TOPICS

Non-silicates; Sulphides, oxides,

hydroxides, halides, carbonates,
Sulfates and phosphates and
pyroxene

MINERALOGY
GMT:201; Class lecture Accumulated by,
Muqit Ajmain Shahriyar
Session: 2019-20

Department of Geology and Mining, University of Rajshahi

 Halides

The Chemical class of halides is characterized by the dominance of

electronegative halogen ions (Cl-, F-, Br-, I-). Those ions are largely change and
easily polarized. When they combine with relatively large weakly polarized cations
of low valance, both cations and anions behave as almost perfectly spherical
bodies. Because the weak electronegative charges are spread over the inter-
surface of the nearly spherical ions. The halides are most perfect examples of the
pure ionic bonding mechanism. Chlorine and florin are fur abundance in the earth
crust than bromine and iodine. The isometric halides have relatively low hardness
and moderate to high melting points and are poor conductors of heat and
electricity.
Classification:
Halite- NaCl Fluorite -CaF2
Cryolite - Na3AlF6 Cerargyrite -AgCl
Sylvite - KCl Carnallite -KMgCl3∙6H2O
Atacamite - Cu2Cl(OH)3 Bromargyrite -AgBr

Halite (NaCl)
Physical properties:
Crystal system: Cubic Cleavage: perfect cubic {100}
Habit: cubic crystals often massive or Fracture: conchoidal
granular
Luster: vitreous
Color: colorless or white
Transparency: transparent to
Hardness: 2.5 translucent
Specific gravity: 2.16 Streak: white
Chemistry: At ordinary temperature there are virtually no substitution on Na by K,
the halide structure type is present in a large number of AX compound. In the
halide structure, each ion is in octahedral condition with six ions of opposite kind
rather than linked to one ion in particular.
Diagnostic properties: Distinguished by its salting test, low hardness and cubic
cleavage. Some halite is florescent.
Occurrence: Halide is the most common water soluble mineral and occurs as
extensive beds form by evaporation of sea water. It also occurs as.
1. Solidimation in volcanic region
2. As an efflorescence
3. Also in play deposits in dry land- late basin.
Uses: Highly used in the production of sodium compounds, chlorine, as an ice
control agent for highways and walkways. Other uses include those for culinary
purpose and several diverse use in chemical and metallurgical industries.

Sylvite(KCl)
Physical properties:
Crystal system: isometric
Color: Colorless to white, pale gray, pale blue
Habit: As cubes and octahedral
Cleavage: perfect {100}
Fracture: Uneven
Hardness: 2
Luster: Vitreous
Streak: white
Specific gravity: 1.993
Chemistry: At ordinary temperature K is slightly replaced by Na. The structure is
like the halite minerals.
Diagnostic properties: Bitter test
Occurrence: Occurs mainly in some of the bedded deposit of halides and Gypsum.
Uses: Largely use as fertilizers, also for manufacturing of potassium hydro-oxides
which is used in making in dyes and soaps.

Carbonates
The carbons include some very common and wide spread mineral. The most
common carbonate mineral falls into the calcite, dolomite and aragonite groups.
Each group includes 3 or more isostructural substances. The chemical analysis of
minerals of these groups show that they enter a wide range of solid solution.
Classification: The important anhydrous carbonates fall into three structurally
different groups: the calcite group, the aragonite group and the dolomite group.
Aside from the minerals in these groups, the hydrous copper carbonates, azurite
and malachite are the only important carbonates.
 Calcite(CaCO3)

Physical properties:
Color: Usually white but also Fracture: Conchoidal
colorless, gray, red, green, blue,
Hardness: 3
yellow, brown, orange.
Specific gravity: 2.711
Streak: White.
Luster: Vitreous.
Cleavage: Perfect, rhombohedral,
three directions.

Chemistry: Calcite is the stable form of calcium carbonate at almost all

temperature and pressure. It may be pure CaCO3 or it may contain other metals
(Fe,Mg and/Mn) in substituting for Ca. in general only minor substitution of Mg
occurs in calcite but tendency to form the ordered face dolomite is very great, in
keeping with the large difference in ionic radii between Ca and Mg. Fe substitute
Ca to a greater extent. The order face ankerite is less common. Mn substitute Ca
extensively. Zn and Co have also been found substituting Ca to minor extent.
Diagnostic features: It exhibits double refraction. All calcite are soluble in cold
dilute HCl, hardness 3, prefect cleavage, vitreous luster.
Occurrence: It is an important rock forming mineral in sedimentary and
metamorphosed sedimentary rock. It occurs in great thickness of chalk and
limestone and as a cementing material in other sedimentary rocks. It is common
constituent of altered basic igneous rock. It also occurs in vein, in lining vugs and
fractures in limestone.
Use: Clear transparent calcite is used for manufacturing of polarizing prisms. It is
burn to quick lime(CaO), slaked to hydrated lime {Ca(OH)2} and mixed with sand
to make mortar. It is also used in chemical industries and as fertilizer, insulator,
Portland cement, flus in metallurgical industries and different construction
materials.
 Magnesite(MgCO3)
Physical properties:
Color: White, grayish, yellowish, Cleavage: Perfect
brownish, rarely colorless
Fracture: Conchoidal
Streak: White
Hardness: 4
Luster: vitreous
Specific gravity: 3-3.2
Chemistry: In MaCO3, Fe can substitute for Mg and a complete series extends to
siderite. Mn and Ca substitute for Mg to a small extent.
Diagnostic features: Soluble in HCl, Hardness 4, perfect cleavage.
Occurrence:
1. Occurs in rock consist of MgSiO2 (that is serpentine, olivine, pyroxene) by
carbonated water.
2. As crystalline srtatiform beds of metamorphic origin.
3. As a replacement of calcite, calcite reach rocks by Mg bearing solution.
Uses: magnesite is used/calcined for the manufacture of refractory bricks, cement
and flooring. It is also used for making Magnesium metal and magnesium salts
and also in paper and rubber industries.

Dolomite[CaMg(CO3)2]
Physical properties:
Color: colorless or white, often tinged Cleavage: perfect
with yellow or brown, colorless in
Fracture: Conchoidal
thin section
Hardness: 3.5-4
Streak: white
Specific gravity: 2.86
Luster: Vitreous
Chemistry: Fe commonly substitute for Mg in dolomite. Mn also substitute in a
minor extent. In addition, Co and Zn may also substitute Mg but in a minor extent.
Diagnostic features: Dissolve readily in warm acid, perfect cleavage and twinning
direction.
Occurrence: widely occur in sedimentary strata. They may form through
transformation of CaCO3 by Mg- bearing solution. Also occurs in hydrothermal
veins; in cavities and veins in limestone and in altered basic igneous rocks. It
occurs as gangue mineral in the lead-zinc deposits.
Uses: Used as a sources of Mg or Ca metal of magnesia for refractory bricks and in
blast furnace fluxes.

Aragonite(CaCO3)
Physical properties:
Color: Colorless to white or grey, often stained various hues by impurities, such as
blue, green, red or violet; colorless in transmitted light.
Streak: Uncolored/ white
Luster: vitreous
Cleavage: Distinct {010}, poor {110}
Fracture: Sub- conchoidal
Hardness: 3.5-4
Specific gravity: 2.94-2.95

Chemistry: polymorphs with calcite and it may change to calcite upon heating to
400◦C in dry air or at lower temperature in contact with water. Sr and Pb
substitute for Ca at a minor extent.
Diagnostic features: Specific gravity, Good cleavage and solubility.
Occurrence: The principal moods of occurrence are
1. Occurs as crystalline pisolites or as a deposits of hot springs and geysers.
2. Disseminated crystals masses in gypsum or clay.
3. With limonite, calcite, malachite, smithsonite and other secondary mineral
in oxidized zones of ore deposits.
4. In veins and cavities also in altered basic igneous rock such as basalt and
other.

Sulfates(SO4)
Sulfate is a group of non-silicate minerals in which SO4 radical is in combination
with a number of metal cations, such as anhydrate.
Chemical compound:
Anhydrite (CaSO4)
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
Barite (BaSO4)
These are low temperature mineral and occur as a gangue in hydrothermal vein
and as a chemical precipitates and evaporates.

Classification: Sulfates are classified into the following types.

Anhydrous sulfates: Hydrous sulfate:
Barite- BaSO4 Gypsum- CaSO4.2H2O
Celestite- SrSO4 Antlerite- Cu3SO4(OH)4
Anglestite- PbSO4 Alunite- KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6
Anhydrite- CaSO4 Melanterite(FeSO4.7H2O)
Epsomite(MgSO4.7H2O)
 Barite(BaSO4)
Physical properties:
Color: colorless, white, light shades of blue, yellow,red
Streak: white
Luster: vitreous; on some specimen pearly on base
Cleavage: perfect {001}, less perfect {210}
Hardness: 3-3.5
Specific gravity: 4.5 (heavy for non-metallic minerals)
Chemistry: Sr substitute for Ba and a complete solid solution series extends to
celestite. A small amount of Pb may often substitutes for Ba.
Diagnostic features: it is distinguished by its cleavage with angles at 90◦, 78◦20′
and 101◦40′, its crystal form and high specific gravity.it is also solubility in acid.
Occurrence: Barite is a common mineral of wide distribution with various types
of deposits.
1. As a gangue mineral in low to moderate temperature in hydrothermal veins
associated with ores of silver, lead, copper, cobalt, manganese and
antimony.
2. It is found in veins in limestone with calcite or as a residual masses in clay
overlying limestone.
3. In sandstone with copper ores. In places at as a cement in sandstone.
4. As a hot spring deposit.
Uese:
1. More than 80% of Barite produce in oil, gas-well drilling as “heavy-mud” to
aid in the support of drill rods and to hale prevent blowing out of gas.
2. Barite is the chief sources of Ba for chemicals.
3. A major use of Ba is in lithophone, a combination of barium sulfide and zinc
sulfate that forms an intimate mixture of zinc sulfide and barium sulfate.
4. Precipitated barium sulfate ‘blanc fixe’ is employed as a filler in paper and
cloths, in cosmetics, as a paint pigment and for barium meals in radiology.
 Anhydrate(CaSO4)
Physical properties:
Color: Colorless to Bluish or Violet. Also maybe white or tinged with rose, brown.
Streak: white
Luster: vitreous to pearly on cleavage.
Cleavage: Perfect {010}, nearly perfect {100}, good {001}.
Hardness: 3-3.5
Specific gravity: 2.89-2.98

Chemistry: Small amount of Sr and Ba replaced Ca. The alteration of anhydrite

from gypsum by hydration is accompanied by an increase by volume.
Diagnostic features: It maybe distinguish from barite by its lower specific gravity
and cleavage. It is harder and more specific than gypsum.
Occurrence: Anhydrite is an important rock forming mineral occurring as
extensive beds interstratified in gypsum, limestone, dolomite and salt(NaCl).
Anhydrite may be produced directly from evaporating sea water at temperature
of 42◦C or higher or at lower temperature with increasing salinity. In most of the
cases anhydrite is produced by dehydration of gypsum.
Uses: Anhydrite is important as a fertilizer, In the manufacturing of plasters and
cement. It is used as a source of sulfates; sulfur for the production of H2SO4.

Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
Physical properties:
Color: colorless, white, gray; various shade of yellow, red, brown from impurities.
Streak: white
Luster: Usually vitreous; also pearly and silky.
Cleavage: perfect {010}, conchoidal surface {100}, fibrous surface {011}
Hardness: 2
Specific gravity: 2.32

Chemistry: Gypsum shows almost no variation on composition. It converts slowly

to the hemihydrates in air at about 73◦ and more rapidly about 90◦. Hemihydrate
is made by heating gypsum at 192-200◦C, at higher temperature, hydrate is
produced.

Diagnostic features: Characterized by its softness with low hardness (2) and
perfect cleavage. The presence of water distinguishes it from anhydrate. It is
soluble in hot dilute HCl acid.

Occurrence: Gypsum occurs as intensive sedimentary deposit interbedded with

limestone, red shale, claystone and rock salt. It is normally the first salt deposited
in the evaporation with sea water. It is also occurring as saline lake deposits.

Uses: Gypsum is mined extensively in many parts of the world for use in the
construction industries, especially for manufacturing plaster of Paris. It is also
often used as a soil conditioner and as a fertilizer.

Pyroxene
The chemical composition of pyroxene can be expressed by a general formula by
XYZ2O6. Where X can be one or more of the following: Ca, Na, Fe++, Mg, Zn, Mn,
or Li. Where Y can be one or more of the following: Mg, Fe+++, Fe++, Cr, Al, Co,
Mn, Sc, Ti, or Vn. Where Z can be Si, Al, or a combination of both.
A wide range of cation substitutions can occur in the X and Y positions.
Diagnostic features: usually recognized by its color, cleavage and unusual luster.
Vitreous high in Iron are black and difficult to distinguish from Augite without
optical test.
Occurrence: Mg reach orthopyroxene is a common constituent of peridotite,
gabbro, norite and basalt and is commonly associated with Ca-Clinopryroxene,
olivine and plagioclase. It maybe the minor constituent of pyroxene.
Orthopyroxene may also be found in metamorphic rock, sometime of which are
of high temperatures and high pressure origin. Such as in granulite facies.

*** Physical properties and Diagnostic features of Enstatite and Hypersthene are
same.
Physical Properties:
Color: Magnesium- rich members: colorless, grey, green, yellow, brown, colorless
in thin section.
Iron-rich members: green or dark brown, reddish or greenish in thin section.
Streak: White
Luster: Vitreous
Cleavage: Good {210}
Hardness: 5-6
Specific gravity: 3.21- 3.96

Pigeonite- (Ca,Mg,Fe)(Mg,Fe)Si2O6
Physical properties:
Color: Brown, greenish brown, black
Luster: Vitreous
Cleavage: Good {110}
Hardness: 6
Specific gravity: 3.17-3.46
Composition and structure: These are Ca poor monoclinic pyroxene which
contain between 5-15 molecular percent of Ca silicate component. The crystal
structure of pigeonite is similar to that of diopside with all of Ca and additional Fe
and Mg. Pigeonite stable in high temperature in igneous rock and inverse
commonly at low temperature.
Diagnostic features: It can be distinguishing from other pyroxene only by optical
and X-ray technics.
Occurrence: It is commonly in high temperature rapidly cooled lavas and in some
inclusive. It is present as phenocrystal in some volcanic rock.

Diopside/Hedenbergite/Augite
Physical properties of Diopside:
Color: Diopside: white, pale green, dark green in hand specimen
Hedenbergite: brownish green, dark green, black, pale green, yellow-green in
hand specimen
Streak: White, green
Luster: vitreous
Cleavage: Imperfect
Hardness: 5.5-6.
Specific gravity: 3.22-3.56

Physical properties of Augite:

Color: pale brown, purplish brown, green, black.
Streak: light green to colorless
Luster: vitreous
Cleavage: Good {110}
Hardness: 5.5-6
Specific gravity: 3.19- 3.56

Occurrence: Diopsides are common in metamorphic rocks and Mg-reach

limestone and dolomites.
Augite is the most common pyroxene and an important rock forming mineral. It is
found mostly in dark color igneous rocks such as basaltic lavas and intrusive
gabbro, peridotite and andesite.
Chemically zoned augite are commonly in quickly cooled rocks. Such as lunar
basalt. Find crystals of augite are found in the lavas of Vesuvius.

Uses: Transparent verities of diopside have been cut and used as a gemstone.

Jadeite(NaAl[Si2O6])
Physical properties:
Color: Green, greenish blue, white, colorless in thin section
Luster: vitreous
Cleavage: Good {110}
Hardness: 6
Specific gravity: 3.24- 3.43

Diagnostic features: Insoluble in acid. Characterized by its green color and trough
aggregate of compact fibers. On polis surface it is vitreous in luster.
Occurrence: It is found only in metamorphic rock. Laboratory experiments has
shown that high pressure and only relatively low temperature are necessary for
the formation of it. Such occurrence is found near the margin of continental crust
as in the Alps, California and Japan.
Uses: It has long been highly priced orient, especially is china, where it is worked
into ornaments and utensils of great verity and beauty. It was also used by
primitive people for various weapons and different types of implements.

Spodumene(LiAlSi2O6)
Physical properties
Color: Greyish white, pale green, pale amethyst, yellowish.
Luster: vitreous
Cleavage: Good {110}
Hardness: 6.5-7
Specific gravity: 3.03- 3.23

Diagnostic features: Characterized by its prismatic cleavage. It gives crimson

flame(Li) and insoluble in acid.
Occurrence: It is comparatively rare mineral found almost exclusively in Li reach
pegmatite. It occasionally forms very large crystal.
Uses: As a source of Lithium. It is used in ceramics, storage battery, air
conditioning and as a welding flux. The gem verities are beautiful but are limited
in their occurrence.
 Aegirine(NaFeSi2O6)

Physical properties:
Color: Brown to black
Luster: Vitreous
Cleavage: Imperfect
Hardness: 6- 6.5
Specific gravity: 3.4- 3.5

Diagnostic features: The cylinder prismatic crystal brown to green color. It is not
easily distinguishing without optical test.
Occurrence: It is a comparatively rare rock forming mineral found chiefly in
igneous rock reach in Na and poor in SiO2, such as nepheline syenite and
phenolite. Associated with orthoclase, feldspathoide, augite and soda rich
amphibole.
It is also found in some metamorphic rocks associated with glaucophane or
riebeckite. It occurs in the nepheline syenite.

Phosphate(PO4)

The phosphate groups of minerals indicate a large number of naturally occurring

oxysalts with an ionic groups of the type (PO4)-3. Extensively substitution between
P and as are common. These are generally classified on the basis of A(XO4) ratio
for anhydrous acid and hydrate salt.
Classification of Phosphate group minerals

Monazite{(Ce,La,Y,Th)PO4}
Physical properties:
Color: Yellowish to reddish brown
Streak: Nearly white
Luster: Resinous
Cleavage: Poor {100}
Hardness: 5- 5.5
Specific gravity: 4.6- 5.4

Composition: A phosphate of rare earth metals essentially (Ce, La, Y, Th)PO4. The
content ranges from a few to 20% ThO2. Si is often present up to several percent
of SiO2. The Si has been ascribed to admixture of thorite, ThSiO4, but may be in
part due to substitution of (SiO4) for (PO4).
Diagnostic features: Soluble in HCl. Decomposed by heating with concentrated
H2SO4. Large specimen maybe distinguishing from zircon crystal form and less
hardness and from spinel by crystal form and higher specific gravity.
Occurrence: Monazite is comparatively rare mineral occurring as an accessory in
granite, gneiss, pegmatite and as rolled grains in the sand derived from
decomposition of such rocks. It is concentrated in sand because of its resistance
to chemical attack and its high specific gravity and is thus associated with other
resistance and heavy minerals such as magnetite, ilmenite, rutile and zircon.
The bulk of the world’s supply of monazite comes from beach sand in Brazil, India
and Australia.
Uses: Monazite is chief source of Thorium oxide(ThO2), Which it contains in
amount varying between 1-20%; commercial monazite usually contains between
3-9%. ThO2 is used in the manufacture of menthols for in condense gas light.

Apatite- Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)
Physical properties:
Color: Usually some shade of green or brown. Also blue, violet, colorless
Streak: White
Luster: Vitreous to subresinous
Cleavage: poor {0001}
Hardness: 5
Specific gravity: 3.15- 3.20

Diagnostic features: Soluble in acid, it is usually recognized by its color, crystal

and hardness. Distinguishing from beryl by its prominent pyramidal termination
of its crystal and its softer than a knife blade.
Occurrence: Apatite is widely disseminated as an accessory constituent in all
classes of rocks- igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. It is also found in
pegmatite and other veins probably hydrothermal origin. Found in titaniferous
magnetite bodies. Occasionally concentrated into large deposits or veins
associated with alkali rocks. Phosphate materials of bones and teeth are members
of the apatite group.
Bone is calcium phosphate and large bodies of phosphate are derived from the
accumulation of animal remains as well as chemical precipitation from the sea
water.
Uses: Crystalline apatite has been used extensively as a source of phosphate for
fertilizer. Transparent varieties of apatite of fine color are occasionally used for
gems.

Vanadinite- Pb5(VO4)3Cl

Physical properties
Color: Ruby-red, orange-red, brown, yellow.
Luster: Resinous to adamantine
Cleavage: Perfect
Hardness: 3
Specific gravity: 6.9

Diagnostic features: Characterized by its crystal form, high luster and high specific
gravity.

Occurrence: It is rare secondary mineral found in the oxidized portion of lead(Pb)

veins associated with other secondary lead minerals. Found in crystal near
Oudjda, Morocco, south west Africa, Arizona and New Mexico of United States.
Uses: Source of Vanadium and minor ore lead. Vanadium is obtained chiefly from
other ores, such as petronite. Vanadium is used chiefly as a still-hardening metal.