
between fifty and one hundred with licensing of pet dogs, steriliza- mal’s status. In much of the devel-
thousand. Jaipur, a city of roughly tion and vaccination of free-roam- oping world, any licensing regime
two million people, has an estimat- ing dogs, and habitat control is, in effect, a means of boosting the
ed fifty to sixty thousand dogs. Fig- (WHO 1990). income of the responsible govern-
ures of this magnitude, typical for Responsible pet ownership re- ment enforcers through bribery.
many cities, make establishing quires educating the public in the It is generally believed that dogs
pounds impractical. In some Indi- correct ways to own a pet dog and exist in very few places where they
an cities, the removed dogs are care for it. It would include such have no referral household or com-
relocated to the nearest jungle matters as sterilization of animals; munity (WHO 1990). The excep-
area. This, too, does not control appropriate and timely veterinary tion to this is around food markets,
the population and has the added treatment, including vaccination slaughterhouses, temples, and
disadvantage of spreading prob- and anthelmintic administration; roadside restaurants, where suffi-
lems associated with free-roaming and the need to exercise control cient food is available without the
dogs to other areas, usually with over pet dogs’ activities by, for active involvement of humans in
lower human and dog populations. example, exercising the animal only feeding the dogs. In north India,

60 The State of the Animals III: 2005

however, these conditions are com- ical of poor areas. What does seem financial help from the civic
mon, and unofficial food sources without doubt is that, were govern- authorities, with animal welfare
are freely available to dogs. The ments to make concerted and con- organizations bearing most of the
availability of resources may be a stant efforts to reduce the avail- costs associated with them. Indeed,
limiting factor in the size of the ability of food and shelter in the the motivation behind many ABC
free-roaming dog population (But- towns and cities of the developing programs is driven by animal wel-
ler and Bingham 2000). It thus fol- world, the population of free-roam- fare rather than public health,
lows that, if these resources can be ing dogs would be reduced. It has which does cause some conflict,
controlled, the free-roaming dog been suggested that, were a civic particularly with those medical
population should also be con- government to implement sudden- doctors whose professional lives
trolled. In many developing coun- ly and rigorously such a plan for involve dog bite clinics that see
tries, civic infrastructure does not civic cleanliness and order, there dozens of bitten people each day.
include even basic sanitation and might be a concomitant need to The basic premise behind ABC pro-
access to indoor, drained lavato- instigate some form of “humane grams is that captured dogs would
ries, much less the efficient dispos- culling” of the dog population. be sterilized, vaccinated against
al of household waste. Waste in Failure to do so may otherwise rabies, and returned to the exact
developing countries has a much result in large numbers of dogs location whence they came. They
higher organic content than that with insufficient food fighting over would thus maintain their position
in developed countries because the the remaining resources, migrat- in the hierarchy of free-roaming
consumer culture has yet to devel- ing to other areas with serious con- dogs, preventing migration and
op, and very securely wrapped con- sequences to population stability population instability while not
venience foods do not feature in in the new areas, and ultimately contributing to the number of pup-
the typical diet. Many workers con- starving to death. A rigorous civic pies produced. In this way it was
cerned with dog ecology in devel- hygiene plan undoubtedly would hoped that many of the problems
oping countries believe that the result in a reduction in the nui- with large, unsupervised dog popu-
success of the dog population sances caused by free-roaming lations would be controlled.
depends on the free availability of dogs, including those diseases
human waste food and feces, which associated with the animals. This
enables females to maintain the would be welcome in the fight The Jaipur
high levels of fecundity required to
offset the high mortality rate
against rabies, for example, but
would confront animal welfare
ABC Program
One of the problems with WHO’s
among pups and young dogs (But- organizations in these cities with a
approach to dog population con-
ler and Bingham 2000; Dahmer, difficult and unpleasant problem.
trol was that it seemed counterin-
Coman, and Robinson 2000). In The third part of a plan to con-
tuitive. There was little positive evi-
contrast, workers studying in trol free-roaming dog populations
dence to prove that the methods
developed countries believe the as envisaged by WHO is the intro-
advocated would work, even if it
availability of shelter may be the duction of sterilization and vaccina-
was reasonably well established sci-
limiting factor determining dog tion of dogs from this population.
entifically that mass removal of
population size (A.M. Beck, per- These plans, as previously men-
dogs would not work. In an at-
sonal communication, June 23, tioned, are known in much of the
tempt to correct this situation, an
2004). Experience in India sup- developing world as animal birth
ABC program was established in
ports the food-availability hypothe- control (ABC) programs and in the
Jaipur in late 1994 with a view to
sis where areas, which are kept Americas as trap-neuter-release
collecting data on the efficacy of
clean because they house senior (TNR) programs, have been part of
such programs. Initially the Jaipur
government officials, for example, WHO policy to control the health
program was a pilot program.
have very low dog populations. In problems associated with large dog
Once the pilot had been completed
contrast, areas with no civic populations since 1990. There have
with results that looked positive,
amenities—where the population been ABC programs in India since
the ABC program was expanded to
is obliged to put its rubbish out on before this; however, the program
cover most of the city. Jaipur, the
the streets and where many are in Madras (now Chennai) began in
rapidly expanding capital of the
obliged to defecate in open 1964 (Blue Cross of Hyderabad/
desert state of Rajasthan, has a
spaces—have large dog popula- Animal Welfare Board of India
population of about two million
tions. The amount of shelter avail- 2000). The concept is now wide-
people. The methods and results of
able to dogs will be similar in each spread across many developing
the Jaipur ABC program are de-
area or may, indeed, be lower in countries. Unfortunately most pro-
tailed in Anderson et al. (1981).
the dense, unplanned housing typ- grams are conducted with little

Dogs and Dog Control in Developing Countries 61

 The Jaipur ABC program has large numbers of male dogs is lation it is trying to control. As of
divided the city into areas and fur- attempted since the remaining 2004 more than thirty thousand
ther subdivided these using major unaltered males will continue to animals had entered the program
geographical features as the sire pups by every unaltered female and more than twenty-four thou-
boundaries. Dogs are caught from available. The limited surgical skill sand sterilization and vaccination
one of these areas using the sack of some veterinary surgeons in operations had been performed.
method referred to earlier. The some developing countries may An additional three thousand ani-
location of each dog is recorded as account for this policy difference, mals had been vaccinated against
accurately as possible, and the however, since castration is the rabies. Population censuses indi-
dogs are transported back to the easier procedure. cate that about 70 percent of the
ABC kennels and veterinary oper- Once the surgical procedure is female population had been steril-
ating suite located in an animal completed, the animals are re- ized and vaccinated. The total pop-
welfare nongovernmental organiza- turned to their individual kennels ulation in a smaller representative
tion (NGO)’s premises. The dogs to recover. They are examined by area of the total area covered by
are kenneled individually, given a veterinary surgeons daily until they the ABC had declined by 28 per-
quick veterinary examination, and are considered to have recovered cent from its peak. It has been
registered before being allowed to sufficiently to endure the rigors of established that dogs in Jaipur
settle in. In the Jaipur program, life on the streets. At all stages of breed seasonally (in late autumn)
approximately 10.3 percent of the ABC program, the dog is and have an average litter size of
dogs captured are killed humanely accompanied by a registration card 5.62 pups.
since they are found to be suffering to avoid any confusion as to his or The program does not have an
from serious disease or illness or to her identity and location. Records active re-vaccination component
be temperamentally unsuited to are maintained of all information because the available scientific evi-
life on the streets among a high- deemed relevant so the program dence suggests that street dogs do
density human population. (The can be monitored carefully. The not usually live long lives (Butler
concept of a strict “no kill” policy Jaipur program aims to catch unal- and Bingham 2000; Coyne et al.
in the context of a major ABC pro- tered adult male dogs, in addition 2001). The vaccine given confers
gram is nonviable if only because to the sterilized individuals, so that protection for three years, accord-
of the number of animals in- they may be vaccinated against ing to the manufacturer’s informa-
volved.) rabies and so identified by an ear tion, and possibly longer if given,
The next day the dogs are fasted notch and tattoo. The adult males as it is in the program, intramuscu-
and given pre-medication. They are are also returned to their exact larly (Daniels and Bekoff 1989).
prepared individually for surgery location in the city. By vaccinating However, some dogs are recaught
and given anesthetic, antibiotics, only these adult dogs, the hierar- for other reasons or by mistake.
and analgesics. All animals are vac- chy is less disturbed (since the From these the Jaipur program has
cinated against rabies using a mod- males maintain their own territo- some migration and longevity
ern vaccine that gives three years’ ries), but the percentage of the data. Of recaught dogs 21.5 per-
immunity. The dogs are marked total dog population that is vacci- cent had traveled less than five
permanently by removing a notch nated against rabies is increased. hundred meters from the place of
from the cranial border of the left Research from rabies-control pro- original capture and release. Only
pinna and a five-digit, alphanumer- grams in Europe and elsewhere 15.2 percent of recaptured dogs
ic, unique tattooed number in the and epidemiological theory indi- had survived longer than a thou-
right pinna. The dogs are then cate that a certain threshold per- sand days from the date of their
sterilized by complete ovariohys- centage of vaccinated dogs must original release.
terectomy through a right flank be achieved to prevent continu- Arguments about animal welfare
incision; males are sterilized by ance of the urban rabies cycle in developing countries carry little
castration through a single pre- (Margawani and Robertson 1995). weight with governments and deci-
scrotal incision. The Jaipur pro- According to WHO this threshold sion makers. However, if the con-
gram concentrates on sterilizing percentage for rabies is about 70 cept of ABC programs, together
female animals since they produce percent, though exactly how this with the other dog-control meas-
the puppies. Prepubescent male figure has been derived seems ures mentioned, can be shown to
puppies are also castrated. Some unclear from the literature. have a positive effect on human
programs sterilize all dogs, includ- The Jaipur program has at- health, then governments may
ing adult males. With limited tempted to record all manner of show greater interest in imple-
resources available, however, it is data on its effects and on the ecol- menting these control programs,
hard to see why castration of even ogy and behavior of the dog popu- which would improve the animal

62 The State of the Animals III: 2005

welfare situation. To this end the Asia government is extremely and some European countries in
Jaipur ABC program has attempt- bureaucratic and cautious. Dog the early part of the twentieth cen-
ed to collate data on human rabies control does not readily fall within tury by a strictly enforced licensing
cases occurring in the city. As with any particular department’s sphere regime, along with stray elimina-
much of the developing world, dis- of influence: health departments tion programs and rigid quaran-
ease-reporting procedures leave claim that dog control is not their tine procedures and concomitant
much to be desired. However, fig- problem, and veterinary depart- improvements in civic hygiene. In
ures for human rabies cases from ments claim rabies is a human dis- England, for example, for much of
the main state hospital in the city ease. Improvements in civic infra- the twentieth century, it cost as
suggest that the number of cases structure are the responsibility of much to license ownership of a dog
has fallen in the area covered by other departments that have little for a year as it did for a man to
the ABC program from a pre-ABC incentive to be involved in the obtain government permission to
peak of ten cases a year to no “degrading” area of waste manage- take a wife for life! The fact that
reported cases in 2001 and 2002. ment when larger development these measures were successful at
In areas of the city not served by projects such as road and bridge controlling free-roaming dogs and
the ABC, the number of cases has construction are available. In rabies emphasizes that control is
risen as the outlying areas develop. India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, most possible and that control measures
The total number of cases seen in of the effort promoting ABC pro- must be suitable to the society and
the hospital, regardless of the grams as a part of the total control situation in which they are applied.
place of origin, has remained of free-roaming dogs has come
approximately static. This would from animal welfare organizations.
seem to suggest that the program In the case of India this has, until Conclusion
is having an affect on the levels of lately, been greatly helped by sup- The roles of dogs in developing
rabies infection within Jaipur city. port from government due to for- countries are varied and range from
In an attempt to prove that the mer minister Maneka Gandhi’s the venerated to the impure, from
ABC program benefits the dogs of passionate interest in animal wel- the tolerated to the loved. In many
Jaipur, a study of the incidence fare. (India has one of the most situations dogs undoubtedly do
rates of the two commonest dis- advanced government structures sterling work for their community
ease processes of street dogs (e.g., in the world for improving animal as guard dogs, affording protection
transmissible venereal tumor and welfare.) The human health issues against a dangerous, uncontrolled
parasitic mange) was undertaken have not been emphasized, so ABC world and providing a means by
from the records maintained by programs and their proponents are which much human waste is
the ABC program. Although sub- seen as being “for” dog welfare removed from the environment of
jective assessment of the city’s protection and advancement man (thus suppressing populations
dogs’ condition indicates that ABC rather than attempting to help the of other more pestilential creatures
dogs are in better condition than human population at large. Unfor- such as rats and cockroaches).
those who have not been through tunately, many organizations Unfortunately dogs’ very success at
the ABC program and that dogs in undertaking ABC programs in living with and relying on man can
Jaipur are in better condition than developing countries are some- create problems for both the dogs
those elsewhere, this study failed what economical with the truth and their associated human popula-
to indicate any difference in the and creative in their accounting tions. The dogs suffer from very
diseases’ incidence rates. procedures, often encouraged in short life expectancies and high
The various results of the Jaipur this approach by per capita pay- rates of mortality, among the
ABC program indicate that a con- ments for each dog entering the young especially, and these deaths
certed effort to sterilize and vacci- program. Thus achievements may are often unpleasant. The human
nate free-roaming dogs from the be on paper only. Opponents of population is subjected to minor
city’s streets may indeed stabilize humane dog-control measures or problems by a large free-roaming
or reduce the dog population and those who remain to be convinced dog population, including noise
control rabies, the most serious are thus handed plenty of ammuni- and environmental soiling by
disease associated with dogs. tion by examples of where such ordure, and to some major public
Armed with data such as these, measures have not achieved what health issues, such as rabies, from
one would think that the program was claimed for them. which about thirty thousand people
would be applied throughout the It is interesting to note that free- die each year, mainly in developing
developing world. Unfortunately roaming dogs and their associated countries. Some measure of con-
this has not been the case to date, problems, particularly rabies, were trol of the dog population would
for a number of reasons. In south controlled in the United Kingdom seem desirable in many of these

Dogs and Dog Control in Developing Countries 63

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64 The State of the Animals III: 2005