Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

consists of all nervous tissue outside the
CNS. Components of the PNS include
nerves, ganglia, enteric plexuses, and
sensory receptors
Name: Rhyan Christian Sanchez
Block: UP-FB2-1BSN-22 A nerve is a bundle of hundreds to thousands
Subject Code: HES006 | Anatomy & Physiology of axons plus associated connective tissue
Instructor: Mr. Johnearl M. Valencia and blood vessels that lies outside the brain
HES006 | Anatomy & Physiology Notes and spinal cord.
-Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from
the brain
CHAPTER 12 -thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves emerge
from the spinal cord.
Nervous tissue
Ganglia (singular is ganglion) are small
Central nervous system masses of nervous tissue, consisting
primarily of neuron cell bodies, that are
The central nervous system (CNS) consists
located outside of the brain and spinal cord.
of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the
part of the CNS that is located in the skull and Enteric plexuses are extensive networks of
contains about 85 billion neurons. neurons located in the walls of organs of the
gastrointestinal tract.
sensory receptor refers to a structure of the
nervous system that monitors changes in the
external or internal environment.
The PNS is divided into a somatic nervous
system (SNS),
an autonomic nervous system (ANS) and
an enteric nervous system (ENS)
The SNS consists of
(1) sensory neurons that convey information
to the CNS from somatic receptors in the
head, body wall, and limbs and from
receptors for the special senses of vision,
hearing, taste, and smell, and
(2) motor neurons that conduct impulses
from the CNS to skeletal muscles only.
Because these motor responses can be
consciously controlled, the action of this part
of the PNS is voluntary.
The ANS consists of 12.2 Histology of nervous tissue
(1) sensory neurons that convey information Neurons
to the CNS from autonomic sensory Like muscle cells, neurons (nerve cells)
receptors, located primarily in visceral organs possess electrical excitability, the ability to
such as the stomach and lungs, and respond to a stimulus and convert it into an
action potential.
(2) motor neurons that conduct nerve
impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle, A stimulus is any change in the environment
cardiac muscle, and glands. that is strong enough to initiate an action
potential.
The motor part of the ANS consists of two
branches, the sympathetic division and the An action potential (AP) (nerve impulse) is
parasympathetic division. an electrical signal that propagates (travels)
along the surface of the membrane of a
the sympathetic division helps support
neuron.
exercise or emergency actions, the ‘fight-or-
flight’ responses, and
the parasympathetic division takes care of Parts of a neuron
‘rest-and-digest’ activities.
Most neurons have three parts:
The operation of the ENS, the ‘brain of the
(1) a cell body,
gut’, is involuntary. Once considered part of
(2) dendrites, and
the ANS, the ENS consists of over 100 million
(3) an axon
neurons in enteric plexuses that extend most
of the length of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The cell body, also known as the perikaryon
or soma, contains a nucleus surrounded by
Functions of the nervous system
cytoplasm that includes typical cellular
•Sensory function. Sensory receptors detect organelles such as lysosomes, mitochondria,
internal stimuli, such as an increase in blood and a Golgi complex. Neuronal cell bodies
pressure, or external stimuli (for example, a also contain free ribosomes and prominent
raindrop landing on your arm). This sensory clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum,
information is then carried into the brain and termed Nissl bodies.
spinal cord through cranial and spinal nerves.
microtubules which assist in moving
•Integrative function. The nervous system materials between the cell body and axon.
processes sensory information by analysing it
A nerve fibre is a general term for any
and making decisions for appropriate
neuronal process (extension) that emerges
responses — an activity known as
from the cell body of a neuron.
integration.
Most neurons have two kinds of processes:
•Motor function. Once sensory information is multiple dendrites and a single axon.
integrated, the nervous system may elicit an
Dendrites are the receiving or input portions
appropriate motor response by activating
of a neuron. The plasma membranes of
effectors (muscles and glands) through
dendrites (and cell bodies) contain numerous
cranial and spinal nerves. Stimulation of the
receptor sites for binding chemical
effectors causes muscles to contract and
messengers from other cells.
glands to secrete.
The single axon of a neuron propagates Classification of neurons
nerve impulses towards another neuron, a
Structural classification
muscle fibre, or a gland cell. An axon is a
long, thin, cylindrical projection that often Structurally, neurons are classified according
joins to the cell body at a cone-shaped to the number of processes extending from
elevation called the axon hillock. the cell body.
The cytoplasm of an axon, called axoplasm
The axon and its collaterals end by dividing 1.Multipolar neurons usually have several
into many fine processes called axon dendrites and one axon. Most neurons in the
terminals or axon telodendria. brain and spinal cord are of this type, as well
as all motor neurons .
2.Bipolar neurons have one main dendrite
and one axon. They are found in the retina of
the eye, the inner ear, and the olfactory area
of the brain.
3.Unipolar neurons have dendrites and one
axon that are fused together to form a
continuous process that emerges from the
cell body.
-These neurons are more appropriately called
pseudounipolar neurons because they begin
in the embryo as bipolar neurons. During
development, the dendrites and axon fuse
together and become a single process. The
dendrites of most unipolar neurons function
as sensory receptors that detect a sensory
stimulus such as touch, pressure,
nociception, or thermal stimuli.

The site of communication between two

neurons or between a neuron and an effector
cell is called a synapse.
The tips of some axon terminals swell into
bulb-shaped structures called synaptic end
bulbs. Examples of sensory receptors that are
Both synaptic end bulbs and varicosities dendrites of unipolar neurons.
contain many tiny membrane-enclosed sacs (a) A corpuscle of touch is a touch receptor
called synaptic vesicles. that consists of a mass of dendrites enclosed
A neurotransmitter is a molecule released by a capsule of connective tissue.
from a synaptic vesicle that excites or inhibits (b) A type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor is
another neuron, muscle fibre, or gland cell. a touch receptor that consists of free nerve
endings (bare dendrites) that make contact
with tactile epithelial cells of the stratum Functional classification
basale of the skin.
1.Sensory (or afferent) neurons either
(c) A lamellated corpuscle is a pressure contain sensory receptors at their distal ends
receptor composed of a multilayered (dendrites) or are located just after sensory
connective tissue capsule that encloses a receptors that are separate cells. Once an
dendrite. appropriate stimulus activates a sensory
receptor, the sensory neuron forms an action
(d) A nociceptor detects damage to tissues
potential in its axon and the action potential is
and consists of free nerve endings (bare
conveyed into the CNS through cranial or
dendrites). Thermoreceptors (which detect
spinal nerves. Most sensory neurons are
thermal sensations), itch receptors, and tickle
unipolar in structure.
receptors resemble nociceptors in that they
are unipolar neurons with free nerve endings 2.Motor (or efferent) neurons (convey
that serve as sensory receptors. action potentials away from the CNS to
effectors (muscles and glands) in the
periphery (PNS) through cranial or spinal
nerves. Motor neurons are multipolar in
structure.
3.Interneurons or association neurons are
mainly located within the CNS between
sensory and motor neurons. Interneurons
integrate (process) incoming sensory
information from sensory neurons and then
elicit a motor response by activating the
appropriate motor neurons.
Neuroglia
Neuroglia make up about half the volume of
Two examples of CNS neurons. the CNS. Their name derives from the idea of
Arrows indicate the direction of information early histologists that they were the ‘glue’ that
flow. The dendritic branching pattern often is held nervous tissue together. We now know
distinctive for a particular type of neuron. that neuroglia are not merely passive
bystanders but rather actively participate in
the activities of nervous tissue.
Neuroglia of the CNS 5.Astrocytes may also play a role in learning
Neuroglia of the CNS can be classified on the and memory by influencing the formation of
basis of size, cytoplasmic processes, and neural synapses.
intracellular organisation into four types:
Oligodendrocytes
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglial cells,
and ependymal cells. These resemble astrocytes but are smaller
and contain fewer processes.
Astrocytes
Processes of oligodendrocytes are
These star-shaped cells have many
responsible for forming and maintaining the
processes and are the largest and most
myelin sheath around CNS axons.
numerous of the neuroglia. There are two
types of astrocytes the myelin sheath is a multilayered lipid and
protein covering around some axons that
Protoplasmic astrocytes have many short
insulates them and increases the speed of
branching processes and are found in grey
nerve impulse conduction.
matter.
Microglial cells or microglia
Fibrous astrocytes have many long
unbranched processes and are located this neuroglia are small cells with slender
mainly in white matter. processes that give off numerous spinelike
projections.
The processes of astrocytes make contact
with blood capillaries, neurons, and the pia Microglial cells or microglia function as
mater (a thin membrane around the brain and phagocytes. Like tissue macrophages, they
spinal cord). remove cellular debris formed during normal
development of the nervous system and
The functions of astrocytes include the
phagocytise microbes and damaged nervous
following.
tissue.
1.Astrocytes contain microfilaments that give
them considerable strength, which enables
them to support neurons. Ependymal cells
2.Processes of astrocytes wrapped around Ependymal cells are cuboidal to columnar
blood capillaries isolate neurons of the CNS cells arranged in a single layer that possess
from various potentially harmful substances in microvilli and cilia. These cells line the
blood by secreting chemicals that maintain ventricles of the brain and central canal of the
the unique selective permeability spinal cord (spaces filled with cerebrospinal
characteristics of the endothelial cells of the fluid, which protects and nourishes the brain
capillaries. and spinal cord). Functionally, ependymal
cells produce, possibly monitor, and
3.In the embryo, astrocytes secrete
assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal
chemicals that appear to regulate the growth,
fluid. They also form the blood–cerebrospinal
migration, and interconnection among
fluid barrier
neurons in the brain.
4.Astrocytes help to maintain the appropriate
chemical environment for the generation of
nerve impulses. For example, they regulate
the concentration of important ions such as
K+; take up excess neurotransmitters; and
serve as a conduit for the passage of
nutrients and other substances between
blood capillaries and neurons.
Neuroglia of the PNS 12.3 Electrical signals in neurons
Neuroglia of the PNS completely surround Describe the types of electrical signals that
axons and cell bodies. The two types of glial permit communication among neurons.
cells in the PNS are Schwann cells and
Like muscle fibres, neurons are electrically
satellite cells .
excitable. They communicate with one
another using two types of electrical signals:
Schwann cells (1) graded potentials are used for short-
These cells encircle PNS axons. Like distance communication only.
oligodendrocytes, they form the myelin
(2) Action potentials allow communication
sheath around axons. A single
over long distances within the body.
oligodendrocyte myelinates several axons,
but each Schwann cell myelinates a single Recall that an action potential in a muscle
axon. A single Schwann cell can also enclose fibre is called a muscle action potential.
as many as 20 or more unmyelinated axons
(axons that lack a myelin sheath). Schwann When an action potential occurs in a neuron
cells participate in axon regeneration, which (nerve cell), it is called a nerve action
is more easily accomplished in the PNS than potential (nerve impulse).
in the CNS. ❶ as you touch the pen, a graded potential
Satellite cells develops in a sensory receptor in the skin of
These flat cells surround the cell bodies of the fingers.
neurons of PNS ganglia. Besides providing ❷ the graded potential triggers the axon of
structural support, satellite cells regulate the the sensory neuron to form a nerve action
exchanges of materials between neuronal cell potential, which travels along the axon into
bodies and interstitial fluid. the CNS and ultimately causes the release of
Myelination neurotransmitter at a synapse with an
interneuron.
As you have already learned, axons
surrounded by a multilayered lipid and protein ❸ the neurotransmitter stimulates the
covering, called the myelin sheath, are said to interneuron to form a graded potential in its
be myelinated. The sheath electrically dendrites and cell body.
insulates the axon of a neuron and increases ❹ in response to the graded potential, the
the speed of nerve impulse conduction. axon of the interneuron forms a nerve action
Axons without such a covering are said to be potential. The nerve action potential travels
unmyelinated. along the axon, which results in
neurotransmitter release at the next synapse
with another interneuron.
❺ this process of neurotransmitter release at
a synapse followed by the formation of a
graded potential and then a nerve action
potential occurs over and over as
interneurons in higher parts of the brain (such
as the thalamus and cerebral cortex) are
activated. Once interneurons in the cerebral
cortex, the outer part of the brain, are
activated, perception occurs and you are able
to feel the smooth surface of the pen touch
your fingers. As you will learn in chapter 14,
perception, the conscious awareness of a Ion channels
sensation, is primarily a function of the
1. The gates of leak channels randomly
cerebral cortex.
alternate between open and closed positions.
Suppose that you want to use the pen to write Typically, plasma membranes have many
a letter. The nervous system would respond more potassium ion (K+) leak channels than
in the following way. sodium ion (Na+) leak channels, and the
potassium ion leak channels are leakier than
❻ A stimulus in the brain causes a graded
the sodium ion leak channels. Thus, the
potential to form in the dendrites and cell
membrane’s permeability to K+ is much
body of an upper motor neuron, a type of
higher than its permeability to Na+. Leak
motor neuron that synapses with a lower
channels are found in nearly all cells,
motor neuron farther down in the CNS in
including the dendrites, cell bodies, and
order to contract a skeletal muscle. The
axons of all types of neurons.
graded potential subsequently causes a
nerve action potential to occur in the axon of 2. A ligand-gated channel opens and closes
the upper motor neuron, followed by in response to the binding of a ligand
neurotransmitter release. (chemical) stimulus. A wide variety of
chemical ligands — including
❼ the neurotransmitter generates a graded
neurotransmitters, hormones, and particular
potential in a lower motor neuron, a type of
ions — can open or close ligand-gated
motor neuron that directly supplies skeletal
channels. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine,
muscle fibres. The graded potential triggers
for example, opens cation channels that allow
the formation of a nerve action potential and
Na+ and Ca2+ to diffuse inward and K+ to
then release of the neurotransmitter at
diffuse outward. Ligand-gated channels are
neuromuscular junctions formed with skeletal
located in the dendrites of some sensory
muscle fibres that control movements of the
neurons, such as nociceptors, and in
fingers.
dendrites and cell bodies of interneurons and
❽ the neurotransmitter stimulates the muscle motor neurons.
fibres that control finger movements to form
3.A mechanically gated channel opens or
muscle action potentials. The muscle action
closes in response to mechanical stimulation
potentials cause these muscle fibres to
in the form of vibration (such as sound
contract, which allows you to write with the
waves), touch, pressure, or tissue stretching.
pen.
The force distorts the channel from its resting
position, opening the gate. Examples of
mechanically gated channels are those found
in auditory receptors in the ears, in receptors
that monitor stretching of internal organs, and
in touch receptors and pressure receptors in
the skin.
4.A voltage-gated channel opens in
response to a change in membrane potential
(voltage). Voltage-gated channels participate
in the generation and conduction of action
potentials in the axons of all types of neurons.
Resting membrane potential
The resting membrane potential exists Three factors that contribute to the resting
because of a small buildup of negative ions in membrane potential.
the cytosol along the inside of the membrane,
(1) Because the plasma membrane has more
and an equal buildup of positive ions in the
K+ leak channels (blue) than Na+ leak
extracellular fluid (ECF) along the outside
channels (rust), the number of K+ ions that
surface of the membrane. Such a separation
leave the cell is greater than the number of
of positive and negative electrical charges is
Na+ ions that enter the cell. As more and
a form of potential energy, which is measured
more K+ ions leave the cell, the inside of the
in volts or millivolts (1 mV = 0.001 V). The
membrane becomes increasingly negative
greater the difference in charge across the
and the outside of the membrane becomes
membrane, the larger the membrane
increasingly positive.
potential (voltage). Notice in figure 12.12a
that the buildup of charge occurs only very (2) Trapped anions (turquoise and red)
close to the membrane. The cytosol or cannot follow K+ out of the cell because they
extracellular fluid elsewhere in the cell are attached to nondiffusible molecules such
contains equal numbers of positive and as ATP and large proteins.
negative charges and is electrically neutral.
(3) The electrogenic Na+–K+ ATPase (purple)
expels 3 Na+ ions for every 2 K+ ions
imported.
The resting membrane potential is
determined by three major factors:
(1) unequal distribution of ions in the ECF
and cytosol,
(2) inability of most anions to leave the cell, During the depolarising phase, the negative
and membrane potential becomes less negative,
reaches zero, and then becomes positive.
(3) the electrogenic nature of the Na+–K+
ATPases. During the repolarising phase, the
membrane potential is restored to the resting
state of −70mV .
Following the repolarising phase there may
be an after-hyperpolarising phase, during
which the membrane potential temporarily
becomes more negative than the resting
level. Two types of voltage-gated channels
open and then close during an action
potential. These channels are present mainly
in the axon plasma membrane and axon
terminals. The first channels that open, the
voltage-gated Na+ channels, allow Na+ to
Graded potentials. Most graded potentials rush into the cell, which causes the
occur in the dendrites and cell body (areas depolarising phase. Then voltage-gated K+
coloured blue). channels open, allowing K+ to flow out, which
produces the repolarising phase. The after-
During a hyperpolarising graded potential, the hyperpolarising phase occurs when the
membrane potential is inside more negative voltage-gated K+ channels remain open after
than the resting level; during a depolarising the repolarising phase ends.
graded potential, the membrane potential is
inside less negative than the resting level.

An action potential occurs in the membrane

of the axon of a neuron when depolarisation
Generation of action potentials reaches a certain level termed the threshold
An action potential (AP) or impulse is a (about −55 mV in many neurons). Different
sequence of rapidly occurring events that neurons may have different thresholds for
decrease and reverse the membrane generation of an action potential, but the
potential and then eventually restore it to the threshold in a particular neuron usually is
resting state. constant. The generation of an action
potential depends on whether a particular
An action potential has two main phases: stimulus is able to bring the membrane
potential to threshold. An action potential will
a depolarising phase and a repolarising
not occur in response to a subthreshold
phase.
stimulus, a weak depolarisation that cannot
bring the membrane potential to threshold.
However, an action potential will occur in
response to a threshold stimulus, a
stimulus that is just strong enough to
depolarise the membrane to threshold.
Several action potentials will form in response
to a suprathreshold stimulus, a stimulus
that is strong enough to depolarise the
membrane above threshold. Each of the
action potentials caused by a suprathreshold
stimulus has the same amplitude (size) as an
action potential caused by a threshold
stimulus. Therefore, once an action potential
is generated, the amplitude of an action
potential is always the same and does not
depend on stimulus intensity. Instead, the
greater the stimulus strength above
threshold, the greater the frequency of the
action potentials until a maximum frequency
is reached as determined by the absolute
refractory period.

Factors that affect the speed of

propagation
The speed of propagation of an action
potential is affected by three major factors:
amount of myelination, axon diameter, and
temperature.
1.Amount of myelination. As you have just
learned, action potentials propagate more
Changes in ion flow through voltage-gated rapidly along myelinated axons than along
channels during the depolarising and unmyelinated axons.
repolarising phases of an action potential. 2.Axon diameter. Larger diameter axons
Leak channels and sodium–potassium pumps propagate action potentials faster than
are not shown. Inflow of sodium ions (Na+) smaller ones due to their larger surface
causes the depolarising phase, and outflow of areas.
potassium ions (K+) causes the repolarising
phase of an action potential. 3.Temperature. Axons propagate action
potentials at lower speeds when cooled.
 while others are axosomatic (from axon to
cell body) or axoaxonic (from axon to axon).
In addition, synapses may be electrical or
chemical and they differ both structurally and
functionally.

A fibres are the largest diameter axons(5–

20𝜇m)and are myelinated. A fibres have a
brief absolute refractory period and conduct
nerve impulses (action potentials) at speeds
of 12 to 130 m/sec (27–290 mi/hr).
Chemical synapses
B fibres are axons with diameters of 2–3𝜇m.
❶ A nerve impulse arrives at a synaptic end
Like A fibres, B fibres are myelinated and
bulb (or at a varicosity) of a presynaptic axon.
exhibit saltatory conduction at speeds up to
15 m/sec (34 mi/hr). ❷ The depolarising phase of the nerve
impulse opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels,
C fibres are the smallest diameter axons
which are present in the membrane of
(0.51.5𝜇m) and all are unmyelinated. Nerve
synaptic end bulbs. Because calcium ions are
impulse propagation along a C fibre ranges
more concentrated in the extracellular fluid,
from 0.5 to 2 m/sec (1–4 mi/hr).
Ca2+ flows inward through the opened
channels.
12.4 Signal transmission at synapses ❸ An increase in the concentration of Ca2+
inside the presynaptic neuron serves as a
Describe signal transmission at a chemical
signal that triggers exocytosis of the synaptic
synapse, summation, and excitatory and
vesicles. As vesicle membranes merge with
inhibitory neurotransmitters.
the plasma membrane, neurotransmitter
The term presynaptic neuron refers to a molecules within the vesicles are released
nerve cell that carries a nerve impulse into the synaptic cleft. Each synaptic vesicle
towards a synapse. It is the cell that sends a contains several thousand molecules of
signal. neurotransmitter.

A postsynaptic cell is the cell that receives a ❹ The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse
signal. across the synaptic cleft and bind to
neurotransmitter receptors in the postsynaptic
It may be a nerve cell called a postsynaptic
neuron’s plasma membrane. The receptor
neuron that carries a nerve impulse away
shown in figure 12.23 is part of a ligand-gated
from a synapse or an effector cell that
channel you will soon learn that this type of
responds to the impulse at the synapse.
neurotransmitter receptor is called an
Most synapses between neurons are ionotropic receptor. Not all neurotransmitters
axodendritic (from axon to dendrite), bind to ionotropic receptors; some bind to
metabotropic receptors.
❺ Binding of neurotransmitter molecules to
their receptors on ligand-gated channels
opens the channels and allows particular ions
to flow across the membrane.
❻ As ions flow through the opened channels,
the voltage across the membrane changes.
This change in membrane voltage is a
postsynaptic potential. Depending on which
ions the channels admit, the postsynaptic
potential may be a depolarisation (excitation)
or a hyperpolarisation (inhibition). For
example, opening of Na+ channels allows
inflow of Na+, which causes depolarisation.
However, opening of Cl− or K+ channels
causes hyperpolarisation. Opening Cl−
channels permits Cl− to move into the cell,
while opening the K+ channels allows K+ to
move out — in either event, the inside of the
cell becomes more negative.
❼ When a depolarising postsynaptic
potential reaches threshold, it triggers an
action potential in the axon of the
postsynaptic neuron.